1.

Hedge Fund

Hedge fund is an investment in which funds are pooled and managed, with the aim of
generating investment returns. Most hedge funds make use of leverage or short selling to
generate relative returns and magnify their returns. Many also make use of derivative
instruments. Most hedge funds are only open to accredited investors, including high net
worth individuals and institutional investors like pension funds. They also differ in terms of
the legal structure they take. Hedge funds often aim to generate absolute returns, or alpha,
rather than relative returns or market returns (beta). For this reason, hedge fund investors
often pay performance fees as well as management fees.
Hedge funds can also serve an important function within a diversified investment portfolio.
Hedge funds can not only generate returns, but they can improve the overall returns of a
portfolio while reducing its volatility.
Hedge funds are generally managed by a professional money manager with substantial
investment experience. Most commonly a hedge fund will be structured as a limited
partnership or as a limited liability company.

2. Risk

Risk is the potential variability or the uncertainty of returns or the chance that the actual
return on the investment will be different from its expected return.

Attitudes to risk
Investment decisions will be influenced by the investor’s risk propensity or attitude to risk.

There are three attitudes toward risk.

 Risk indifferent/risk-neutral
 Risk averse
 Risk seeking

Investors are risk averse. Investors risk aversion provides two criteria that can be used to rank
risky investments: -

 If two investments have the same expected return, investor will prefer the one with
the lesser amount of risk.
 If two investments have the same degree of risk, investor will prefer the one with the
higher expected return.
Risk is measured using variance and standard deviation of the distribution of returns.
Coefficient of variation is (CV) is a measure of relative dispersion that is useful in comparing
the risk of assets with differing expected returns and risk.
 It shows the risk per unit of return

 the higher the CV, the higher the risk is.

3. Types of Risk

3.1. Market Risk

The price of a stock may fluctuate widely within a short span of time even though earnings
remain unchanged. The causes of this phenomenon are varied, but it is mainly due to a
change in investors’ attitudes. Market risk is caused by investor reaction to tangible as well as
intangible events.

 Tangible events are political, social, or economic changes.

 Intangible events are related to market psychology.

3.2. Interest Rate Risk

It is Caused by fluctuations in the general level of interest rates. The direct effect on
increases in the level of interest rates is to cause security prices to fall across a wide span of
investment vehicles. In addition to the direct, systematic effect on bonds, there are indirect
effects on common stocks.

3.3. Purchasing Power/Inflation Risk

Purchasing-power risk is the uncertainty of the purchasing power of the amounts to be

received. Purchasing-power risk refers to the impact of inflation or deflation on an
investment. Rational investors should include in their estimate of expected return an
allowance for purchasing-power risk, in the form of an expected annual percentage change in
prices.

3.4. Default Risk

Risk arises from a deterioration of financial strength of the company that issues the securities.
Possibility of not paying interest and the principal on the due date. Default risk may lead
companies to bankruptcy. Companies/governments are rated based on the level of default
risk.
 3.5. Liquidity Risk

Results from the inability of a seller to dispose of securities without price discount and extra
commission. Lack of liquidity forces investors to sell securities at a price below the existing
price. Securities such as USA TBs with thick market have no liquidity risk.

3.6. Business Risk

Internal business risk is largely associated with the efficiency with which a firm conducts its
operations with in the broader operating environment imposed upon it. External business risk is
the result of operating conditions imposes upon the firm by circumstances beyond its control.

3.7. Financial Risk

Financial risk arises when the firm uses debt in its capital structure. The presence of fixed
obligations due to debt or fixed-dividend payments on preferred stock causes financial risk. A
firm with no debt financing has no financial risk. Debt creates problem in bad times because
of the fixed liability. By engaging in debt financing, the firm changes the characteristic of the
earnings stream available to the common-stock holders.

4. Disadvantages and Risks of investing in hedge funds

Most of the risks and disadvantages associated with hedge funds apply in individual cases
rather than to the asset class. This highlights the need for due diligence and diversification of
investments.
 Potential for large losses: - If a hedge fund uses excessive leverage and holds
concentrated positions, it can lose far more than more traditional investments might.
 Illiquid: - Some funds have lengthy lockup periods or require lengthy notice for
redemptions. Hedge funds that invest in very illiquid securities can also find themselves
struggling to liquidate positions when volatility increases, which hurts performance.
 Limited access: - Hedge funds are often only available to high-net-worth investors and
institutional investors.
 High fees: - Investing in a hedge fund is usually more expensive than investing in
mutual funds or ETFs. Performance fees are only paid on positive performance, but
management fees of up to 2% are relatively high.
  Taxes: - Depending on the jurisdiction and the way a fund is structured; hedge fund
investors may have to pay income rather than capital gains tax.

