CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The wealth of any nation is to a large extend determined by the development of its

human resources. The place for human is a tool for economic development,

organizational productivity and organizational survival cannot be over emphasized.

More also both individual firms and organization cannot claim the attainment of

their objectives and goals without due emphasis to 'the relevance of human

resources. The knowledge of goods and services.

This capital building and the quest for maintaining well trained, experience and

responsive human resources and issue of national economic important of the major

obstacles of Nigeria development is lack of adequate trained human resources. It

was not surprising therefore, when the national development plan of 1975-1981, as

apply documented Zahraduen (1980) echoed that the successful implementation of

a development plan depend not only on the availability of finance and other capital

inputs, but importantly rely on adequacy of trained human resources in various

occupations. Osuji (1978) cited Udoji report for further buttress this fact the major

land mark to Nigeria's development is lack of skilled and experienced men and

women to carry out the task at hand. The general belief, therefore, is that human

resources or man power is the crucial factor in national development and by

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Implication one of the very important factor of production. For organization,

private or public to realize their objectives, it depend tremendously upon the skill

competency and experience of its workforce, the reality of this is determined by

the success or failure of every organization, is directly determined by human

resources it recruits, maintains and develops in the course of its operational life.

Most enticing of all the tasks of management, managing human resources in an

organization is the control and most important task.

This is because the management of other resources depends on how it is done

(Likert, 1967). This shows that the activities carried out in an organization are

initiated, determined, planned, implemented and evaluated by the human resources.

It is the realization of these importance resources to national development and

attainment of set organizational objectives that brining necessity for human

resources planning and development the place human resources in the purposeful

achievement of organizational objectives in both private and public business

cannot be over emphasized.

Prior to the 1stcentury, manpower is only seen as factors of production with equal

sensitivity with other productive resources.

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 By the end of 20th century, perhaps the industrial revolution coupled with increased

human relation scholar in an awakening cell which has stimulated the need for

increased management and development of human content of management.

In Nigeria today, organizational management cannot claim guaranteed survival

with due emphasis to the dominance of resources is the human effort, both mental,

physical energy exerted in the production of goods and services.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS

Human resources training and development is of course one of the most

important vital resources for organizational development in every organization.

The problems of human resources training and development will be assessed

through the following ways:

i. No provision of basic infrastructure in Eco Bank Plc Kaduna. Such as

lack of poor power supply, poor telecommunication, poor

transportation system, and bad network services that affect the

operation in the bank, poor accountability, inefficiency of labour

force.

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 ii. Lack of well trained personnel to handle Eco Bank Plc Kaduna. Such

as poor operation performance. Without adequate training there will

be poor operation performance, poor effectiveness, poor commitment,

poor efficiency, and poor profitability.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

i. To improve basic infrastructure in Eco bank Plc. by providing good

power supply, telecommunication for good operation and maintainace

good transportation system, good network services for effective

operation, good accountability and efficiency of labour force.

ii. To improve personnel training in Eco bank Plc. by training their

employees themselves using on the job training and mentoring, or

sending them on training course for positive result in terms of

profitability, effective performance, commitment, efficiency and

effectiveness.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The decision to embark upon this research work is to highlight certain facts

that serve as yardstick towards the realization of the following expectations:

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 i. What is the impact of human resources objectives development in Eco

Bank Plc. Kaduna State?

ii. How does the model of human resources training and development

contribute to the objectives of Eco Bank Plc Kaduna State?

1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

This work will test the hypothesis below so as to know the impact of human

resources training and development to organization in the study area.

Hypothesis 1

Ho: Human resources training and development has no significant impact on

Eco Bank Plc. in Kaduna State.

Hi: Human resources training and development has a significant impact on

Eco Bank Plc. in Kaduna State.

Hypothesis II

Ho: Human resources training and development is not enough to increase

development in Eco Bank Plc Kaduna State.

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 Hi: Human resources training and development is enough to increase

development in Eco Bank Plc Kaduna State.

1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This study is specifically restricted to cover the contribution of human

resources, training and development as it relates to the attainment of

organizational objectives with a case study of Eco Bank Plc in Kaduna state.

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

There is no organization that will gain fact that human resources is of vital

asset to the organization. However, it is worthwhile to note that manpower

as resources to organization demands the application of policies and

strategies that will lead to recovery of amount invested, and as well

guarantee return on investment (Coventry, 1978). Other significance and

purpose of human resources, training which organization profitability

through effective and efficient utilization of human resources include

(Moore 1980 Torringlonetal, 1995).

i. To avoid excessive overtime situation because of insufficient number of

workers in the organization.

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 ii. To avoid overstaffing which might create redundancy, demotivation and

may drain on the company profit.

iii. To encourage a good match between human resources, and recruitment

and human resources requirement in absolute figure, age skills and

expertise.

This is to avoid loss of business opportunities which can result through lack

of adequate and appropriate human resources. Encouraging a better match

between location of employees and plants or their area of operation or

coverage. These situations where most of their jobs or work are in Abuja or

Maiduguri plants office etc., can be avoided through effective human

resources training.

Assist in deciding whether the overall organization system can provide the

information required difference level by management of such an

organization.

The techniques of human resources and training can be adopted in reducing

the modality of labour so that people are more likely to remain with the

organization or at least spend their carrier working for few organizations.

The integration of manpower planning process will generate information that

can reveal the true cost of future development for example if a company is

planning to reduce to introduce a new service facility or better still

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introducing enhanced staffing allowances and incentives, the true cost could

be easily arrived at losing manpower training tools.

Overestimation of cost will reflect unrealistic expensive incentives. This

discouraging its introduction, while an under estimation in this case will

make the new facility of production, unrealistically cheap. The implication is

operating either at a loss or at a disadvantage angle should the facility or

product be introduced.

Effective manpower can also ease the difficulties of recruitment.it should be

remembered that recruitment equally a costly and time consuming activity.

Similarly, delays in recruitment have the tendency of destroying the staff

morale. Hence, manpower training is expected at this point to highlight not

only the turnover patterns but as well indicate possible factors responsible

for such.

A good manpower plan should pinpoint in addition area of turnover leading

to well-planned recruitment, selection, training and selection exercise

especially in critical areas of an organization.

Furthermore, such manpower plan lead to better staff compensation and

improved conditions of service or work environment. Manpower training

provides relevant information for conducting a successful training program

making possible a purposeful training and development of existing

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 manpower. Such training programs should not be related to present job

requirements but equally to future job requirement, from the point of view of

better organizational development and individual skills development. Needs

of the organization in terms of level of organizational work, specific skills,

and attitudes against which staff expectations can be matched.

Manpower training on a final note emphasizes the need for rationalization

resulting from change in technology knows how and the development of

organizational structures based on contemporary business and environment

needs.

a. What is the contribution of human resources, training and development to

the objectives of the organization?

1.8 BACKGROUND OF THE CASE STUDY

Eco Bank Plc. is Nigeria’s largest bank brand with over 600 branches. It is

also the widest banking network in Africa with presence in 32 countries

predominantly in Sub-Saharan Africa.

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Background

Eco Bank Transnational Incorporated (ETI), a public limited liability

company, was established as a bank holding company in 1985 under a

private sector initiative spearheaded by the Federation of West African

Chambers of Commerce and Industry with the support of ECOWAS. The

dual objective of Eco Bank Transnational Incorporated is to build a world-

class Pan-African Bank and to contribute to the economic and financial

integration and development of the African continent.

