2.

3 CELLS ARE GROUPED INTO TISSUES

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able
to;
a) Describe animal tissue and plant tissue
b) Explain the following types of cells and tissues:
i. Animal cells and tissue: epithelial cells (simple
squamous, simple columnar,stratifies squamous),
nerve cell (motor neuron) , muscle cells (smooth,
striated and cardiac muscle) connective tissues
(compact bone, hyaline cartilage and blood)
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 2.3 CELLS ARE GROUPED INTO TISSUES

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
ii. Plant cells and tissues: Meristem, parenchyma,
collenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem and phloem.

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 2.3 CELLS ARE GROUPED INTO TISSUES
Organ
system

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Cell Tissue Organ

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Organism
 2.3 CELLS ARE GROUPED INTO TISSUES

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 TISSUES, ORGANS AND ORGANS SYSTEMS
• Cell:
The basic unit of life
• Tissue:
A group of specialised cells that are similar in
structure and carry out a specific function.
• Organ:
Consists of different tissues grouped together and
coordinated to carry out one or more particular
functions.
• Organ system:
Consist of group of several different organs that work
together to perform a specific function
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 2.3.1 SPECIALIZED CELLS IN ANIMALS
Based on four fundamental tissues:

Epithelial tissues
Nervous tissues
Muscular tissues
Connective tissues

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 (1) EPITHELIAL TISSUES

GENERAL FEATURES
Cells are tightly arranged
• No intercellular space
Small volume of cytoplasm
Low metabolic rate
Regenerate throughout the life of the organism
Does not contain blood vessels
Cover the whole body - epidermis
Line body cavity/ coelom - mesoderm
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 EPITHELIAL TISSUES

SIMPLE STRATIFIED
EPITHELIUM EPITHELIUM

Simple squamous* Stratified squamous*

Simple cuboidal* Stratified cuboidal

Simple columnar* Stratified columnar

Pseudostratified
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CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES

Number of layers Cell shape

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 1. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

Structures
 Thin and flattened,
smooth free
surface

 Polygonal shape
(view from
surface) and
flattened nucleus

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 1. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
Distribution
 Covers vital organs – lining of
heart, air sacs of lung,
Bowman’s capsule, body
cavities, capillaries

Functions
 Exchange of nutrients, wastes
and gases by diffusion

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 2. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

Structures
 The cells are square or
cuboidal in shape
• Width = height, 5@6 sides

 Microvili present on
absorptive free surface

 Spherical nucleus in
centre
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 2. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

Distribution
 Lining of kidney tubules.
 Gland duct (e.g thyroid gland and
salivary gland)
Functions
 Absorption
 Secretion

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 3. SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
Structures
 The cell are column-shaped
 height > width, 5@6 sides
 Oval nucleus; located at the same level with other
nuclei in neighboring cells
 Usually nucleus located near the base of the cells

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 3. SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
Structures
 Have specialized mucus-
secreting cells called goblet
cell
 In respiratory tract mucus trap
dust or other particle

 In small intestine mucus act as

lubricant to facilitate the
movement of food and form
protective lining in small
intestine.
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 3. SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

Functions
 Absorption
 Secretion
 protection

TWO types:-
(i) Simple ciliated columnar epithelium (ciliated)
(ii) Simple columnar epithelium (non-ciliated)

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 3. SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
(i) Simple ciliated columnar epithelium (ciliated)
Distribution
 Lines upper respiratory tract such as
trachea, bronchiole and Fallopian tube

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 3. SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
(i) Simple ciliated columnar epithelium (ciliated)

Functions of cilia:
1) Trachea: capable
to move the mucus
to trap inhaled dirt,
bacteria and other
foreign particles.

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 3. SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
(i) Simple ciliated columnar epithelium (ciliated)

Functions of cilia:
2) Fallopian tube:
helps in propelling
eggs toward
uterus.

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 3. SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
(ii) Simple columnar epithelium(non-ciliated)
Distribution
 Lines the stomach and intestine
 Microvilli (protruding of plasma membrane) present on
free surface of intestine.

Function of microvilli :
 increase surface area for absorption

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 4. STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

Structure

Consists of multiple
layers with on free
surface being
squamous-shaped
and the underlying cells
being cuboidal/
columnar

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4. STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

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 4. STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

Distribution
Lining of mouth, tongue,
vagina, epidermis of skin and
oesophagus.
Function
Protection (against abrasion,
drying out)

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 (2) NERVOUS TISSUES
NERVE CELL @ NEURON

 Basic unit in nervous system is neuron

 Having structure and properties to conduct
electrical charge across its cell membrane.

 The nervous tissue consists of:

 Neurons (nerve cells) : transmit nerve
impulse
 Neuroglia (support cells) : nourish neurons,
insulates the axon of neurons and regulates
the extracellularBIOKMM2019/2020
fluid surrounding neurons.
NERVE CELL @ NEURON

Motor Neuron
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200x actual magnification
 STRUCTURE OF TYPICAL NEURON

dendron

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 STRUCTURE OF TYPICAL NEURON

Dendrites
Cell body Myelin sheath
Nodes of
Ranvier

Axon of Dendrites of
another neuron AxonBIOKMM2019/2020 another neuron
CLASSES OF NEUROGLIA

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 STRUCTURE OF NEURON

1) Cell body Cell body

• Shapes depend on the type Nucleus

Dendrites
of neuron Axon
• Like normal cells – has
plasma membrane and Myelin sheath

impulse
nucleus Nucleus of

• Has a lot of mitochondria, Schwann cell

Nodes of Ranvier
Golgi bodies, ER, ribosomes
• Has no centriole

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 STRUCTURE OF NEURON
2) Dendrites
• branches at the end of Cell body
dendrons Nucleus

• receive information from Axon

Dendrites

receptor/ impulse from

other neurons
Myelin sheath

impulse
3) Dendrons Nucleus of
• transmit impulse towards the Schwann cell
Nodes of Ranvier
cell body
4) Axons
• transmit impulse away from
the cell body
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 STRUCTURE OF NEURON
5) Schwann cells
• form a myelin sheath by insulating axons

** Myelin sheath protect & insulate nerve fibre; increase

rate of transmission of nerve impulse
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TYPES OF NEURON

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 TYPES OF NEURON : (i) SENSORY NEURON
• Transmits impulse from the receptor to the CNS
(brain and spinal cord)

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 TYPES OF NEURON : (ii) INTERNEURON

• Receives impulse from

the sensory neuron
and transmits it to the
motor neuron

• Some can generate

impulse and others
transmit impulse from
one to another

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 TYPES OF NEURON : (iii) MOTOR NEURON

• Transmits impulse from the CNS (brain and spinal

cord) to the effector (e.g. muscle and glands)

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 (3) MUSCLE TISSUES
• The major function is to produce motion.

