Trends in Food Science & Technology 110 (2021) 765–777

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Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs

Application of infrared radiation in the drying of food products

Dan Huang a, Pei Yang a, Xiaohong Tang a, Lei Luo b, Bengt Sunden c, *
a
Department of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha, 410004, China
b
School of Energy Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, China
c
Department of Energy Sciences, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, Lund, SE, 22100, Sweden

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Background: Drying is an important method to preserve food products. Although many traditional drying tech­
Infrared radiation nologies (hot air, freeze, microwave drying) have been applied successfully to various food products, each drying
Parametric effects technique has its own advantages and disadvantages. Novel drying methods such as infrared drying, have
Drying kinetics
become very popular.
Food quality
Scope and approach: This study gives an overview on the application of infrared radiation in the drying of food
products in the last decade. The effects of main parameters (infrared power, intensity, distance, wavelength and
drying temperature) and the introduction of infrared radiation on drying kinetics and food quality were dis­
cussed. Inconsistencies were pointed out and analyzed in detail.
Key findings and conclusions: Drying kinetics was improved by introducing infrared radiation and increased with
increasing infrared power, intensity, drying temperature and decreasing infrared distance. However, a very high
infrared power, intensity, drying temperature and a very low infrared distance should be avoided as the food
products will be overheated. The effects of infrared parameters on food quality were unpredictable. The energy
consumption under infrared radiation was also variable. When the reduction of drying time was considerable, the
energy consumption decreased. When the reduction was insufficient, the energy consumption increased. The
application of infrared radiation will also affect the food quality. Generally, the infrared radiation can decrease
the water activity, reduce the total color change and improve the nutrient retention.

because of its high drying velocity, relatively low energy consumption

1. Introduction
The water contents of fresh food products are usually very high, thus
if they are not dried in a timely manner, they become moldy and rotten,
which would adversely affect their quality. Besides, the harvest time of
some of the food products is very short, in order to better preserve a
large number of harvested food products, a highly efficient drying
method is needed. Moreover, many food products prefer to be sold in dry
forms as they are more attractive than fresh ones, such as mushroom.
The dried mushrooms have superior umami flavor and fragrance than
fresh ones. Thus, drying has become very popular in preserving food
products.
Hot air drying is one of the most common drying methods for food
materials (Huang, Tao, Li, Sherif, & Tang, 2020; Li et al., 2019; Naka­
gawa, Tamura, & Adachi, 2018; Onwude, Hashim, & Chen, 2016).
However, the relatively large energy consumption and quality deterio­
ration of the final product make it lose competition gradually. Micro­
wave drying has also attracted significant attention from researchers
and its ability to preserve the good nutrients. The moisture content can
be reduced in a short time by microwave drying. However, if continuous
microwave drying is applied, products to be dried can be easily over­
heated and the quality will be deteriorated. Owing to the reduced
pressure, effective drying can be achieved at low temperature by vac­
uum drying. However, the equipment investment of vacuum drying is
relatively high, and the production rate is small compared to convective
drying. Freeze drying removes moisture in the food products by subli­
mation of solid ice. Thus, the shrinkage of the structure is small under
the low temperature environment. In addition, the nutrient retention,
color preservation and rehydration ability are relatively high. However,
as the drying time of freeze drying is relatively long and the drying cost
is high, the application of freeze drying is limited and it is usually
applied to dry high-value food products (Ishwarya, Anandhar­
amakrishnan, & Stapley, 2015). Therefore, noval drying techniques such
as infrared drying, ultrasound assisted drying and hybrid drying (e.g.,
hot air-infrared, infrared-vacuum, microwave-infrared and
microwave-vacuum drying) have become very popular (Bai-Ngew,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bengt.sunden@energy.lth.se (B. Sunden).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.02.039
Received 30 October 2020; Received in revised form 4 January 2021; Accepted 11 February 2021
Available online 25 February 2021
0924-2244/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
D. Huang et al.
Nomenclature
AD air drying
CIR catalytic infrared radiation
cp specific heat, J/(kgK)
Deff effective diffusivity coefficient, m2/s
f frequency, Hz
FD freeze drying
FIR far infrared radiation
HP heat pump drying
I intensity, W/m2
IIR intermediate infrared radiation
IMIR air jet impingement combined with infrared radiation
IR infrared radiation
IWIR intermediate-wave infrared radiation
k thermal conductiviey, W/(mK)
M moisture content
MIR mid-infrared radiation
MW microwave drying
P radiation power, W
Pm microwave power, W
Therdthai, Dhamvithee, & Zhou, 2015; Elmizadeh, Shahedi, & Ham­
dami, 2017; Geranpour, Assadpour, & Jafari, 2020; Mehdizadeh Momen
et al., 2019; Musielak, Mierzwa, & Kroehnke, 2016; Szadzińska, Łech­
tańska, Pashminehazar, Kharaghani, & Tsotsas, 2018).
Infrared drying (IR drying) is considered as a promising drying
method for food products. When infrared radiation is used to dry food
products of high moisture, the energy is penetrated into the materials to
a small depth and then is converted to heat. Compared to traditional
drying technology, IR drying technology has the advantages of high
energy efficiency, short drying time, uniform heating of materials, easy
control of material temperature, good quality of the final products and
low energy costs. Some other advantages of IR heating are modifiability,
adaptability, simplicity of the equipment, easy combination with other
heating methods such as convective, vacuum and microwave heating,
inexpensive and uncomplicated installation and use. Wu, Zhang, and
Bhandari (2019) conducted an experimental investigation on the freeze
drying and infrared-freeze drying of Cordyceps militaries. The results
showed that infrared-freeze drying could reduce up to 17.78% of the
drying time and up to 18.37% of the energy consumption at the same
drying temperature compared to the freeze drying. The quality of final
products under infrared-freeze drying was as good as that under freeze
drying. Pekke, Pan, Atungulu, Smith, and Thompson (2013) compared
the hot air drying and infrared drying characteristics of banana slices.
They found that the drying time could be reduced significantly by using
infrared drying and the drying quality could be well preserved when the
product temperature was kept at 70 ◦ C or below. Ghaboos, Ardabili,
Kashaninejad, Asadi, and Aalami (2016) evaluated the infrared-vacuum
drying characteristics of pumpkins. The effects of drying factors, such as
infrared radiation power, system pressure, slice thickness and infrared
radiation time on the drying kinetics of pumpkins were investigated.
With increasing infrared power, the drying time decreased, while the
color change increased as well.
The aim of the present study is to assess the infrared radiation used in
food drying over the last decade, review the recent infrared drying
technology and provide a reference for improving infrared drying effi­
ciency and quality. The effect of infrared radiation on the drying process
(such as drying rate, effective moisture diffusivity and energy con­
sumption, etc.) and quality aspects (such as nutrient retention, color
change, rehydration capacity, shrinkage and sensory quality, etc.) of the
dried products are reviewed in detail. The inconsistencies among
different researchers are pointed out and some explanations are given.
766
Trends in Food Science & Technology 110 (2021) 765–777
Pu ultrasound power, W
Pv vacuum pressure, Pa
PV pulsed vacuum
QIF volumetric infrared heat source, W/m3
SEC specific energy consumption
SIR sequential infrared radiation
SMIR short- and medium-wave infrared radiation
T temperature, ◦ C
t drying time, s
UIACHD ultrasound and infrared assisted conductive hydro-drying
v velocity, m/s
VD vacuum drying
Greek symbols
δ radiation distance, m
λ radiation wavelength, m
ρ density, kg/m3
Subscripts
max maximum value
per periodically
2. Mechanism of infrared radiation
Infrared radiation (IR) is a form of electromagnetic waves from a
heat source which requires no medium for its emission and located at the
outer range of the visible red light. The infrared radiation wavelength
varies from 0.75 to 1000 μm. IR can be divided into three different
categories, namely near-infrared (NIR), mid-infrared (MIR) and far-
infrared (FIR). However, the wavelength ranges for these categories
are not unified yet. Generally, 0.75–2 μm, 2–4 μm and 4–1000 μm be­
longs to near-infrared, mid-infrared and far-infrared bands, respectively
(Jain & Pathare, 2004).
