Genetics: The Science of Heredity and Variation
o it is the persisted belief that the offspring are
 Genetics - is the science of genes, heredity and variation in
all living organisms. It establishes a fundamental field in
biology which intersects with other disciplines such as
biotechnology, agriculture, systematics and medicine.
 Relatives - Individual organisms belonging to the same
species
 History demonstrated that humankind have keen interest
in heredity even long before the dawn of civilization
Little is known about transmitted substances and manifested
characters. These theories persisted until the middle of 18th century.
They were popularized by the founding personalities which laid
down foundations of genetics as science.
 Hippocrates (c. 460–c. 375 BC)
o he postulated the hypothesis known as
pangenesis which explained that all body parts
of a parent gave off invisible “seeds” to the
semen resembling a miniature organism
o He is recognized also as “father of medicine” and
medical doctors take the Hippocratic oath in his
honor
 Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
o He reasoned that the blood provides the
procreative materials in the assembly of adult
body and as basis for passing the generative
ability to the offspring
o His idea emphasized the role of blood in heredity
that people still use to speak “blood lines” or “in
the blood” on physical features of related
individuals
 Pre-formationism
o People imagined that they saw a preformed,
miniature human being in sperm cells called the
homunculus
 Epigenesis
o body parts were absent in the sex cells but were
formed later in the development of the
individual
o This theory presented the present view of
inheritance but has no offered explanation on
the mechanism in the transmission of trait
 Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck
o he postulated the theory of the inheritance of
acquired characteristics.
o It embarks on the principle of use and disuse
which explains that some organs developed
distinctively as a product of environmental
influence
o The developed traits are then inherited and
passed to the offspring hence inheritance of
acquired characters
o However, August Weissman disputed this this
theory by performing experiments on mice by
cutting the tails of parental mice for 22
generations, it still gives of mice progenies with
long tails
 Blending Inheritance
results of blended traits of parents.
o this theory indicated that the progenies inherit
the traits as the average values of that parental
characteristics like blended paints.
 Gregor Johann Mendel (Father of Genetics)
o He performed experiments on pea plants and
discovered the mechanism of inheritance
o He published his findings on inheritance of peas
in 1866 but it was unnoticed in the research
literatures until 1900
o Later on, hundreds of papers supported the
Mendelian inheritance performed on plants,
animals and humans with similar findings
o Mendel discovered two laws on heredity:
 (1) law of segregation and
 (2) law of independent assortment
Timeline of significant events in the history of genetics
 1886 - Gregor Johann Mendel, an Austrian monk and
scientist published the results of his experiments on pea
plants. It provided the foundation in the science of
genetics.
 1869 – Johann Friedrich Miescher, a Swiss biochemist was
the first to isolate the nuclein now known as the DNA.
 1900 – The experiments of Gregor Mendel were
rediscovered independently by Hugo de Vries (Dutch
botanist and geneticist), Carl Erich Correns (German
botanist and geneticist) and Erich Tschermak von
Seysenegg (Austrian botanist). This has paved the way for
the development of modern science of genetics.
 1928 – Frederick Griffith, an English bacteriologist
performed experiments in bacteria showing capability of
transferring the genetic information and this
transformation is heritable.
 1931 – Harriet B. Creighton and Barbara McClintock,
American scientists demonstrated that new allelic
combinations of linked genes are associated to exchanged
parts of the chromosomes. The published findings
indicated chromosomes form the basis of genetics.
 1944 – Oswald Avery (bacteriologist), Maclyn McCarthy
(biologist) and Colin McLeod (biologist) were American
scientists initially reported that the genetic material, as the
transforming substance of the cell was the DNA.
 1950 – Erwin Chargaff, Austrian born American biochemist
discovered the components of DNA in a 1:1 ratio. Such that
amount of adenine is always equal to the amount of
thymine, and the amount of guanine is always equal to the
amount of cytosine.
 1951 – Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins and Raymond
Gosling, British scientists performed X-ray diffraction
experiments which presented images depicting the helical
structure of DNA.
 1953 – James Watson and Francis Crick, British
biophysicists determined the molecular structure of the
DNA using the data of Chargaff and X-ray images of
Franklin, Wilkins, and Gosling. In 1962, the Nobel Prize for
Physiology or Medicine was shared by Watson, Crick and
Wilkins for their discovery.
  1960s – Werner Arber (Swiss microbiologist), Hamilton
Othanel Smith (American microbiologist) and Daniel
Nathans (American microbiologist) discovered restriction
enzymes which can cleave DNA into fragments. This
enabled the scientists to handle genes through removal
and insertion of DNA sequences. The discovery won a
Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1978.