• Types of muscle cells:

(i) Striated/ skeletal

muscle cells
(ii) Cardiac muscle
cells
(iii) Smooth muscle
cells

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(3) MUSCLE TISSUES

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 (i) STRIATED/ SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS

• An individual striated
muscle contains several
bundles of muscle fibres
bound by connective
tissues

• Each bundle consists of

hundreds of muscle
fibres surrounded by
endomysium
(connective tissue).

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 (i) STRIATED/ SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS

Structures:
• The muscle fibres are long,
cylindrical and parallel to
one another.

• One muscle fibre = one

muscle cell

• Each muscle fibre is

multinucleated (syncytium)
with the nuclei at their
periphery BIOKMM2019/2020
(i) STRIATED/ SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS

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 (i) STRIATED/ SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS
Structures:
• The membrane for muscle fibre is called
sarcolemma
• Its cytoplasm is sarcoplasm which contains many
mitochondria.

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 (i) STRIATED/ SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS
Structures:
• Each fibre is supplied with a motor nerve.
• Under the light microscope, each muscle fibre
shows a pattern of alternating dark and light bands
called striations.

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 (i) STRIATED/ SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS

Distribution:
• Attached to bones by
tendons

Function:
• Involve voluntary
(conscious) movements;
controlled by Central
Nervous System (CNS) as
in the movement of limbs

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 (ii) CARDIAC MUSCLE CELLS
Structures : Intercalated
• The muscle cells disc

connected to one another

by intercalated disks and
branch forming bridges
with one another.
– Intercalated disc:
• relay signal from cell
to cell during
heartbeat
• Prevent adjacent cell
from separating
during contraction.
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 (ii) CARDIAC MUSCLE CELLS
Structures : Intercalated
• The cell shape is disc

cylindrical and short

• Have one or two nucleus

and centrally located

• Have many
mitochondria

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 (ii) CARDIAC MUSCLE CELLS
Structures : Intercalated
• Striated disc

• The membrane for cardiac

fibre is called sarcolemma
•
• Cardiac fibre is not
supplied with motor nerves.

• Myogenic
– Has its own pacemaker to
generate impulse that is
transmitted across the
tissue before it contracts
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(ii) CARDIAC MUSCLE CELLS

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 (ii) CARDIAC MUSCLE CELLS

Distribution
• Only found in the wall of heart

Function
• Causes contraction of atria and ventricles of the
heart
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 (iii) SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS
Structures:
• Each fibre has a single
spindle-shaped cell
• Have one nucleus and
centrally located
• Arranged in layers/ strands
and not branched or attached
to the bones
• Sarcolemma is absent
• No striation
• Neurogenic (controlled by
autonomic nervous system)
• Contraction: slow but
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sustained
(iii) SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS

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 (iii) SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS
Distribution
• Can be found in the walls of arteries and veins, wall
of digestive tract, urinary bladder and uterus

Functions
• Involve involuntary action
• Eg: contract rythmically like peristalsis and can
produce waves of contraction
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MUSCLE TISSUES
Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscle

The cell shape is The cell shape is The cell shape is single
cylindrical elongated, cylindrical , short and spindle-shaped cells
unbranched & parallel to branched and unbranched
one another
Nucleus is several Have one or two Nucleus is single and
(multinucleated) and nucleus and centrally centrally located
peripherally located located
Cross striations present Cross striations present Cross striations absent
Intercalated disc is Intercalated disc is Intercalated disc is
absent present absent
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MUSCLE TISSUES
Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle Smooth muscle

Neurogenic (controlled Myogenic (autonomous Neurogenic (controlled

voluntarily via motor nervous system can by autonomic nervous
nerves from CNS) influence rate of system)
contraction)
Involves voluntary action Involves involuntary Involves involuntary
action action
Contraction is powerful Sustained rhythmical Contraction is slow but
and rapid contraction and relaxation sustained

Usually located attached Found in wall of hearts Found in the wall of

to skeleton, example in digestive tracts, bladder,
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muscle of limbs. blood vessels
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MUSCLE TISSUES

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 (4) CONNECTIVE TISSUES
Animal tissue that functions mainly to bind and
support other tissues; having a sparse population
of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix.

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 (4) CONNECTIVE TISSUES
Structures
• Most of their structure consists of non-living
extracellular materials (matrix)
• Physical properties of the matrix determine its type:
Solid matrix – bones & cartilage*
Fluid matrix – blood*
Semi-solid matrix – loose
• Gel-like matrix contains protein fibres (collagen;
elastin) & cells (macrophages; fat cells)
Distribution
• Found throughout the body under the skin and
linking organs and tissues
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 (A) BONES: COMPACT BONES

• Located in the shaft of

long bones; surround
the spongy bone of
flat @ short bone

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 (A) BONES: COMPACT BONES
Chemical composition
 A mineralized connective tissue –
hard, strong
 Consists of:
Living cells, osteoblasts
Collagen fibres
Inorganic substances:
• Calcium hydroxyapatite
crystals*
• Magnesium ions
• Sodium ions
• Chloride ions
• Hydrogen carbonate
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 (A) BONES: COMPACT BONES
Structures
• Made up of several cylinders
i.e. Haversian systems @ osteons