The Federation of West African Chambers of Commerce promoted and

initiated a project for the creation of a private regional banking institution in

West Africa. In 1984, Eco promotions S.A. was incorporated. Its founding

shareholders raised the seed capital for the feasibility studies and the

promotional activities leading to the creation of ETI.

In October 1985, ETI was incorporated with an authorized capital of

US$100 million. The initial paid up capital of US$32 million was raised

from over 1,500 individuals and institutions from West African countries.

The largest shareholder was the ECOWAS Fund for Cooperation,

Compensation and Development (ECOWAS Fund), the development

finance arm of ECOWAS.

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A Headquarters’ Agreement was signed with the government of Togo in

1985 which granted ETI the status of an international organization with the

rights and privileges necessary for it to operate as a regional institution,

including the status of a non-resident financial institution. ETI commenced

operations with its first subsidiary in Togo in March 1988.

Today, Eco bank is the leading pan-African bank with operations in 36

countries across the continent, more than any other bank in the world. It

currently operates in countries in West, Central , East and Southern Africa,

namely Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cape Verde, Cameroon,

Central African Republic, Chad, Congo Brazzaville, Democratic Republic of

Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Gambia,

Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Niger,

Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao Tome & Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South

Africa, South Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The

Group also has a licensed operation in Paris and representative offices in

Beijing, Dubai, Johannesburg, London and Luanda.

The Eco bank Group is a full-service bank focused on Middle Africa. It

provides wholesale, retail, investment and transactional banking services to

governments, financial institutions, multinationals, local companies, SMEs

and individuals.

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Eco bank’s services are delivered by three customer-focused business

segments, Corporate Bank, Domestic Bank and Eco bank Capital all of

which are supported by an Integrated IT platform operated by Process, the

group’s technology subsidiary.

Corporate Bank provides financial solutions to global and regional

corporate, public corporate, financial institutions and international

organizations. Products focus on pan-African lending, trade services, cash

management, internet banking and value chain finance.

Domestic Bank provides convenient, accessible and reliable financial

products and services to retail, local corporate, public sector and

microfinance customers, leverages an extensive branch and ATM network as

well as mobile, internet and remittances banking platforms.

Eco bank Capital provides treasury, corporate finance and investment

banking, securities and asset management solutions to corporate and

governmental customers. Eco bank also operates within Eco bank Capital a

Research team based on the ground in key markets, provides unique

information support capabilities.

Eco bank operates as “One Bank” with common branding, standards,

policies, processes to provide a consistent and reliable service across its

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unique network of 1,305 branches, 2,426 ATMs, and 13,800 POS machines

servicing over 10 million customers. We have an integrated information

technology platform, with all of our operations successfully migrated onto a

single core banking application: Oracle FLEXCUBE. With 19,565

employees as at end of March 2014, the Group is the largest employer of

labor in the financial sector industry in Middle Africa.

Sustainability is at the core of our mission and vision of building a world-

class pan-African bank that contributes to the integration and socio-

economic development of the continent. We take the view that the long-term

success of Eco bank is intertwined with the sustainable development of the

economies, societies and environment that we operate in.

In 2012, the Group adopted an integrated and comprehensive approach to

sustainability and created a common framework. The framework depicts

sustainability such that our business operational model ensures effective,

efficient and sustainable utilization of economic, social, human and natural

capital. This framework reflects our commitment to drive economic

transformation in Africa while protecting our environment by being a

socially responsible financial institution with a world class professional.

Each strand forms the building block for our integrated sustainability.

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 The 100% acquisition of the shareholding in Oceanic Bank in 2011 has

increased the asset base of Eco bank Nigeria, a subsidiary of ETI, making it

one of the five largest banks in Nigeria. Today, with over 610 free-standing

branches, Eco bank Nigeria is the second-largest bank in the country by

branch network.

1.9 DEFINITION OF RELEVANT OF TERMS

Effective: the degree to which something is successful in producing a desire result.

Efficiency: is an important attribute because all inputs are scarce time,

money and raw materials are limited.

Human Resources: Oxford Advanced learner’s dictionary defined human

resource as life cycles within the organization.

Organization: A social unit of people that is structured and managed to meet

a need or to pursue collective goals.

Training And Development: Training and development can turn poor

performer into solid performer, and good employees into greater ones. By

(Brendan/Bsocsci, Grad Dip Socci)

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 CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION

All organizations must manage four resources: money, equipment,

information, and people. Investments in better equipment may speed up

production or reduce waste. Information is power; data about products,

prices, and customers are essential to every business. Investments in training

and development of employees can make them more productive or more

effective in their jobs, directly contributing to the bottom line.

Burke and Day’s (1986) meta-analysis of managerial training effects (across

six training content areas, seven training methods, and four types of training

outcomes) showed that managerial training is moderately effective. Collins

and Holton (2004), in their evaluation of 83 studies from 1982 to 2001,

including education, government, medical, and military organizations, came

to a similar conclusion. Even a moderately effective training program can

have a substantial effect.

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 The purpose of training and management development programs is to

improve employee capabilities and organizational capabilities.

When the organization invests in improving the knowledge and skills of its

employees, the investment is returned in the form of more productive and

effective employees. Training and development programs may be focused

on individual performance or team performance.

This therefore leads to the reason for this chapter where various literature are

looked into so as to get a background view as well as a solid foundation

from previous authors from different sources so as to exhaustively treat the

topic of discourse.

2.2 CONCEPTUALFRAMEWORK

Human resources, are the most valuable assets of any organization, with the

machines, materials and even the money, nothing gets done without man-

power. Abiodun (1999) submitted that:

Training is a systematic development of the knowledge, skills and attitudes

required by employees to perform adequately on a given task or job. It can

take place in a number of ways, on the job or off the job; in the organization

or outside organization.

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Training involves an expert working with learners to transfer to them certain

areas of knowledge or skills to improve in their current jobs (McNamara,

2008). Development is a broad, ongoing multi-faceted set of activities

(training activities among them) to bring someone or an organization up to

another threshold of performance, often to perform some job or new role in

the future (McNamara, 2008).

According to Asare-Bediako (2002) employees must be trained, and where

possible developed to meet their own career needs and the need of the

organization. Training is job or task-oriented. It aims at enabling individuals

to perform better on the jobs they are currently doing. Development on the

other hand, is career oriented rather than job-oriented. It aims at preparing

people for higher responsibilities in the future (Asare-Bediako, 2002).

Organizations must therefore have the responsibility to develop and

implement training and development systems and programmes that best help

them to achieve their objectives.

Noe et al. (2000) viewed training generally as a planned effort by a company

to facilitate employees learning of the job-related competencies. These

competencies include knowledge, skill, or behavior’s that are critical for

successful job performance.

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Whilst some human resource professionals consider training and

development an after recruitment programme, Asare-Bediako (2002)

believes that it must be incorporated into orientation programmes for newly

recruited staff. According to him, the training and development (T&D) unit

should explain to new employees what training and development means and

what programmes and facilities are available to employees. At this stage,

training and development explains internal training programmes available

and how they could participate. T&D should emphasize the area of corporate

culture. As the unit changed with facilitating change and maintaining the

organization’s culture, training and development should reinforce the

importance of training and development through continuous efforts such as

frequent reminders, meeting, etc.

Training both physically, socially, intellectually and mentally are very

essential in facilitating not only the level of productivity but also the

development of personnel in any organization. Therefore, training can be put

in a contact relevant to school administrators. However, knowledge is the

ability, the skill, the understanding, the information, which every individual

requires acquiring in order to be able to function effectively and perform

efficiently.