 1963 – Kary B. Mullis (American biochemist) invented the
polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The machine allowed
specific segment of the DNA to be copied multiple times in
short period. The invention won a Nobel Prize for
chemistry in 1993.
 1990 – The human genome project (HGP) was initiated
and completed in 2003. The project successfully identified,
stored, publicly shared the data of almost all the genetic
content of human genome.
 2002 – The International HapMap Project was initiated
which attempted to identify genetic variations contributing
to human disease. It was performed though the
development of haploid genotype map of the human
genome. The data showed some 3.1 million variations in
the human genome in phase II completion of project in
2007.
 2008 – The 1000 Genomes Project was initiated which
attempted to sequence the genome of large number of
people worldwide from various ethnicity to generate a
catalog of genetic variation and this project was completed
last 2015.
CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE AND CELL DIVISION
 Johann Friedrich Miescher - He discovered that
nuclein is an acidic phosphorus rich substance
also known as DNA
DNA Structure and Function
 DNA
o is a long threadlike molecule with a uniform
diameter of 2 nm
o human cells have 46 molecules of DNA totaling 2
m in length, making DNA in average of 2 inches
long.
o DNA resembles a spiral staircase
o Two of the bases in DNA – cytosine (C) and
thymine (T) – have a single carbon-nitrogen ring
and are classified as pyrimidines.
o adenine (A) and guanine (G) – have double rings
and are classified as purines.
o function of DNA is to carry instructions, called
genes for the synthesis of proteins. And a gene is
a segment of DNA that codes for a protein
o 2% of the DNA and the other 98% is noncoding
DNA sometimes thought as “junk DNA”
CHROMATIN AND CHROMOSOME
 Chromatin - DNA does not exist as a naked double helix in
the nucleus of a cell but is complexed with proteins to form
a fine filamentous material
 Chromosomes - the chromatin occurs as 46 long filaments
 Histones - “bead” is disc-shaped cluster of eight proteins
 Nucleosomes - average chromatin thread repeats this
pattern almost 800,000 times and thus appears divided
into segment. Consist of a core particle and a short
segment of linker DNA leading to the next core particle
 chromosome territory - each chromosome is packed into
its own spheroidal region of the nucleus. It is permeated
with channels that allow regulatory chemicals to have
access to the genes.
This is the state of the DNA in a nondividing cell. It is not a static
structure, but changes from moment to moment according to the
genetic diversity of the cell as individual genes are turned on and off.
Whole chromosomes migrate to new territories as a cell develops –
for example moving from the edge to the core of a nucleus as its
genes are activated for a certain developmental task. This allows
genes on different chromosomes to partner with each other in
bringing about developmental changes in the cell.
 DNA Replication- exact copy of all its nuclear DNA.
 Sister chromatids- Each chromosome then consists of two
parallel filaments.
 Centromere- It consists of two genetically identical, rodlike
sister chromatids joined together at a pinched spot.
 Kinetochore- On each side of the centromere, there is a
protein plaque. Function, by pulling and pushing these
sister chromatids until they are separated during the
anaphase stage.
 Genes- agent of heredity
 sex chromosomes- determine the individual’s sex
 autosomes
 two homologous chromosomes- look alike and carry the
same genes, although they may have different varieties of
those genes
 diploid- Any cells with 23 pairs of chromosomes
 haploid- Sperm and egg.
 Locus- location of a particular gene on a chromosome.
 Alleles- Homologous chromosomes have the same gene at
the same locus, although they may carry different forms of
that gene. one allele is dominant and the other one
recessive allele.
 Dominant allele – mask the effect of any recessive allele
that may be present.
 Recessive allele – are expressed only when present on
both homologous chromosomes.
 Homozygous- Individuals with two identical alleles
 Heterozygous- have different alleles for that gene
 Genotype- The paired alleles that an individual possesses
for a particular trait constitute.
 Phenotype- An observable trait.
 allele is expressed if it shows in the phenotype of an
individual.
RNA STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
 The three that are directly involved in producing proteins:
mRNA, rRNA and tRNA.
 The essential function of the three principal RNAs is to
interpret the code in DNA and use those instructions to
synthesize proteins. RNA is a disposable molecule that
works mainly in the cytoplasm, while DNA is irreplaceable
and remains safely behind in the nucleus, “giving orders”
from there.