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Cross section of compact bone
 (A) BONES: COMPACT BONES
Structures
 Each osteon is made up of concentric circles,
lamellae
 Around a Haversian canal containing blood and
lymph vessels and nerve fibres

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 (A) BONES: COMPACT BONES
Structures

 Osteocyte (bone cells)

distributed in lacunae
(spaces between the
lamellae)
 Function of osteocyte:
Secrete and maintain the
bone matrix
 Lacunae connected to each
other by fine channels
containing cytoplasmic
strands, canaliculi
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 (A) BONES: COMPACT BONES

blood
vessel

canaliculi Lacuna

osteon

osteocyte
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(A) BONES: COMPACT BONES

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 (A) BONES: COMPACT BONES
Structures
• Formation of osteon:

 Osteoblasts deposit a matrix of collagen

 Ca2+, Mg3+ and phosphate ions combine and
harden within the matrix

 Calcium hydroxyapatite form the lamellae

• Osteoblasts become less active when they mature
known as osteocyte
• Function osteoblast: Secrete the bone matrix
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FORMATION OF OSTEOCYTE

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 (A) BONES: COMPACT BONES
Structures
• Volkmann’s canals connect the Haversian canals of
adjacent osteons of each other.

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 (A) BONES: COMPACT BONES
Functions
• Give body shape and provide
support
• Protect internal organs, e.g.
cranium, rib cage, vertebral
column
• Provide surface for attachment of
skeletal muscles enabling
movement
• Act as a reservoir for calcium
and phosphate
• Site for blood cell production
(in the bone marrow) BIOKMM2019/2020
 (A) BONES: SPONGY BONES

• Less compact, less strong

• Located at the end @ epiphysis of long bones*
• Contain bone marrow
• Can be found mostly in children bones

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(A) BONES: SPONGY BONES

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 (B) CARTILAGE

Types
i) Yellow elastic cartilage
• located in epiglottis

ii) White fibrous cartilage

• found in ligamentous capsule
surrounding joints.

iii) Hyaline cartilage **

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 (B) CARTILAGE: HYALINE CARTILAGE

A specialized connective tissue

Structures:

• Strong flexible and elastic

• Clear, bluish white
• No nerve/ blood vessels/
lymph vessels
• Exchange of material occurs
by with surrounding tissue

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 (B) CARTILAGE: HYALINE CARTILAGE
Structures:
• The matrix is chondrin
 made up of chondroitin sulfate and collagen
fibre
 forming flexible tissue (that does not stretch)
 secreted by cells called chondroblasts
• Mature cells called chondrocytes (enclosed in
spaces called lacunae)
Each lacuna may enclose
1,2, 4 or 8 chondrocytes

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 (B) CARTILAGE: HYALINE CARTILAGE
Structures:
• Chondrocytes are protected by an outer
perichondrium layer
• From here, new chondroblasts are produced

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 (B) CARTILAGE: HYALINE CARTILAGE
Functions:
• Provides flexible support and shock absorption
• Keeps bronchi, trachea to open
due to its elasticity and ability
to compress
• Covers the ends of bone and
reduces friction between joints
• Forms the embryonic skeleton in vertebrates
• Forms the skeleton in cartilaginous fish
(eg. sharks, rays, lampreys)
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 (B) CARTILAGE: HYALINE CARTILAGE
Distributions:
• Located on surfaces of
bones that form movable
joints

• Spinal discs, larynx, nose,

tracheal rings

• Most of embryonic
skeleton in vertebrates

• Skeleton in cartilaginous
fish (e.g. sharks, rays,
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lampreys)
 (C) BLOOD
Composition
 Plasma (55%)
• Liquid
• Plasma without fibrinogen
and blood clotting factors is serum

 Cellular elements (45%)

Three main types:
• Erythrocytes, the red blood cells
• Leukocytes, the white blood cells
• Thrombocytes, the platelets
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BLOOD COMPOSITION

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BLOOD COMPOSITION

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 ERYTHROCYTES
• Production occurs in the red marrow of bone
• Reddish – due to iron-containing protein called
haemoglobin that allows erythrocytes to bind
oxygen.
• Numerous blood cells (5 to 6 million per mm3)
• Life span: 120 days

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 ERYTHROCYTES
STRUCTURES:
• Biconcave disc shape (thinner in the center)
- Function: To increase surface area for effective
gaseous exchange

• Lack nuclei
- Function: To provide more space for hemoglobin
storage

• Lack organelles
e.g. no mitochondria

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 ERYTHROCYTES
FUNCTIONS :
• Major function is to carry respiratory gases,
oxygen and carbon dioxide
• Small size of erythrocytes and biconcave
shape:
• Create large surface area for the total
population of red blood cells.
• The greater the total area of red blood
cell, the more rapidly oxygen diffusion can
occur.

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 LEUKOCYTES
Divided into two groups:
1) Granulocytes 5 major types:
Contain cytoplasmic
granules

2) Agranulocytes
Do not contain
granules

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 LEUKOCYTES
FUNCTIONS:
• Main function is to fight infections in various ways

• Monocytes and neutrophils are phagocytes which

engulf and digest bacteria and debris from our own
dead cells

• Lymphocytes become specialized B cells and T

cells which produce the immune response
against foreign substances

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 PLATELETS @ THROMBOCYTES

• The platelets are fragments of cells: 2 – 3 µ in

diameter
• No nuclei
• Originate as pinched – off cytoplasmic fragments
of large cells in bone marrow
• Important in blood clotting
• Life span: 8-12 days

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 (C) BLOOD: FUNCTION
• TRANSPORT
• O2, CO2
• nutrients
• excretion
• enzymes
• hormones
• CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE
• Distribute heat throughout the body from active
organs/body parts
• BODY DEFENSE
• Blood clotting
• Immunity
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 (C) BLOOD: FUNCTION
• HOMEOSTASIS
• Control and balance of body internal environment
• water-salt balance
• osmotic pressure
• pH @ acidity
• REGULATION OF METABOLISM
• Distribute hormones to target organs

(C) BLOOD: DISTRIBUTION

Within heart and blood vessels of circulatory system
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 QUESTION 4

What properties do all types of epithelia

share?
estrogen and progesterone ive

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 REFERENCES

1. Jane B. REECE and etc. (2018). Campbell

Biology, 11th edition. Page 926 – 931.

