E-Book CEPAN - Forest Landscape Restoration and Social Opportunities in The Tropical World

Severino R. R. Pinto, Fabiane C.
Santos,
and Cindy Prescott (Editors)
Forest
Landscape
Restoration
and Social Opportunities
in the Tropical World
FOREST LANDSCAPE RESTORATION AND
SOCIAL OPPORTUNITIES IN THE TROPICAL
WORLD
Severino R. R. Pinto, Fabiane C. Santos,
and Cindy Prescott (Eds.)
2020
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Severino R. Ribeiro Pinto
Fabiane Carolyne Santos Cover Illustration
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We thank all the authors and
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Laura Rydlewski
Ricardo Gomes César
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Forest Landscape Restoration: Social

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(Câmara Brasileira do Livro, SP, Brasil)
Opportunities in the Tropical World Forest landscape restoration [livro eletrônico] :

by Centro de Pesquisas Ambientais social opportunieties in the tropical world /
[editors] Fabiane Carolyne Santos , Severino
do Nordeste is licensed under CC BY- R. Ribeiro Pinto and Cindy E. Prescott. -- 1. ed.
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visit https://creativecommons.org/ ISBN 978-65-87648-02-6
licenses/by-nc/4.0 1. Conservação da natureza 2. Ecologia 3. Meio

ambiente 4. Preservação ambiental 5. Sustentabilidade
ambiental I. Santos, Fabiane Carolyne. II. Pinto,
Severino R. Ribeiro. III. Prescott, Cindy E.
21-54022 CDD-304.2
Índices para catálogo sistemático:
1. Sustentabilidade ambiental : Ecologia 304.2
Aline Graziele Benitez - Bibliotecária - CRB-1/3129

ABOUT THE EDITORS
Severino Rodrigo Ribeiro Pinto has a Post-Doctorate in

Plant Biology by the Federal University of Pernambuco
(UFPE), Brazil. Currently, he is the President Director
of the Northeast Center for Environmental Research
(Cepan) and Visiting Professor at the University of British
Columbia (UBC). Dr. Pinto has over 15 years of experience
in the themes of ecological restoration, ecology of plant
communities, environmental services and capacity
development.
Fabiane Carolyne Santos has a MSc. in Forest Sciences

by the Federal Rural University of Pernambuco (UFRPE)
and is certified in Tropical Forest Landscape Conservation,
Restoration & Sustainable Use by the Yale School of the
Environment. She is Project Analyst at the Northeast
Center for Environmental Research (Cepan) and her main
expertises are human disturbances in natural environments;
ecology, conservation and restoration of forest landscapes;
geoprocessing, and scientific communication.
Cindy E. Prescott is professor of Forest Ecology in the

Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, Faculty
of Forestry at the University of British Columbia (UBC),
and Editor of Forest Ecology and Management. Dr.
Prescott’s forest soils research has focused on nutrient
cycling, decomposition, forest nutrition, and soil and forest
restoration, with over 120 published jornal papers in the
themes above. Dr. Prescott received the Canadian Forestry
Scientific Achievement Award in 2005 and a Honourary
Doctorate from the University of Helsinki in 2014.
LIST OF AUTHORS
Adriano Tamm - Instituto Internacional Camilo Correa-Ayram - Instituto de