In terms of NIR drying, Barzegar, Zare, and Stroshine (2015) inves­
tigated the drying characteristics of green pea under near-infrared ra­
diation (0.6–2.5 μm). The drying time of hot air combined with infrared
drying was reduced by up to 73.1% compared to hot air drying alone.
Alaei and Amiri Chayjan (2015) conducted near infrared (0.7–2.5 μm) -
vacuum drying of pomegranate arils. Higher drying temperature and
lower vacuum pressure caused higher drying rate, shrinkage, and color
change. NIR drying was also used in the drying of lemon (Salehi &
Kashaninejad, 2018b), melon (Aktaş, Şevik, Amini, & Khanlari, 2016),
pumpkin (Ghaboos et al., 2016), button mushroom (Salehi, Kashanine­
jad, & Jafarianlari, 2016) and kiwifruit (Özdemir, Aktaş, Şevik, &
Khanlari, 2017).
The drying characteristics of pear under MIR drying (2.4–3 μm) was
revealed by (Antal, Tarek-Tilistyák, Cziáky, & Sinka, 2017). The total
drying time was reduced by up to 42.9% compared to freeze drying.
Zhou et al. (2019) also investigated the MIR drying (3 μm) of peach
pomace. Their results showed that the drying time was reduced by up to
33.3% compared to hot air drying. MIR drying was also used in the
drying of mushroom chewing tablets (Wang, Zhang, Fang, & Xu, 2014),
cordyceps militaries (Wu, Zhang, & Li, 2019), sponge gourd (Zhang
et al., 2020).
A significant reduction of the drying time under FIR drying (4–50
μm) was reported in Senevirathne’s study(Senevirathne et al., 2010),
though the value was not presented. Nathakaranakule, Jaiboon, and
Soponronnarit (2010) adopted FIR radiation (7–1000 μm) to assist hot
air and heat hump drying of longan fruit. The use of FIR radiation not
only increase the drying rate, but also help to maintain a high food
quality. FIR drying was also used in the drying of rice (Nachaisin,
Jamradloedluk, & Niamnuy, 2016; Nosrati, Zare, Singh, & Stroshine,
2019), potato (Liu, Zhu, Luo, Li, & Yu, 2013), eggplant (Jafari,
D. Huang et al.
Movagharnejad, & Sadeghi, 2020), mango (Yao, Fan, & Duan, 2020),
red ginseng (Ning, Lee, & Han, 2015) and Chinese yam (Song, Hu, &
Zhang, 2018).
A comparison of NIR, MIR and FIR was conducted by (Wang, Zhang,
Mujumdar, & Chen, 2014) and (Zhang et al., 2020). Their results
showed that the drying time under far-infrared and near-infrared radi­
ation was longer than that under mid-infrared radiation. As the main
components of food products (organic materials and water) consider­
ably absorb IR radiation especially at 3 and 6 μm (Hashimoto, Yamazaki,
Shimizu, & Oshita, 1994; Seyed-Yagoobi & Wirtz, 2001), these two
wavelengths are considered to be suitable in the drying of food products
with high moisture content (Pawar & Pratape, 2017).
The IR heater is usually divided into two types, namely the electric
heater (typical IR, Fig. 1) and gas-fired heater (CIR, Fig. 2). For the
electric heater, the radiation is emitted by passing an electric current
through a resistance. While for the gas-fired heater, the CIR emitter is
powered by natural gas or propane to produce combustion on the burner
surface. Generally, the CIR emitter is more energy efficient than the
typical IR emitters because it directly converts natural gas to radiant
energy.
Infrared radiation is a kind of non-contact heat transfer and the
propagation of electromagnetic waves does not require a medium, thus
it can also propagate in vacuum environment. The infrared energy
emitted by the heat source irradiates to the heated surface and pene­
trates directly into the inner layer of the material. The infrared energy is
absorbed by the molecules in different layers of the material, which
causes the vibrational energy level of the molecules to rise, and fluctu­
ates to generate heat and increase the temperature. This is one of the
most important advantages of infrared radiation because it prevents the
energy losses and considerably maintains the original quality of the
product. Since the energy of infrared radiation is directly absorbed by
material molecules and the energy density of infrared radiation is very
high, the surface temperature increases quickly, which is much faster
than that in conduction and convection heat transfer. The depth of
penetration of radiation depends on the characteristics of the sample (e.
g., the moisture content) and wavelength of radiation. The penetration
depth and model was introduced in ref. (Pawar & Pratape, 2017).
3. Infrared radiation on food drying
Infrared drying has been successfully applied to several food prod­
ucts, such as carrot, potato, mushroom, eggplant, and so on. However,
infrared drying alone is not suitable for heat-sensitive food products,
Fig. 1. Typical infrared dryer: (1) Drying chamber; (2) Centrifugal fan; (3)
Infrared quartz glass tubes; (4) K thermocouples; (5) Wire-mesh tray; (6) Air
handling unit; (7) Hygrometer; (8) Temperature controller; (9) Door (Roknul,
Zhang, Mujumdar, & Wang, 2014).
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 110 (2021) 765–777
Fig. 2. CIR dehydrator: (1) Balance; (2) Gas release button; (3) CIR emitter; (4)
Sample tray; (5) Pressure gauge; (6) Pressure control; (7) Gas open/close valve;
(8) Liquefied gas; (9) Distance adjustment screws; (10) Drying chamber cover
(Wu et al., 2014).
thus hybrid drying is usually adopted to make the drying process more
efficient and of high quality. The combination of infrared radiation with
other drying methods was summarized in Table 1. From Table 1, one can
see that the infrared radiation is commonly used to assist hot air drying
and has been applied in the drying of various food products. The
working condition and comparison between IR drying and other drying
methods are discussed in section 3.1 and 3.2, respectively. However,
comparisons between IR alone and IR combined drying can be found in
literatures, though the reports are very limited. For example, Bualuang,
Tirawanichakul, and Tirawanichakul (2013) compared the hot air (AD),
infrared (IR), infrared combined hot air drying (IR-AD) of rice. The
drying time of IR-AD was a little bit longer than IR alone. IR drying at
powers of either 1000 W or 1500 W both showed lower specific energy
consumption than IR-AD and AD drying. This was because the infrared
energy could penetrate into the material and directly be converted to
heat and hence was more efficient than AD. Antal et al. (2017) inves­
tigated MIR-FD, MIR and FD drying of pear. The MIR drying was the
fastest, which took only 20 min under 40 ◦ C. The MIR-FD drying was
much slower, which took 1080 min under MIR (40 ◦ C)-FD, though it
reduced the drying time by up to 42.9% compared to FD drying alone.
This was understandable because FD drying was known as low drying
rate. As a result, the specific energy consumption of MIR-FD drying was
significantly higher than that of MIR drying. However, the food quality
of MIR-FD drying was very close to that of FD samples and thus was
much better than that of MIR drying. Therefore, we can conclude that
the combination of infrared radiation with other drying methods is very
promising as it not only improves the drying rate but also preserve the
food quality.
Table 1
The combinations of infrared radiation with other drying methods.
Drying methods Food products
Hot air drying Rice, beetroot, shredded squid, paddy, longan, green
pepper, murta berries, mushroom, sweet potato, sponge
gourd, green pea, kiwifruit
Vacuum drying Pomegranate arils, potato, grape, goji, lemon, pumpkin,
button mushroom, grapefruit
Microwave drying Raspberry, green pepper
Heat pump drying Longan, Chinese yam, greated carrot
Freeze drying Banana, cordyceps militaris, pear
Microwave vacuum Raspberry
combined drying
D. Huang et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 110 (2021) 765–777

3.1. Parametric effects of infrared radiation Table 2

Parametric effects of infrared radiation on food drying.