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 2.3 CELLS ARE GROUPED INTO TISSUES

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Describe the following types of cells and tissues:
ii. plant cell and tissues:
meristem, parenchyma, collenchyma,
sclerenchyma, xylem and phloem.

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 PLANT TISSUES

MERISTEM TISSUES PERMANENT TISSUES

Ground Vascular Dermal

Tissues Tissues Tissues

Parenchyma Xylem Epidermis

Collenchyma Phloem Periderm

Sclerenchyma
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 MERISTEM TISSUES
Structures
• Thin cell wall
• Abundant and dense cytoplasm
• Small vacuoles
• Large nucleus

Typical structure of a
plant meristematic
cell
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 MERISTEM TISSUES
Structures
• Cells are relatively small
• Closely arranged
(lack intercellular space) due
to active mitotic activity

Functions
• High ability to divide to generate
additional cells (embryonic cell)
• Will differentiate to form
permanent tissue
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 MERISTEM TISSUES

 Three types :

i. Apical meristem
ii. Lateral meristem
iii. Intercalary meristem

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 i. APICAL MERISTEM
• At tip of roots and shoots and axillary buds
• Function : produce new cells for primary growth
(growth in length)
• Can be divided into three parts:
a) Protoderm
- give rise to epidermis
b) Procambium
- give rise to primary
vascular tissue
c) Ground meristem
- give rise to ground tissue

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Distribution: 1) The apical meristem in roots

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Distribution: 2) The apical meristem in shoots

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 ii. LATERAL MERISTEM
Function:
 Produce new cells for
secondary growth;
a) Vascular cambium:
- Give rise to secondary
vascular tissue (2°
xylem & phloem)
b) Cork cambium:
- Give rise to cork layer
(replace the epidermis
with thicker & tough
periderm in woody plants)
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ii. LATERAL MERISTEM

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 iii. INTERCALARY MERISTEM
Function:
 Produce new cells in
monocots (e.g. grass)

Distributions:
 Occurs between mature
tissue sections
 Near the stem
internodes/ leaf
attachments

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 PERMANENT TISSUES
Functions:
 Ground Tissue
•Supports and stores
Shoot System
 Vascular Tissue
• Conducting tissue

 Dermal Tissue
• Forms the skin
Root System

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 i. GROUND TISSUE

1. Parenchyma
2. Collenchyma
3. Sclerenchyma

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 i. GROUND TISSUE : 1) PARENCHYMA
Structures:
• have thin and flexible primary cell walls
(made up of *cellulose, hemicellulose & pectin)
 have a large central vacuoles

• living cells - have nucleus

• cells are loosely arranged with large intercellular
space

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 i. GROUND TISSUE : 1) PARENCHYMA
Distributions:
•In cortex of stems & roots
•In mesophyll of leaves
•In the pith of dicotyledon stem & leaf stalk
•Around vascular bundles in stem & leaf stalk

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 i. GROUND TISSUE : 1) PARENCHYMA
Functions:
• Sites of food storage, e.g. store starch in potato

• Photosynthesis occur because parenchyma cell

contain chloroplast

• Intercellular air spaces allows gaseous

exchange

• Differentiate into other specialized tissue:

epidermis, mesophyll, endodermis & pericycle

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i. GROUND TISSUE : 1) PARENCHYMA

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 i. GROUND TISSUE : 2) COLLENCHYMA
Structures:
 Elongated shape
 Unevenly thickened primary cell
wall
 thicker at the corner of the cell
 made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin
 Cells are closely packed with
little or no intercellular space
 Living cell – have nucleus

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 i. GROUND TISSUE : 2) COLLENCHYMA
Distributions:
 Under the epidermis of stems

 Under leaf venation

 Leaf petioles

 Midrib of the leaf

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 i. GROUND TISSUE : 2) COLLENCHYMA
Function:
 Provide flexible support in young parts of plant

and herbaceous plant/ non-woody plant

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i. GROUND TISSUE : 2) COLLENCHYMA

Celery

Collenchyma
Cell Walls
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 i. GROUND TISSUE : 3) SCLERENCHYMA
Structures:
 Rigid, supportive plant cell that lacks protoplast

 Evenly thickened secondary cell wall

containing lignin
- very hard and impermeable
to water
 Cells are very closely packed

with no intercellular space

 Small and empty lumen

(no living contents)

 Some have pits.

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 i. GROUND TISSUE : 3) SCLERENCHYMA
Structures:
 Dead at functional maturity (die at maturity);

- cell do not elongate

- cells die only until the tissues they support stop
growing
- no protoplasm when mature

Distribution:
 Regions of plant that have stop

growing in length.
e.g: outer region of cortex,
pericycle of root
BIOKMM2019/2020
 i. GROUND TISSUE : 3) SCLERENCHYMA
Function:
 Support and strengthen plant tissues (strength

and flexibility)
Two types:
 FIBRES STONE CELLS/SCLEREIDS

BIOKMM2019/2020
i. GROUND TISSUE : 3) SCLERENCHYMA

Pear

BIOKMM2019/2020
 SCLERENCHYMA : (I) FIBRES
• Long, slender and tapered
• Arrangement : in bundles/ layers
• Distributions:
- Beneath epidermis and in the bundle sheath of
monocot stem or leaves
- outside/ inside the phloem of dicot stem
• e.g. in hemp (ropes), flax (linen)

BIOKMM2019/2020
 SCLERENCHYMA : (I) FIBRES

Make rope (from hemp) and linen (from flax)