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Adeniyi (1995) observed that staff training and development is a work

activity that can make a very significant contribution to the overall

effectiveness and profitability of an organization. He therefore, provides a

systematic approach to training which encases the main elements of training.

The effectiveness and success of an organization therefore lies on the people

who form and work within the organization. It follows therefore that the

employees in an organization to be able to perform their duties and make

meaningful contributions to the success of the organizational goals need to

acquire the relevant skills and knowledge. In appreciation of this fact,

organization like educational institution, conduct final training and

development programmes for the different levels of their manpower.

Writing on the typical reasons for employee T&D, McNamara (2008) stated

that T&D can be initiated for a variety of reasons for an employee or group

of employees including:

a. When a performance appraisal indicates performance improvement is

needed

b. To "benchmark" the status of improvement so far in a performance

improvement effort

c. As part of an overall professional development program

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 d. As part of succession planning to help an employee be eligible for a

planned change in role in the organization

e. To "pilot", or test, the operation of a new performance management

system

f. To train about a specific topic

The return on investment in training for an organization will be minimal or

nil if training is not based on effective needs identification. Training plans

should be based upon job skills requirements and strategic initiatives of the

company and the contents should be customized to the specific needs of the

company. Leading companies have formed training departments, whose

systems and approaches evolved along with their overall quality system the

company’s needs.

Smaller companies often use outside consultants.

Training can be thought of as helping people to learn:

i. For the present and future health of the organization

ii. For personal fulfillment within the organization and

iii. In helping the organization to learn, to cope better with its fastest

changing environment (Leopold, Harris and Watson, 1999).

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Explaining the reasons why organizations train, Leopold, Harris and Watson

(1999) stated that training activities are seen as maintenance – maintaining

systems processes and standards – but also reactive in that they respond to

situations, often crisis, to solve problems - a fire-fight. Training and

development can also be proactive, ensuring that the organization has the

skills it needs to deal with change and therefore to adapt to change rather

than a maintenance orientation.

Career development activities geared towards enhancing the competencies

of employees in anticipation of progressing into higher management position

(Asare-Bediako, 2002). It is therefore necessary that organization’s draw up

career development plan for employees that will help them acquire the

relevant competencies specific managerial positions in the long-run.

According to Asare-Bediako (2002), development activities are designed to

reinforce strength, overcome limitations, provide relevant, new

competencies, and broaden outlook. Such development activities usually

include formal courses, acting assignment, attachments, job rotation, and

delegation. According to him, ideally, at the time of employing staff or just

after employment, a career development plan should be prepared for the

employee. This should clearly indicate personal profile of the staff, the

educational qualification and training, work experience with dates, past

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training and time, major strengths, major limitations, progression projections

and timings and training and development plan and timing.

Training and development can take a variety of forms. Below is a flavour of

some different training and development activities:

i. Induction training is undertaken when a new employee joins an

organization. It is partly an information giving exercise (explaining

how the firm is organized and who works for whom) but it is also part

of the socialization process, so that new staff begin to learn the rules

and understand ‘how we do things around here’. In other words

people begin to learn the culture of an organization. The lack of

induction training can encourage employees to leave their new job in

the first few weeks.

ii. Remedial skills training: this occurs to fill ‘skill gaps’ when an

employee or group of employees lack the skills necessary to perform

their current job task effectively. It is especially important as the pace

of technological change is increasing. It would be pointless to invest

in new machinery and software if the existing workforce could not use

it.

iii. Developmental training: this concerns the acquisition of competencies

(skills, knowledge and attitudes) that the company will find necessary

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 in the future. This type of training is designed to meet long-term

corporate needs rather than providing training in specific skills

required currently. Developmental training also refers to the

preparation given to employees for promotion or for managerial

succession, in which case it is called management development and is

often linked to Talent Management schemes.

It is also important to bear in mind that skills training can be either:

a. Firm specific’, referring to training in skills that will only be of value

within the employee’s particular organization (e.g. learning how to drive

a train if you work for a mass transit or railway company).

b. ‘Transferable’, referring to training in skills that will be of value in a

wide range of employment situations; it might be the case that employers

are less willing to train in ‘transferable’ skills, as they may fear that other

firms will poach their trained staff from them, and as such, they will then

lose investment they have made in their staff (e.g. bookkeeping or

accountancy).

2.2.1 CURRENT CONCEPTS OF THE STUDY

According to Quinn, Anderson and Finkelstein (1996), the goal of training is

for employees to master the knowledge, skill, and behaviours emphasized in

training programmes and to apply them to their day-to-day activities. They

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 contend that recently it has been acknowledged that to gain competitive

advantage, training has to involve more than just basic skills development.

Reasons for emphasizing the growth and development of personnel include:

i. Creating a pool of readily available and adequate replacements for

personnel who may leave or move up in the organization.

ii. Enhancing the company's ability to adopt and use advances in

technology because of a sufficiently knowledgeable staff.

iii. Building a more efficient, effective and highly motivated team, which

enhances the company's competitive position and improves employee

morale.

iv. Ensuring adequate human resources for expansion into new programs.

v. Research has shown specific benefits that a small business receives

from training and developing its workers, including:

vi. Increased productivity.

vii. Reduced employee turnover.

viii. Increased efficiency resulting in financial gains.

ix. Decreased need for supervision.

Contributing to the debate on the general benefits from employee training

and development, McNamara (2008) stated numerous benefits namely:

i. Increased job satisfaction and morale among employees

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 ii. Increased employee motivation

iii. Increased efficiencies in processes, resulting in financial gain

iv. Increased capacity to adopt new technologies and methods

v. Increased innovation in strategies and products

vi. Reduced employee turnover

vii. Enhanced company image, e.g., conducting ethics training and

viii. Risk management, e.g., training about sexual harassment, diversity

training (McNamara, 2008).

Goldstein and Gilliam (1990) also outlined six reasons why companies believe

that investments in training can help them gain a competitive advantage. These

include:

i. Increase employee knowledge

ii. Help ensure that employees have the basic skills to work with new

technology

iii. Help employees understand how to work effectively in teams to

contribute to service quality

iv. Ensure that the company’s culture emphasizes innovations, creativity and

learning

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v. Ensure employment security by providing new ways for employees

to contribute to the company when their jobs change, their interests

change, or their skills become obsolete

vi. Prepare employees to accept and work more effectively with each other

and

vii. Prepare employees to accept and work more effectively with each other.

Employees frequently develop a greater sense of self-worth, dignity and well-

being as they become more valuable to the firm and to society. Generally they

will receive a greater share of the material gains that result from their increased

productivity. These factors give them a sense of satisfaction through the

achievement of personal and company goals.

Training Investments and Productivity

According to Evans and Lindsay (1999) the quality of employees and their

development through training and education are major factors in determining

long-term profitability of organization. Companies committed to quality invest

heavily in training and education (Evans and Lindsay, 1999).

In a study in America on the impact of human-capital investments such as

education and employer-provided training, Black and Lynch (1996) citing

Bishop (1994) indicated that employer-provided training raises subjective

productivity measure by almost 16%. Stressing the importance of career

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training development, Evan and Lindsay (1999) reported that the massive

training program embarked upon at the Coors Brewing Company in Golden,

Colorado, resulted in improved employees passion for the job and pride in

their jobs, which translated into measurable improvements in productivity, a

remarkably low turnover rate, and the delivery of quality product and

service.

