THAT COMPLEMENT-CLAUSES (III)

A. BRIEFLY ON THAT-DELETION

There is an asymmetry as far as the possibility to delete ‘that’ between post- and pre-verbal
positions of the complementizer:
a) the complementizer ‘that’ can be omitted in post-verbal object clauses > a rule constrained
by register as well as by the type of verb (that deletion is very frequent with reporting verbs)
(1) John says [that the key opens that door]/ John says [ __ the key opens that door]

b) ‘that’ cannot be omitted in pre-verbal position: in topicalized subject or object clauses

(2) a. [That he is here] is nice. / *[___ he is here] is nice]
b. [That Mary had left] nobody noticed/ *[ __ Mary had left] nobody noticed.

That-deletion is an optional rule influenced by structural, lexical and register factors.

The lexical factor refers to the nature of the main verb; only some verbs allow that-deletion:
admit, answer, assume, believe, claim, consider, confirm, doubt, dream, find, feel, forget, guess,
imagine, learn, know, etc.

However, that-deletion is largely a matter of register. In conversation, the omission of ‘that’ is

the norm; in academic prose, the retention of ‘that’ is the norm.

Several factors favoring the omission of ‘that’:

a) the use of frequent main verbs like ‘think’ or ‘say’ in the main clause
b) the occurrence of a coreferent pronominal subject in the subordinate clause, marking
the boundary of the clause:

(8) I think I’ll go out today

Several factors favoring retention:

a) ‘that’ is retained under coordination: (9) The conclusion was that they should separate and
*(that) the child be taken into custody.

b) a passive verb in the main clause favors that-retention

(10) I was told ??(that) they had passed the test.
c) distance to the main verb – an intervening NP, PP, AdvP
(10) He testified under oath *(that) he had not been at the scene of crime.
d) the presence of an emphatic operator in clause-initial position
(11) I thought *(that) at no time had Leslie left the room.

C. THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES IN THAT-CLAUSES (SOT)

C.1. SOT – AN EFFECT OF INDIRECT SPEECH

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► TENSE: a DEICTIC category (temporal interpretation is relative to ST). In root sentences, the
tense of the verb is interpreted directly as related to the now moment, to ST
(12) I arrived yesterday. PAST = ET before ST

(13) They leave tomorrow. FUTURE = ET after ST

(14) They are here now. PRESENT= ET at ST
►Embedded clauses are not directly linked to ST:
(15) John said [that he had already repaired the computer.]
>> embedded clauses are indirectly related to ST, via the tense of the matrix. Therefore the
semantic interpretation of tenses in an embedded clause depends on the temporal interpretation
of the main clause, i.e. they are oriented towards the ET of the matrix (and not towards ST)
► DEIXIS = the major difference between direct and indirect speech
DEICTIC expressions: Tense, Personal pronouns (1st and 2nd person), Demonstratives,
anchored time expressions, spatial expressions

Such expressions are interpreted in relation to certain features of the utterance-act (direct speech)
or they are interpreted wholly or predominantly in relation to the act of reporting (indirect
speech)
One syntactic reflex of this semantic dependence is the SEQUENCE OF TENSES RULE (SOT)
which states that a past tense in a main clause requires only past tenses in the embedded
clause (TENSE BACKSHIFT). Thus, when reporting a person’s statement under a past verb of
saying, one must “backshift” all the tenses in the reported statement
Direct Discourse >>>>>> Indirect Discourse
Present Past
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Future Future-in-the-Past

C.2. CASES WHEN SOT CAN BE DISREGARDED (i.e., it exceeds the domain of Indirect
Speech)
(16) John told me they leave tomorrow.

Smith (1978): when a present tense is used instead of a past tense in reported speech “the
speaker is responsible […]for the complement’s being true or relevant at speech time. […]
such sentences indicate that the same event or state referred to holds both at the time referred
to in the matrix and at ST.”
(17) John heard [that Mary is pregnant.]