BIOKMM2019/2020
 SCLERENCHYMA :
(II) STONES CELLS/ SCLEREIDS
Structures:
• Shorter than fibres
• Irregular in shape
• Exist as layer/scattered

Distributions:
• Flesh of pear and ciku fruits: gritty texture
• Seed coat: protective layer of plum, olive
seeds and coconut shell
Function:
• Protect seed
BIOKMM2019/2020
 SCLERENCHYMA :
(II) STONES CELLS/ SCLEREIDS

BIOKMM2019/2020
 ii) VASCULAR TISSUES : 1) XYLEM

• Types of xylem :

Tracheid
Vessel Element
Xylem Parenchyma
Xylem Sclerenchyma
BIOKMM2019/2020
 ii) VASCULAR TISSUES : 1) XYLEM

Fibers

Perforated
End Walls

Pit
Vessel Tracheids
Element

BIOKMM2019/2020
 ii) VASCULAR TISSUES : 1) XYLEM
Tracheid and Vessel Element
Structures:
• Elongated and long tube (cylindrical)–shaped

• Has thick lignified secondary cell wall

• Dead cell at functional maturity

– xylem is dead cells (empty of cell
contents at maturity)
**Water can pass through the
empty lumens without being
• Walls are perforated by pits obstructed by living contents

– Water moves from cell to cell mainly through the

pits in tracheids BIOKMM2019/2020
 Xylem : (i) Tracheid
Structures:
• Longer and smaller
• Ends are more tapered, fitting those
on top and bottom

Xylem : (ii) Vessel element

• Shorter and wider
• Ends are less tapered;
• Have perforation plate at the end
of the cell
– Enable water to flow freely through
the vessels BIOKMM2019/2020
 Xylem : (ii) Vessel element

• The secondary walls of vessel elements are

thickened in various ways
• Five patterns of secondary walls deposition :

annular/ ring scalariform reticulate pitted

spiral/helix BIOKMM2019/2020
 ii) VASCULAR TISSUES : 1) XYLEM
Tracheid and Vessel Element
Distribution:
Tracheid
• Vascular bundles of Gymnosperms & Angiosperms

Vessel element
• Vascular bundles of Angiosperms

BIOKMM2019/2020
 ii) VASCULAR TISSUES : 1) XYLEM
Tracheid and Vessel Element

Functions: vessel tracheid

element
• Transport water and mineral
ions throughout the plant

• Provide structural support

BIOKMM2019/2020
QUESTION

Which type is more efficient?

Tracheid OR vessel element?

BIOKMM2019/2020
 ii) VASCULAR TISSUES : 1) XYLEM
Xylem Parenchyma
Structures:
• Similar to other parenchyma but smaller
• Young undifferentiated xylem, newly formed
from meristems
• Walls are not thickened/ lignified

Functions:
• Store starch in the form of granules
• Diffferentiate to form vessels and tracheids

BIOKMM2019/2020
 ii) VASCULAR TISSUES : 1) XYLEM
Xylem Sclerenchyma
Structures:
• Originated from old tracheids
• Looks like tracheid

Function:
• Mainly for support

BIOKMM2019/2020
 ii) VASCULAR TISSUES : 2) PHLOEM

 Types of Phloem

Sieve-Tube Element
Companion Cells
Phloem Parenchyma
Phloem Fibre

BIOKMM2019/2020
 ii) VASCULAR TISSUES : 1) PHLOEM
Sieve Tube Element
Structures:
• Elongated tubes
• Living cells at functional maturity
 Has protoplast BUT without nucleus,
ribosome and central vacuole
 Dependent on companion cell for functioning
• Perforated end wall called sieve plate

Distribution :
• Vascular bundle of Angiosperms and
Gymnosperms BIOKMM2019/2020
 ii) VASCULAR TISSUES : 1) PHLOEM
Sieve Tube Element
Function:
• Transport sugar and other organic nutrients to
other parts of plant

BIOKMM2019/2020
ii) VASCULAR TISSUES : 1) PHLOEM
Sieve Tube Element

BIOKMM2019/2020
 ii) VASCULAR TISSUES : 1) PHLOEM
Companion cells

Structures:
• Parenchyma cells that accompany sieve tubes
• Living cells at functional maturity
 Has nucleus, ribosome and many mitochondria
• Connected to sieve tubes by plasmodesmata

Distribution :
• Vascular bundle of Angiosperms

BIOKMM2019/2020
 ii) VASCULAR TISSUES : 1) PHLOEM
Companion cells
Functions:
• (At leaves) help to load sugar into sieve-tube
element
• Provide energy for active transport of sugar

BIOKMM2019/2020
 ii) VASCULAR TISSUES : 1) PHLOEM
Phloem Parenchyma

Structures:
• Placed together with other phloem tissue
• Structures are same with other parenchyma,
but smaller in size

Functions :
• Differentiate to form phloem cells
• Some remain as storage cells

BIOKMM2019/2020
 ii) VASCULAR TISSUES : 1) PHLOEM
Phloem Fibre/ Sclerenchyma
Structures:
• Structures are the same with other sclerenchyma
• Thick lignified walls; non-living cells

Function :
• Protect & support the thin-walled phloem cells

BIOKMM2019/2020
Phloem: Structure

BIOKMM2019/2020
 Phloem: Structure

Schlerenchyma
Cells

Sieve Plate
Sieve-tube
Element
Companion
Cell
BIOKMM2019/2020
Phloem and Xylem: Structure

BIOKMM2019/2020
 COMPARISON BETWEEN XYLEM AND PHLOEM
XYLEM PHLOEM
BOTH are complex tissues
BOTH provide structural support
Consists of tracheids and Consists of sieve tube and
vessel elements companion cells
Functions to transport water Functions to translocate
and mineral salts organic solute/ food materials/
sugar
Located in inner part of Located in outer part of
vascular system / bundle for vascular system / bundle for
dicotyledon plants dicotyledon plants

BIOKMM2019/2020
 QUESTION 4

How do xylem cells facilitate

long-distance transport?

