Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Feature Article
New Twist in
Molecular Genetics
The newly synthesized nucleic acid, Xenonucleic Acid, offers exciting
possibilities in scientific research and understanding the bounds of
what it means to be alive.
B
ILL Bryson, in his book A Short History This thinking changed in a
of Nearly Everything, muses about the breakthrough in molecular genetics in April A Look Back in Time
fickle and mindless particles – atoms 2012 when Vitor Pinheiro and Philip Hollinger In order to understand the significance of
– that join in an intricate and curiously and their team at the MRC Laboratory of this discover y we have to trace the
obliging manner to create life. Isn’t it Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK development back in time when the
interesting to note that of all the bizarre developed six alternative polymers called nature of genetic material was still unknown
forms of molecules present in the universe XNAs. These XNA molecules can store to man. The discovery of DNA dates back
only two, namely the DNA and RNA, genetic information and evolve through to 1869, more than 140 years ago when
(Source: www.labgrab.com)
composition of leukocytes when he
Variations of normal sugars in
noticed the precipitate of an unknown
synthetic ‘XNA’ templates
substance, which was resistant to protein
digestion enzymes, proteases. Analyses of Sugar-Phosphate
its composition revealed that, unlike Backbone of DNA
proteins, this curious substance contained
large amounts of phosphorous and,
lacked sulphur. Recognising that he had
discovered a novel molecule, Miescher In case of XNAs, the sugars in the
named it nuclein as it was isolated from Xenonucleic Acid (XNA) backbone ladder structure differ from that
the cells’ nuclei – a name preserved in This thinking could soon change. Synthetic of four-carbon sugars 2-deoxy ribose and
today ’s designation of deoxyribonucleic biologists from MRC laboratory under the ribose sugar. The MRC team used various
acid. leadership of Vitor Pinheiro and Philip kinds of sugars varying from four-carbon
Hollinger have developed six alternative sugars to seven-carbon sugars in order to
However, it took another 83 years for
polymers called XNAs that can also store polymerize and form the helix structure. If
scientists to prove that this nuclein was
genetic information, replicate and evolve arabinose sugar is used for the backbone
actually the genetic material. In 1952,
like the genetic systems consisting of DNA instead of deoxyribose, it is called an ANA.
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase showed
and RNA. The “X” in XNA stands for “xeno” Similarly, if the sugar is cyclohexane (a six
that, when bacteriophages (composed of
a Latin prefix that means exotic or foreign. member ring) or threose (a four-carbon
DNA and protein) infect bacteria, their
Scientists have used this term to indicate sugar) or a hexitol, it is called a CeNA, TNA,
DNA enters the host bacterial cell, but most
the synthetic nature of these molecules – and then HNA respectively.
of their protein does not. This led to a
that one of the ingredients typically found One of these synthetic molecules
conclusion that DNA could actually be the
in the building blocks that make up RNA FANA even contains a fluorine atom. All
genetic material.
and DNA has been replaced by something the XNAs use the same bases and the
One more year passed before James
different from what occurs naturally. same phosphate groups as an ordinary
D. Watson and Francis Crick, using X-ray
DNA and any of them can pair up with a
diffraction data collected by Rosalind Strands of DNA and RNA are formed
complementar y strand of DNA or RNA.
Franklin and Maurice Wilkins, proposed the by joining together individual structural units
These substitutions make XNAs functionally
double helix structure of the DNA molecule called nucleotides. A nucleotide in turn is
and structurally analogous to DNA and
and confirmed the hereditary nature of made up of two units – a nucleoside and
RNA, but they remain foreign molecules.
DNA. Following these discoveries, a lot of a phosphate group. The nucleoside
work was done to understand the nature consists of one of 5 nitrogenous bases –
How was XNA Synthesized?
of genetic code and particularly the types, adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine or
Geneticists have earlier tried to create DNA
structure and function of another uracil – and a five-carbon sugar. In case
with base pairs other than A-T and C-G,
molecule that seemed similar to DNA, of DNA, chains of 2-deoxyribose sugar (“D”
and also XNAs that incorporate foreign
which was called the RNA or the in DNA) are connected by phosphate sugars. But the synthesis of XNA has been
ribonucleic acid, until 1968. groups to form the backbone of a ladder- accomplished using machines such that
Francis Crick and Leslie Orgel like structure. Each sugar is attached to the resulting nucleic acids were short
proposed that the first information one of four bases, which form the rungs of chains that had limited functionality and
molecule was RNA. Since then numerous the ladder finally forming a twisted ladder- evolution potential. Hence, it was
studies have gone into this field, exploring like structure called the double helix. necessar y to create novel XNA from
the nature and function of these In case of RNA the backbone is enzymes that could replicate and evolve.
molecules. Over the years it has been composed of ribose sugar (“R” in RNA), In order to do this, researchers have
established that of all the molecules, only rather than 2-deoxyribose sugar. While developed new kinds of XNA building
DNA and RNA have a unique chemistry making the rungs of the ladder-like enzymes.
that allows information storage, and follow structure RNA uses uracil (U) instead of DNA replicates with the help of a
unique replication mechanisms that allow thymine (T) and finally unlike the double special enzyme called DNA polymerase.
accurate transfer of this information and helix of DNA, RNA forms half a ladder – a DNA polymerase has a specific
evolution thus accounting for life. single helix. mechanism to read the information