= the situation holds both at ET of the matrix and at ST (Mary’s being pregnant is
true both a) at the time of John’s hearing about it and b) at the ‘now’ moment (it is TRUE at ST)
Thus, SOT can be disregarded if the complement can be viewed as speaker-oriented, i.e. the
original utterance is still applicable and relevant at ST. Such situations bear the name of

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Double Access Reading (DAR), which signals that (i) the complement is true at ST & (ii) the
complement is/was true at the time of saying (at the time of the reporting verb)

Q: When can the SOT rule be disregarded?, i.e. when is SOT optional?
a. if DAR applies , e.g. in generic and habitual sentences
(18) She told me [she is 31.] / Galileo proved [that the earth is round.] / They told me [they
love syntax.]
b. if the predicate in the matrix is factive (the complement of factive verbs is a FACT, it is
presupposed to be TRUE)
b.1.Epistemic factives (= express the subject’s state of knowledge or the manner in which the
subject came to know the truth): find out/ realize/ discover / see / know / perceive/ learn /notice
b.2. Affective factives: regret / resent /be sorry/surprised/amused/amazed/happy/upset
(19) a. Bill forgot that you don’t like chocolate/ Bill denied that he lives in London.

c. if the verb in the matrix is a verb of communication: say, tell, communicate, answer, assert,
indicate, imply, etc
(20) She said [that most students often have problems with this professor.] = the complement is
interpreted as speaker-oriented (DAR)
th
(21) a. Peter said [that Jane intends to leave on the 14 ]. (= the complement still holds at ST; the
14th is future relative to ST) vs.

b. Peter said [that Jane intended to leave on the 14th.] (= the complement is interpreted via
the time of the matrix; the 14th – past with respect to ST (now))
C.3. CASES WHEN SOT CANNOT BE DISREGARDED (verbs that require SOT, even if
we have Double Access Reading)
a. Manner of speech Vs: grunt, grumble, mutter, mumble, whisper, shout, yell, cry out, etc.

(22) a.* He grumbled [that he wants to leave.] / * They shouted [that they are going to be late.]
/* The old woman grumbled [that she does not like the pudding.] / [that the earth is round]
b. He grumbled that he wanted to leave/that the earth was round.
b. Non-factive verbs of propositional attitude: think, believe, hope, wish, guess, reckon, fancy,
estimate, judge, etc.

(23) a. *Bill thought [his wife is a nice person.] / * He believed [she still loves him.] /* He
hoped [that she still cares about him.]
b. Bill thought his wife was a nice prson.

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c. Non-factive verbs of linguistic communication: allege, declare, insist, suggest, etc.
(24) a. * He insisted that he is clever. / * In your statement you alleged that the accused man is
not your friend.

b. He insisted that he was clever.

C.3. THE SIMULTANEOUS AND THE SHIFTED READING OF THE PAST TENSE IN
COMPLEMENT CLAUSES
As we have seen, the scope of SOT exceeds indirect discourse; the SOT is an effect of a
particular structural configuration, an effect of subordination. [SOT does not only apply in
sentences introduced by a reporting verb

(24c) He believed he was tired. /*He believed he is tired.

From a structural point of view, SOT is a rule that requires that the Tense of the
complement clause should ‘agree’ with the past tense of a main clause. From an
interpretative aspect, the interpretation of the subordinate clause tenses depends on the
main clauses, as follows:
- if the tense of the main clause is past, then:
a) the past tense in a subordinate clause expresses simultaneity with the main clause
b) the past perfect in a subordinate clause expresses anteriority w.r.t. the main clause
c) the future-in-the-past in a subordinate clause expresses posteriority w.r.t. the main
clause.

However, one cannot view SOT as simply a rule that replaces a present tense by a corresponding
past tense, because a present under a past is not synonymous with a past under a past:
(25) a. Bill said that Mary is pregnant. (she still is)
b. Bill said that Mary was pregnant. (she is no longer pregnant)

(26) John said [that Mary was pregnant] > 2 possible interpretations
(i) Mary was pregnant at the time when John said that…= THE SIMULTANEOUS
READING of the PAST TENSE
(ii) Mary was pregnant before John said that… = THE SHIFTED READING of the PAST
TENSE
(27) John said [it was raining.]
(i) it was raining when John said that (simultaneous reading) [John looked out the window and
saw it was raining] >> ET2 (in the subordinate) = ET1(in the main clause)
(ii) it had rained before John saying it (shifted reading)
[John said (yesterday) that it was raining (when he visited his wife at the hospital)] >> ET2
before ET1

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- in (26), the complement contains a past state verb (be pregnant); in (27), the complement
clause contains a past progressive form (be – ing); both allow both the simultaneous & the
shifted reading (while preferring the former, lack of additional information)

but consider the next examples:

(28) a. Mary said [that John left.] / b. Mary announced [that she received a letter.]
!!! ONLY the shifted reading is available >> in a) = John left before Mary said it; in b) = The
letter was received before Mary’s announcement of the event
► THE SHIFTED READING OF THE (EMBEDDED) PAST TENSE
(29) a. John said [that he sang a song.]
b. Bill reported [that they robbed another bank].