The parameters during infrared drying, such as infrared power, in­ Species Drying conditions Main results
tensity, wavelength, distance and drying temperature will significantly
Banana (Pekke et al., 2013) Catalytic infrared (CIR): Drying time decreased
influence the drying characteristics and quality of food materials. For I = 4600 W/m2, T = 60, with drying
example, Nachaisin et al. (2016) investigated the effect of infrared in­ 70 and 80 ◦ C. temperature;
tensity on the far-infrared and convective hybrid drying of rice. The The effect of drying
results showed that as the radiation intensity increased, the drying time temperature on water
activity was negligible;
and energy consumption decreased a lot, while the color change and Color change basically
rehydration capacity increased. The parametric effects of infrared ra­ increased with drying
diation on food drying were summarized in Table 2 and inconsistencies temperature.
were pointed out. Button mushroom (Salehi Near infrared (IR-VD): Drying time decreased
et al., 2016) P = 150, 250 and 375 with infrared power;
W. Effective diffusivity
3.1.1. Effects of drying temperature on the drying kinetics and food quality coefficient and color
From Table 2 one can recognize that the effects of infrared power and change increased with
drying temperature have been widely investigated and presented in the infrared power.
open literature. The drying temperature always shows positive effect on Carrot (Doymaz, 2015) Infrared (IR): P = 62, Drying time decreased
74, 88, 104 and 125 W. with infrared power;
the drying kinetics of food products, i.e., increasing drying temperature Effective diffusivity
can significantly reduce the drying time, improve the drying rate, in­ coefficient increased
crease the effective diffusivity coefficient and save the energy con­ with infrared power;
sumption and specific energy consumption. Darvishi et al. (2013) Rehydration capacity
firstly increased with
investigated the infrared drying characteristics of mushroom under the
infrared power and then
drying temperature of 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90 ◦ C and found that the total decreased.
drying time varied from 60 to 168 min. By increasing the drying tem­ Carrot (Wu et al., 2014) Catalytic infrared (CIR): Drying time and
perature from 50 to 90 ◦ C, the drying time was reduced by 64% and the T = 60, 70 and 80 ◦ C. rehydration capacity
specific energy consumption decreased by 46.5%. The effective diffu­ decreased with drying
temperature;
sivity coefficient increased from 8.039 × 10− 10 m2/s at 50 ◦ C to 20.618
Effective diffusivity
× 10− 10 m2/s at 90 ◦ C. Similar results were also presented in the drying coefficient increased
of carrot (Aktaş et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2014), paddy (Bualuang et al., with drying
2013), mushroom (Darvishi et al., 2013; Qi et al., 2014; Wang, Zhang, temperature;
The effect of drying
Fang, & Xu, 2014), pomegranate aril (Alaei & Amiri Chayjan, 2015),
temperature on the color
citrus press-cake (Senevirathne et al., 2010), potato (Liu et al., 2013), change was complicated.
grape and goji berries (Zhang et al., 2019), cordyceps military (Wu, Carrot (Guo et al., 2020) Infrared (IR): P = 100, Drying rate and hardness
Zhang, & Bhandari, 2019; Wu, Zhang, & Li, 2019), peach pomace (Zhou 200 and 300 W, δ = 12 increased with infrared
et al., 2019), pear (Antal et al., 2017), jujube (Bi et al., 2014; Darvishi cm. power;
Rehydration capacity
et al., 2013), banana (Pekke et al., 2013) and saffron (Torki-Harchegani
and vitamin C decreased
et al., 2017). with infrared power;
The effect of drying temperature on food quality was also investi­ Shrinkage firstly
gated, however, the results were variable and sometimes were not very decreased with infrared
power and then
satisfactory. As the drying temperature increased, the rehydration ca­
increased;
pacity and vitamin C content were found to be reduced (Antal et al., Color change firstly
2017; Qi et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2014), while the shrinkage was increased with infrared
increased (Alaei & Amiri Chayjan, 2015). Thus in order to produce dried power and then
products with desirable rehydration capacity, vitamin C content and decreased.
Chinese yam (Song et al., Far infrared (IR-HP): P Drying time decreased
shrinkage, very high temperature should be avoided. Qi et al. (2014)
2018) = 500, 1000 and 2000 with infrared power;
compared drying characteristic and quality of mushroom under W, δ = 15 cm. Shrinkage, hardness and
different drying methods and found that the total color change of color change increased
mushroom increased with drying temperature. Similar results were also with infrared power;
Rehydration ratio firstly
presented in pomegranate aril (Alaei & Amiri Chayjan, 2015), banana
increased with infrared
(Pekke et al., 2013) and jujube (Chen et al., 2015). However, different power and then
results were also observed (Antal et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2014). Antal decreased.
et al. (2017) investigated the mid-infrared drying of pears and found Citrus press-cake ( Far infrared (FIR): T = Drying time decreased
that the total color change firstly increased with drying temperature (40 Senevirathne et al., 2010) 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 ◦ C, with drying
λ = 4–50 μm. temperature;
and 50 ◦ C), then decreased (60 ◦ C) and finally increased (70 ◦ C). The
The effects of drying
maximum color change was 19.49 at 70 ◦ C. The decrease of color change temperature on total
at 60 ◦ C may be due to the shortened drying time at a higher drying phenolic and flavonoid
temperature. However, when the drying temperature increased further contents were not
to 70 ◦ C, the product was overheated and thus the color change significant.
Cordyceps military (Wu, Intermediate-wave Drying time and water
increased rapidly. As reported in refs. (Qi et al., 2014), (Senevirathne Zhang, & Li, 2019) infrared (IWIR): T = 40, activity decreased with
et al., 2010), (Wu, Zhang, & Li, 2019) and (Antal et al., 2017), the 50, 60 and 70 ◦ C, δ = 14 drying temperature;
hardness and total flavonoid contents increased with drying tempera­ cm, λmax = 3 μm. The total phenolic
ture, while the total phenolic contents and water activity both contents increased with
drying temperature.
decreased. However, Wang, Zhang, Fang, and Xu (2014) found that the
Cordyceps military (Wu, Infrared (IR-FD): T = Drying time, energy
hardness of rice at 60 ◦ C was higher than that at 70 ◦ C. This may be Zhang, & Bhandari, 2019) 40, 50, 60 and 70 ◦ C. consumption decreased
because a denser structure (smaller and fewer pores) was produced by (continued on next page)
the relatively low drying temperature. In Wu’s study (Wu, Zhang, &

768
D. Huang et al.
Table 2 (continued )
Species
Eggplant (Aydogdu, Sumnu,
& Sahin, 2015)
Eggplant (Jafari et al.,
2020)
Grape and goji berries (
Zhang et al., 2019)
Grapefruit (Salehi &
Kashaninejad, 2018a)
Greated carrot (Aktaş,
Khanlari, Amini, & Şevik,
2017)
Green pea (Barzegar et al.,
2015)
Jujube (Chen et al., 2015)
Jujube powder (Bi et al.,
2014)
Lemon (Salehi &
Kashaninejad, 2018b)
Longan (Nuthong,
Achariyaviriya,
Namsanguan, &
Achariyaviriya, 2011)
Longan (Nathakaranakule
et al., 2010)
Table 2 (continued )
Drying conditions Main results
with drying
temperature;
The total phenolic
content firstly increased
with drying temperature
and then decreased.
Infrared (IR-MW): P = Drying time and
150 and 300 W. shrinkage decreased
with infrared power;
Rehydration capacity
and effective diffusivity
coefficient increased
with infrared power.
Far infrared (FIR): P = Drying time decreased
1000, 1500 and 2000 W, with infrared power;
δ = 12 cm, λ = 9–9.45 The total phenolic
μm. contents and color
change firstly increased
with infrared power and
then decreased.
Infrared (IR-VD): T = Drying time decreased
55, 65 and 75 ◦ C, λ = with drying
1–30 μm. temperature.
Near infrared (NIR-VD): Drying time decreased
P = 300, 350 and 400 with infrared power;
W. Effective diffusivity
coefficient, color change
and shrinkage increased
with infrared power.
Infrared (IR-HP): T = 45 Drying time, energy
and 50 ◦ C. consumption and
specific energy
consumption decreased
with drying
temperature.
Infrared (IR-AD): I = 2, Drying time and
4 and 9 kW/m2, λ = shrinkage decreased
0.6–2.5 μm. with infrared intensity;
The effect of infrared
intensity on specific
energy consumption was
complicated.
Short- and medium- Drying time and vitamin
wave infrared (SMIR): P C content decreased with
= 1125 W, T = 60, 70, drying temperature;
80 and 90 ◦ C, δ = 11 cm. Effective diffusivity
coefficient, color change
and total flavonoid
contents increased with
drying temperature.