 Gene- as an information-containing segment of the DNA
that codes for the production of a molecule of RNA, which
in most cases goes on to play a role in the synthesis of one
or more proteins. The amino acid sequence of a protein is
determined by a nucleotide sequence in the DNA.
 Genomics- study how genes and its non-coding DNA
interact affecting the structure and function of the whole
organism, then you are looking at one of the new fields of
biology.
 Human Genome Project (HGP)- discovered that all humans
worldwide are at least 99.99% genetically identical, but
even the 0.01% variation means that we can differ from
one another in more that 3 million base pairs.
 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP)- account for all
human genetic variation.
CELL CYCLE AND THE FUNDAMENTALS OF DNA
REPLICATION
 Law of complementary base pairing- shows that we can
predict the base sequence of one DNA strand if we know
the sequence of the other. It enables a cell to reproduce
one strand based on information in the other.
The fundamental steps of the replication process are as follows:
1. The double helix unwinds from the histones.
2. Like a zipper, an enzyme called DNA helicase opens up one
short segment of the helix at a time, exposing its
nitrogenous bases. The point where the DNA is opened up,
like the two halves of a zipper separating, is called the
replication fork.
3. Molecules of the enzyme DNA polymerase move along
each strand; read the exposed bases; and like a
matchmaker; arrange “marriages” with complementary
free nucleotides. If the polymerase finds the sequence TCG
for example, it assembles AGC across from it. The two
separated strands of DNA are copied by separate
polymerase molecules, proceeding in opposite directions.
On one strand, the DNA polymerase moves toward the
replication fork and makes a long, continuous, new strand
of DNA to complement the old one (semiconservative
replication). On the other strand (bottom strand), DNA
polymerase moves away from the replication fork and
copies only a short segment of DNA at a time. The
segments are then joined together by another enzyme
called DNA Ligase.
4. While DNA is synthesized in the nucleus, new histones are
synthesized in the cytoplasm. Millions of histones are
transported into the nucleus within a few minutes after
DNA replication, and each new DNA helix wraps around
them to make new chromosomes.
ERRORS AND MUTATION
 DNA polymerase- double-checks the new base pair and
tends to replace incorrect, biochemically unstable pairs
with more stable, correct pairs.
 Mutations- Changes in the DNA structure. A result from
replication errors or from the environmental factors such
as radiation, chemicals, and viruses.
THE CELL CYCLE
Cell cycle is divided into four main phases: G1, S, G2, and M.
 G1 is the first gap phase- an interval between cell division
and DNA replication. During this time, a cell synthesizes
proteins, grow, and carries out its preordained task for the
body. Cells in G1, also accumulate the materials needed to
replicate their DNA in the next phase. In cultured cells like
fibroblast divide every 18 to 24 hours, G1 last 8 to 10 hours
 S is the synthesis phase- n which a cell makes a duplicate
copy of its centrioles and all of its nuclear DNA. The two
identical sets of DNA molecules are then available to be
divided up between daughter cells at the next cell division.
This phase takes 6 to 8 hours in cultured fibroblasts
 G2, the second gap phase- is a relatively brief interval (4-6
hours) between DNA replication and cell division. In G2, a
cell finishes replicating its centrioles and synthesizes
enzymes that control cell division. It also checks the fidelity
of DNA replication and usually repairs any errors that are
detected.
 M is the mitotic phase- in which a cell replicates its nucleus
and then pinches in two to form new daughter cells. In
cultured fibroblasts, the M phase takes 1 to 2 hours.
 G0 phase- Some cells leave the cell cycle for a “rest” and
cease to divide for days, years, or the rest of one’s life. An
important factor in determining the number of cells in the
body. An inability to stop cycling and enter G0 is
characteristic of cancer cells.
MITOSIS
Cells divide by two mechanisms called Mitosis and Meiosis.
 Meiosis- is restricted to one purpose, the production of
egg and sperm, and is therefore important in reproduction.
Mitosis serves all the other functions of cell division:
1. Development of an individual, from a single fertilized
egg cell
2. Growth of all tissues and organs after birth.
3. Replacement of cells that die and
4. Repair of damaged tissues.
Four phases of mitosis
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
 Prophase – at the onset of mitosis, the chromosomes
shorten and thicken, eventually coiling into compact rods
 that are easier to distribute to daughter cells than the long,
delicate chromatin of interphase. There are 46
chromosomes, two chromatids per chromosomes and one
DNA molecule of DNA per chromatid. The nuclear
envelope disintegrates during prophase and releases the
chromosomes into the cytosol. The centrioles begin to
sprout elongated microtubules called spindle fiber, which
push the centrioles apart as they grow. Eventually, a pair of
centrioles comes to lie at each pole of the cell. Some
spindle fibers grow toward the chromosomes and become
attached to the kinetochore on each side of the
centromere. The spindle fibers then tug the chromosomes
back and forth until they line up along the middle of the
cell.