5. Risk management procedures for investing in hedge funds

The risk management procedure is divided into three phases.

5.1. Establishment of a risk management framework

Before beginning hedge fund investments, the investor, as in proprietary trading, determines
the goals and policies of the investment and establishes a risk management framework,
allocating operations to the front, middle, and back offices.
In hedge fund investments, unlike bond or stock trading, the front office does not directly
perform transactions, rather it monitors the hedge fund manager. The front office is partly
responsible for risk management. In addition to the risk management (monitoring) performed
by the front office, the middle office also manages the risks, not only in the hedge fund
investments, but also in other investments from an organization-wide perspective. To check
the front office’s activities, the middle office also reviews the hedge fund’s investment policy
and obtains the information required to measure fund performance and assess risks.
The internal audit department regularly and on an ad-hoc basis where necessary verifies
whether the front and middle offices are properly performing their risk management duties,
and whether the checks and balances are working effectively.

5.2. Pre investment review

5.2.1. Procedure before beginning hedge fund investment

Before beginning hedge fund investment, the investor reviews whether the fund satisfies the
requirements set by the investor (due diligence).
 Searching for the appropriate fund
The investor seeks funds that match their investment goals and policies. A hedge fund that is
expected to achieve high performance usually obtains investment capital within a very short
time. The number of new investors who can subscribe to this fund is limited, even if the fund
reopens, because existing investors provide most of the additional funds. Therefore, to find
good investment opportunities, the investor tries to obtain information on specific hedge fund
managers, not only from service providers such as prime brokers, but also from various other
information sources inside the hedge fund industry, using personal connections.
  Screening
The investor obtains basic information on possible candidate funds (e.g. performance records
of accomplishment, investment policy/strategy overview, sources of returns, target and
achieved values for returns and risks, and redemption policies). The investor also checks the
hedge fund manager’s management policies/strategies against the investor’s investment
policies. The investor compares the performance data between the candidate hedge funds and
those already invested in by the investor. In addition, the investor estimates the expected
improvement in portfolio performance through investment in the fund. The investor then
decides whether the investment in the fund should be considered more extensively.
 Due diligence
For funds that have passed the screening process, the investor performs due diligence. Under
due diligence, the investor thoroughly reviews the investment policies/strategies and the risk
management framework of the fund through interviews with the hedge fund manager (and the
service provider if required).
 Investment decision
Investment in funds that passed due diligence is approved, following prespecified policies
and procedures.
 Begin investment in the hedge fund

5.2.2. Specific due diligence items

Most due diligence items are intended to review the risk management framework of the fund
and the reliability of the hedge fund manager, since these are important when performing due
diligence, the investor tries to obtain an accurate as possible picture of the actual status of the
fund, mainly through carefully conducted interviews with the manager. The investor also
analyses whether the fund is suitable for their portfolio.
The investor does not automatically judge the hedge fund’s appropriateness by simply
applying numerical criteria to the fund’s performance history. In such a competitive industry
where new funds enter the market frequently, it is difficult for a specific fund to continue
making profits for a long period. Thus, funds with a long history of good performance tend to
be viewed positively. However, even if the investor sets specific numerical criteria on the
fund’s history not all hedge funds that meet the criterion may be appropriate to invest in. This
is because despite a long company history, a hedge fund may be looking for new investors to
fill places left open by customers who have redeemed their investments because of the fund’s
low performance.
 Hedge fund manager skills, integrity, and reliability
Taking into consideration the manager’s past performance, background, fund history, and
reputation in the industry, the investor reviews whether the manager has qualified investment
skills, and whether there are any ongoing disputes with their investors. The investor also
checks whether the fund’s fee structure is appropriate, and whether the manager is taking
downside risks by investing their own capital in the fund.
Usually, a fund manager’s fee is commensurate with fund performance. Hence, the manager
has an incentive to report performance higher than the actual results. To confirm the
reliability of the performance reported by the hedge fund manager, the investor at least
reviews whether the fund has a system where the administrator can independently evaluate
fund performance, and whether the administrator can appropriately evaluate the fund’s
complicated positions.
 Hedge fund manager policies and strategies
The investor reviews whether the hedge fund manager has a clearly specified portfolio
management policy/strategy, whether the manager’s product selection process and portfolio
construction method is appropriate from the investor’s perspective, and whether the
manager’s investment policy/strategy can effectively capture investment opportunities. The
investor also checks whether the manager maintains leverage within an appropriate range,
and how much additional investments the manager can accept.
 Hedge fund manager risk management policy and framework
The investor reviews whether the manager’s risk management policy, risk assessment
method, and risk monitoring system are properly organized, and whether the risks in the
management policy/strategy are properly assessed and understood. The investor also checks
whether the hedge fund manager’s risk management framework takes into consideration the
possibility of significant market fluctuations (for example, scenario analyses based on past
market fluctuations).
 Organizational structure of the hedge fund
The investor checks whether the fund is registered with the relevant regulatory authority. In
addition, the investor reviews the fund’s organization structure, including service providers
and audit firms, the relationship between the fund and its management company, the checks
and balances between the hedge fund manager’s front and back offices, and the framework
for evaluating the market values of managed assets. The investor also examines the
independency of the service provider and the audit firm (whether they are independent from
the manager in terms of capital and/or personal connections), the service providers’ capacity,
the operational risk management framework of the service providers, and the business
continuity plans of the fund. Lastly, the investor also considers the possible existence of
investors whose investment redemptions could significantly influence the fund’s operations.
In particular, the market value of managed assets is used as the basis for the evaluation of
performance and risk. Thus, it is important for the investor to check whether the fund has a
framework for properly valuing assets under management.