Short- and medium- Drying time decreased
wave infrared (SMIR): P with infrared power and
= 675, 1125 and 1575 drying temperature;
W, T = 70, 80 and 90 ◦ C, Vitamin C content
δ = 11 cm. decreased with drying
temperature, while the
effect of infrared power
on vitamin C content was
negligible.
Near infrared (NIR-VD): Drying time decreased
P = 300, 350 and 400 with infrared power;
W. Effective diffusivity
coefficient, color change
and shrinkage increased
with infrared power.
Infrared (IR-AD): P = Drying time decreased
300, 500 and 700 W, δ with infrared power.
= 20 cm.
Far infrared (FIR-AD Drying time, shrinkage,
and FIR-HP): P = 250, hardness and water
350 and 450 W, λ = activity decreased with
7–1000 μm. infrared power;
Specific energy
consumption firstly
increased with infrared
769
Species
Murta berry (Puente-Díaz,
Ah-Hen, Vega-Gálvez,
Lemus-Mondaca, & Scala,
2013)
Mushroom (Wang, Zhang,
Fang, & Xu, 2014)
Mushroom (Qi, Zhang,
Mujumdar, Meng, &
Chen, 2014)
Mushroom (Motevali,
Minaei, Khoshtaghaza, &
Amirnejat, 2011)
Mushroom (Darvishi,
Najafi, Hosainpour,
Khodaei, & Aazdbakht,
2013)
Noodle (Basman & Yalcin,
2011)
Paddy (Zare, Naderi, &
Ranjbaran, 2014)
Paddy (Nosrati et al., 2019)
Paddy (Bualuang et al.,
2013)
Peach pomace (Zhou et al.,
2019)
Pear (Antal et al., 2017)
Trends in Food Science & Technology 110 (2021) 765–777
Drying conditions Main results
power and then
decreased;
Color change and
rehydration capacity
increased with infrared
power.
Infrared (IR-AD): P = Drying rate, effective
400 and 800 W. diffusivity coefficient
and total phenolic
contents increased with
infrared power;
Energy consumption
decreased with infrared
power;
The effect of infrared
power on color change
was complicated.
Intermediate-wave Drying time decreased
infrared (IWIR): I = with drying
0.675 W/cm2, T = 60, temperature;
70 and 80 ◦ C. Hardness firstly
decreased with drying
temperature and then
increased.
Intermediate infrared Drying time and
(IIR): T = 50, 60 and rehydration capacity
70 ◦ C, λ = 2–4 μm. decreased with drying
temperature;
Color change and
hardness increased with
drying temperature;
Infrared (IR and IR-AD): Energy consumption and
I = 0.22, 0.31 and 0.49 specific energy
W/cm2. consumption decreased
with radiation intensity.
Far infrared (FIR): T = Drying time and specific
50, 60, 70, 80 and 90 ◦ C, energy consumption
δ = 15 cm. decreased with drying
temperature;
Effective diffusivity
coefficient increased
with drying
temperature.
Infrared (IR): P = 909, Drying time decreased
1127, 1309, 1545 and with infrared power.
1673 W, δ = 20 cm.
Infrared (IR-AD): I = 2, Drying time decreased
4 and 6 kW/m2. with infrared intensity;
Specific energy
consumption increased
with infrared intensity
except for a few
conditions.
Far infrared (FIR-AD): I Drying time decreased
= 0, 1 and 2 kW/m2. with infrared intensity.
Infrared (IR and IR-AD): Drying time and specific
P = 1000 and 1500 W, T energy consumption
= 60, 80 and 100 ◦ C. decreased with drying
temperature and
infrared power;
Effective diffusivity
coefficient increased
with infrared power;
Hardness increased with
infrared power, while
the effect of drying
temperature on hardness
was not significant;
Intermediate-wave Drying time decreased
infrared (IWIR): T = 60, with drying
70 and 80 ◦ C, δ = 14 cm, temperature;
λmax = 3 μm. Effective diffusivity
coefficient increased
with drying
temperature.
(continued on next page)
D. Huang et al.
Table 2 (continued )
Species Drying conditions Main results
Mid infrared (MIR and Drying time, specific
MIR-FD): I = 3–5.5 kW/ energy consumption,
m2, T = 40, 50, 60 and total phenolic contents
70 ◦ C, λ = 2.4–3 μm. and rehydration ratio
decreased with drying
temperature;
Water activity firstly
increased with drying
temperature and then
decreased for MIR
drying, while for MIR-FD
drying, it firstly
decreased with drying
temperature and then
increased;
Total antioxidant
activity firstly decreased
with drying temperature
and then increased;
The effect of drying
temperature on color
change was complicated.
Peppermint leave (Miraei Infrared (IR): I = 1.5, 3 Drying time decreased
Ashtiani, Salarikia, & and 4.5 kW/m2, δ = 10, with increasing infrared
Golzarian, 2017) 15 and 20 cm. intensity and decreasing
radiation distance;
Effective diffusivity
coefficient increased
with increasing infrared
intensity and decreasing
radiation distance.
Pomegranate airl (Alaei & Near infrared (NIR-VD): Drying time and energy
Amiri Chayjan, 2015) T = 60, 70, 80 and consumption decreased
90 ◦ C, δ = 5 cm, λ = with drying
280–6000 nm. temperature;
Effective diffusivity
coefficient, shrinkage
and color change
increased with drying
temperature.
Potato (Zare et al., 2014) Infrared (IMIR): I = Drying time decreased
0.16, 0.27 and 0.33 W/ with infrared intensity,
cm2, δ = 12.6 cm, λ = however, the effect of
3–10 μm. infrared intensity on the
drying time was not
significant when I = 0.27
and 0.33 W/cm2;
Specific energy
consumption increased
with infrared intensity;
Shrinkage and hardness
decreased with infrared
intensity.
Potato (Doymaz, 2012) Near infrared (NIR): P Drying time decreased
= 104, 125, 146 and with infrared power;
167 W, δ = 4 cm. Effective diffusivity
coefficient increased
with infrared power;
Rehydration capacity
firstly increased with
infrared power and then
decreased.
Potato (Liu et al., 2013) Far infrared (FIR-VD): T Drying time decreased
= 120, 140 and 160 ◦ C, with increasing drying
δ = 0.08, 0.12 and 0.16 temperature and
m. decreasing radiation
distance, however, a low
radiation distance
produced scorched
products.
Pumpkin (Ghaboos et al., Near infrared (NIR-VD): Drying time decreased
2016) P = 204, 238 and 272 with infrared power;
W. Effective diffusivity
coefficient increased
with infrared power;
Color change increased
770
Table 2 (continued )
Species
Rice (Nachaisin et al., 2016)
Rice (Pan et al., 2007)
Saffron (Torki-Harchegani,
Ghanbarian, Maghsoodi,
& Moheb, 2017)
Shredded squid (Wang,
Zhang, Mujumdar, &
Chen, 2014)
Soybean grain (Dondee,
Meeso, Soponronnarit, &
Siriamornpun, 2011)
Sponge gourd (Zhang et al.,
2020)
Strawberry (Adak, Heybeli,
& Ertekin, 2017)
Bhandari, 2019), the total phenolic contents firstly increased with dry­
ing temperature (40–60 ◦ C) and then decreased (70 ◦ C). The total
phenolic contents were relatively high at 50 and 60 ◦ C and relatively low
at 40 and 70 ◦ C. This indicated that both the extended drying time and
high drying temperature can contribute to the decomposition of phe­
nols. The water activity of pears was also found to firstly increase with
Trends in Food Science & Technology 110 (2021) 765–777
Drying conditions Main results
with infrared power
except for a few
conditions.
Far infrared (FIR): I = 1, Drying time and energy
2, 3, 4 and 5 kW/m2, T consumption decreased
= 40 ◦ C, δ = 20 cm, λ = with radiation intensity;
1.5–5.6 μm. Color change and
rehydration capacity
increased with radiation
intensity;
Hardness decreased with
radiation intensity for
2–5 kW/m2 except for 1
kW/m2.
Infrared (IR): I = 4685 Drying rate increased
and 5348 W/m2, δ = 5 with infrared intensity.
and 10 cm, λmax = 3.1
μm.
Infrared (IR): T = 60, Drying time decreased
70, 80, 90, 100 and with drying
110 ◦ C. temperature;
Effective diffusivity
coefficient increased
with drying
temperature.
