CHAPTER 4

GENETIC INHERITANCE
 4.2 DEVIATIONS FROM THE
MENDELIAN INHERITANCE

a) Explain briefly types of inheritance that

deviate from Mendelian: Codominant
alleles, Incomplete dominant alleles,
Multiple alleles, Linked genes, Sex-
linked genes & Polygenes
 4.2.1 CODOMINANT ALLELES

Learning outcomes:
Construct genetic diagram to show
codominant alleles using human MN
blood group and include phenotypic ratio
and genotypic ratio (1:2:1)
 4.2.1 CODOMINANT ALLELES

- Two alleles are fully expressed in the

heterozygous form
- Heterozygous displays a different phenotype
from the phenotypes of the homozygous
- Both alleles are equally dominant (no upper or
lower case)

• Example:
1. Human MN blood group
2. AB blood group
 MN blood group
 Due to the presence of two specific molecule
(M and N molecules) of the surface of the
RBC
 LMLN individuals express both M & N
glycoproteins on RBC
LM = allele for the ability to produce M antigen
LN = allele for the ability to produce N antigen
Antigen M
Antigen N

Genotype : LMLM LNLN LMLN

Phenotype : M N MN
 MN blood group
Phenotype
Genotype Condition
(blood group)
M LMLM M antigen on the surface of
RBC
N LNLN N antigen of the surface of
RBC
MN LMLN M and N antigen on the
surface of RBC
• MN phenotype is not intermediate between the M and
N phenotypes.

• Rather, both the M and N phenotypes are exhibited by

heterozygotes, since both molecule are present.
 GENETIC DIAGRAM OF CODOMINANT ALLELES
LM = allele for the ability to produce M antigen
LN = allele for the ability to produce N antigen

M blood group N blood group

Parent : LM LM X LN LN

Gametes : LM LN

F1 Genotype : LM LN
F1 Phenotype : MN blood group

F1 Genotypic ratio : All LM LN

F1 Phenotypic ratio : All MN blood group
 GENETIC DIAGRAM OF CODOMINANT ALLELES

MN blood group MN blood group

F1 X F1 : LM LN X L M LN

Gametes : LM LN LM LN

F2 Genotype : LM LM LM LN LM LN LN LN

F2 Phenotype : M , MN , MN , N
F2 Genotypic ratio : 1 LM LM : 2 LM LN : 1 LN LN
F2 Phenotypic ratio : 1 M blood : 2 MN blood : 1 N blood
group group group
 4.2.2 INCOMPLETE DOMINANT ALLELES

Learning outcomes:
Construct genetic diagram to show
incomplete dominant alleles and include
phenotypic ratio (1:2:1) and genotypic ratio
 INCOMPLETE DOMINANT ALLELES
- One allele is not fully dominant over the other allele
(neither parental phenotype is fully expressed)
- Progenies with heterozygous genotypes have
intermediate phenotypes
E.g. 1: Flower colour of snapdragon (Antirrhinum sp.)

GENOTYPE CRCR CRCW CWCW

Red Pink White
(intermediate
PHENOTYPE phenotype)
 INCOMPLETE DOMINANT ALLELES

E.g. 1: Flower colour of snapdragon (Antirrhinum sp.)

Determine by 2 alleles; CR and CW
CR express red flower
CW express white flower

Genotype : CRCR CRCW CWCW

Phenotype : Red Pink White
(intermediate
phenotype)
 GENETIC DIAGRAM OF
INCOMPLETE CODOMINANT ALLELES
• CR = Allele for red color
• CW = Allele for white color
Red flower White flower
Parent : CR CR X CW CW

Gametes : CR CW

F1 Genotype : CR CW

F1 Phenotype : Pink flower

F1 Genotypic ratio : All CR CW

F1 Phenotypic ratio : All pink flower

 GENETIC DIAGRAM OF
INCOMPLETE CODOMINANT ALLELES
Pink flower Pink flower
F1 X F 1 : CR CW X CR CW

Gametes : CR CW CR CW

F2 Genotype : CR CR CR CW CR CW CW CW

F2 Phenotype : Red, Pink, Pink, White

F2 Genotypic ratio : 1 CR CR : 2 CR CW : 1 CW CW
F2 Phenotypic ratio : 1 red : 2 pink : 1 white
flower flower flower
 INCOMPLETE DOMINANT ALLELES

Segregation of alleles
into gamete of the F1
plants results in an F2
generation with a 1:2:1
ratio for both genotype
and phenotype.