In the case of the shifted reading, the time of the embedded event (the singing/robbing
event) precedes both the tense in the main clause as well as the time of speech. For (29a), for
example, this means that the singing precedes John’s saying and both precede ST: ET2 before
ET1 before ST

From an aspectual point of view, the shifted reading in unconstrained, being

possible for all types of predications (activities, accomplishments, achievements = EVENTS)

The shifted reading is also possible for stative past verbs/verbs in the past progressive,
provided that they are licensed by an independent time phrase
(30) a. John said [that Mary was pregnant when he married her] (Mary’s pregnancy is
interpreted as preceding the time of John’s saying
(as well as ST) due to the ‘when’ clause)
b. John said [that it was raining when he left.] (the raining event is interpreted as before
John’s saying (and before ST) due to the
temporal adverbial introduced by ‘when’

► THE SIMULTANEOUS READING OF THE (EMBEDDED) PAST TENSE

When a complement clause contains a stative verb and both the matrix and the complement
clause are in the Past Tense, the interpretation of the complement clause Past Tense is ambiguous
between a simultaneous and a past shifted reading (see above (26) & (31) below)

(31) John said [that Bill was sick.]

(i) Bill’s being sick is simultaneous with John’s talking about it (both before ST) = simultaneous
reading: ET2 = ET1 before ST
(ii) Bill’s being sick precedes John’s talking about it, and both precede ST = the shifted reading:
ET2 before ET1 before ST
SO, if the predicate = STATE >> 2 readings available (simultaneous & shifted); if the predicate =
EVENTIVE >> One single reading available (the shifted reading) → The aspectual class the predicate (in the
subordinate!) belongs to may influence the temporal interpretation of the complement clause

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C4. The simultaneous and shifted reading triggered by the present perfect in the matrix
clause
Brugger 1998, Pancheva 2003

John has convinced his coach that he was too weak to play (resultative perfect – only shifted
reading of the complement)
Since Friday John has been convincing his coach that he was too weak to play (universal perfect
– only shifted)
The resultative and universal perfects behave like the present tense

John is convincing his coach that he was too weak to play (only shifted)
John has convinced his coach once before that he was too weak to play (simultaneous and
shifted) – The experiential perfect behaves like a past tense.

D. THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN COMPLEMENT CLAUSES

D.1. Some general considerations
MOOD = an inflectional category of the verb; expresses MODALITY
MODALITY = the speaker’s attitude towards the content of the utterance; the speaker’s
commitment to the truth of the S in the actual world
= an area of language where speakers can choose between simply describing or
actually evaluating or imposing a situation
(32) John is crazy./John must be crazy to accept this offer./John must leave immediately!
CURME (1935): THE INDICATIVE = the mood of simple assertion or interrogation, presenting
something as a fact or in close relation to reality ≠ THE SUBJUNCTIVE = the mood which
presents situations as formed in the mind of the speaker /conceptions of the mind
JESPERSEN (1965) THE INDICATIVE= a fact mood vs. THE SUBJUNCTIVE = a thought
mood:
(33) I have a new book. vs.
(34) I wish I had a new book.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE: the mood of non-assertion; concerned with human action; prescriptive
discourse; involved in the choice and evaluation of human action

D.2. The Form of the Subjunctive

a.SYNTHETIC:
– old synthetic subjunctive – using the infinitive

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- new synthetic subjunctive – using the past tense form of the verb – present/future time
reference (
- using the past perfect form of the verb – anteriority

(35) a. You had better leave at once. (old synthetic >> infinitive forms)
b. He speaks as if he were the boss. (new synthetic, present subjunctive)
c. I wish I hadn’t talked to her like that (= I did) (new synthetic, perfect subjunctive)
2.1. The Old Synthetic Subjunctive uses the infinitive and occurs:

- in formulas:
(36) a.Long live the Queen.
b.So be it!
c. Come what may, I will apply for the course.
d. Suffice it to say that she is the best violinist in Europe, and you will be willing to listen to her.
e. Be that as it may, I will still buy the car.
f. Say what you will, I will get this dress.
g. Far be it from me to suggest you should leave him, but you cannot be blind to his faults.
h. Grammar be hanged!