Infrared (IR-AD): T = Drying time and specific
50 ◦ C, δ = 14 cm, λ = energy consumption
2.5–3 and 5–6 μm. increased with radiation
wavelength;
The effect of radiation
wavelength on shrinkage
and rehydration capacity
was not significant.
Near infrared (NIR): P Drying rate and color
= 4, 6 and 8 kW, λ = change increased with
0.75–3 μm. infrared power.
Short-wave and Drying time increased
medium-wave infrared with increasing radiation
(SMIR-AD): δ = 8, 12 distance and decreasing
and 16 cm, λ = 0.75–2 radiation wavelength;
and 2–4 μm. Effective diffusivity
coefficient decreased
with increasing radiation
distance and decreasing
radiation wavelength;
Rehydration capacity
increased with radiation
distance;
The effects of radiation
distance and wavelength
on the specific energy
consumption, color
change and shrinkage
were negligible.
Infrared (IR): P = 100, Drying time decreased
200 and 300 W. with infrared power;
Color change firstly
increased with infrared
power and then
decreased;
Total anthocyanin
contents increased with
infrared power;
Total phenolic content
firstly decreased with
infrared power and then
increased.
D. Huang et al.
drying temperature (40–60 ◦ C) and then decrease (70 ◦ C) (Antal et al.,
2017). The water activity was related to the equilibrium moisture con­
tent, thus the sample with the highest water activity at 60 ◦ C had the
highest final moisture content.
3.1.2. Effects of infrared power on the drying kinetics and food quality
The infrared radiation power also affects the drying kinetics and
quality of food products. As the infrared power increased, the drying
time decreased, and the effective diffusivity coefficient increased. Bua­
luang et al. (2013) found that the specific energy consumption (SEC) of
paddy decreased with infrared power, while in Nathakaranakule’s study
(Nathakaranakule et al., 2010), the specific energy consumption of
longan firstly increased with infrared power and then decreased. The
increase in infrared power leads to an increase in the emission intensity
of the infrared lamps and a decrease in the drying time. When the
reduction in the drying time is considerable, the specific energy con­
sumption decreases. When the reduction is insufficient, the effect of
infrared power on SEC is undesirable.
The effects of infrared power on food quality have also been widely
investigated. Nathakaranakule et al. (2010) found that by increasing
infrared power, the water activity, shrinkage and hardness of longan
decreased, while the rehydration capacity and total color change
increased. The increase in total color change with increasing infrared
power was also observed in the drying of soybean grain (Dondee et al.,
2011), lemon (Salehi & Kashaninejad, 2018b), pumpkin (Ghaboos et al.,
2016), Chinese yam (Song et al., 2018), button mushroom (Salehi et al.,
2016) and grapefruit (Salehi & Kashaninejad, 2018a). However, Jafari
et al. (2020) found that increasing the infrared power from 1250 to 2000
W, the total color change of an eggplant was significantly reduced by
36.44%. They stated that this was due to a shorter drying time at a
higher infrared power. The hardness of dried food products was found to
be always increased with increasing infrared power (Bualuang et al.,
2013; Song et al., 2018; Guo et al., 2020), except in Nathakaranakule’s
study (Nathakaranakule et al., 2010). Nathakaranakule et al. (2010)
stated that due to the absorption of far-infrared radiation, the puffing
effect caused by the rapid evaporation of water from the tissue structure
was stronger at higher powers and thus the hardness and toughness of
food products decreased. Besides, the shrinkage also decreased with an
increase in the far-infrared power. This phenomenon was in agreement
with the study of Aydogdu et al. (2015). However, Salehi and Kasha­
ninejad (2018b, a)found that as soon as the lemon and grapefruit were
put in the infrared power, they shrunk and the shrinkage increased as
the power increased. The effect of infrared power on the rehydration
capacity was also not constant in the open literatures. The rehydration
capacity increased with increasing infrared power in refs. (Aydogdu
et al., 2015; Nathakaranakule et al., 2010), while it decreased in the
drying of carrot slices as reported by Guo et al. (2020). They found that a
compact layer was formed on the surface of carrot slices during infrared
drying. This layer reduced the water uptake ability and thus the rehy­
dration capacity decreased. Some researchers observed the rehydration
capacity firstly increased with infrared power and then decreased
(Doymaz, 2012, 2015; Song et al., 2018). For example, Doymaz (2012)
found that the rehydration capacity of potato slices was the highest at
146 W (104, 125, 146 and 167 W). This was because a change in the
product was created by the infrared power (e.g., the power level of 146
W can produce a porous structure) and solids were lost during
rehydration.
3.1.3. Effects of other parameters on the drying kinetics and food quality
The investigation of the effects of other parameters (infrared in­
tensity, distance and wavelength) was limited compared to the effect of
the infrared power and drying temperature. The drying time decreased
with increasing infrared intensity and decreasing radiation distance,
however a high infrared intensity and a low radiation distance produced
scorched products. Drying of shredded squid at wavelengths of 2.5–3
and 5–6 μm and drying of sponge gourd at wavelengths of 0.75–2 and
771
Trends in Food Science & Technology 110 (2021) 765–777
2–4 μm were investigated by (Wang, Zhang, Mujumdar, & Chen, 2014)
and (Zhang et al., 2020), respectively. The drying time at wavelength of
5–6 μm was longer than that at 2.5–3 μm, however, the drying time at a
wavelength of 2–4 μm was slightly shorter than that at 0.75–2 μm. The
OH band, which is the leading ion of water molecules, absorbed the
infrared power at wavelengths greater than 2.5 μm, while a high
transmissivity was obtained at wavelengths less than 2.5 μm in food
products. Thus the drying time at wavelengths greater than 2.5 μm was a
little bit shorter than that for wavelengths less than 2.5 μm. However,
further increasing the radiation wavelength seemed to increase the
drying time. As the infrared intensity increased, the total color change
and rehydration capacity increased, while the hardness and shrinkage
decreased (Barzegar et al., 2015; Nachaisin et al., 2016). The energy
consumption was found to be decreased with increasing infrared in­
tensity in the drying of rice and mushroom (Motevali et al., 2011;
Nachaisin et al., 2016). However, Zare et al. (2014) found that the
specific energy consumption of paddy increased with increasing infrared
intensity except for a few conditions. Barzegar et al. (2015) investigated
the hot air infrared-assisted vibratory bed drying of green pea. By
increasing infrared intensity, the electric energy increased, however, the
drying time was reduced. Thus the total energy consumption was the
combined result of these two parameters. When the hot air temperature
was 30 ◦ C, increasing the infrared intensity from 4000 to 9000 W/m2,
the drying time was significantly reduced by 31.2% and thus the specific
energy consumption was reduced from 99.11 to 40.18 MJ/kg. When the
hot air temperature was 40 ◦ C, increasing the infrared intensity from
4000 to 9000 W/m2, the drying time was slightly reduced by 12% and
thus the specific energy consumption increased from 31.14 to 94.18
MJ/kg. The effects of radiation distance and wavelength on the energy
consumption, total color change, rehydration capacity and shrinkage
were not significant.
In conclusion, the drying time decreases by increasing the infrared
power, intensity, drying temperature and decreasing the infrared dis­
tance. However, a very high infrared power, intensity, drying temper­
ature and a very low infrared distance should be avoided as the food
products will be overheated. The effects of radiation distance and
wavelength on food quality are not significant, while the effects of other
infrared parameters are variable. Basically, the total color change,
hardness and nutrient retention increased by increasing infrared power,
intensity and drying temperature. However, the puffing effect due to the
infrared radiation is relatively strong under high infrared radiation and
thus a porous structure will be produced. Therefore, the hardness,
shrinkage and rehydration capacity can be also reduced by increasing
the infrared power and intensity.
3.2. Effects of infrared radiation on drying kinetics
Effects of infrared radiation on drying kinetics were summarized in
Table 3. From Table 3, one can see that an increase in drying kinetics of
food products was always observed when infrared radiation was applied
to drying alone or combined with other methods. For example, Aydogdu
et al. (2015) evaluated hot air drying and microwave-infrared drying of
eggplants. They found that the drying time of microwave-infrared dry­
ing was reduced by 92.1% compared to that of hot air drying when the
infrared power was 20% and microwave power was 50%. The effective
diffusivity coefficient was increased by almost 28 times. Basman and
Yalcin (2011) investigated the application of infrared radiation on the
drying of noodles. Their results showed that the drying time can be
reduced by several hundred times, i.e., the conventional drying (oven)
time was 22 h, while the infrared drying at 1673 W was only 3 min 30 s.