para Sustentabilidade (IIS) Investigacíón de Recursos Biológicos
Alexander Von Humbolt
Agnieszka E. Latawiec - Instituto
Internacional para Sustentabilidade Camilo Garzón - Instituto de
(IIS) Investigacíón de Recursos Biológicos
Alexandre Bonesso Sampaio - Instituto
Chico Mendes de Conservação da Carlos Hernando Rodríguez
Biodiversidade (ICMBio) León - Instituto Amazónico de
Investigaciones Científicas (Sinchi)
Aline F. Rodrigues - Instituto
Internacional para Sustentabilidade Célia Marciano da Silva - Centro de
(IIS) Informação e Assistência Técnica
Ana Margarida Castro Euler - Empresa Clarita Bustamante - Instituto de
Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária Investigacíón de Recursos Biológicos
(Embrapa) Alexander Von Humbolt
André Salgado de Andrade Sandim Claudomiro Almeida Cortes -
- Universidade de Trás-os-Montes Associação Cerrado de Pé
(UTAD)
Daniel Luis Mascia Vieira - Embrapa
Andrea García - Instituto de Recursos Genéticos e Biotecnologia
Investigacíón de Recursos Biológicos
Daniel Oliver Franco - Universidade
Federal de São Carlos (UFSCar)
Andrew Zacharias – Trees for the
Danilo Ignacio Urzedo - University of
Future (TREES)
Sydney (USyd)
Angela Maria da Silva Mendes -
Diego Caicedo - Instituto Amazónico
Universidade Federal do Amazonas
de Investigaciones Científicas (Sinchi)
(UFAM)
Diego Solidera - Cooperativa de
Antonia Buchard-Levine - Ecosia
Produtores Rurais do Observatório
Augusto Borges - Energia Sustentável Ambiental Jirau –(COOPPROJIRAU)
do Brasil S.A. (ESBR)
Dione Solidera - Cooperativa de Internacional para Sustentabilidade
Produtores Rurais do Observatório (IIS)
Ambiental Jirau –(COOPPROJIRAU)
Jimena Valero Garay - Instituto
Eduardo Malta Campos Filho - Amazónico de Investigaciones
Instituto Socioambiental (ISA) Científicas (Sinchi)
Eliane Ceccon - Universidad Nacional Joaquim José de Freitas Neto - Centro
Autónoma de México (UNAM) de Pesquisas Ambientais do Nordeste
(Cepan)
Ernest G. Foli - CSIR-Forestry
Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG) John Leary - Trees for the Future
(TREES)
Fabiane Carolyne Santos - Centro de
Pesquisas Ambientais do Nordeste Jonatan Julián Diaz Timoté - Instituto
(Cepan) de Investigacíón de Recursos
Biológicos Alexander Von Humbolt
Fagno Reis - Cooperativa de
Produtores Rurais do Observatório José Almir Jacomelli Junior -
Ambiental Jirau –(COOPPROJIRAU) Fundação Renova
Fatima C.M. Piña-Rodrigues- Juliana Muller Freire - Empresa
Universidade Federal de São Carlos Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária
(UFSCar) (Embrapa)
Felipe Marauê Marques Tieppo Katarzyna A. Korys - Instituto
-Fundação Renova Internacional para Sustentabilidade
(IIS)
Gustavo Mariano Rezende
-Autonomous Consultant Kathleen Buckingham - World
Resources Institute (WRI)
Haruna Abukari - CSIR-Forestry
Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG) Kwame A. Oduro - CSIR-Forestry
Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG)
Ingrid Pena - Instituto Internacional
para Sustentabilidade (IIS) Larissa Monteiro Rafael - Universidade
Federal de Sergipe (UFS)
Isabel Belloni Schmidt - Universidade
de Brasília (UnB) Leandro Luiz Ferreira - Fundação
Renova
Isabela Salton - Instituto Terra
Leonardo Andrade Pimenta -
Itajacy Kishi - Cooperativa de
Fundação Renova
Produtores Rurais do Observatório
Ambiental Jirau –(COOPPROJIRAU) Lindsay Cobb - Trees for the Future
(TREES)
Jeferson Leal Silva - Fundação Renova
Maiara S. Mendes - Instituto
Jennifer Andrade - Instituto
Internacional para Sustentabilidade (IIS)
Manuel de Jesus Vieira Lima Junior Tiago Miranda Mendes - Centro de
- Universidade Federal do Amazonas Formação Francisca Veras (CFFV)
(UFAM)
Will Anderson - World Resources
Marcos Vinicius Meiado - Universidade Institute (WRI)
Wilmer Marin - Autonomous
Mauricio Aguilar-Garavito - Instituto Consultant
de Investigación de Recursos
Wilson Ramírez - Instituto de
Biológicos Alexander Von Humbolt
Paola Isaacs-Cubides - Instituto de Alexander Von Humbolt
Investigación de Recursos Biológicos
Yuri de Carvalho - Instituto
Internacional para Sustentabilidade
Pieter van Midwoud - Ecosia (IIS)
Raphaela Aguiar Castro - Universidade
Reginald T. Guuroh - CSIR-Forestry
Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG)
Renato Garcia Rodrigues -
Universidade Federal do Vale do São
Francisco (Univasf)
René Zamora Cristales - World
Resources Institute (WRI)
Rodrigo Gravina Prates Junqueira -
Instituto Socioambiental (ISA)
Severino Rodrigo Ribeiro Pinto -
Centro de Pesquisas Ambientais do
Nordeste (Cepan); Universidade de
British Columbia (UBC)
Shalom D. Addo-Danso - CSIR-
Forestry Research Institute of Ghana
(FORIG)
Silvia Vejarano-Rivadeneira - World
Wide Fund for Nature
Tatiana Rojas-Rueda - Instituto de
PREFACE
Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) presents a tremendous opportunity to