 Metaphase – the chromosomes are aligned on the cell
equator, swinging slightly, and awaiting a signal that
stimulates each of them to split in two at the centromere.
The spindle fibers now form a lemon-shaped array called
the mitotic spindle. Long microtubules reach out from each
centriole to the chromosomes, and shorter microtubules
form a star-like aster, which anchors the assembly to the
inside of the plasma membrane at each end of the cell.
 Anaphase – this phase begins with activation of an enzyme
that cleaves the two sister chromatids from each other at
the centromere. Each chromatid is now regarded as a
separate, single-stranded daughter chromosome. One
daughter chromosome migrates to each pole of the cell,
with its centromere leading the way and the arms trailing
behind. Migration is achieved by means of motor proteins
in the kinetochore crawling along the spindle fiber as the
fiber itself is “chewed up” and disassembled at the
chromosomal end. Since sister chromatids are genetically
identical, and since each daughter cells receives one
chromatid from each chromosome, the daughter cells of
the mitosis are genetically identical.
 Telophase – the chromatids cluster on each side of the cell.
The rough ER produces a nuclear envelope around each
cluster, and the chromatids begin to uncoil and return to
the thinly dispersed chromatin form. The mitotic spindle
breaks up and vanishes. Each new nucleus forms nucleoli,
indicating it has already begun making RNA and preparing
for protein synthesis.
 The telophase is the end of nuclear division but overlaps
with cytokinesis, division of the cytoplasm into two cells.
Early traces of cytokinesis are visible even at the anaphase.
It is achieved by the motor terminal web of the
cytoskeleton. This creates a crease called the cleavage
furrow (in animal cell) around the equator of the cell, and
the cell eventually pinches in two. Interphase has now
begun for these new cells.
TIMING OF CELL DIVISION
Cells divide when:
1. They grow large enough to have enough cytoplasm to
distribute to their daughter cells.
2. They have replicated their DNA, so they can give each
daughter cell a duplicate set of genes.
3. They receive an adequate supply of nutrients.
4. They are stimulated by growth factors, chemical signals
secreted by blood platelets, kidney cells and other sources.
5. The neighboring cells die, opening up space in a tissue to be
occupied by new cells. Cells stop dividing when they snugly
contact neighboring cells or when nutrients or growth factors
are withdrawn. This cessation of cell division in response to
contact with other cells is called contact inhibition.
MEIOSIS
-reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid. There are
two consecutive cells divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II, resulting in
four haploid daughter cells.
The first division, Meiosis I, separates homologous chromosomes
while in Meiosis II is the separation of sister chromatids. Meiosis I
occurs in four phases: Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, and
Telophase.
 Prophase I -It typically occupies more than 90% of the time
required for meiosis. During prophase I, the chromosomes
begin to condense. Homologous chromosomes loosely pair
up along their length, precisely aligned gene for gene. In
crossing over, DNA molecules in non-sister chromatids
break at corresponding places and then rejoin the other
chromatid. In synapsis, a protein structure called the
synaptonemal complex forms between homologues,
holding them tightly together along their length. As the
synaptonemal complex disassembles in late prophase,
each chromosome pair becomes visible as a tetrad, or
group of four chromatids. Each tetrad has one or more
chiasmata, sites where the chromatids of homologous
chromosomes have crossed, and segments of the
chromatids have been traded. Spindle microtubules form
from the centrosomes, which have moved to the poles. In
this stage, there is breakdown of the nuclear envelope and
nucleoli take place. Kinetochores of each homologue
attach to microtubules from one of the poles.
 Metaphase I -the tetrads are all arranged at the
metaphase plate, with one chromosome facing each pole.
Microtubules from one pole are attached to the
kinetochore of one chromosome of each tetrad, while
those from the other pole are attached to the other.
 Anaphase I- the homologous chromosomes separate. One
chromosome moves toward each pole, guided by the
spindle apparatus. Sister chromatids remain attached at
the centromere and move as a single unit toward the pole.
 Telophase I and cytokinesis- movement of homologous
chromosomes continues until there is a haploid set at each
pole. Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids.
Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously, by the same
mechanisms as mitosis. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow
forms. In plant cells, a cell plate forms. No chromosome
replication occurs between the end of meiosis I and the
beginning of meiosis II, as the chromosomes are already
replicated.
Meiosis II.
 Prophase II -A spindle apparatus forms and attaches to
kinetochores of each sister chromatid. Spindle fibers from
one pole attach to the kinetochore of one sister chromatid,
 and those of the other pole attach to kinetochore of the
other sister chromatid.
 Metaphase II- the sister chromatids are arranged at the
metaphase plate. Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the
two sister chromatids of each chromosome are no longer
genetically identical. The kinetochores of sister chromatids
attach to microtubules extending from opposite poles.
 Anaphase II- The centromeres of sister chromatids
separate, and two newly individual chromosomes travel
toward opposite poles.
 Telophase II- The chromosomes arrive at opposite poles.
Nuclei form around the chromosomes, which begin
expanding, and cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm. At the
end of meiosis, there are four haploid daughter cells.
There are key differences between mitosis and meiosis
The chromosome number is reduced from diploid to haploid in
meiosis but is conserved in mitosis. Mitosis produces daughter cells
that are genetically identical to the parent and to each other. Meiosis
produces cells that are genetically distinct from the parent cell and
from each other.
Three events, unique to meiosis, occur during the first
division cycle.
1. During prophase I of meiosis, replicated homologous
chromosomes line up and become physically connected along their
lengths by a zipperlike protein complex, the synaptonemal complex,
in a process called synapsis. Genetic rearrangement between non-
sister chromatids called crossing over also occurs. Once the
synaptonemal complex is disassembled, the joined homologous
chromosomes are visible as a tetrad. X-shaped regions called
chiasmata are visible as the physical manifestation of crossing over.
Synapsis and crossing over do not occur in mitosis.
2. At metaphase I of meiosis, homologous pairs of chromosomes
align along the metaphase plate. In mitosis, individual replicated
chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate.
3. At anaphase I of meiosis, it is homologous chromosomes, not
sister chromatids, that separate and are carried to opposite poles of
the cell. Sister chromatids of each replicated chromosome remain
attached. In mitosis, sister chromatids separate to become individual
chromosomes.
Meiosis I is called the reductional division because it halves the
number of chromosome sets per cell— a reduction from the diploid
to the haploid state. The sister chromatids separate during the
second meiosis division, meiosis II.
ORIGINS OF GENETIC VARIATION
Mutations- are the original source of genetic diversity. Once
different versions of genes arise through mutation, reshuffling during
meiosis and fertilization produce offspring with their own unique set
of traits.
1. Sexual life cycles- produce genetic variation among offspring. The
behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization is
responsible for most of the variation that arises in each generation.
Three mechanisms contribute to genetic variation:
a. Independent assortment of chromosomes.
b. Crossing over.
c. Random fertilization
 Independent assortment of chromosomes -contributes to
genetic variability due to the random orientation of
homologous pairs of chromosomes at the metaphase plate
during meiosis I.
There is a fifty-fifty chance that a particular daughter cell of
meiosis I will get the maternal chromosome of a certain
homologous pair and a fifty-fifty chance that it will receive
the paternal chromosome. Each homologous pair of
chromosomes segregates independently of the other
homologous pairs during metaphase I. Therefore, the first
meiotic division results in independent assortment of
maternal and paternal chromosomes into daughter cells.
The number of combinations possible when chromosomes
assort independently into gametes is 2 n , where n is the
haploid number of the organism. If n = 3, there are 23 = 8
possible combinations. For humans with n = 23, there are
223, or more than 8 million possible combinations of
chromosomes.
 Crossing over- produces recombinant chromosomes,
which combine genes inherited from each parent. Crossing
over begins very early in prophase I as homologous
chromosomes pair up gene by gene.
In crossing over, homologous portions of two non-sister
chromatids trade places. For humans, this occurs an
average of one to three times per chromosome pair.
Recent research suggests that, in some organisms, crossing
over may be essential for synapsis and the proper
assortment of chromosomes in meiosis I. Crossing over, by
combining DNA inherited from two parents into a single
chromosome, is an important source of genetic variation.
At metaphase II, nonidentical sister chromatids sort
independently from one another, increasing by even more
the number of genetic types of daughter cells that are
formed by meiosis.