BIOKMM2019/2020
 REFERENCES

1. Jane B. REECE and etc. (2018). Campbell

Biology, 11th edition. Page 809 – 823.

BIOKMM2019/2020
 2.4 CELL TRANSPORT
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to;
a) Overview the various transport mechanism across
the membrane.
b) Explain the various transport mechanism across
the membrane.
i. Passive transport. Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion
and osmosis.
ii. Active transport: sodium-potassium pump and bulk
transport ( Endocytosis and exocytosis)

BIOKMM2019/2020
 PASSIVE TRANSPORT

The diffusion of a substance across biological

membrane* with no expenditure of energy

*Biological membrane are selectively

permeable membrane

BIOKMM2019/2020
 PASSIVE TRANSPORT

TYPES OF
1) Simple 2) Facilitated
Diffusion
PASSIVE Diffusion
TRANSPORT

3) Osmosis

BIOKMM2019/2020
 1) SIMPLE DIFFUSION

DEFINITION
• The random movement of solute* from a
region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration
• through selectively permeable membrane
• until equilibrium is achieve
• without using energy

*Solute –hydrophobic, non-polar, small & gases

BIOKMM2019/2020
 1) SIMPLE DIFFUSION

[solute]

[solute]

e.g. O2 ,CO2, lipid soluble (e.g. steroid hormone)

BIOKMM2019/2020
 1) SIMPLE DIFFUSION

- Random movement of dye molecules will cause

some to pass through the pores from high
concentration to low concentration (down
concentration gradient).
- The solute molecules continue to cross the
membrane, until equilibrium
BIOKMM2019/2020 is achieved.
 1) SIMPLE DIFFUSION

- Solutions of two different dye are separated by a

membrane that is permeable to both.
- Each dye diffuses from high concentration to low
concentration (down its concentration
gradient) until equilibrium is achieved.
BIOKMM2019/2020
 1) SIMPLE DIFFUSION
The rate of diffusion depends on:
i. Concentration gradient
- the more concentrated the solute, the more
rapid the diffusion

ii. Distance of particle movement

- the shorter the distance, the more rapid the
diffusion

iii. Size and shape of molecule

- smaller molecule diffuse faster than larger
molecule BIOKMM2019/2020
 1) SIMPLE DIFFUSION
The rate of diffusion depends on:
iv. Temperature of solute
- as the temperature rises, the rate of diffusion
increases

v. Electrical charge or polarity

- non-polar (uncharged) solute molecule rapidly
diffuse than polarised (charged) molecule

BIOKMM2019/2020
 1) SIMPLE DIFFUSION
Examples of diffusion in living organism:
i. Gaseous exchange
Oxygen diffuses out from
alveoli into blood capillaries
Carbon dioxide diffuses into
alveoli from blood capillaries.

BIOKMM2019/2020
 1) SIMPLE DIFFUSION
Examples of diffusion in living organism:
ii. Some digested food diffuses across the gut
wall into blood

food

BIOKMM2019/2020
 2) FACILITATED DIFFUSION

DEFINITION
• Movement of ions or polar molecules from a
region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration
• with the help of transport proteins (channel OR
carrier proteins)
• without using energy

BIOKMM2019/2020
 2) FACILITATED DIFFUSION

A specific solute can be transported from the outside

to inside or inside to outside, but always from a
region of higher [solute] to a region of lower
[solute] BIOKMM2019/2020
 2) FACILITATED DIFFUSION

Modes of facilitated diffusion depends on the type of

transport protein:

BIOKMM2019/2020
 2) FACILITATED DIFFUSION:
TRANSPORT PROTEIN

Channel protein :
- provide a corridor
- allow specific polar molecules/ ions to across
membrane
- fast transport
- e.g. ions, water BIOKMM2019/2020
 2) FACILITATED DIFFUSION:
TRANSPORT PROTEIN

Carrier protein :
- specific binding site
- protein change conformation to translocate the
solute
- e.g. glucose, amino acids
BIOKMM2019/2020
 Channel protein for water: aquaporins

aquaporin

BIOKMM2019/2020
1. Two molecules that can cross a lipid bilayer
without help from membrane proteins are O2
and CO2. What property allows this to occur?

2. Why is a transport protein needed to move

water molecules rapidly and in large quantities
across a membrane?

BIOKMM2019/2020
 3) OSMOSIS

DEFINITION
• Movement of water molecules from a region of
high water potential to a region of low water
potential
• through selectively permeable membrane
• until equilibrium is achieved
• without using energy

BIOKMM2019/2020
 3) OSMOSIS

 

Water molecule can Water molecule cluster

pass through pores but around sugar
sugar cannot molecules
This side has fewer solute This side has more solute
molecules, more free molecules, fewer free
water molecules water molecules
BIOKMM2019/2020
 HYPERTONIC SOLUTION

 

crenated

Protoplast shrinks,
A solution in which membrane pulls
away
concentration of solute from cell wall

outside the cell is greater plasmolysed

than solute concentration Effect: water
inside the cell BIOKMM2019/2020 leave the cell
 ISOTONIC SOLUTION

  normal

A solution in which
concentration of solute flaccid
outside the cell is equal
with the concentration of
solute inside the cell
Effect: no net water
movement across the
BIOKMM2019/2020
plasma membrane
 HYPOTONIC SOLUTION

 
haemolysed

A solution in which the

turgid
concentration of solute
outside the cell is lower
than the concentration of
solute inside the cell Effect: water
BIOKMM2019/2020
enter the cell
 HYPERTONIC, HYPOTONIC, ISOTONIC
SOLUTIONS
[Solute] [Solute] Direction of
in solution A in solution B water
movement
H2O
MORE LESS B to A
(HYPERTONIC) (HYPOTONIC)
LESS MORE A to B
(HYPOTONIC) (HYPERTONIC)
SAME SAME No net water
(ISOTONIC) (ISOTONIC) movement
BIOKMM2019/2020
 CONCEPT OF WATER POTENTIAL