recover degraded lands across the planet. FLR is distinct from other restoration
approaches in that it seeks to restore the ecological functionality of the
ecosystems and improve the social and economic well-being of the human
inhabitants. Tropical regions house the greatest natural capital in the world,
but also some of the most urgent socioeconomic problems. Land is a scarce
resource for millions of people living in the tropics, and land conflicts can
alienate communities from nature and cause conservation and restoration
programs to fail. For FLR to succeed in this context, it must both increase forest
coverage and generate social and economic opportunities.
Much of the scientific effort for FLR has been related to landscape planning —
generating predictive models and analyses for prioritizing areas to be restored
on country- and region-wide scales. Parallel studies generate data to monitor
legal compliance, for example, with international agreements that have
restoration targets. However, for FLR to succeed in these challenging situations,
a sound understanding of the human and social context must be embedded in
FLR planning.
The intrinsic relationships between people and landscapes implores us to
view landscapes as socioecological systems that must meet the essential
needs of people for food, water, and energy security. FLR planning, therefore,
requires a solid, place-based understanding of cultures, traditions, knowledge,
and relationships with the land. The planning process must consider local
communities’ knowledge and desires and treat these people as critical
participants in designing landscapes that will work for current and future
inhabitants. FLR plans incorporating the needs and motivations of the human
population, as well as the restoration goals and targets, have the greatest
potential for successfully restoring thriving communities and landscapes.
This book, Forest Landscape Restoration and Social Opportunities in the
Tropical World, presents social and human dimensions as key elements in the
planning and execution of FLR projects. Exploring examples and case studies
from many tropical countries, the book conveys the current state-of-the-art for
best managing the social and economic aspects of FLR to achieve FLR targets
and improve people’s quality of life.
This book has been written by FLR researchers and practitioners from around
the world, addressing the frameworks, technologies, networks, productive
chains, and numerous social and economic co-benefits arising from establishing
FLR programs in tropical landscapes.
We hope this book will be an inspiring read for students, scientists, educators,
practitioners and enthusiasts and that it will contribute to the success of FLR
programs in the tropics.
Cindy Prescott
Fabiane Santos
Severino Pinto
SUMMARY
01 Forest Restoration in Times of Crisis:
Opportunities and challenges in the human dimension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
02 Forest Landscape Restoration implementation in Ghana as a
socioeconomic opportunity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
03 Political, social, and economic research of soil
ecosystem services to support smallholders
while restoring Brazilian Atlantic Forest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
04 How mapping the social landscape can

accelerate forest and landscape restoration:
Case studies from Chile and Honduras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
05 Portfolio of ecological restoration opportunities
prioritized for the Colombian Amazon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
06 Challenges and perspectives for recovering
socioecological systems in the Caatinga,
a Brazilian tropical dry forest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
07 New financial opportunities for upscaling
ecological restoration and maximizing social benefits:
The partnership between Ecosia
and the Atlantic Forest Restoration Pact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
08 Eliminating hunger and poverty through