The Training Process

The model below traces the steps necessary in the training process:

i. Organizational Objectives

ii. Needs Assessment

iii. Is There a Gap?

iv. Training Objectives

v. Select the Trainees

vi. Select the Training Methods and Mode

vii. Choose a Means of Evaluating

viii. Administer Training

ix. Evaluate the Training (Noe, 2002).

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A business should have a clearly defined strategy and set of objectives that

direct and drive all the decisions made especially for training decisions.

Firms that plan their training process are more successful than those that do

not. Most business owners want to succeed, but do not engage in training

designs that promise to improve their chances of success. Why? The five

reasons most often identified are:

Time - Small businesses managers find that time demands do not allow them

to train employees.

Getting started - Most small business managers have not practiced training

employees. The training process is unfamiliar.

Broad expertise - Managers tend to have broad expertise rather than the

specialized skills needed for training and development activities.

Lack of trust and openness - Many managers prefer to keep information to

themselves. By doing so they keep information from subordinates and others

who could be useful in the training and development process.

Skepticism as to the value of the training - Some small business owners

believe the future cannot be predicted or controlled and their efforts,

therefore, are best centred on current activities i.e., making money today

(Noe, 2002).

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A well-conceived training program can help your firm succeed. A program

structured with the company's strategy and objectives in mind has a high

probability of improving productivity and other goals that are set in the

training mission.

For any business, formulating a training strategy requires addressing a series

of questions.

i. Who are your customers?

ii. Why do they buy from you?

iii. Who are your competitors?

iv. How do they serve the market?

v. What competitive advantages do they enjoy?

vi. What parts of the market have they ignored?

vii. What strengths does the company have? What weaknesses?

viii. What social trends are emerging that will affect the firm? (Noe,

2002).

The purpose of formulating a training strategy is to answer two relatively

simple but vitally important questions: (1) What is our business? and (2)

What should our business be? Armed with the answers to these questions

and a clear vision of its mission, strategy and objectives, a company can

identify its training needs.

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Identifying Training Needs

Training needs analysis seeks to answer the questions, who if any,

needs training? And what training do they need? The questions may be very

simple ones, but getting good answers to these questions constitute one of

the most difficult steps in the total training process.

A training need exists when an individual lacks the knowledge or skills

required for the execution of an assigned task satisfactorily. The purpose of a

training needs identification exercise, therefore is to identify the gap

between required and the actual competencies so as to determine the kinds

of training that would help bridge the gap (Asare-Bediako, 2002).

Two major preconditions for training needs identification are organization

and job analysis. Organizational analysis provides information on

a. Organizational vision

b. Short and long term goals iii. Future strategies

c. Methods and technologies and

d. Present and future social, economic, political, and technological

environment.

Whilst organization analysis provide clues as to the type of training that

individuals and groups in the organizations must be given today or in the

30
future, job analysis on the other hand involves a careful study of jobs within

an organization in further effort to define the specific content of training.

Observations (day to day), promotions, transfers, appraisals, accidents and

quality control records remains the main sources by which organization’s

identify training needs of individuals whilst new products/equipment, new

standards, new policies, and operations trends are used to identify group

training needs.

Training needs can be assessed by analyzing three major human resource

areas: the organization as a whole, the job characteristics and the needs of

the individuals. This analysis will provide answers to the following

questions:

i. Where is training needed?

ii. What specifically must an employee learn in order to be more

productive?

iii. Who needs to be trained?

Begin by assessing the current status of the company how it does what it

does best and the abilities of your employees to do these tasks. This analysis

will provide some benchmarks against which the effectiveness of a

training program can be evaluated. Your firm should know where it wants

to be in five years from its long-range strategic plan. What you need is a
31
training program to take your firm from here to there. Secondly, consider

whether the organization is financially committed to supporting the training

efforts. If not, any attempt to develop a solid training program will fail.

Next, determine exactly where training is needed. It is foolish to implement

a companywide training effort without concentrating resources where they

are needed most. An internal audit will help point out areas that may benefit

from training. Also, a skills inventory can help determine the skills

possessed by the employees in general. This inventory will help the

organization determine what skills are available now and what skills are

needed for future development.

Also, in today's market-driven economy, you would be remiss not to ask

your customers what they like about your business and what areas they think

should be improved. In summary, the analysis should focus on the total

organization and should tell you (1) where training is needed and (2) where

it will work within the organization.

Once you have determined where training is needed, concentrate on the

content of the program. Analyze the characteristics of the job based on its

description, the written narrative of what the employee actually does.

Training based on job descriptions should go into detail about how the job is

performed on a task-by-task basis. Actually doing the job will enable you to

32
get a better feel for what is done. Individual employees can be evaluated by

comparing their current skill levels or performance to the organization's

performance standards or anticipated needs. Any discrepancies between

actual and anticipated skill levels identify a training need.

Selection Of Trainees

Once you have decided what training is necessary and where it is needed,

the next decision is who should be trained? For a most businesses, this

question is crucial. Training an employee is expensive, especially when he

or she leaves your firm for a better job. It is therefore important to carefully

select who will be trained. Training programs should be designed to consider

the ability of the employee to learn the material and to use it effectively, and

to make the most efficient use of resources possible. It is also important that

employees be motivated by the training experience. Employee failurein the

program is not only damaging to the employee but a waste of money as well.

Selecting the right trainees is important to the success of the program.

Training Goals

The goals of the training program should relate directly to the needs

determined by the assessment process outlined above. Course objectives

33
should clearly state what behavior or skill will be changed as a result of the

training and should relate to the mission and strategic plan of the company.

Goals should include milestones to help take the employee from where he or

she is today to where the firm wants him or her in the future. Setting goals

helps to evaluate the training program and also to motivate employees.

Allowing employees to participate in setting goals increases the probability

of success.

Training Methods

There are two broad types of training available to businesses: on-the-job and

off- the-job techniques. Individual circumstances and the "who," "what" and

"why" of your training program determine which method to use.

On-the-job training is delivered to employees while they perform their

regular jobs. In this way, they do not lose time while they are learning. After

a plan is developed for what should be taught, employees should be

informed of the details. A timetable should be established with periodic

evaluations to inform employees about their progress. On-the-job

techniques include orientations, job instruction training, apprenticeships,

internships and assistantships, job rotation and coaching.

Off-the-job techniques include lectures, special study, films,

television conferences or discussions, case studies, role playing,

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simulation, programmed instruction and laboratory training. Most of these

techniques can be used by small businesses although, some may be too

costly

Some companies use verbal presentations while others have

written presentations. Many small businesses convey these topics in one-on-

one orientations. No matter what method is used, it is important that the

newcomer understand his or her new place of employment.

Lectures present training material verbally and are used when the goal is to

present a great deal of material to many people. It is more cost effective to

lecture to a group than to train people individually. Lecturing is one-way

communication and as such may not be the most effective way to train.

Also, it is hard to ensure that the entire audience understands a topic on the

same level; by targeting the average attendee you may under train some and

lose others. Despite these drawbacks, lecturing is the most cost-effective

way of reaching large audiences.

Role playing and simulation are training techniques that attempt to bring

realistic decision making situations to the trainee. Likely problems and

alternative solutions are presented for discussion. The adage there is no

better trainer than experience is exemplified with this type of training.

Experienced employees can describe real world experiences, and can help

35
in and learn from developing the solutions to these simulations. This

method is cost effective and is used in marketing and management training.