Nosrati et al. (2019) conducted heated air - far-infrared drying of rough
rice. The drying time was reduced by up to 80.9% and the effective
diffusivity coefficient was increased by up to 7.85 times compared to the
air drying alone.
The infrared radiation can also reduce the energy consumption. As
reported in Bualuang’s study (Bualuang et al., 2013), the specific energy
D. Huang et al.
Table 3
Effects of infrared radiation on food drying kinetics.
Species
Banana (Khampakool
et al., 2019)
Banana (Pekke et al.,
2013)
Beetroot (Kowalski &
Mierzwa, 2009)
Carrot (Wu et al., 2014)
Chinese yam (Chen et al.,
2015)
Citrus press-cake (
Senevirathne et al.,
2010)
Cordyceps military (Wu,
Zhang, & Bhandari,
2019)
Eggplant (Aydogdu et al.,
2015)
Grape and goji berries (
Zhang et al., 2019)
Greated carrot (Aktaş
et al., 2017)
Green pea (Barzegar et al.,
2015)
Green pepper (Łechtańska
et al., 2015)
Jujube (Chen et al., 2015)
Longan (Nathakaranakule
et al., 2010)
Murta berry (Puente-Díaz
et al., 2013)
Table 3 (continued )
Drying conditions Main results
IR-FD: Pv = 267 Pa, I = The total drying time was
2.7 and 4 kW/m2. reduced by up to 69.4%;
The effective diffusivity
coefficient was increased
by up to 292.6%;
The energy consumption
was decreased by up to
68.9%.
CIR: I = 4600 W/m2, T The total drying time was
= 60, 70 and 80 ◦ C. reduced.
IR-AD and IR-MW-AD: The total drying time was
P = 250 W, Pm = 100 W, reduced.
T = 55 ◦ C, v = 1.2 m/s.
CIR: T = 60, 70 and The total drying time was
80 ◦ C. reduced by up to 60%;
The effective diffusivity
coefficient was increased
by up to 87.3%.
FIR-HP: P = 500, 1000 The drying rate was
and 2000 W, T = 50 ◦ C, increased;
v = 1 m/s, δ = 15 cm. The effective diffusivity
coefficient was increased
by up to 2.9 times;
The specific energy
consumption was
decreased by up to 44.1%.
FIR: T = 40, 50, 60, 70 The total drying time was
and 80 ◦ C, λ = 4–50 μm. reduced.
IR-FD: T = 40, 50, 60 The total drying time was
and 70 ◦ C. reduced by up to 17.78%;
The energy consumption
was decreased by up to
18.4%.
IR-MW: P = 150 and The total drying time was
300 W, Pm = 189, 252 reduced by up to 92.1%;
and 315 W. The effective diffusivity
coefficient was increased
by up to 28 times.
IR-PV: T = 55, 65 and The total drying time was
75 ◦ C, λ = 1–30 μm. reduced.
IR-HP: T = 45 and The total drying time was
50 ◦ C, v = 0.5 m/s, δ = reduced by up to 48.8%;
10 cm. The specific energy
consumption was
increased by 68.4%.
IR-AD: I = 2, 4 and 9 The total drying time was
kW/m2, T = 30, 40 and reduced by up to 73.1%;
50 ◦ C, v = 0.5 m/s, λ = The effect of infrared
0.6–2.5 μm. radiation on specific
energy consumption was
complicated.
IR-AD and IR-MW-AD: The total drying time was
T = 120, 140 and reduced by up to 76%;
160 ◦ C, δ = 0.08, 0.12 The specific energy
and 0.16 m. consumption was
increased slightly for IR-
AD and decreased by up to
41.5% for IR-MW-AD.
SMIR: P = 1125 W, T = The total drying time was
60, 70, 80 and 90 ◦ C, v reduced by up to 66.7%;
= 2.11 m/s, δ = 11 cm. The effective diffusivity
coefficient was increased
by up to 127.1%.
FIR-HP and FIR-AD: P The drying rate was
= 250, 350 and 450 W, increased;
T = 55 and 65 ◦ C, λ = The specific energy
7–1000 μm. consumption was
decreased by up to 9.2%
for FIR-HP and increased
by up to 14.3% for FIR-AD.
IR-AD: P = 400 and 800 The total drying time was
W, T = 40, 50 and reduced by at least 82%;
60 ◦ C, v = 1.5 m/s. The effective diffusivity
772
Trends in Food Science & Technology 110 (2021) 765–777
Species Drying conditions Main results
coefficient was increased
by up to 254%.
Mushroom (Wang, Zhang, IWIR: I = 0.675 W/cm2, The total drying time was
Fang, & Xu, 2014) T = 60, 70 and 80 ◦ C. reduced by up to 69.7%.
Mushroom (Wang et al., IR: P = 450 W, T = The total drying time was
2019) 60 ◦ C. reduced by 31%.
Mushroom(Qi et al., 2014) IIR: T = 50, 60 and The total drying time was
70 ◦ C, λ = 2–4 μm. reduced.
Mushroom (Motevali IR and IR-AD: I = 0.22, The total drying time was
et al., 2011) 0.31 and 0.49 W/cm2, reduced by up to 80.5% for
T = 40, 50 and 60 ◦ C, v IR and up to 88.9% for IR-
= 0.5, 0.7 and 1 m/s. AD;
The specific energy
consumption was
decreased by up to 75.1%
for IR-AD, while the effect
of IR drying alone on
specific energy
consumption was
complicated.
Mushroom (Wang, Zhang, MIR-FD: I = 5.8 kW/m2, The total drying time was
& Adhikari, 2015) T = 60 ◦ C, δ = 14 cm, λ reduced by up to 59%;
= 2.3–3 μm. The energy consumption
was decreased by up to
46.4%.
Noodle (Basman & Yalcin, Infrared: P = 909, 1127, The total drying time was
2011) 1309, 1545 and 1673 reduced by several
W, δ = 20 cm. hundred times.
Okra (Baeghbali, Ngadi, & UIACHD: f = 28 kHZ, P The drying rate was
Niakousari, 2020) = 139 W, Pu = 166 W, v increased.
= 0.95 m/s.
Paddy (Zare et al., 2014) IR-AD: I = 2, 4 and 6 The total drying time was
kW/m2, T = 30, 40 and reduced;
50 ◦ C, v = 0.1, 0.15 and The specific energy
0.2 m/s. consumption was
increased except for a few
conditions.
Paddy (Nosrati et al., FIR-AD: I = 0, 1 and 2 The total drying time was
2019) kW/m2, T = 30, 40 and reduced by up to 80.9%;
50 ◦ C. The effective diffusivity
coefficient was increased
by up to 7.85 times.
Paddy (Bualuang et al., IR and IR-AD: P = 1000 The total drying time was
2013) and 1500 W, T = 60, 80 reduced by up to 50.6%;
and 100 ◦ C, v = 1 m/s. The effective diffusivity
coefficient was increased
by up to 287.7%;
The specific energy
consumption was
decreased by almost 17.7
times.
Peach pomace (Zhou IWIR: T = 60, 70 and The total drying time was
et al., 2019) 80 ◦ C, v = 2.5 m/s, δ = reduced by up to 33.33%;
14 cm, λmax = 3 μm. The effective diffusivity
coefficient was increased
by up to 203.2%
Pear (Antal et al., 2017) MIR and MIR-FD: I = The total drying time was
3–5.5 kW/m2, T = 40, reduced by up to 42.9%;
50, 60 and 70 ◦ C, λ = The specific energy
2.4–3 μm. consumption was
decreased by up to 98.7%.
Potato (Supmoon & IMIR: I = 0.16, 0.27 and The total drying time was
Noomhorm, 2013) 0.33 W/cm2, T = 85 ◦ C, reduced by up to 50.9%;
v = 5, 10 and 15 m/s, δ The specific energy
= 12.6 cm, λ = 3–10 consumption was
μm. increased by up to 16
times.