- after would rather if there is one subject in the sentence

(37) I would rather tell my teacher the truth.

-after had better:

(38) You had better go to hospital.

2. The New Synthetic Subjunctive uses:

a) Present Subjunctive: past tense

(39) I wish you were more patient with her.

-translated into Romanian using the „conjunctiv prezent”- „Mi-as dori sa ai mai multă răbdare cu
ea,” not „*Mi-as dori sa fi avut mai multă răbdare”

NB! Even if the subjunctive takes the form of a past tense, the temporal reference is present or
future – you should be more patient now or in the future!!

b) Perfect Subjunctive: past perfect

(40) I wish I had listened to my friends’ advice.

-translated into Romanian using the „conjunctiv perfect”, marked with the auxiliary fi- „Mi-as
dori sa fi ascultat sfaturile prietenilor – the temporal reference is past = I was supposed to have
listened in the past.

2.1. Contexts that require the use of the New Synthetic Subjunctive:

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(i) after wish
(ii) after if and any other related expressions: if (conditionals II and III), unless, if only, even
if/even though, as if / as though, suppose / supposing, imagine, what if
(iii) after it’s time
(iv) after would rather if there are 2 subjects in the sentence

(41) a. I wish people’s self-assessments reflected reality.

b. They wish they had been in closer touch with the operational side of the service.
c. If they had regular meals, they wouldn’t put on weight.
d. If the dog hadn’t squealed, its owner wouldn’t have found him in the ditch.
e. I wouldn’t try bungee jumping unless I were helped by professionals.
f. If only they realized she was under strain.
g. The plan was good and it would have worked if only they had given it a chance.
h. Nobody, even if they wanted to, dares say no to her.
i. Children of single parents are talked about as if they were nothing but a drain on state
resources.
j. Reinstatement involves treating employees as if they had never been dismissed.
k. Suppose I had married my father’s groom, what would you have said to that?
l. Imagine I were to win the Nobel prize for my novel!
m. What if the plaintiff in this case had been a tradesperson?
n. It is time we stopped talking of elephants as if they were a commodity to be traded
o. I would rather the guide told us what we needed to do.

b. ANALYTIC - the end of OE/ ME [ 11th c - ]: the subjunctive mood inflections begin to
disappear >> the subjunctive begins to be indicated periphrastically by means of the modal
auxiliaries: SHOULD + V > may/might/would/could:
(42) He ordered that he should leave. / He didn’t say anything for fear he might get angry.
+ (43) John insists that [he be left alone]. / She ordered that [they be quiet].
! No agreement or tense markers on the embedded verb in (43) but Overt subject (NOMinative)
→ There is a phonologically null modal in the be subjunctive
(44) We suggest that the rules not be abolished.
(45) We suggest [that the rules (should) not be abolished] / [that he (should) not leave]
D.3. The subjunctive in that-complement clauses = when used in complement clauses, the
subjunctive is selected by those verbs whose meaning is compatible with its interpretation
→ compatibility of meaning between the matrix verb and the subjunctive

TRIGGERS of the subjunctive:

The Subjunctive may be triggered by a) lexical items of b) functional elements
a. Lexical: verbs/adjectives/nouns► EXERCITIVE predicates; ►VOLITIONAL predicates
(trigger only the Subjunctive)

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► EMOTIVE predicates/ EVALUATIVE predicates; ►Verbs of COMMUNICATION (trigger
either the Subjunctive or the Indicative)
b.Functional: negation in the main clause

D.3.1. Lexical triggers

I. EXERCITIVE Verbs/predicates (of command & of permission) = “give a decision in
favour/against a certain course of action” / “imperative”; they signal the normative,
prescriptive dimension of the subjunctive
Ex: Vs: order, forbid, ask, insist, suggest, recommend, urge, advise, allow, authorize, permit,
interdict, command, beg, rule, prohibit, require// Adjs: advisable, obligatory, imperative,
compulsory desirable - such triggers introduce imperative sentences’: the time sphere of the
complement is FUTURE :