Audiovisual methods such as television, videotapes and films are the most

effective means of providing real world conditions and situations in a short

time. One advantage is that the presentation is the same no matter how many

times it's played. This is not true with lectures, which can change as the

speaker is changed or can be influenced by outside constraints. The major

flaw with the audiovisual method is that it does not allow for questions and

interactions with the speaker, nor does it allow for changes in the

presentation for different audiences.

Job rotation involves moving an employee through a series of jobs so he or

she can get a good feel for the tasks that are associated with different jobs. It

is usually used in training for supervisory positions. The employee learns a

little about everything. This is a good strategy for small businesses because

of the many jobs an employee may be asked to do.

Apprenticeships develop employees who can do many different tasks. They

usually involve several related groups of skills that allow the apprentice to

practice a particular trade, and they take place over a long period of time in

which the apprentice works for, and with, the senior skilled worker.

Apprenticeships are especially appropriate for jobs requiring production

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 skills. Internships and assistantships are usually a combination of classroom

and on-the-job training. They are often used to train prospective managers

or marketing personnel.

Programmed learning, computer-aided instruction and interactive video all

have one thing in common: they allow the trainee to learn at his or her own

pace. Also, they allow material already learned to be bypassed in favor of

material with which a trainee is having difficulty. After the introductory

period, the instructor need not be present, and the trainee can learn as his or

her time allows. These methods sound good, but may be beyond the

resources of some small businesses.

Laboratory trainingis conducted for groups by skilled trainers. It usually is

conducted at a neutral site and is used by upper- and middle management

trainees to develop a spirit of teamwork and an increased ability to deal with

management and peers. It can be costly and usually is offered by larger

small businesses.

For a comprehensive training programme, McNamara (2008) suggested

some topical issues namely:

1. Communications: The increasing diversity of today's workforce brings a

wide variety of languages and customs.

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 2. Computer skills: Computer skills are becoming a necessity for conducting

administrative and office tasks.

3. Customer service: Increased competition in today's global marketplace

makes it critical that employees understand and meet the needs of

customers.

4. Diversity: Diversity training usually includes explanation about how people

have different perspectives and views, and includes techniques to value

diversity

5. Ethics: Today's society has increasing expectations about corporate social

responsibility. Also, today's diverse workforce brings a wide variety of

values and morals to the workplace.

6. Human relations: The increased stresses of today's workplace can include

misunderstandings and conflict. Training can people to get along in the

workplace.

7. Quality initiatives: Initiatives such as Total Quality Management, Quality

Circles, benchmarking, etc., require basic training about quality concepts,

guidelines and standards for quality, etc.

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8. Safety: Safety training is critical where working with heavy equipment,

hazardous chemicals, repetitive activities, etc., but can also be useful with

practical advice for avoiding assaults, etc.

9. Sexual harassment: Sexual harassment training usually includes careful

description of the organization's policies about sexual harassment,

especially about what are inappropriate behaviours (McNamara, 2008).

Trainers

Who actually conducts the training depends on the type of training needed

and who will be receiving it. On-the-job training is conducted mostly by

supervisors; off-the-job training, by either in-house personnel or outside

instructors. In-house training is the daily responsibility of supervisors and

employees. Supervisors are ultimately responsible for the productivity and,

therefore, the training of their subordinates. These supervisors should be

taught the techniques of good training. They must be aware of the

knowledge and skills necessary to make a productive employee. Trainers

should be taught to establish goals and objectives for their training and to

determine how these objectives can be used to influence the productivity of

their departments. They also must be aware of how adults learn and how

best to communicate with adults. Small businesses need to develop their

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supervisors' training capabilities by sending them to courses on training

methods. The investment will pay off in increased productivity.

There are several ways to select training personnel for off-the-job

training programs. Many small businesses use in-house personnel to develop

formal training programs to be delivered to employees off line from their

normal work activities, during company meetings or individually at

prearranged training sessions.

There are many outside training sources, including consultants, technical and

vocational schools, continuing education programs, chambers of commerce

and economic development groups. Selecting an outside source for training

has advantages and disadvantages. The biggest advantage is that these

organizations are well versed in training techniques, which is often not the

case with in-house personnel.

The disadvantage of using outside training specialists is their limited

knowledge of the company's product or service and customer needs. These

trainers have a more general knowledge of customer satisfaction and needs.

In many cases, the outside trainer can develop this knowledge quickly by

immersing himself or herself in the company prior to training the employees.

Another disadvantage of using outside trainers is the relatively high cost

compared to in-house training, although the higher cost may be offset by the

40
 increased effectiveness of the training. Whoever is selected to conduct the

training, either outside or in-house trainers, it is important that the

company's goals and values be carefully explained

Training Administration

Having planned the training program properly, you must now administer the

training to the selected employees. It is important to follow through to make

sure the goals are being met. Questions to consider before training begins

include: location, facilities, accessibility, comfort, equipment and timing. A

careful attention to these operational details will contribute to the success of

the training program.

An effective training program administration should follow these steps:

i. Define the organizational objectives.

ii. Determine the needs of the training program.

iii. Define training goals.

iv. Develop training methods.

v. Decide whom to train.

vi. Decide who should do the training.

vii. Administer the training.

viii. Evaluate the training program.

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Following these steps will help an administrator develop an effective

training program to ensure that the firm keeps qualified employees who are

productive, happy workers. This will contribute positively to the bottom

line.

Evaluation Of Training

Training should be evaluated several times during the process. Determine

these milestones when you develop the training. Employees should be

evaluated by comparing their newly acquired skills with the skills defined by

the goals of the training program. Any discrepancies should be noted and

adjustments made to the training program to enable it to meet specified

goals. Many training programs fall short of their expectations simply

because the administrator failed to evaluate its progress until it was too late.

Timely evaluation will prevent the training from straying from its goals.

Ideally, training should not be one time activity. Continual reinforcement of

lessons learnt in training program is essential. Many companies send

employees to courses, but then allow the knowledge to slip away. New

knowledge can be reinforced in several ways. According to Evans and

Lindsay (1999) Motorola uses on the job coaching to reinforce training;

Ritz-Carlton has follow-up sessions to monitor instructional effectiveness.

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Also companies need an approach for evaluating training effectiveness. Ritz-

Carlton requires employees to pass written and skill demonstration tests.

Other companies use on-the-job evaluation or tests in simulated work

environments. Many measure behaviour and attitude changes. However, the

true test of training effectiveness is results. By establishing a linkage

between training and results, companies can show the impact on

customer satisfaction and also identify gaps in training.

Function Of Training

The singular function of training is to produce change. It is the upgrading of

a person’s skill or the addition of a new skill, which in turn can bring about

the desired change an agency is seeking. It is important to understand that

training in and of itself cannot motivate a work force. However, it is an

integral part of what is needed to accomplish the long-term goals of the

agency.