Red ginseng (Ning et al., FIR: T = 45, 50, 60, 65 The total drying time was
2015) and 70 ◦ C, v = 0.6 m/s. reduced by 14.3%;
The specific energy
consumption was
decreased by 39.5%.
Rice (Ding et al., 2018) IR: I = 4685 W/m2, δ = Drying efficiency was
5 and 10 cm, λmax = 3.1 significantly increased.
μm.
(continued on next page)
D. Huang et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 110 (2021) 765–777

Table 3 (continued ) 3.3. Effects of infrared radiation on food quality

Species Drying conditions Main results
The infrared radiation will somehow affect the quality of food
Shredded squid (Wang, IR-AD: T = 50 ◦ C, v = The total drying time was
Zhang, Mujumdar, & 0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2 m/s, δ reduced by up to 21%;
products, including the physical and chemical ones.
Chen, 2014) = 10, 14 and 18 cm, λ = The specific energy
2.5–3 and 5–6 μm. consumption was 3.3.1. Color change
decreased by up to 28%. Color change is a key parameter to consider when judging the food
Sponge gourd (Zhang IR-AD: T = 55, 60, 65 The total drying
quality. Drying temperature and time are important parameters for the
et al., 2020) and 70 ◦ C, v = 1 m/s, δ temperature was reduced
= 8, 12 and 16 cm, λ = by 10.7%; browning reactions during drying. Starch gelatinization also affects the
0.75–2 and 2–4 μm. The effective diffusivity optical properties, which in turn affects the brightness of materials, such
coefficient was increased; as sweet potato, rice and mango (Onwude, Hashim, Abdan, Janius, &
The specific energy Chen, 2019a). Qi et al. (2014) observed a significant decrease (38.1%) in
consumption was
increased by 32.3%.
total color change in the intermediate-infrared drying of mushroom. The
Stem lettuce (Roknul IR: P = 400 W, δ = 10 The total drying time was better color preservation by intermediate-infrared drying may be
et al., 2014) cm, λmax = 5 μm. reduced by 50%. attributed to the retention of brightness and the decrease of drying time.
Sweet potato (Onwude, IIR-AD: I = 1.1 kW/m2, The total drying time was Similar results were also obtained in the drying of stem lettuce (a slightly
Hashim, Abdan, Janius, T = 70 ◦ C, v = 1.2 m/s, reduced by 60%.
decrease of 7%) (Roknul et al., 2014), grape and goji berries (Zhang
& Chen, 2019b) δ = 30 cm.
Sweet potato (Oh, IR: T = 50, 55 and The drying rate was et al., 2019), banana (a significant decrease of 47.8%) (Khampakool
Ramachandraiah, & 60 ◦ C, δ = 25 cm. increased. et al., 2019), sweet potato (Onwude et al., 2019b), okra (a significant
Hong, 2017) decrease of 38%) (Baeghbali et al., 2020), mango (a significant decrease
Wine grape pomace (Sui, FIR and SIR-AD: P = The total drying time was of 59.1%) (Yao et al., 2020), sponge gourd (a decrease of 23.7%) (Zhang
Yang, Ye, Li, & Wang, 12250 W, T = 65 ◦ C, δ reduced by up to 77.6%.
2014) = 20 cm.
et al., 2020), red ginseng (a decrease of 28.2%) and jujube (a significant
decrease of 41.3%). However, Łechtańska et al. (2015) found that the
green pepper dried with IRper-AD (convective drying enhanced period­
consumption (SEC) of rice was: IR 1500 W < IR 1000 W < IR 1500 ically with infrared radiation) presented the highest color change. The
W-AD < IR 1000 W-AD < AD. The minimum value of SEC under hot air high initial temperature of about 75 ◦ C shown in Fig. 3 and long drying
drying was still 17.7 times higher than the maximum value of SEC under time were the main reasons for the high discoloration of samples.
infrared drying at 1500 W. Similar results were also found in the drying Puente-Díaz et al. (2013) investigated the convective and
of green pepper (a decrease of 41.5% for IR-MW-AD drying) (Łechtań­ infrared-convective drying of murta berries under 40, 50 and 60 ◦ C. The
ska, Szadzińska, & Kowalski, 2015), longan (a slight decrease of 9.2%
for FIR-HP drying) (Nathakaranakule et al., 2010), banana (a significant
decrease of 68.9% for IR-FD drying) (Khampakool, Soisungwan, & Park,
2019), pear (a significant decrease of 98.7% for MIR) (Antal et al., 2017)
and mushroom (a significant decrease of 75.1% for IR-AD) (Motevali
et al., 2011).
However, different results were also observed. Supmoon and
Noomhorm (2013) compared the air jet impingement drying and air jet
impingement combined infrared drying of potato. The specific energy
consumption of combined drying at an air velocity of 5 m/s and an
infrared intensity of 0.33 W/cm2 was 16.5 times higher than that of air
jet impingement drying alone. Aktaş et al. (2017) also found an increase
of the specific energy consumption by introducing infrared radiation.
The specific energy consumption of infrared-heat pump drying was
68.4% higher than that of heat pump drying. Similar results were also
presented in the drying of paddy (Zare et al., 2014), green pepper (a
slight increase for IR-AD drying) (Łechtańska et al., 2015), longan (an
increase of 14.3% for FIR-AD drying) (Nathakaranakule et al., 2010) and
sponge gourd (an increase of 32.3% for IR-AD) (Zhang et al., 2020).
In conclusion, the application of infrared radiation always makes a
positive contribution to the increase of drying rate, while for the energy
consumption, the longest drying time generally resulted in the highest
energy consumption. However, sometimes contrary to expectations,
although the drying time was reduced, the total energy consumption still
increased. This was probably because the reduction of drying time was
insufficient. For example, in Nathakaranakule’s study (Nathakaranakule
et al., 2010), the application of infrared radiation reduced the total
drying time from 15.5 h for heat pump drying alone to 9.5 h for IR-HP
drying at infrared power of 450 W. Thus the specific energy consump­
tion was slightly decreased by 9.2%. However, the application of
infrared radiation only reduced the total drying time from 11 h for hot
air drying alone to 8 h for IR-AD drying at an infrared power of 450 W.
Due to the similar drying time for AD and IR-AD, the specific energy
consumption of IR-AD was slightly increased by 14.3%. Similarly, the
reduction of drying time under IR-AD drying of sponge gourd was only Fig. 3. Drying curve and temperature profile of green pepper (Łechtańska
10.7%. Thus the introduction of infrared radiation increased the specific et al., 2015) (a) AD (b) IRper-AD. (For interpretation of the references to color in
energy consumption by 32.3% (Zhang et al., 2020). this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

773
D. Huang et al.
application of infrared-convective drying resulted in a decrease in the
total color change under 50 and 60 ◦ C. However, when the drying
temperature was 40 ◦ C, the total color change of infrared-convective
drying was higher than that of convective drying and increased with
infrared intensity. They stated that it was due to the longer drying time
under lower drying temperature.
3.3.2. Rehydration capacity
Rehydration capacity is also one of the physical properties most
concerned. Roknul et al. (2014) compared four drying methods (hot air,
air-assisted radio frequency, infrared and microwave-air drying) on
stem lettuce. The rehydration capacity was increased by 17.9% under
infrared drying. Aydogdu et al. (2015) also found that the
microwave-infrared drying exhibited a higher rehydration capacity than
hot air drying (an increase of 36.5%). Similar results were also presented
in the drying of mushroom (Qi et al., 2014), shredded squid (Wang,
Zhang, Mujumdar, & Chen, 2014), green pepper (Łechtańska et al.,
2015) and longan (Nathakaranakule et al., 2010). Antal et al. (2017)
conducted mid-infrared-freeze drying, infrared drying and freeze drying
on pear. For mid-infrared-freeze drying, the rehydration capacity was
increased by up to 13.8% compared to freeze drying. However, for
infrared drying, the rehydration capacity was decreased by up to 18.7%.