(46) * He ordered that he should have left. / He demands [that he be told / should be told
everything.] /They demanded [that the political changes come first.]
II. VOLITIONAL predicates = they introduce a set of alternative worlds; ex: wish, desire,
want, prefer, willing, eager, reluctant, anxious
(47) I am anxious [that he should get the job.]/ I wish [I had told you about it.]
III. EVALUATIVE predicates (good, right, best, better, awful, annoying, crucial, important,
essential, natural, normal, vital, advisable, amazing, odd, tragic, nice // amaze, alarm, bother,
surprise, irritate, disturb, regret, deplore, etc.)
! All evaluative predicates exhibit DUAL MOOD CHOICE >> WHY? Because of their
meaning: they have both (i) a descriptive component & (ii) a normative/evaluative
component
- choice of the subjunctive stresses the prescriptive component of the predicate

- choice of the indicative stresses the descriptive component of the predicate

(48) a.It is best[ that he is going there today] (it is a fact/it is established/known that he is going
there). / b.It is best [that he should be going there today.] (his going there is preferable, wished
for, but nothing assures it will take place, it is possible, prescriptive)
(49) a.It is essential [that the book was published] (it is a fact that the book was indeed
published (i.e., I have it in my hands right now)./b.It is essential [that the book be published.]
(the publishing of the book is a possible/preferable event in the future)
Verbs of COMMUNICATION (agree, tell, say, confess, declare, explain, inform, state, point
out, persuade, warn, etc. )
(50) a. I insist [ that the film finished at 10.00.] = I say/ claim that… / b. I insist [that the film
should finish at 10.00.] = I demand

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DUAL MOOD CHOICE verbs: used as assertive Vs, they combine with the indicative (44a);
used as exercitive Vs, they combine with the subjunctive (44b)

(51) a. The secretary informed the Dean [that the students will take the exam on the 5th of
February] / b.The secretary informed the students [that they should take the exam on the 5th of
February.]
D.3.2.NEGATION & the subjunctive
(52) a. I believe [that he is here.] / b. *I believe [that he should be here.]
- ‘believe’ (in the affirmative) selects and indicative complement clause (52). However, once
negation appears in the main clause, it is able to license the presence of the subjunctive in
the complement clause (53). The same is true for the Romanian ‘a crede’ (see (54))
(53) a. I don’t believe [that he is here.] /b. I don’t believe [that he should be here.]
(54) a. Cred [ca Ion a sosit devreme]/ b. * Cred [sa soseasca Ion devreme]
c. Nu cred [ca Ion a sosit devreme]/ Nu cred [sa soseasca Ion devreme]

This is called the contrary to expectations subjunctive, and it is also found with: doubt,
complain, reproach, etc. (lexical predicates which include an element of doubt/ uncertainty/
implicit negation)
(55) I doubt [that he should succeed.]
EXERCITIVE predicates : the subjunctive // VOLITIONAL predicates: the subjunctive

EMOTIVE& EVALUATIVE predicates: + Verbs of COMMUNICATION Dual Mood Choice

D.4. The distribution of the subjunctive:

D.4.1. Main clauses: (56) May you be together for the rest of your lives!
D.4.2. Subject and Object Clauses:
(57) a. It is advisable that you should refrain from eating before a blood sugar test.
b. They recommended that he should finish sooner.

D.4.3. In Conditional Clauses : introduced by the conjunctions: if, provided that/providing, on

condition that, unless.
(58) a.[If he were my friend], he would speak for my cause. / b.I’d he angry [if you told him
about the party.] c. [Should he come], I’ll ask him about his mother. d. The guard assured us that
we would have seats provided the bus were not late. e. Clive refused to take this token of
friendship unless a similar compliment were paid to his friend.

D.4.4 . In Adverbial Clauses of Purpose

- So that + will/would; should; may/might; can/could //infinitive

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- For fear (that) + may/might, will/would, should;
- In order that + should/may/might //infinitive
- Lest + should// infinitive

(59) a. He steals so that he may become rich. / b. Extraordinary precautions were taken for fear
the journalist may find out about the kidnapped politician. c. In order that this measure be
useful/should be useful, it must be put into practice at once. d. They set a strong guard lest
anyone should escape.
D.4.5. In Adverbial Clauses of Concession : -introduced by even though, though, although, in
spite of, despite, even if, notwithstanding; now matter, however, whatever, wherever, as…
+MAY/MIGHT

(60) a.His manner, stern though it (may) be, was not unkind. / b.Whoever they (may/might)
be, he was never at home for them. c. A diamond is valuable, though it lie on a dung hill.

D.4.4. In Adverbial Clauses of Comparison

(61)a.He treats us as if we were retarded./ b.I feel better with them than if I lived by myself.

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