Value of Training

Often supervisors ask, "Why should I provide training to my staff?" There

are many reasons agencies provide training to their employees: to foster

growth and development to provide opportunities for employees to accept

greater challenges to aid employees in contributing to the achievement of

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department goals and the agency’s mission and vision to build employee

self-confidence and commitment to produce a measurable change in

performance to bring about the desired changes that can solve a variety of

problems

Benefits Of Training

Providing training to an employee benefits both the employer and employee

by:

i. Improving an employee’s performance

ii. Developing the group and team skills needed to achieve organizational

goals

iii. Giving employees the needed skills and knowledge to complete assigned

jobs, duties and tasks

iv. Motivating employees to achieve higher standards

v. Increasing overall efficiency

vi. Improving customer service, which leads to customer satisfaction

vii. Preparing employees for promotional opportunities

viii. Decreasing employee turnover, which reduces down time

ix. Enhancing employee morale, motivation, and creativity

x. Enabling managers to reach unit goals and objectives

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xi. Giving employees the tools needed to analyze interpersonal and

situational factors that create obstacles to achieving high performance

Determining Training Needs

There are a number of ways to determine the type of training an employee

will need Request from employee – Employees usually are the first to

recognize the need for additional training. This need can result from the

assignment of a new task, technological changes, or just a realization that

additional training would result in a more efficient work product.

Change in agency vision or mission– Agency vision and mission can

sometimes change due to state or federal legislation. Thus employees may

be assigned new duties or positions may be restructured. Before assigning

new duties and responsibilities to employees, decide if the employees will

need additional training. Remember, the reason for providing training is to

produce a change or provide support so employees can reach their goals and

objectives; thus attaining the agency’s vision and mission.

Determination through performance management review – An excellent

time to determine training needs is when a performance review is completed

on employees. What additional training would be needed to assist employees

to meet or exceed job expectations? Based on the employee’s self-

assessment of identified strengths and improvement opportunities, an

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 analysis should follow to determine training that may be needed to improve

overall work performance.

2.2.2 COMPONENTS OF HUMAN RESOURCES SYSTEM

On a basic level, human resource management is about recruiting, hiring and

managing employees. However, an effective human resource system entails

many more aspects of the organization, including organizational culture and

ensuring health and safety. With an understanding of these components of an

Human Resources management system, business owners and managers can

effectively structure their business processes.

i. Organizational Culture

Organizational culture is the collection of values, working norms, company

vision, habits and beliefs that the business espouses. The HR management

system plays a large part in shaping the organizational culture. Setting

policies, procedures and company standards dictates to employees the

behaviors that are acceptable in the workplace. For example, a policy may

state that time management is important to the business, which fosters

timeliness among employees, or HR may adapt a looser time management

policy that values employees' freedom to manage their own schedules. In

essence, the organizational culture affects the way people do their work and

interact with one another and with customers.

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ii. Planning for Change

The business world changes rapidly. New technology is introduced,

employees come and go, and the finances of the company fluctuate. HR's

role in helping to stabilize the company for change cannot be understated.

Planning for change means helping employees understand their roles in the

larger picture of the company. It's about building bridges between

departments and managers and getting people to talk about "what-if"

situations. Human resources takes this information and develops a

management plan for disasters, for changes in workflow and for reassuring

employees in times of crises or frightening change.

iii. Training and Development

Almost all employees, even ones that are highly educated or skilled, require

some level of training because each organization runs things in a different

way. Policies and procedures need to be firmly communicated to employees

as part of their on-boarding process. The HR management system is also

responsible for ongoing employee development. This continuing education

keeps employees' skills fresh so they bring new and innovative ideas to the

workplace.

iv. Health and Safety

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 The Human resources management system plays a key role in ensuring

health and safety in the workplace. This can be achieved through policies

and procedures, but the HR function may go a step further to make sure

employees understand the risks of certain activities. For example, if there is

heavy machinery in the office, Human resources can post warning signs and

posters listing the steps to take in case of an emergency. This minimizes the

possibility that an accident will occur and helps to eliminate any subsequent

legal action that might be taken against the company.

v. Recruitment and Retention

While recruitment and retention may seem like a given for Human

Resources management systems, it is the anchor of all Human Resources

policies and systems. Finding qualified workers, keeping them engaged with

the company, training them to effectively do their jobs and providing

incentives for further education, benefits and compensation are all drivers to

organizational success and should be constantly on the minds of Human

resources managers.

Human resource management is a process which involves around four basic

functions- acquisition, development, motivation and maintenance of human

resources. These basic elements are the key steps for achieving organizational

goals. The basic influencing factor of these components is organizational goal

48
 because such activities are to be performed within the given constraints in order

to accomplish the task. These four elements or factors of Human Resources

Management can be described as follows:

1. Acquisition

Acquisition function is concerned with recruitment and selection of

manpower requirement for an organization. It ensures that the company has

the right number of people at the right place and at the right time who are

capable to complete required work. It is the starting point of human resource

management function. Acquisition is primarily concerned with planning,

recruitment, selection and socialization of employees. It selects and

socializes the competent employees who have adopted the organization's

culture.

2. Development

Development phase begins after the socialization of newly appointed

employees in an organization. It is concerned with imparting knowledge and

skill to perform the task properly. Moreover, it is an attempt to improve

employee performance by imparting knowledge, changing attitudes and

improving skills. It can be done through teaching, coaching, class-room

courses, assignments, professional programs and so on. The ultimate goal of

employee development is of course to enhance the future performance of the

49
 organization by the efficient employees. The development of employees is

not only for newly appointed employees, it is also for existing employees to

develop them according to change in internal and external environment.

3. Motivation

Only training and development do not inspire employees to do better work.

For this, they should be motivated. Here motivation means an activity which

induces and inspires people to perform well in actual work floor. Motivation

includes job specification, performance evaluation, reward and punishment,

work performance, compensation management, discipline and so on. It is

important for better work performance because high performance depends

on both ability and motivation.

4. Maintenance

Maintenance is the last components of human resource management. it is

concerned with the process of retaining the employees in the organization.

This contributes towards keeping the employees who can do extremely

better for the organization. It creates such a homely and friendly

environment for those high performers, and make them to remain in the

same organization for a longer period of time. This requires that the

organization should provide additional facilities, safe working conditions,

friendly work environment, and satisfactory labor relations. If these

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 activities are performed in right manner, we can expect to have capable and

competent employees in the organization. These employees are committed

to the organizational objectives and are satisfied with their jobs.

2.2.3. CHALLENGES OF HUMAN RESOURCES

A range of challenges are faced by organizations and Human Resources

Development professionals in managing and implementing effective Human

Resources Training and Development, particularly in the climate of

globalization, and the new technological revolution begins with the

importance of human capital in Human Resources Development practice,

their education and technical training, and also their communication and

language skills. Human resources’ learning and motivation are also

described as important features of effective Human Resources Development

practices. However, their deficiencies in supporting the effectiveness of

Human Resources Training and Development pose a challenge to the

development, management and implementation of effective Human

Resources Training and Development in organizations. Furthermore, the

workforce’s changing demographics are also seen to have an impact on

Human Resources Development practices, alongside the organization’s

Human Resources strategies and investments in Human Resources Training

and Development.

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2.2.4 HUMAN RESOURCES INFORMATION TOOLS

These are tools used by the Human Resources Department to gather

information concerning their employees. This will enable them to assess

various aspects of the employees’ work in terms of performance, learning

rate, training level etc.

Their tools are as follows:

a. Confidential Counseling

This is offered to employees and their dependents by the Faculty & Staff

Help Center.

b. Employee & Labor Relations

Supports all employees to have a conflict-free workplace, administers the

university's grievance process, manages the organization’s various

Programs, helps strategize about workplace flexibility, and

collaboratively works with two employee unions to negotiate and

administer employee contracts

c. Financial Gateway

Review information and step-by-step instructions on payroll procedures

for employees, including reviewing and approving employee timecards.

d. Workers' Compensation: Occupational Health Center

Assists with assessing and treating worker’s compensation cases.