The highest rehydration capacity under mid-infrared-freeze drying was
because fewer physical and chemical changes occurred in the MIR-FD
process due to shorter drying time and uniform heating compared to
FD. While the relatively high rehydration capacity of freeze drying
might be the result of porous structures and non-collapse of the tissue
due to low drying temperature. Though the sample dried by MIR showed
the lowest rehydration capacity, the value was not negligible. Some
swelling was observed in the tissue cells due to the infrared absorption
(as shown in Fig. 4), thus the shrinkage of dried products was found to be
always reduced by introducing infrared radiation except a few condi­
tions (Roknul et al., 2014). Wang, Zhang, Mujumdar, and Chen (2014)
found that the shrinkage of infrared dried samples was significantly
lower than that dried by hot air. Similar results were also presented in
refs. (Aydogdu et al., 2015; Barzegar et al., 2015; Nathakaranakule
et al., 2010; Supmoon & Noomhorm, 2013).
3.3.3. Other physical properties
Other physical properties were also investigated, including hardness
and water activity. It was found in Łechtanska’s study (Łechtańska et al.,
2015) that the infrared radiation caused a significant decrease of 29.8%
in the water activity of green pepper. The assistance of ultrasound
and/or infrared radiation also decreased the water activity by up to
13.7% in the drying of okra (Baeghbali et al., 2020). However, Pekke
et al. (2013) found that there was no significant difference in water
Fig. 4. SEM pictures of stem lettuce slices under different drying methods (Roknul et al., 2014).
774
Trends in Food Science & Technology 110 (2021) 765–777
activity between various drying methods. The hardness was generally
decreased by infrared radiation when compared to hot air and heat
pump drying, as reported in refs. (Nathakaranakule et al., 2010; Qi et al.,
2014; Supmoon & Noomhorm, 2013; Wang, Zhang, Fang, & Xu, 2014;
Wang, Zhang, Mujumdar, & Chen, 2014). The puffing effect mentioned
above might be the main reason for the reduction of hardness. In addi­
tion, the starch and pectin will be gelatinized under heating and some
pectin substances become soluble, which also softs the product (Lara,
Wilson, Chen, & Atungulu, 2019). However, when the infrared power
increased to a high level, e.g., 2000 W, the loss of moisture was accel­
erated and a physical barrier (hard surface) might be formed and thus
the hardness of dried products increased (Song et al., 2018). Besides,
Khampakool et al. (2019) found that the infrared-freeze dried banana
sample showed higher hardness than that obtained from freeze drying.
3.3.4. Chemical properties
Researchers also focused on the chemical properties of dried food
products, such as phenolic, flavonoid, vitamin C content, antioxidant
activity and starch characteristics. Generally, the application of infrared
radiation can improve the retention of nutrients. The total flavonoid and
vitamin C content was increased by up to 47.7% and 51.8% in the drying
of jujube, respectively (Wang et al., 2015). An increase in the total
phenolic contents was also found in the drying of murta berries (a sig­
nificant increase of 143.6%) (Puente-Díaz et al., 2013) and mango (an
increase of 22.1%) (Yao et al., 2020). Antal et al. (2017) investigated the
drying characteristics of pear under mid-infrared-freeze drying and
freeze drying. The total phenolic content and antioxidant activity was
increased by up to 69.7% and 168.2%, respectively. However, different
results were also observed. Wu, Zhang, and Bhandari (2019) found that
the total phenolic contents of Cordyceps militaris by infrared-freeze
drying at 50, 60 and 70 ◦ C were lower than those under freeze drying.
The relatively high internal temperature caused by infrared radiation
led to the degradation of phenolic compounds. Baeghbali et al. (2020)
also found that the application of infrared radiation resulted in a
reduction of vitamin C content and this might be caused by excessive
heating. Infrared radiation also influences the starch characteristics. As
reported by (Basman & Yalcin, 2011), the starch loss of noodles under
infrared drying was less than that under oven drying. The partially
coagulated gluten structure formed during infrared drying at relatively
high temperature was the main reason for the less starch loss. The
photomicrographs also showed that the starch granules under infrared
drying was not gelatinized considerably due to rapid drying of infrared
radiation. Ding et al. (2018) also found that the starch gelatinization of
rice by infrared drying was lower than that by hot air drying. The high
temperature and high initial moisture content favored the annealing of
starch granules located in the outer layer of rice kernels, thereby
D. Huang et al.
changing the thermal and gelatinization properties of starch. The starch
degradation is highly dependent on the drying time. As the drying rate of
infrared radiation is relatively high, the products dried by infrared ra­
diation usually show lower starch degradation than that by other drying
methods (Oh et al., 2017).
4. Modelling of infrared drying
Modelling is a useful method to describe the kinetics, moisture, and
temperature distributions of food products. Investigations on modelling
of infrared drying is limited compared to experimental studies (Onwude
et al., 2019b; Rudobashta, Zueva, & Zuev, 2014). Several researchers
have developed mathematical models to describe the drying kinetics of
products under infrared radiation based on the traditional drying
models, such as the Page model, however, it is only a simple fitting of
drying curves (Miraei Ashtiani et al., 2017; Nuthong et al., 2011; Salehi
& Kashaninejad, 2018b). Due to the modelling process complexity, a
sufficient insight of infrared drying is still not achieved.
The modelling of infrared drying can be divided into two types, one
is that the infrared energy is absorbed at the surface of the materials and
is converted into heat, i.e., the penetration depth is zero. The other is
that the infrared energy penetrates through the material into a certain
depth and heat the product. Wu, Zhang, and Li (2017) numerically
investigated the drying kinetics and internal stresses of rice kernel
during infrared drying. They used two extreme models, which assumed
the penetration depth of infrared radiation was infinity (model 1) and
zero (model 2). Their results showed that both drying models can
describe the moisture and temperature distributions of the rice kernel
accurately and the difference between these two models can be ignored.
Onwude et al. (2018) also developed a mathematical model of sweet
potato for combined infrared and hot air drying. The governing equa­
tions are as follows:
∂M
= Deff ∇2 M (1)
∂t
∂T
ρc p + ρcp v∇T = ∇⋅(k∇T) + QIF (2)
∂t
where M is the moisture content, t is the drying time (s), Deff is the
effective diffusivity coefficient (m2/s), ρ is the density (kg/m3), T is the
temperature (◦ C), cp is the specific heat (J/(kgK)), v is the air velocity
(m/s), k is the thermal conductivity (W/(mK)), QIF is the volumetric
infrared heat source (W/m3). The calculation of the above parameters
can be found in (Onwude et al., 2018). Numerical results showed that
the moisture and temperature profiles inside the sweet potato was
consistent with the experimental data, indicating that numerical
modelling can be used to predict drying characteristics of food products,
present better understanding of the drying process and serve as a design
and optimization tool for drying methods.
5. Conclusions
This paper reviewed a large amount of published works related to the
application of infrared radiation in food drying. The parametric effects
of infrared radiation (infrared power, intensity, wavelength, distance,
and drying temperature) and the introduction of infrared radiation on
drying kinetics and food quality were discussed.
The drying kinetics was improved by increasing infrared power, in­
tensity, drying temperature and decreasing infrared distance, while the
parametric effects on food quality was variable. Basically, the total color
change, hardness and nutrient retention increased by increasing infrared
power, intensity, and drying temperature. The effects of radiation dis­
tance and wavelength on food quality are negligible.
The drying kinetics was improved by introducing infrared radiation.
However, the energy consumption was unpredictable. When the
reduction of drying time was considerable, the energy consumption
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 110 (2021) 765–777
decreased. When the reduction was insufficient, the energy consumption
increased.
The application of infrared radiation will somehow affect the food
quality, including the physical and chemical ones. Generally, the
infrared radiation can decrease the water activity, reduce the total color
change, and improve the nutrient retention such as total phenolic con­
tent, flavonoid content, antioxidant activity and vitamin C.
Numerical modelling can present better understanding of the drying
process and serve as a design and optimization tool for drying methods,
thus more relevant work could be conducted to get deep insight of
infrared drying. Besides, infrared combined drying can not only increase
the drying rate, but also maintain the food quality, thus it may be a
promising method in the drying of high value and heat-sensitive food
products.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Hunan Provincial Key Research and
Development Program (2018NK2066), Hunan Provincial Department of
Education Project (18B185), Hunan Provincial Forestry Science and
Technology Program (XLK201732), and the Scientific Research Foun­
dation for Talented Scholars of Central South University of Forestry and
Technology (2016YJ002).
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