ANIMAL BREEDING & GENETICS-mid

INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPT TO GENETICS

INTRODUCTION

Animal breeding is the application of scientific knowledge to the genetic improvement of animals such as
cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel and poultry etc. The science of genetics (the science that deals with the
transmission of characters from parents to offspring) provides founding principles for the science of
Animal Breeding and hence the name of the discipline is Animal Breeding and Genetics. The topics to be
covered are as follows.

Genetics is the science of heredity and variation and involves studying the structure and function of genes
and the way genes are passed from one generation to the next. The differences between organisms are the
result of differences in genes they carry which have resulted from the evolutionary process of mutation
(heritable change in the genetic material), recombination (exchange of genetic material between
chromosomes) and selection (favoring a particular combination of genes in a particular environment).
Genetics is the most interesting and fascinating area in the field of biology. This is not surprising because
an understanding of genetic processes is fundamental to the comprehension of life itself. Genetic
information directs cellular function, determines an organism’s external appearance and serves as the link
between generations in every species. Knowing how these processes occur is important in understanding
the living world. Knowledge of genetic concepts also helps us to understand other disciplines of biology.
The topics studied in genetics overlap directly with molecular biology, cell biology, physiology and
evolution etc. the study of each of this component is incomplete without the knowledge of the genetic
component underlying each of them. Genetics thus unifies biology and serves as its core. Although the
primary objective of genetics is to understand the fundamental processes of inheritance yet it is important
to many disciplines and has practical application in many fields.

Pangenesis

Pangenesis was Charles Darwin's hypothetical mechanism for heredity, in which he proposed that each
part of the body continually emitted its own type of small organic particles called gemmules that
aggregated in the gonads, contributing heritable information to the gametes. He presented this 'provisional
hypothesis' in his 1868 work The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, intending it to fill
what he perceived as a major gap in evolutionary theory at the time.

Gregor Mendel
Gregor Mendel, known as the "father of modern genetics," was born in Austria in 1822. Gregor Mendel
was an Austrian monk who discovered the basic principles of heredity through experiments in his garden.
Mendel's observations became the foundation of modern genetics and the study of heredity, and he is
widely considered a pioneer in the field of genetics. Around 1854, Mendel began to research the
transmission of hereditary traits in plant hybrids. At the time of Mendel’s studies, it was a generally
accepted fact that the hereditary traits of the offspring of any species were merely the diluted blending of
whatever traits were present in the “parents.” It was also commonly accepted that, over generations, a
hybrid would revert to its original form, the implication of which suggested that a hybrid could not create
new forms. However, the results of such studies were often skewed by the relatively short period of time
during which the experiments were conducted, whereas Mendel’s research continued over as many as
eight years (between 1856 and 1863), and involved tens of thousands of individual plants. Mendel chose
to use peas for his experiments due to their many distinct varieties, and because offspring could be
quickly and easily produced. He cross-fertilized pea plants that had clearly opposite characteristics—pod
shape (constricted or inflated) Pod color (green or yellow) Flower color (purple or white) Plant size (tall
or dwarf). In 1865, Mendel delivered two lectures on his findings to the Natural Science Society in Brno,
who published the results of his studies in their journal the following year, under the title Experiments on
Plant Hybrids. Gregor Mendel died on January 6, 1884, at the age of 61. Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and
Erich von Tschermak-Seysenegg each independently duplicated Mendel's experiments and results in
1900, finding out after the fact, allegedly, that both the data and the general theory had been published in
1866 by Mendel. Mendel's Laws of Heredity are usually stated as:

1) The Law of Segregation: Each inherited trait is defined by a gene pair. Parental genes are randomly
separated to the sex cells so that sex cells contain only one gene of the pair. Offspring therefore inherit
one genetic allele from each parent when sex cells unite in fertilization.

2) The Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are sorted separately from one another
so that the inheritance of one trait is not dependent on the inheritance of another.