• Symbol for water potential: psi, 

• Unit: kiloPascals ( kPa )
= s + p

: water potential : tendency for water

molecules to enter or leave a solution
s : solute potential: force of attraction between
dissolved substances & water molecules in solution
p : pressure potential: an inward pressure
developed by cell wall (to limit further water uptake)
BIOKMM2019/2020
 WATER POTENTIAL, 

  predicts the direction in which water will flow

 Water molecules move from:

 hypotonic solution to hypertonic solution
 ↓ [solute] to ↑ [solute]

 ↑ to ↓

  for pure water at atmospheric pressure = 0 kPa

  for solution = < 0 kPa (negative)

 The greater the [water], the less –ve  value

BIOKMM2019/2020
 WATER POTENTIAL, 

Pure water Dilute solution Concentrated solution

 = 0 kPa  = -500 kPa  = -1000 kPa

no solute Pure water + solute Pure water + more solute

Water diffuses
BIOKMM2019/2020
 WATER MOVEMENT

Value of water potential Direction of

water
movement
0 kPa HIGHEST
(solution A) AB
-500 kPa LESS -VE AC
(solution B) BC
-1000 kPa MORE -VE
(solution C) (LOWEST)

BIOKMM2019/2020
 SOLUTE POTENTIAL,  S
 Solutes affect the direction of osmosis

When solutes are added, they bind to water

molecules. As a result, there are fewer free
water molecules, reducing the capacity of
water to move

 Increase in solutes has a -ve effect on 

 s value is always -ve

 The greater the [solute], the more -ve s value

BIOKMM2019/2020
 PRESSURE POTENTIAL,  P

 p is the physical pressure on a solution

 Occur due to the presence of cell wall

 p value is positive

BIOKMM2019/2020
 H 2O H 2O

Turgor pressure
Pressure potential (p)

Osmotic uptake of water will cause the cell

contents to press plasma membrane against the cell
wall (turgor pressure)
However cell wall pushes back with equal &
opposite force (pressure potential)
BIOKMM2019/2020
 Effects on Cells: HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
  cell <  solution
 Water move into cell by osmosis (from ↑ to ↓)
 Protoplast expands
Plant developing a turgor
Cells pressure
 Cell becomes turgid (firm)

Animal  Cell swells & bursts

Cells  Cell becomes lysed
** RBC becomes haemolysed
BIOKMM2019/2020
 Effects on Cells: HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
  cell >  solution
 Water move out of cell by osmosis (from ↑ to ↓)
 *Protoplast shrinks
Plant  Membrane pulls away from
Cells cell wall
 Cell becomes plasmolysed

Animal  Cell shrinks & becomes

Cells crenated

BIOKMM2019/2020
 Effects on Cells: ISOTONIC SOLUTION
  cell =  solution
No net water movement (i.e. water move into & out
of cell at same rate)
 Volume & size of cell remains unchanged

Plant  Cell becomes flaccid

Cells

Animal
Cells  Cell in normal condition
BIOKMM2019/2020
 3) OSMOSIS
EFFECTS ON CELLS: THE SUMMARY

BIOKMM2019/2020
 Animal cell in
a hypotonic and hypertonic solution

BIOKMM2019/2020
 Plant cell in
a hypotonic and hypertonic solution

BIOKMM2019/2020
 QUESTION 1

In the supermarket, produce is often sprayed

with water. Explain why this makes vegetables
look crips.

BIOKMM2019/2020
 QUESTION 2

s = -200 s = -250 B
A
kPa kPa

s = -300 s = -400 D
c
kPa kPa

The p for all cell above is 35kPa. Calculate the 

and show the direction of water. (4m)

BIOKMM2019/2020
A
s = -200 s = -250 B   cell A = -200 + 35
kPa kPa
= -165 kPa
s = -300 s = -400 D
c
kPa kPa   cell B = -250 + 35
= -215 kPa

A
 = -165
kPa
 = -215
kPa
B   cell C = -300 + 35
= -265 kPa
 = -265  = -365
c D
kPa kPa
  cell D = -400 + 35
= -365 kPa
BIOKMM2019/2020
 QUESTION 3

A : s -250 kPa
B : s -300kPa
 -120kPa

a) Calculate the p for B and  for A.

b) Show the direction of water in this tube.
BIOKMM2019/2020
 A : s -250 kPa
p A = 0 kPa
B : s -300kPa
 -120kPa
 A = -250 kPa  A = -120 kPa

 p B =  - s
= -120 + 300
= 180 kPa

 A = -250 + 0
= -250 kPa
BIOKMM2019/2020
 QUESTION 4

solution solution : s -300 kPa

Cell
cell : s -120kPa
p 20kPa

a) Calculate the  for cell and solution.

b) Show the direction of water.
c) Describe what happen to the cell after it
immersed in the solution.
BIOKMM2019/2020
 solution : s -300 kPa

solution cell : s -120kPa

p 20kPa
Cell

 cell = -120 + 20  Cell become

= -100 kPa plasmolyzed
  solution= -300 + 0
= -300 kPa
BIOKMM2019/2020
 QUESTION 5

solution solution : s -120 kPa

cell : s -240kPa
Cell

a) Calculate the  for cell and solution.

b) What happen to the cell in terms of water
potential.
c) State the p for the cell. Give one reason for
your answer. BIOKMM2019/2020
  Water moves from
solution (↑ ) into cell
solution (↓ )
Cell
 Cell lysed/ burst

 cell = -240 + 0  p of cell is 0 kPa

= -240 kPa  Because no cell wall
  solution= -120 + 0
= -120 kPa
BIOKMM2019/2020
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
DEFINITION
Movement of large polar/ionic
molecules against concentration
gradient by using energy from ATP
and carrier/transport protein

**Aided by protein pump which

has specific binding site
e.g. sodium-potassium pump
BIOKMM2019/2020
 1) SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP

• Protein pump has 2 specific binding sites

 Na+ binding site
 K+ binding site

 Outside cell : high [ Na+ ] & low [ K+ ]