regenerative agroforestry training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
09 Native forest seeds as an income generator
within the Forest Landscape Restoration chain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
10 Cerrado de Pé Association:
Community engagement promoting ecological restoration
and local livelihoods in the neotropical savanna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
11 Xingu Seed Network:
Socioeconomic impacts and community benefits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
12 How a company is restoring its 3,000 hectares
of forest liability and supporting local communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
13 Disaster management and new opportunities
for developing forest landscape restoration in
the Atlantic Forest of Brazil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
01
FOREST
RESTORATION
IN TIMES OF
CRISIS:
Opportunities and
challenges in the human
dimension
back to
summary
FOREST
01 RESTORATION IN
TIMES OF CRISIS:
Opportunities and challenges in
the human dimension
Eliane Ceccon
1. INTRODUCTION to shift paradigms to confront, and

adapt human activities to this new
socioecological reality.
Unquestionably, the degradation
Ironically, this environmental crisis
of land and ecosystem services
has presented several opportunities
drastically impacts human quality of
for ecological restoration. First,
life, especially among those living in
many countries have demonstrated
rural areas. Climate change will also
a strong political will for achieving
affect the planet for several centuries,
ambitious restoration objectives, such
even if emissions are substantially
as reestablishing 350 million hectares
reduced or stopped altogether (WTO
of forest cover by 2030 (Bonn-
2009). In this context, Higgs et al.
Challenge 2018). The second grand
(2014) assert that restoration ecology
opportunity is the so-called “decade
should use historical knowledge
of ecosystems restoration (2021 to
as a guide rather than as a model,
2030),” declared by the United Nations
and strategies should be based
(UN) and the Food and Agriculture
on multiple, process-emphasized
Organization of the United Nations
trajectories for ecosystems (e.g.,
(FAO), which will advocate for the
functioning and resilience) over
restoration of 350 million hectares
structure (i.e., reference ecosystem).
throughout the world (MARN 2019).
Therefore, in the face of an imminent
The main objectives of this initiative
environmental crisis, society will need
are the cooperation and mobilization
12
Forest Landscape Restoration And Social Opportunities In The Tropical World
of the financial sectors to provide prevalent in present economic models