The DND and Genomic Era

1944: The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment isolates DNA as the genetic material (at that time
called transforming principle)

1950: Erwin Chargaff determined the pairing method of nitrogenous bases. Chargaff and his team studied
the DNA from multiple organisms and found three things (also known as Chargaff's rules). First, the
concentration of the pyrimidines (guanine and adenine) is always found in the same amount as one
another. Second, the concentration of purines (cytosine and thymidine) are also always the same. Lastly,
Chargaff and his team found the proportion of pyrimidines and purines correspond each other.

1952: an X-ray diffraction image of DNA taken by Raymond Gosling in May 1952, a student supervised
by Rosalind Franklin

1953: DNA structure is resolved to be a double helix by Rosalind Franklin, James Watson and Francis
Crick

1955: Alexander R. Todd determined the chemical makeup of nitrogenous bases. Todd also successfully
synthesized adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) . He was awarded the
Nobel prize in Chemistry in 1957 for his contributions in the scientific knowledge of nucleotides and
nucleotide co-enzymes.

1955: Joe Hin Tjio, while working in Albert Levan's lab, determined the number of chromosomes in
humans to be of 46. Tjio was attempting to refine an established technique to separate chromosomes onto
glass slides by conducting a study of human embryonic lung tissue, when he saw that there were 46
chromosomes rather than 48. This revolutionized the world of cytogenetics.

1957: Arthur Kornberg with Severo Ochoa synthesized DNA in a test tube after discovering the means by
which DNA is duplicated . DNA polymerase 1 established requirements for in vitro synthesis of DNA.
Kornberg and Ochoa were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1959 for this work.

1972: Walter Fiers and his team were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for
bacteriophage MS2 coat protein

2000: The full genome sequence of Drosophila melanogaster is completed.

2001: First draft sequences of the human genome are released simultaneously by the Human Genome
Project and Celera Genomics.

Branches of Genetics

Classical Genetics

Classical genetics is the branch of genetics based solely on visible results of reproductive acts. It is the
oldest discipline in the field of genetics, going back to the experiments on Mendelian inheritance by
Gregor Mendel who made it possible to identify the basic mechanisms of heredity.

Cytogenetics
Cytogenetics is the study of chromosomal structure, location and function in cells. It includes the study of
chromosome number and appearance (karyotyping), the physical location of genes on chromosomes, and
chromosomal behaviour in processes such as cell division.

Population Genetics

Population genetics is the study of genetic variation within populations, and involves the examination and
modelling of changes in the frequencies of genes and alleles in populations over space and time.

Molecular Genetics

Molecular genetics is the field of biochemistry that studies the structure and function of genes at a
molecular level and thus employs methods of both molecular biology and genetics.

Behavioral Genetics

Study of the behavior of an organism

Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering (GE) is the modification of an organism's genetic composition by artificial means,
often involving the transfer of specific traits, or genes, from one organism into a plant or animal of an
entirely different species.

Genomics

The branch of genetics concerned with the structure, function, evolution, and mapping of genomes

Eugenics
Study and control of various means of improving human heredity characters has been termed as
“Eugenics”. Positive Eugenics is concerned with the enrichment of human populations by
facilitating an increase or at least guarding against decrease in favorable traits. Negative
Eugenics attempts to curtail defective heredity traits by limiting or preventing their reproduction.
Genetic education and pre-marital medical tests can play a role reduce genetic abnormalities in
humans

Nucleus

In cell biology, the nucleus is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells.

Eukaryotes usually have a single nucleus, but a few cell types, such as mammalian red blood
cells, have no nuclei, and a few others have many. Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound
organelles, including a nucleus. Eukaryotes can be single-celled or multi-celled, such as you, me,
plants, fungi, and insects. Bacteria are an example of prokaryotes. Prokaryotic cells do not
contain a nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelle.