 Random nature- of fertilization adds to the genetic
variation arising from meiosis. Any sperm can fuse with
any egg. The ovum is one of more than 8 million possible
chromosome combinations. The successful sperm is one of
more than 8 million possibilities. The resulting zygote could
contain any one of more than 70 trillion possible
combinations of chromosomes. Crossing over adds even
more variation to this. Each zygote has a unique genetic
identity. The three sources of genetic variability in a
sexually reproducing organism are:
1. Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes
during meiosis I and of nonidentical sister chromatids
during meiosis II.
2. Crossing over between homologous chromosomes
during prophase I.
3. Random fertilization of an ovum by a sperm.
 Evolutionary adaptation depends on a population’s
genetic variation- Darwin recognized the importance of
genetic variation in evolution. A population evolves
through the differential reproductive success of its variant
members. Which means not all individuals within the
population will produce the same number of offspring.
 Those individuals best suited to the local environment traits are inherited independently and have no relation.
leave the most offspring, transmitting their genes in the This principle involves dihybrid crosses.
process. This natural selection results in adaptation, the  Allelic pair – the combination of alleles which comprise the
accumulation of favorable genetic variations for a gene pair.
particular environment.  Dominant – the allele that expresses itself at the expense
 Although Darwin realized that heritable variation makes of an alternate allele. It is the stronger of two genes
evolution possible, he did not have a theory of inheritance, expressed in the hybrid and usually represented by capital
what Darwin provided is the mechanism of evolution. It letter, such as capital letter “T” for tall.
was Gregor Mendel, a contemporary of Darwin’s,  Recessive – an allele whose expression is suppressed or
published a theory of inheritance that supported Darwin’s masked-off in the presence of a dominant allele. The gene
theory of Evolution. shows up less often in a cross and is represented by a
 Homologous chromosomes- plays an important role in lowercase letter, as small letter "t" for short.
genetic diversity and is also a key determinant in the  Homozygous genotype- is an individual which contains
unique gene profile of an individual. These are only one allele at allelic pair. The gene combination
chromosomes alike in structure, size and each carries the possesses two identical alleles for a particular locus,
genetic information for the same set of hereditary involving 2 dominant (RR) or 2 recessive genes (rr). This is
characteristics but not necessarily identical. also called as pure.
 Somatic human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes,  Heterozygous genotype- is an individual that contains one
including the sex chromosomes, X, and Y. Males are XY, and of each member of the gene pair. The gene combination
females are XX. possesses different alleles for particular locus, one
dominant and one recessive (e.g Rr). This is also called as
Eukaryotic chromosomes exist in four major types: metacentric,
hybrid.
submetacentric, acrocentric, and telocentric.
Types of Genetic Crosses
 Metacentric chromosomes -have the centromere in
the center, such that both sections are of equal  Monohybrid Cross - a genetic cross that takes into account
length. Human chromosomes 1 and 3 are the behavior of allele at a single locus. Example: Flower
metacentric. color. Single Trait Involves and Principles of Dominance and
 Submetacentric Chromosomes- have the centromere Segregation.
slightly offset from the center leading to a slight  Dihybrid Cross – a genetic cross that takes into account the
asymmetry in the length of the two section. Human behavior of allele at two locus. Example: Flower color and
chromosome 4 to 12 are submetacentric. plant height. Two Traits and Involves Principle of
 Acrocentric chromosomes- have a centromere that is
severely offset from the center leading to one very
long and one very short section. Human
chromosomes 13, 15, 21, and 22 are acrocentric.
 Telocentric Chromosomes- have the centromere at
the very end of the chromosome. Humans do not
possess telocentric chromosomes, but they are found
in other species, such as mice.
 Principle of Dominance -In a cross of parents that are pure
for contrasting traits, only one form of the trait will appear
in the next generation. The resulting offspring will be
heterozygous and express only the dominant trait.
 Principle of Segregation-During the formation of gametes
(eggs or sperm), the two alleles responsible for a trait Independent Assortment.
separate from each other. This principle is a statement
about genetic transmission. An allele is transmitted
faithfully to the next generation, even if it was present with
a different allele in a heterozygous. This means that each
offspring receives one allele from each parent.
 Principle of Independent assortment-Alleles for different
traits are distributed, or as we sometimes say, assort, to
sex cells and offspring independently of one another. This
principle is another rule of genetic transmission, based on
the behavior of different pairs of chromosomes during
meiosis. The principle is a result when Mendel began
mixing two traits and found a 9:3:3:1 ratio of the offspring.
Unless the features are linked, he concluded that various