 Inside cell : low [ Na+ ] & high [ K+ ]
 Pumped out : 3 Na+
 Pumped in : 2 K+

BIOKMM2019/2020
 1) SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP
Outside cell :
[ Na+ ] , [ K+ ]

3 Na+ expelled

K+
Na+ Binding
Binding site
site

2 K+ released

Inside cell :
• pumped out : 3 Na+ [ Na+ ] , [ K+ ]
• pumped in : 2 K+ BIOKMM2019/2020
1) SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP

BIOKMM2019/2020
 1) SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP

1. Na+ binds to protein pump. The affinity for Na+

high when protein at this shape.
BIOKMM2019/2020
 1) SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP

2. Na+ binding stimulates phosphorylation of

protein by ATP
• Phosphorylation is transferring terminal phosphate group
to protein pump by ATPBIOKMM2019/2020
 1) SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP

3. Phosphorylation causes protein pump to

change its conformation
 reducing its affinity for Na+
 release Na+ to the outside of the cell
BIOKMM2019/2020
 1) SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP

4. The new shape has high affinity for K+, allow it to

bind to protein pump from the extracellular side
 triggers the release of phosphate group from
the protein BIOKMM2019/2020
 1) SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP

5. Release of phosphate group causes protein

pump to restore its original conformation,
which has lower affinity for K+
BIOKMM2019/2020
 1) SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP

6. K+ are released into the cell

 the affinity for Na+ is high again
 the cycle repeats BIOKMM2019/2020
1) SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP

BIOKMM2019/2020
 2) BULK TRANSPORT

• Large molecules cross the membrane in bulk via

vesicles especially in animal cell; requires
energy

• 2 types of bulk transport:

1. Endocytosis
2. Exocytosis

BIOKMM2019/2020
 ENDOCYTOSIS
• Influx of material into cell through invagination of
plasma membrane from outside of the cell to the
cytoplasm
• Two types: phagocytosis & pinocytosis

BIOKMM2019/2020
 ENDOCYTOSIS: i) Phagocytosis

Large solid substance

e.g. Bacteria is engulfed by macrophage /

phagocytic cell BIOKMM2019/2020
ENDOCYTOSIS: i) Phagocytosis
1. Solid substances are taken
into cell by invagination of
plasma membrane and
formation of pseudopodium.
2. Solid particles enclosed in
vesicle forming phagosome /
food vacuole/ phagocytic
vacuole.
3. The vacuole fuse with
lysosome.Intracellular
digestion occur.The digested
materials are absorbed by
cells.
BIOKMM2019/2020
 ENDOCYTOSIS: ii) Pinocytosis

e.g. Taking in dissolved solutes by absorptive

cells of the kidney and intestines
BIOKMM2019/2020
 ENDOCYTOSIS: ii) Pinocytosis

1. Dissolved 2. Plasma 3. The contents of

materials are membrane of pinocytic vesicles
taken into cell microvilli fuse are directly
together & pinch off absorbed into
inside cell forming cytosol
pinocytotic vesicle
BIOKMM2019/2020
 EXOCYTOSIS
• Cell egest or secrete substance from cytoplasm
of the cell to the outside

e.g. Secretion of hormone insulin into the

bloodstreamBIOKMM2019/2020
by pancreatic cells
EXOCYTOSIS
1. Secretory vesicle moves to
plasma membrane

2. The vesicle fuse with

plasma membrane -
membrane of vesicle become
part of plasma membrane

3. Contents of vesicle is
released to the outside of cell

BIOKMM2019/2020
 EXOCYTOSIS

Secretory vesicle containing insulin in an islet -cell of

the pancreas. One of the granules is being exocytosis.
BIOKMM2019/2020
 QUESTION 4

As a cell grows, its plasma membrane

expands. Does this involve endocytosis or
exocytosis? Explain.

BIOKMM2019/2020
 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN
PHAGOCYTOSIS AND PINOCYTOSIS
• Both describe the taking of substances into a
cell through infolding of the cell membrane
and the formation of vesicles.
• Both processes require ATP.

BIOKMM2019/2020
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
PHAGOCYTOSIS AND PINOCYTOSIS
PHAGOCYTOSIS
Material taken in is large
particulate (food) or
fragments/ bacteria /solid
substance
Involves formation of food
vacuole/
phagosome/phagocytic
vacuole.
Involves formation of
pseudopodium
PINOCYTOSIS
Material taken in is small
particulate or solutes/ liquid/
fluid
Involves formation of small
vesicle
does not involves the
formation of pseudopodium.

BIOKMM2019/2020
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
PHAGOCYTOSIS AND PINOCYTOSIS
PHAGOCYTOSIS PINOCYTOSIS
Materials are digested and Materials/ dissolved
absorbed into cytoplasm substance/ fluid are absorbed
directly into cytoplasm
Involve lysosome Does not involve lysosome

BIOKMM2019/2020
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
PASSIVE TRANSPORT AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT
PASSIVE TRANSPORT ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Molecule moves from Molecule moves from
higher concentration to lower concentration to
lower concentration/ higher concentration/
down concentration against concentration
gradient gradient
Does not require Require energy/ATP
energy/ATP
e.g. Osmosis/ simple e.g. Sodium-potassium
diffusion/ facilitated pump/ exocytosis/
diffusion endocytosis
BIOKMM2019/2020
PASSIVE TRANSPORT AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT

BIOKMM2019/2020
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
FACILITATED DIFFUSION AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT

FACILITATED DIFFUSION ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Molecule moves from Molecule moves from
higher concentration lower concentration
gradient to lower gradient to higher
concentration/ down concentration/ against
concentration gradient concentration gradient
Does not require Require energy/ATP
energy/ATP
Movement of small sized Movement of small and /
polar molecule or large sized polar
molecule
BIOKMM2019/2020
 REFERENCES

1. Jane B. REECE and etc. (2018). Campbell

Biology, 11th edition. Page 196 – 211.

BIOKMM2019/2020