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 e. Workers' Compensation: Internal Audit and Institutional

Compliance Information about reporting procedures if an employee has a

work-related injury or illness, and the required forms

2.2.5 HUMAN CAPITAL IN HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

PRACTICE

The central factor in Human Resources Development is the human

resources or the human capital in an organization. They are viewed as the

driving force for the success of organizations because of their skills,

competencies, knowledge and experience. Moreover, it has been suggested

that for organizations to compete successfully in a global economy, it is

important to hire sufficiently educated and skilled employees and provide

them with lifelong learning.

However, these are some of the problems faced by employers and

organizations and seen as a hindrance to the effective management, training

and development of human resources in a global economy. In the specific

context of Human Resources Development professionals, the literature has

indicated that there is a shortage of Human Resources Development

professionals who are skilled and experienced systems thinkers, and who

have the ability to manage the vast and specialized function of Human

Resources Development across organizations. For instance, it was reported

53
 by Budhwar et al (2002) that the lack of Human Resources Development

professionals in Oman is a major obstacle to the nation’s Human Resources

Development efforts. Kerr & McDougall (1999) argued that problems also

arise due to a lack of experience and understanding of HRT&D on the part

of managers. Indeed, some writers have claimed that Human Resources

Development professionals do have an important role, as they possess

expertise in learning and in developing others to become experts (Wright et

al, 1999; Eichinger& Ulrich, 1998; Chermack et al, 2003).

2.2.6 EDUCATION AND TECHNICAL TRAINING

The fundamental issues regarding human resources’ lack of capabilities and

intellectual abilities are said to be grounded in their levels of education and

technical training (Low, 1998). It has been reported that organizations are

faced with a challenge in acquiring high calibre human resources with

adequate levels of education (O’Connell, 1999; Streumer et al, 1999). For

instance, Silver (1991) reported that studies have shown that employees in

British firms are seen to have low levels of educational and training

qualifications compared to their competitor nations. Following this lead, if

Britain, a developed country, is seen to have this problem, it is likely to be

even more evident in developing countries. On this note, the International

Labour Organization has reported that more than half of the workforce in

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 manufacturing firms, particularly in the South East Asia Region, only

possess educational qualifications at primary level or lower (ILO, 1997).

The arguments arise that as well as possessing the required skills for the job

and being knowledgeable and trainable, human resources should also be

required to posses at least a college or university qualification(Low, 1998;

Chermack et al, 2003). However, the generalization of this standard of

education to all levels of employees is unclear and requires further empirical

evidence. Nevertheless, it is agreed that an undergraduate degree provides

the essential ‘intellectual human capital’ on which to build future learning

and also a knowledge-workforce (ILO, 1997; Harrison &Kessels, 2004).

2.2.7 LEARNING, TRAINING AND MOTIVATION

Turning to the transfer of learning, the extent to which employees are able to

apply the knowledge, skills and attitudes acquired during any HRD

intervention into the job context is viewed as a key consideration in HRD

practice (Wexley& Latham, 1991; Yadapadithaya& Stewart, 2003). Do

education, communication skills, language and culture have any effect on

employees’ transfer of learning? Previous research on the transfer of

learning has indeed shown that as well as physical and social factors,

employees’ psychological conditions and abilities can either encourage or

discourage the acquisition and transfer of new skills and knowledge (see for

55
example, Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Wexley& Latham, 1991;

Tannenbaum&Yukl, 1992; Cheng & Ho, 2001; Kupritz, 2002; Reid &

Barrington, 2003). Psychological factors, in this context, may include

employees’ education, communication and language abilities, change and its

resistance, and any other abilities or tendencies relating to the individual

state of mind. On the other hand, some theorists have argued that the extent

to which training skills and learning are transferred to the job and the

workplace is strongly motivated by the immediate superior’s support in the

transfer of the learning process (see, for example, Noe, 1986; Tracey et al,

1995; Elangovan&Karakowsky, 1999; Santos & Stuart, 2003). Indeed, it

was suggested in the strategic framework of Human Resources Development

practice that top management support and line managers’ involvement is an

important feature in the effective management and implementation of

Human Resources Training &Development efforts (Garavan, 1991).

However, a lack of support, commitment, involvement and cooperation in

the development of human resources has been criticised as affecting the

efficiency of the Human Resources Development system (Harrison, 2000;

Garavan et al, 1998) and also affecting the effective development of

employees’ learning and motivation (Watkins &Marsick, 1993; Gilley

&Maycunich, 2000)

Workforce Demographics
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Other major concerns regarding changing workforce demographics or

deficiencies related to human capital in HRD are said to include the increase

of the ageing workforce – the so-called ‘baby boomers’ (Bova&Kroth, 2001;

Chermack et al, 2003) - and also the exponential entrance of ‘elite expertise

workers’ who are also known as ‘generation X‘ and the ‘gold collar’

workforce (O’Hara-Devereaux& Johansen, 1994; Wedell,1999; O’Connell,

1999; Holland et al, 2002). In retrospect, even developed countries such as

the USA are facing problems related to the very high rate of ‘baby boomers’

entering the workforce (Bova&Kroth, 2001; Desimone, et al, 2002), and

developing countries, including the Asia Pacific Region, are no exception to

this trend. It has been argued that the ageing population in these countries

has great implications for the future of human resources in organisations

(Low, 1998; Debrah, 1998; Chermack et al, 2003). On the contrary, ‘elite

expertise workers’ are viewed as technically expert, skilled and competent

workers who possess the bargaining power to take control of their own

career development and advancement (Chermack et al, 2003;Swanson &

Holton III, 2001). As a matter of fact, not all such employees can be

categorized as ‘elite expertise workers’. It has been argued that these elite

workers may only include Human Resources Development professionals,

highly skilled technical IT employees and also engineers who have shifted

their values, work ethics and lifestyle from the traditional life-long

57
 employment and job security to constant retraining and job-hopping. These

workers are criticized for continuously being in search of new and

challenging jobs and a competitive working environment. As a consequence

of these problems, employers and organizations may be required to review

their Human Resources strategies, particularly the integration of their

Human Resources Management and Human Resources Development efforts.

2.2.4 TECHNIQUE FOR HUMAN RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT

Human Resources Development programs and interventions can be used to

address a wide range of issues and problems in an organization. They are

used to orient and socialize new employees into the organization, provide

skills and knowledge, and help individuals and groups become more

effective. To ensure that these goals are achieved, care must be taken when

designing and delivering Human Resources Development programs.

Needs Assessment Phase

i. Keep informed of pertinent knowledge and competence in the

workplace learning and performance field.

ii. Maintain confidentiality and integrity in the practice of my profession.

iii. Support my peers and avoid conduct which impedes their practicing

their profession.

iv. Conduct myself in an ethical and honest manner.

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 v. Improve the public understanding of workplace learning and

performance

vi. Fairly and accurately represent my workplace learning and

performance credentials, qualifications, experience, and ability

Contribute to the continuing growth of the profession

Human Resource Development interventions are used to address some need

or gap within an organization.

A need can be either a current deficiency, such as poor employee

performance, or a new challenge that demands a change in the way the

organization operates.

2.3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The notion of human resources as a general category for a variety of

management related theories was originally proposed by Raymond

Miles.Miles, R. E. (1965). Human relations or human resources? Harvard

Business Review, 43(4), 148–157. First and foremost, Miles’ human

resource theories posits that all workers are reservoirs of untapped resources.