 Hedge fund risks and returns

The investor checks whether the target values of returns and risks are reasonable from the
investor’s perspective, considering the fund’s past performance, management policy/strategy,
and the market environment. The investor also reviews whether the size and reasoning
underlying the past decreases in the fund’s NAV are acceptable from an investor perspective.
 Redemption policies of the fund
The investor checks the length of the lock-up period during which redemptions are not
possible, redemption frequency and timing, the time required to receive funds after requesting
redemption, and the redemption fees. The investor reviews the redemption policies and
possible liquidity risks involved with the fund investment, since there is usually a fairly long
period of time between the request for redemption and actual receipt of the invested funds.
Although sufficient access to liquidity is important for investors, it cannot always be said that
a shorter redemption frequency results in a more favourable investment. If the redemption
frequency is short, the number of investors who immediately redeem investments may
increase in the case of a temporary downturn in the fund’s performance. In such a situation,
the hedge fund manager would need to maintain sufficient liquidity and could be hampered in
employing a strategy that aims at higher returns in the medium to long term. If redemption
requests increase, the fund will also need to close its positions within a short time, which may
exacerbate losses. Therefore, the investor examines whether the hedge fund’s redemption
frequency is appropriate considering the fund’s investment strategies and the investor’s own
risk management guidelines.
 Frequency and scope of the information provided to investors
The investor reviews the information that is provided by the fund manager (e.g. investment
policies/strategies, asset allocation, liquidity of the managed assets, methods and timing of
market valuation, and major risk factors). The investor also checks whether certain investors
are provided with an advantage. Investors in hedge funds identify the qualitative and
quantitative information required for risk management and request the fund to provide this
information. Based on both the qualitative and quantitative information provided, the investor
performs pre investment reviews and ongoing monitoring.

5.3. Ongoing monitoring

In monitoring a hedge fund investment, the investor checks whether the target values of
return and risk set at the time of the initial investment are fulfilled by comparing the target
values with the actual results. The investor also reviews whether the investments made by the
fund manager are being executed according to the fund’s investment policies/strategies.
This process often provides a better picture of the current state of the hedge fund’s
investment portfolio, which may help the investor interact in a more detailed way with the
fund manager. The investor also uses the data regularly provided by the fund manager and the
administrator to conduct quantitative analysis of the investment in the fund. The investor can
use this information in communications with the hedge fund manager.
The following are the key points in monitoring a hedge fund investment.

5.3.1. Regular follow-up of due diligence items

After the initial investment, the investor carefully examines the regular reports sent by the
fund and conducts regular follow-ups of the due diligence items reviewed before making the
investment. This can be through regular questionnaires or meetings with the fund manager.
The aim is to see whether there have been any changes in the reliability, policies/strategies of
the fund manager, and in the organization of the fund. The investor also monitors significant
events at the hedge fund. One of the more effective ways would be to ask the same questions
to the manager at every meeting or contact and see if there is any change in response. About
the organizational structure of the hedge fund, the investor would review the financial
accounts received regularly from the fund.