Neither allele is
dominant
 4.2.3 MULTIPLE ALLELES

Learning outcomes:
Construct genetic diagram to show
multiple alleles using human ABO blood
group
 MULTIPLE ALLELES

- One gene controlled by more than two alleles that

can occupy same locus
- All alleles control the same characteristic

E.g. ABO blood groups in human

- Determine by three alleles of a single gene:
IA, IB and i
- alleles IA and IB are dominant
- allele i is recessive

- IA and IB are codominant; both are

expressed if the genotype is heterozygous
MULTIPLE ALLELES
 MULTIPLE ALLELES

ABO Blood Groups In Human

- 6 possible allele
combinations
(genotypes)

- 4 possible blood
types
(phenotypes)
 MULTIPLE ALLELES

ABO Blood Groups In Human

Allele IA
~ express
antigen A
Allele IB
~ express
antigen B
Allele i
~ no antigen
 MULTIPLE ALLELES

ABO Blood Groups In Human

Matching compatible blood groups is
critical for blood transfusions
Because a person produces antibodies
against foreign blood factors.
•If the donor’s blood is foreign to the
recipient,
•antibodies in the recipient’s blood will
bind to the foreign molecules,
•cause the donated blood cells to clump
together, and can kill the recipient.
Control on the ABO Blood Groups
 GENETIC DIAGRAM OF MULTIPLE ALLELES
Example 1:

Parent : IAi (Blood group A) X IBi (Blood group B)

Gametes : IA i IB i

: IAIB IAi IBi ii

F1 Genotype

F1 Phenotype : AB , A , B , O

F1 Genotypic ratio : 1 IAIB : 1 IAi : 1 IBi : 1 ii

F1 Phenotypic ratio : 1 blood group AB : 1 blood group A :
1 blood group B : 1 blood group O
 GENETIC DIAGRAM OF MULTIPLE ALLELES

Example 2:

Parent : IAIB X IAIB

Gametes : IA IB IA IB

F1 Genotype : IAIA IAIB IAIB IBIB

F1 Phenotype : A , AB , AB , B
F1 Genotypic ratio : 1 IAIA : 2 IAIB : 1 IBIB

F1 Phenotypic ratio : 1 blood group A : 2 blood group AB :

1 blood group B
 4.2.6 POLYGENES

Learning outcomes:
Explain polygenes/ polygenic inheritance
using human skin color
POLYGENES/ POLYGENIC INHERITANCE

One characteristic is controlled by many

genes (2 or more genes)
All genes control the same characteristic
All traits are quantitative
e.g. Human skin color
Skin color in humans is controlled by at least
three different genes.
e.g. A, B, and C are alleles that contribute to a
skin color which is ‘very dark’
Each A, B and C alleles are incompletely dominant
to alleles a, b and c
POLYGENES / POLYGENIC INHERITANCE
EXAMPLE : HUMAN SKIN COLOR

AABBCC aabbcc AaBbcc

‘very dark’ ‘very light’ ‘slightly dark’
 POLYGENES/ POLYGENIC INHERITANCE
EXAMPLE : HUMAN SKIN COLOUR
The cumulative effects on the skin colour
 POLYGENES/ POLYGENIC INHERITANCE

 AABBCC person would be very dark, whereas

aabbcc individual would be very light
 An AaBbCc person would have skin of an
intermediate shade
 The genotypes AaBbCc and AABbcc would
make same genetic contribution to skin
darkness
 Environmental factors such as exposure to the
sun also affect the skin color phenotypes
POLYGENES/ POLYGENIC INHERITANCE
Bell-shaped curve (human skin colour)
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE ALLELES
AND POLYGENES

Multiple alleles Polygenes

One characteristic is One characteristic is
controlled by many controlled by many
alleles genes
All alleles are located All alleles are located
on same locus on different locus

Only 2 alleles are All alleles are required

required to express the to express the
phenotype in an phenotype in an
individual individual
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE ALLELES
AND POLYGENES

Multiple alleles Polygenes

No intermediate Has intermediate
groups groups

Discrete distribution Normal distribution

curve curve

Influenced by Influenced by
genetic factor only genetic factor and
environmental factor
 4.2.4 LINKED GENES

Learning outcome:
Illustrate the effects of linked genes with
crossing over on the dihybrid test cross
ratio
 4.2.4 LINKED GENES

Two or more genes that determine the

different characteristics located on the
same chromosome.