Chromosomes

All the cells in the body are descended from a single fertilized egg, which by successive divisions has
produced the vast number and various cell types that comprise the human body. The nucleus contains a
number of worm like or threadlike microscopic bodies, called chromosomes. Every species has a
characteristic number of chromosomes—typical human, cattle and chicken cells have 46, 60 and 78,
respectively. In the formation of a sperm or egg, the chromosome number is halved (fortunately, or
otherwise each generation would have twice as many chromosomes as the previous one). During the
process of meiosis, the chromosomes are allocated so that each gamete (sperm or egg) has one
representative of each pair, for a total of 23. The two members of a chromosome pair, as viewed through
a microscope, are identical in shape and size, with an important exception - the sex chromosomes. In the
human cell, the Y chromosome is much smaller than the X chromosome. A body cell from a female has
two X chromosomes; a cell from a male has an X and a Y. Through the process of meiosis, an egg ends
up with a single X chromosome (in addition to 22 other chromosomes, called autosomes, for a total of
23). A sperm has an X or a Y plus 22 autosomes. At fertilization, chance determines, whether the
successful sperm carries an X or Y chromosome, that is, determines whether the developing embryo will
be female or male. The X and Y chromosomes are not numbered, so the chromosomes of a gamete are
numbered 1 through 22, plus X or Y.

Gene

A gene is a stretch of DNA from 1,000 to 100,000 or more base pairs in length that has a specific
function; usually a gene is responsible for a particular protein. Alternative forms of the gene are called
alleles. In contrast to the XY sex-determination system and the X0 sex-determination system, where the
sperm determines the sex, in the ZW system, the ovum determines the sex of the offspring. Males are the
homogametic sex (ZZ), while females are the heterogametic sex (ZW).

Genetic blueprints

DNA contains an entire library of information on how to make, maintain and reproduce an organism. It
also keeps a record of clues to the organism's evolutionary history. Genome size may be as small as 9,750
bases (HIV) to as large as the +3 billion bases in mouse, human and cattle

Nitrogenous Bases
Nitrogenous bases are typically classified as the derivatives of two parent compounds, pyrimidine and
purine. A set of five nitrogenous bases is used in the construction of nucleotides, which in turn build up
nucleic acids like DNA and RNA. These nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), uracil (U), guanine (G),
thymine (T), and cytosine (C). The nitrogenous bases form hydrogen bonds between opposing DNA
strands to form the rungs of the "twisted ladder" or double helix of DNA or a biological catalyst that is
found in the nucleotides. Adenine is always paired with thymine, and guanine is always paired with
cytosine. These are known as base pairs. Uracil is only present in RNA, replacing thymine. Pyrimidines
include thymine, cytosine, and uracil. They have a single ring structure. Purines include adenine and
guanine. They have a double ring structure. Bonds between linking nitrogenous bases of two DNA
strands are Hydrogen bonds with 3 H-bonds connecting cytosine and guanine and 2 H-bonds connecting
adenine and thymine,

Replication

DNA replication is the process by which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied to produce two
identical DNA molecules.

Transcription

Transcription is the first step of gene expression, in which a particular segment of DNA is copied into
RNA (especially mRNA) by the enzyme RNA polymerase.

Translation

Translation is the process in which ribosomes in the cytoplasm synthesize proteins after the process of
transcription of DNA to RNA in the cell's nucleus. The entire process is called gene expression.
Mutation

Genes are ordinarily transmitted from generation to generation unchanged. Sometimes, however, the gene
is changed, a rare process called mutation. When a gene mutates, the mutant form is as stable and as
regularly transmitted as the original. Mutations come in all sizes. A mutation may be a substitution of one
base for another, or one or more bases may be gained or lost, or the order of a group of bases may be
changed, inverted for example.