5.3.2. Monitoring the hedge fund’s positions and performance

Through regular reports from the fund and interviews with the fund manager, the investor
reviews the major positions of the fund, the factors behind changes in performance, confirms
whether the fund is performing proper risk management, and reassesses the manager’s
policies/strategies. For example, the performance of a fund that has a large holding of energy-
related company stocks would be expected to deteriorate if energy prices go down. If the
manager reports performance different from those anticipated by the investor, the investor
could obtain a better understanding of the fund’s investment strategy by discussing with the
manager the background that led to changed performance. Even though each hedge fund may
possess a well-diversified portfolio, the investor’s overall hedge fund portfolio may be
concentrated in certain names or positions. The investor checks the concentration risk of the
total investment in hedge funds. Although it is usually difficult for the investor to know all of
the products and positions of a fund, the investor can assess the overall concentration risk of
their hedge fund portfolio by acquiring as much information as possible about the key names
and positions included in the fund. This can be through regular interviews with the hedge
fund manager or through regular reports provided by the manager.
If any major risk concentrations are identified, the investor reduces the risks in the overall
hedge fund portfolio through redemption and the transfer of funds to another fund.

5.3.3. Monitoring compliance with investment policy

Based on regular reports provided by the fund manager, the investor checks the possibility of
whether transactions that exceed predetermined investment limits or do not conform to
investment policies/strategies agreed in the contract have been conducted. The investor, for
example, reviews the actual level of leverage against the target set out in the guidelines. If
there are concerns about compliance, the investor immediately contacts the fund manager to
confirm the actual status. If noncompliance is confirmed, the investor considers withdrawing
their investment. The investor checks the background not only when performance is low, but
also when performance is high, because hedge funds may achieve high performance through
noncompliance with investment policies agreed in the contract, for example, an increase in
leverage beyond the predetermined level. The hedge fund’s NAVs are also compared with the
audit reports for consistency. If there are any discrepancies, the investor checks the actual
status and the possibility of misconduct by the entities involved in operating the hedge fund.

5.3.4. Quantitative analysis of the hedge fund investment

It is helpful to combine quantitative analysis with qualitative analysis in the monitoring of

hedge fund investments. By combining quantitative analysis with qualitative evaluations, the
investor can have discussions that are more concrete with the fund manager regarding issues
such as investment performance. The results of quantitative analyses can also be utilized in
the interactions between the investor’s front and middle offices.
Some of the quantitative measures include standard deviation, the Sharpe ratio, Downside
Deviation, Maximum Drawdown, and Value at Risk (VaR). These indicators may not only be
included in the hedge fund manager’s regular reports but may also be calculated by investors.

5.3.5. Stress tests

The stress tolerance of the overall hedge fund investment portfolio can be examined by
performing a stress test, in addition to the VaR analysis. Even if a portfolio is well diversified
under normal market conditions, a large market fluctuation could increase the correlation in
fund performance or cause concentrated redemptions within a short time, leading to a
shortage of cash reserves. In addition, it usually takes a long time to liquidate the managed
assets, so the hedge fund may not be able to fulfil redemption requests from investors within
a prespecified time-period. This could result in an actual extension of the redemption period.
A stress test involves simulating extreme market conditions. This enables the investor to
estimate how many losses may materialize in a hedge fund portfolio and the entire portfolio,
and to prepare for the projected risks as a part of its risk management.

5.3.6. Reaction to performance deterioration

If hedge fund performance deteriorates, the background is checked with the fund manager.
When the performance of the fund is deteriorating, the investor discusses performance with
the manager and, if necessary, reduces the amount of investment. The investor may set in
advance a redemption framework (loss-cut rule) to prepare against a performance
deterioration that exceeds prespecified levels.
If performance considerably deteriorates, though not to the extent that the loss-cut rule is
applied, the investor will consider redeeming the hedge fund investment because the liquidity
of hedge fund investments is usually low. It may be useful for the investor to set alarm points
(or thresholds) at a lower level to consider the start of redemption procedures. It is also
important to confirm in advance the time-period required to receive back capital, and the
losses that may occur during the period if the fund investment is wholly redeemed.

6. Portfolio Diversification

Diversification is process of reducing risk by holding a portfolio of diverse assets.

Diversification involves increasing the number and variety of financial assets included in a
portfolio. The assets needed to diversify investment depends on the correlation between them
Combining assets which are negatively correlated has advantage of diversification (reducing
unsystematic risk). Well diversified portfolio has only systematic risk.

6.1. Diversification and Portfolio Risk

The need for diversifying a portfolio: -

 Higher more consistent return

 Lowers risk
A diversified portfolio will hold several securities

 Diversification is not having all your eggs in one basket.

 Losses in some securities should be offset by gains in others.