The linked genes cannot be separated

independently during meiosis
 they do not follow the law of
independent assortment (2nd Law)
 4.2.4 LINKED GENES
Genes may be linked together on
Autosome : linked gene
Sex chromosome : sex - linked gene
 4.2.4 LINKED GENES
Representative Symbol

‘Oblique’ (/)
Genes on the left of the oblique are
located on the same chromosome.
the genes on the right are the homologs

Two parallel straight lines (| |)

present a pair of homologous chromosome
 4.2.4 LINKED GENES
Linked genes tend to be inherited together
because they are located near each other on
the same chromosome

In other words, genes that are close

together on the same chromosome are
linked and do not assort independently
Example: Inheritance of body colour and wing
size in Drosophila sp.
G g

Body Wing size L l

colour Normal Vestigial
- Genes for both
characters are linked

Grey - Allele for grey body :G

body - Allele for black body :g
- Allele for normal wings : L
- Allele for vestigial wings : l

• Self-cross on
Black heterozygous (for both
body characters) of F1
produces F2 with
phenotypic ratio 3:1
 GENETIC DIAGRAM USING ‘OBLIQUE’ (/) SYMBOL
Parent :

Gametes :

F1 Genotype :
F1 Phenotype : Grey body, normal wing
F1 Genotypic ratio : All GL/gl
F1 Phenotypic ratio : All grey body and normal wing

F1 X F 1 :

Gametes :

F2 Genotype :
F2 Phenotype : Grey body, Grey body, Grey body, Black body
normal wing, normal wing, normal wing, vestigial wing
F2 Genotypic ratio :
F2 Phenotypic ratio :
 GENETIC DIAGRAM USING
TWO PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES (| |)

Parent :

Gametes :

F1 Genotype :

F1 Phenotype : Grey body and normal wing

F1 Genotypic ratio : All

F1 Phenotypic ratio : All grey body and normal wing

 GENETIC DIAGRAM USING
TWO PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES (| |)

F1 X F 1 :

Gametes :

F2 Genotype :

F2 Phenotype : Grey body, Grey body, Grey body, Black body

normal wing normal wing normal wing vestigial wing

F2 Genotypic ratio : 1 :2 : 1

F2 Phenotypic ratio :
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
NON-LINKED & LINKED GENES
2 pairs of alleles located 2 pairs of alleles located on
on different homologous the same homologous
chromosome chromosome
Undergo independent Do not undergo
assortment independent assortment

G g G g

L l L l

Genotype: GgLl Genotype: GL/gl

Possible gametes: Possible gametes:
GL , Gl , Gl , gl GL , gl
 NON-LINKED LINKED GENES
(without crossing over)

G g Genotype Genotype
G g
GgLl GL/gl
L l
L l

Metaphase I Metaphase I
OR g gG G
G Gg g
G G g g

L L l l
L L l l L L l l

Meiosis II Meiosis II

G g g G G g
L l L l
L l
GL gl gL
Gl GL gl
Symbol:- OBLIQUE
Grey body : G
Black body : g
Normal wing allele : L
Vestigial wing allele : l

P:P
: GL/GL X gl/gl
(grey, normal) (black, vestigial)
Gametes : GL gl
Gametes:
F1 Genotype : GL/gl
F1 :
F1 Phenotype : Grey body and normal wing
F1 Genotypic ratio : All GL/gl