Junk DNA

The genes make up only a tiny fraction of the DNA. The rest, the great bulk—about 97 percent—has no
known function. It (non-coding) is sometimes referred to as “junk DNA.” Nevertheless, these non-genic
regions show the same genetic variability that genes do, in fact usually more. These differences are not
overt, but can be detected by laboratory tests. Regions of DNA that are used for forensic analysis are
usually not genes, but rather are located in those parts of the chromosomes without known functions, or if
part of a gene, not in the part that produces a detectable effect. (One reason for this choice has been to
protect individual privacy.) Nevertheless, the words commonly used for describing genes (e.g., allele,
homozygous, polymorphic) are carried over to DNA regions used for identification; It is customary to call
the genotype for the group of loci involved in a forensic analysis a profile.

GENETIC COUNSELING

Genetic counseling is the process by which patients or relatives, at risk of an inherited disorder,
are advised of the consequences and nature of the disorder, the probability of developing or
transmitting it, and the options open to them in management and family planning. An estimation
of about 2000 genetics diseases in humans. Many diseases and abnormalities have genetic basis,
e.g

 Hemophilia

 Some type of diabetics,

 Hemolytic icterus (an anemia),

 Some form of deafness

 Blindness (some types)

 Several hemoglobin abnormalities

 Rh incompatibilities

Recognition of these inherited nature is important for anticipation of their future possible
occurrence in given family so that preventive measures can be taken. Chromosomal analysis can
be used to detect a large no. of abnormalities in fetus, newborn, child and adult.
Amniocentesis - amniotic fluid and fetal cells taken from pregnant women are analyzed for
genetic disorders. Genetics can be used in prevention of non-infectious abnormalities e.g.
Xanthoma Tuberosum It is characterized by appearance of numerous nodules and tumors in the
body and may involve then heart or blood vessels some time with fatal results. These nodules
develop due to an excess of cholesterol in the blood. If a person knows that a gene for this
condition is present in his family, he can have frequent checks for cholesterol level of his blood
If cholesterol level becomes unduly high, he may go on low cholesterol diets to avoid the
dangers of abnormality.
This complex process can be separated into diagnostic (the actual estimation of risk) and
supportive aspects. Genetic counseling is generally offered prior to marriage or conception, in
order to predict the likelihood of conceiving an affected child, during pregnancy, in order to
determine the condition of the fetus, or to an adult, in order to determine susceptibility to a
certain disease.
Potentials of Genetic Counseling

• Today clinical tests can be carried out on heterozygotes for many hereditary disorders

• After obtaining such information on both potential parents the risk of producing an afflicted
offspring can be estimated

• Family histories may indicate a high risk of genetic diseases

• Such tests are now available for most cytological and over 70 other heredity anomalies e.g
Amniocentesis

• The birth of abnormal infant is immeasurable trauma to the family, in such cases they may
opt for termination of pregnancy if law permits

• This involves moral and religious considerations on the part of parents

• Sometimes when risk seems to be too great, a couple may decide to forego having children of
their own and rely upon adoption

In such a way many tragedies can be avoided

Genetic Counsellors

 Clinical Geneticists

 Genetic Nurse Specialists

 Genetic Associates (Science graduates)

 Counsellors in specific areas (Haemophilia etc)

 All healthcare professionals should be able to communicate genetic issues

Genetic Testing

 Identification of a genetic disease in a family

  Identification of disease genotype in a family

GENETIC TESTING IS NOT AVAILABLE FOR MOST SINGLE GENE DISORDERS

Legal Applications

Many court cases rely o geneticists for valuable testimony

 Questions of disputed parentage

 Baby mix up in hospitals
 Custody of children
 Estate inheritance
 Support of illegitimate children

These are some of the legal problems on which courts may turn for scientific solutions.

ANIMAL BREEDING AND ITS CONTRIBUTION

"To breed" in dictionary has seven different meanings, going from, "to produce offspring" to "to
bombard with neutrons in order to produce a fissionable element”. An intermediate definition in
the list is "to develop by tradition or education", which is probably the closest to our present
understanding of animal breeding. Several definitions of animal breeding in the scientific
literature, Jay Lush in 1945: "the means available for improving the heredity of farm animals”.