Miles believed that each and every worker comes into an organization with a

59
variety of resources that management can tap into if they try. “These

resources include not only physical skills and energy, but also creative

ability and the capacity for responsible, self-directed, self-controlled

behavior.

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Many other theorists tried to explain the importance of the human resources

approach. One of these individuals was Abraham Maslow. Maslow, A. H.

(1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370–

96.He is widely known for his creation of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. In

order to get employees to work, he tried to understand what motivates

people. He came up with five needs that need to be satisfied at one stage

before moving on to another stage. Malsow felt that needs vary from person

and person and that individuals want their need fulfilled. One must

determine what the motivational factor is. Physiological Needs. The first

level of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is psychological, which means that

physical needs such as food and water need to be met before moving to the

next level. If workers do not make enough money to buy food and water,

then it will be hard for them to continue working.

Safety Needs.

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The second level is called safety. Workers need to be in a safe environment

and know that their bodies and belongings will be protected. If workers

don’t feel secure, then they will find it hard to work efficiently.

According to Maslow’s basic theoretical premise, these individuals will have

a harder time worrying about needs at the higher levels unless they can

overcome the inherent lack of safety within these jobs.

Love, Affection, and Belongingness Needs.

The third layer is called love, affection, and belongingness needs. Maslow

believed that if an individual met the basic physiological and safety needs,

then that individual would start attempting to achieve love, affection, and

belongingness needs next, “He [or she] will hunger for affectionate relations

with people in general, namely, for a place in his [or her] group, and he [or

she] will strive with great intensity to achieve this goal.”Maslow, A. H.

(1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370–96,

pg. 381. Maslow believed that organizations would have better worker

retention and satisfaction if they kept their employees in a cohesive

environment. Furthermore, if a worker feels isolated or ostracized from their

environment, then he or she would feel less motivated to work, which will

lead to a decrease in overall productivity.

Esteem Needs.
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The fourth layer is called esteem, and is represented by two different sets of

needs according to Maslow. First, individuals are motivated by the “desire

for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for confidence in the face of the

world, and for independence and freedom.” Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory

of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370–96, pg. 381. Maslow

goes on to discuss a second subset of esteem needs, “we have what we may

call the desire for reputation or prestige (defining it as respect or esteem

from other people), recognition, attention, importance or

appreciation.”Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation.

Psychological Review, 50, 370–96, pg. 381–382. While Maslow originally

separated these two lists from each other, they clearly have more in common

than not. If employees do not feel that their input is valued at the

organization, they will seek out other places of employment that will value

their input, because humans have an intrinsic need to be appreciated for their

efforts.

Self-Actualization Needs.

The fifth layer is called self-actualization, and it is the hardest to attain. Self-

actualization “refers to the desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the

tendency for [a person] to become actualized in what he [or she] is

potentially. This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more

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and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of

becoming.” Maslow goes on to explain, “A musician must make music, an

artist must paint, a poet must write, if he [or she] is to be ultimately happy.

What a man [or woman] can be, he [or she] must be. This need we may call

self-actualization [emphasis in original].”Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of

human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370–96, pg. 382. Maslow felt

that if individuals can have their needs met in order of the layers, then they

would be both motivated and seek opportunities to excel.

All in all, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs helps us understand how to motivate

workers to strive for more in the organization. Hence, communication is

very important, because we need to understand what our employees need in

order to motivate them to work more proficiently and productively.

Frederick Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Another researcher to enter into the fray of human motivation was Frederick

Herzberg. Originally trained as a clinical psychologist, over the course of

Herzberg’s career he switched focused and became one of the first

researchers in the growing field of industrial psychology. The original notion

of Frederick Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory was that traditional

perspectives on motivation, like Maslow’s, only looked at one side of the

coin—how to motivate people. Herzberg and his original colleagues

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 theorized that what ultimately motivated individuals to work were not

necessarily the same factors that led to demotivation at work. In Herzberg’s

worldview, motivation on the job should lead to satisfied workers, but he

theorized that satisfaction and dissatisfaction were not opposite ends of one

continuum. Instead, he predicted that the factors that lead to positive job

attitudes (and thus motivation) were different from the factors that lead to

negative job attitudes (and thus demotivation). For the purposes of his

theory, he called the factors that led to positive job attitudes motivators and

those factors that led to negative job attitudes hygiene factors. The basic

motivators and hygiene factors are listed. Notice that the motivators are all

centered around ideas that are somewhat similar to the esteem needs and

self-actualization needs of Abraham Maslow. On the other hand, the hygiene

factors all examine the context of work.

2.4 EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK

The field of human resource (HR) has been rapidly developing in order to

assist companies adapt to a quickly changing environment and competitive

labour market. A new perspective in this field has started to dominate-

Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM), seeing human resources

as ‘a business partner’. It is a logical offshoot of organizational

development. The main objective of study is to rescue Human resources

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training and development from its mundane existence in routine recruitment

process &training programs that constitute the low end of value chain. The

sustainable competitive advantage of any company can be maintained under

the condition that the organization’s design, culture & people are aligned

with its strategy & values(Jamieson, 2000). SHRM views people as its

greatest asset & the source of ongoing competitive advantage (Colliander,

2003).

The impact of human training and development policies & practices on

firm’s performance is an important topic in the field of HRM, industrial

relations & industrial and organizational psychology (Boudreau, 1991,

Jones& Wright, 1992, Kleimer, 1990)Adjustments made in the related

research are that a firm’ current & potential human resource are important

considerations in the development & execution of its strategic business plan.

This concept, concludes that human resource practices can help create a

source of sustained competitive advantage, especially when aligned a firm’s

competitive strategy (Begin, 1991, Butler etal, 1991, Cappelli& Singh, 1992,

Jackson & Schuler, 1995, Porter, 1985, Schuler,1992, Wright &Mc

Mahan,1992).

In both, theoretical literature and emerging conventional wisdom among

human resource professionals there is a growing consensus that

65
organizational human resource policies can, if properly configured, provide

a direct and economically significant contribution to firm performance.

Unfortunately, very little empirical evidence supports such a belief. What

empirical work does exist has largely focused on individual human resource

management practice to the exclusion of overall human resource

management systems.

The objective is to identify if there is a linkage between the focused

Strategic of Human Resources practices and dependent variables turnover

and corporate financial performance.

Prior empirical work has consistently found that the use of effective Human

Resources practices enhances firm performance. Specifically, extensive

recruitment, selection & training procedures, formal information sharing,

attitude assessment, job design, grievance procedures &labour- management

participation programs & performance appraisal, promotion & incentive

compensation systems that recognize & reward employee merit have all

been widely linked with valued firm-level outcomes. These policies and

procedures have been labelled High Performance Work Practice by US

Department of Labour, 1993

The identification of best Human Resources Management practices has been

changing. According to C Truss, “early writings tended to focus on a limited

range of generic human activities (such as selection, training &development,

66
appraisal & reward) merely noting that these should be linked to the overall

strategic objectives of the organization (termed as “vertical integration”)

rather than seeking to specify what could constitute “best practice in each

area”. However, in the 1990’s the universalistic perspective analyzing best

practices approach in Human Resources Management became popular

(Delery& Doty). Still, each expert was identifying different best practices in

their research. For instances, Pfeffer argues that there are 16 policies &

practices that “emerge from extensive reading of both popular& academic

research and talking to numerous people in firms in a variety of industries.

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