F1 Phenotypic ratio : All grey body and normal wing

 OBLIQUE

F1 test crossed : GL/gl X gl/gl

GL gl gl
G :
F2 Genotype :
GL/gl gl/gl
F2 Phenotype : grey body , black body
normal wing vestigial wing
F2 Genotypic ratio : 1 GL/gl : 1 gl/gl
F2 Phenotypic ratio : 1 grey body, : 1 black body,
normal wings vestigial wings
 EFFECT OF CROSSING OVER
On Linked Genes
Linked genes that located on the same chromosome
can be separated during crossing over between
non-sister chromatids of a pair of homologous
chromosome during prophase I of meiosis
 EFFECT OF CROSSING OVER
On Linked Genes
Crossing over:
 Occur during prophase I of meiosis
 Each homologous chromosome is separated at
the point of chiasma and exchange segments
with its homologous pair @ between non-sister
chromatids

Importance of crossing over:

 Increase genetic recombinations
 Increase genetic variations in populations
 Effect of linked genes with CROSSING OVER

Produces 4 types of gametes

 2 gametes of parental combination

 2 gametes of recombinant @ new genetic
combination (result of crossing over)

*Recombinant offspring are those that show

new combinations of the parental traits
Effect of linked genes on
dihybrid test cross ratio if
CROSSING OVER OCCUR
 Genetic diagram showing the effect of
linked genes on dihybrid test cross ratio if
CROSSING OVER OCCUR

Parent :
P:

Gametes :
G:

F1FF1genotypes:
Genotype
F1 :
1 genotypes :
F1 phenotypes : Gray body, black body, gray body, black body,
F1 Phenotype :
normal wing vestigial wing vestigial wing normal wing

offspring offspring
 4.2.5 SEX-LINKED GENES

Learning outcome:
Construct genetic diagram to show sex-
linked genes using haemophilia
 4.2.5 SEX-LINKED GENES
 A gene located on either sex chromosome is
called a sex-linked gene

 In human there are 23 pairs of

chromosomes
- 22 pairs of autosomes
- 1 pair of sex chromosomes
(for sex determination)
HUMAN KARYOTYPE
 4.2.5 SEX-LINKED GENES
 Sex determination on human based on X-Y
system
XX (Homogamete) – female
XY (Heterogamete) – male
 In males, Y chromosome is smaller
compared to X chromosome and carries so
few genes
Carry genes for development of reproductive
organs and male characteristics
 Males usually suffer the effects of sex-linked
gene diseases
Sex Determination in Human

XX

XY
 EXAMPLE OF SEX-LINKED GENES DISEASES

Genotype Phenotype
Haemophilia
XHXH Normal female

H – Normal XHXh Female carrier

h – Haemophilia XhXh Hemophiliac female

XHY Normal male
XhY Hemophiliac male

 Defective recessive allele of the gene that controls

the factor are located on the X chromosomes

 Defect of a factor for blood clotting

 Blood clot slowly
 Prolonged bleeding following injury
 Spontaneous bleeding
EXAMPLE OF SEX-LINKED GENES DISEASES
Haemophilia
 GENETIC DIAGRAM OF SEX-LINKED GENES

H = allele for normal Example 1

H = allele for haemophilia
Normal Haemophilic
Parent : XHXH X XhY

Gametes : XH Xh Y

F1 Genotype : XHXh XHY

F1 Genotypic ratio : 1 XHXh : 1 XHY

F1 Phenotypic ratio : 1 carrier female : 1 normal male
 GENETIC DIAGRAM OF SEX-LINKED GENES

H = allele for normal Example 2

H = allele for haemophilia
Carrier Haemophilic
Parent : XHXh X XhY

Gametes : XH Xh Xh Y

F1 Genotype : XHXh XHY XhXh XhY

F1 Genotypic ratio : 1 XHXh : 1 XHY : 1 XhXh : 1 XhY

F1 Phenotypic ratio : 1 carrier female : 1 normal male :

1 haemophilic female (fetal death) :
1 haemophilic male
References:

Campbell, N. A. & Reece, J.B. (2007). Biology 11th

Ed.), Pearson, The Benjamin Cummings
Publishing Company, Inc., 328-332.

Solomon, E.P., Berg, L.R. & Martin, D.W. (2008).

Biology (9th Ed.), Brooks Cole/Thompson, 249-
259.