Introduction

For millennia, people have sought to understand why certain diseases appear in
some people but not others. Genetics has allowed for a better understanding of
hereditary diseases by describing the genes and mutations associated with these
diseases. science of genetics began in the 1800s when Gregor Mendel figured out
how traits are inherited by studying peas. Since scientists identified genes in the
mid-1900s, the field of genetics has grown by leaps and bounds. In the 1800s,
Gregor Mendel discovered the rules of genetic

I. Definition Elements of genetic

1. Definition
Genetics is the science that studies the inheritance and genetic variations of
living organisms. It allows us to understand how hereditary traits are passed down
from generation to other and how genes can influence the development and
behavior of individuals . It studies expression of genes and the regulation of their
expression.

2. Elements of genetic
a. DNA

DNA, the molecular basis for biological inheritance. Each strand of DNA is a chain
of nucleotides, matching each other in the center to form what look like rungs on a
twisted ladder.
Although genes were known to exist on chromosomes, chromosomes are composed of
both protein and DNA, and scientists did not know which of the two is responsible for
inheritance. In 1928, Frederick Griffith discovered the phenomenon of transformation .
DNA as the molecule responsible for transformation. The role of the nucleus as the
repository of genetic information in eukaryotes had been established by Hämmerling in
1943. The Hershey–Chase experiment in 1952 confirmed that DNA is the genetic
material of the viruses that infect bacteria, providing further evidence that DNA is the
molecule responsible for inheritance.
Their double-helix model had two strands of DNA with the nucleotides pointing
inward, each matching a complementary nucleotide on the other strand to form what
look like rungs on a twisted ladder. This structure showed that genetic information
exists in the sequence of nucleotides on each strand of DNA.

b. Chromosomes
Chromosomes have proteins called histones that bind to DNA. DNA has two
strands that twist into the shape of a spiral ladder called a helix. DNA is made up
of four building blocks called nucleotides: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G),
and cytosine (C). The nucleotides attach to each other (A with T, and G with C) to
form chemical bonds called base pairs, which connect the two DNA strands.
Genes are short pieces of DNA that carry specific genetic information

II. Origine of genetic

 1)Mendel work
The main importance of Mendel's work is that his experiments were
fundamental to modern genetics. The famous "Mendelian laws" have succeeded in
explaining the transmission of genetic heritage from parents to children.

Mendel's laws are three laws concerning the principles of biological inheritance,
enunciated by the Austro-Hungarian monk and botanist Gregor Mendel (1822-
1884).

The rediscovery of Mendel's laws in 19001, then their combination with the
discovery of chromosomes, considered as the physical support of heredity, is at
the origin of the foundation of formal genetics at the beginning of the twentieth
century2. Following the demonstration of the role of chance and the environment
in biological phenomena. Mendel enunciated three laws of which we have

➢ First Law: Law of uniformity of first generation hybrids

If we cross two individuals of the same species homozygous with respect to a

trait, all the descendants of the first generation, which are called F1 hybrids, are
identical with respect to this character, that is, all heterozygous. (In the diagram
opposite, it would be appropriate, to be consistent with the scheme of the third
law, and since the character "color of the flower" has only two alleles, to note
them R for red, and r for non-red, that is to say white, since the color red is
dominant, and to note the two homozygous

individuals RR and rr. The two genes of all F1 hybrids have each the R allele and
the other the r, and are then denoted Rr.)

The first generation (F1 hybrid) is then uniform for both phenotype and genotype
and all descendants of the first generation are heterozygous.

➢ Law Two: Allele Disjunction Law

When we cross between them, two of the individuals of F1 generations, we obtain

an F2 generation in which we find the two versions of the color of the flowers in
well-defined proportions: three descendants with red flowers (1 homozygous RR +
2 heterozygous Rr) and one descendant with white flowers (homozygous rr).This
law is called "character segregation in the F2 generation".

➢ Third law: independence of character transmission

This rule only applies if the genes responsible for the characteristics are located
on different chromosomes or if they are distant on the same chromosome. This is
the sharing of alleles in different gametes. Abstracting from the second character,
we find for the first character the distribution of the third generation in the
diagram below.

2)Morgan work
Morgan's work Discovery of genetic binding by T. Morgan. Morgan made crosses
using a pure strain of Drosophila that differed from the wild strain in two traits,
each determined by an autosomal gene: eye color and wing length.

III. The different type of genetic

1)Classic genetic
Classical genetics is the branch of genetics based solely on the visible results of
reproductive acts. It is the oldest discipline in the field of genetics, dating back to
Gregor Mendel's experiments on Mendelian heredity that identified the basic
mechanisms of heredity. Classic genetics includes techniques and methodologies
of genetics that were used before the advent of molecular biology. A key
discovery of classical genetics in eukaryotes was genetic linking. The observation
that certain genes do not separate independently at meiosis has broken the laws
of Mendelian inheritance and provided science with a way to map features at a
location on chromosomes. Link cards are still used today, especially in breeding
for plant breeding. After the discovery of the genetic code and cloning tools such
as restriction enzymes, the lines of investigation open to geneticists have
expanded considerably. Some classical genetic ideas have been supplanted by
the mechanistic understanding brought by molecular discoveries, but many
remain intact and used. Classical genetics is often opposed to reverse genetics,
and some aspects of molecular biology are sometimes referred to as molecular
genetics Classical genetics.

2)Human heredity
Human genetics is a branch of genetics that studies the transmission of
hereditary traits in the human species over generations.

Faced with the difficulties that hinder this study, the researchers have focused,
above all, on the study of the modalities of transmission of hereditary diseases
and malformations, to accumulate knowledge on the genes that are responsible
for them.

The transmission of hereditary characteristics in humans is similar to that in other

living beings.

However, there is a set of difficulties that prevent experimentation and

verification of the laws of heredity, the main ones being:

The method of directed crossings is impossible (in human beings, marriages

cannot be directed at will).

In each generation, the number of children is limited (there is therefore low

fertility or restricted fertility). Statistical study is difficult.
 In human beings, the duration of generations is long. So, the geneticist cannot
follow several generations on his own.

The number of chromosomes in humans is very high (23 pairs), the number of
possible chromosomal combinations in eggs is large (2 46), which further
complicates research.

IV. importance and limit of genetic

1.Importance
Understanding genetic factors and genetic disorders in learning more about
promoting health and preventing diseases. Some genetic changes
have been associated with an increased risk of having a child with
birth defect or developmental disability or developing diseases such
as cancer or heart disease.

Also, the foundation of Medelian genetic enabled plant breeders to cross plants
with new precision, carefully manipulating the plant genome to
produce new improved varieties. These breeding techniques have
been used to develop higher yielding varieties, including plants
resistant to pests or disease.

2.Limit of genetic
Several studies suggest genetics is difficult because it contains many abstract
concepts. Many abstract concepts exist at the molecular level, such as genes and
DNA since this level includes invisible concepts.

Also, genetic testing can provide only limited information about inherited
condition. The test often cannot determine if person will show severe
symptoms will be, or whether the disorder will progress over time.

Conclusion
genetics comes up against many obstacles that hinder its study , it In conclusion
we will retain that the study of genetic and the establishment of Mendel laws
allowed a considerable advance of humanity.

Even if human remains very important in understanding the transmission of

characters .