Animal breeding may be seen as the optimal exploitation of the species' biological variation,
under given constraints of reproductive capacity, using appropriate breeding value estimation
tools. The term genetic improvement, often considered as synonymous to breeding, also implies
that something better is being looked for man's welfare

Breeding vs. Reproduction

The difference between breeding and reproduction is that breeding is the process through which

propagation, growth or development occurs while reproduction is the act of reproducing new
individuals biologically. 

Animal breeding has contributed much to the total improvement of livestock production. In
certain instances, where performance records have been available to direct selection and to assess
change, the results have been dramatic. Combined genetic, nutritional, and other advances have
led to remarkable success in certain areas. A striking example is the increase in milk production
over the past 90 years in Holstein population of US (see Figure below).

Recognizing that many factors have contributed to this increase, performance records

Through Dairy Herd Improvement have provided unselected data to choose herd replacements
and particularly to guide sire selection. Analyses of production records have provided genetic
parameters for developing effective progeny testing and breeding plans. National programs of
sire and cow evaluation provide computerized listings of sires for use in artificial insemination
and cows to be mated as dams of young males in planned progeny-testing programs. Frozen
semen has markedly extended the use of outstanding sires, some of which have sired over
200,000 offspring. Embryo transfer has been perfected to the point where outstanding females
may now leave 100 or more progeny. For the past 20 years the rate of increase in milk yield has
been about 1 percent of the mean yield per year. Analyses indicate that approximately half of this
is due to genetic improvements: The highest production by an individual cow is now 25,248 kg
of milk in 365 days, milked twice daily.

Chicken used to be a delicacy that was relished primarily for specific occasions, but changes in
broiler production since the early 1930s have made poultry one of our most available meats. In
fact, its consumption per capita has been increasing more rapidly than any other meat in recent
years. Dramatic genetic changes m the broilers and in the systems of rearing and marketing have
contributed to this remarkable change. In the 1940s it took about 12 weeks to develop a broiler
weighing 1.6 kilos; whereas, today a 1.75-kilo broiler can be developed in only 6 weeks. Many
nutritional and housing innovations have contributed to this remarkable change. Feed
requirements per kilo of gain have been reduced from 3.5 to 1.9 kilos, largely by improved
genetic efficiency and ration formulation. Breeding improvements from the early use of the
available heavy egg-laying strains to the specialized highly selected cross-combinations of
Cornish males and White Rock females have been striking. Larger-breasted, faster-growing,
feed-efficient birds have made chicken one of our most readily available sources of animal
protein. Similarly, consumer preference for meat has changed towards lean meat and there has
been tremendous progress in the past few decades in the quality of mutton in this context.

Since livestock production is an economic enterprise, animal breeding practices and

recommendations must be sound economically as well as genetically. The ultimate goal is to
increase productive efficiency in order to raise the net return to the producer and to provide an
abundant, economical supply of animal products for the consumer. The task of the animal
producer is to convert vegetable products (some edible by humans, and some not) and inedible
animal by-products into palatable, nutritious human food. Other animal products important in our
everyday life include fiber for clothing, leather, pharmaceuticals, and a wide array of other
materials. In a world with constantly increasing human population and a consequent narrowing
of the margin of safety between world food needs and potential world production, it is essential
that the conversion of vegetable to animal products be achieved efficiently. The challenge
continues.

Genetic and Non-genetic factors

Environmental influences such as improved nutrition, disease prevention, or housing have

immediate effect on production, but these are temporary. Genetic improvement is usually slower
and often less dramatic, yet it is more permanent. The genes do not express themselves in
vacuum. The final expression of a trait represents the joint action of both heredity of the animal
and environment provided for its expression. Genetic and environment have 60-80 % and 20-40
% contribution in animal’s performance.

Genetic improvement in broilers

Genetic Improvement in Layers