funds to productive activities and, at and is one of the most important
the same time, create awareness of the causes of ecosystem degradation
importance of functional ecosystems (Cross et al. 2019). These issues are
for human wellbeing (UN 2020). why certain restored ecosystems are
quickly converted to alternative land
In the same optimistic vein as this
uses (Reid et al. 2017). Several authors
restoration decade, Bastin et al. (2019)
have considered that these models
have mapped the global potential tree
mainly fail because society–nature
coverage and found that – excluding
paradigms remain the same (Jordan
existing trees, as well as agricultural
III 2003; Leopold 2004; Higgs 2005;
and urban areas – there is space to
Gross 2006; Egan et al. 2011; Higgs
recover 0.9 billion hectares, which
2011; Cross et al. 2019; Pérez et al.
could store 205 gigatons of carbon
2019, Ceccon et al. 2020). If these
in areas that would naturally support
paradigms are not shifted, restoration
woodlands and forests. However, these
will only be a metaphorical “band-
upbeat values have been challenged
aid” across degraded ecosystems
by five other papers published in
– i.e., a superficial cure to a serious
the same journal (Science). For
disease – but it will not guarantee the
example, Holl (2019) states that,
persistence of the restored areas in the
instead of an increase in forest cover,
future.
recent evidence suggests that the
deforestation rate is increasing in Including the human dimension in
several parts of the world, such as restoration is an inevitable process,
in Brazil under Bolsonaro’s current since its goals and practices are
administration and in other areas value-filled activities involving human
where the forest cover has begun to perceptions, beliefs, emotions,
recover and is being cleared again for knowledge, and behaviors (Higgs
human use. Holl (2019) also argues 2011). The practice of ecological
that carbon sequestration efforts restoration also presents a dynamic
should focus on maintaining existing series of issues and uncertainties,
forests, as restoring them is more which require ongoing learning and
challenging and costly. negotiation instead of a unique
solution for a single problem. In short,
Other authors have criticized the
ecological restoration must be a
current UN-FAO restoration model
humanistic project, aiming to reach
of productivity-based or repair
new human values regarding nature.
technology because it neglects the
conservation of biodiversity and does At the same time, based on the
not address the need to change the available geospatial resources
current neoliberal scenario, such as obtained by Garnet et al. (2018),
the lack of social justice, which is indigenous people manage or have
13
tenure rights over at least ~38 million tools for organizing key aspects and
km2 in 87 countries or the politically actors in these complex systems while
distinct areas of all inhabited helping decision-makers recognize the
continents. This area represents over importance of the human dimension in
a quarter of the world’s land surface ecological restoration.
and intersects approximately 40%
Building from this background, the
of all terrestrial protected areas and
main objectives of this chapter were:
ecologically intact landscapes (e.g.,
i) to analyze important aspects
boreal and tropical primary forests,
of the human dimension in forest
savannas, and marshes). In Latin
restoration projects; ii) to propose a
America, indigenous people have
conceptual socioecological model
historically been the poorest and
that, in addition to establishing an
most excluded social actors. They
ecological restoration project, could
have faced acute discrimination, not
also promote social capital, equity, and
only in terms of their basic rights to
justice in local rural communities; and
their ancestral properties, languages,
iii) to present a case study carried out
cultures, and forms of governance, but
with an indigenous non-governmental
also in terms of access to basic social
organization (NGO) in Mexico using the
services (Davis, 2002). Therefore,
aforementioned socioecological model
these autochthonous communities,
and participatory action-research
many times, are important decision-
methodology.
makers regarding ecological
restoration, and their participation
in projects is unavoidable. All 2. WHY IS THE HUMAN DIMENSION
stakeholders should be involved in IMPORTANT IN FOREST RESTORATION
the restoration process, from the PROJECTS?
planning phase forward, to establish
broad and diverse social participation.
This approach would create synergy The Institute for Social Participation
between scientific and traditional refers to social participation as a
ecological knowledge and facilitate significant involvement in the planning
mutual learning among participants and execution of projects, seeking
(i.e., knowledge dialogue) (Leff 2010). personal and community wellbeing.
Thus, combining the ecological According to this Institute, three
and human dimensions in forest components are central to helping
restoration projects requires a people experience determined modes
systematic approach that recognizes of social engagement: i) social capital
the complex interactions between and social inclusion; ii) the individual’s
both dimensions (Peralta et al. 2014). human rights to experience various
Socioecological models are invaluable modes of engagement in all aspects
14
of society; and iii) the societal Wenger 1991; Wenger 1998).

responsibility to provide conditions
Social participation is an important
necessary for the above (Bathgate and
tool for the challenging next decade
Romious 2011).
(2021–2030), which will consist of
In forest restoration projects, “socially constructing” the forest
social participation can strengthen restoration in society. This “social
perceptions of the legitimacy of construction” refers to people
decisions at the local community level and groups interacting in a social
and facilitate project implementation system through which they create
and persistence (Muro and Jeffrey concepts or mental representations
2008). The process can also build of a determined action over time.
and strengthen relationships through These concepts eventually become
trust, reciprocity, and norms inside the habitual among actors and even
community (social capital) (Durston institutionalized. Thus, the meaning of
and López 2006). In addition, native concept, in the process, is embedded
people usually have a wealth of in society. Any reality can, therefore,
knowledge, beliefs, and conservation be socially constructed (Berger
values about their ecosystems, and Luckman 2011). As with other
which is fundamental for managing environmental issues facing humanity
resources at the local level (Stevens (e.g., climate change), it is possible to
1997; Bennet 2016). socially construct forest restoration
as a solution to the degradation
Thus, for social participation to be
of natural ecosystems and as a
effective, it is important to ensure
possible alternative for restoring the
knowledge exchange, especially in
relationship between society and
the planning phase, which allows
nature (Castro Nogueira et al. 2005;
the “communities of practice” to
Lindig-Cisneros and Lindig Cisneros
develop “social learning” (Wenger
2017).
1998; Maarleveld and Dangbegnon
2002; Pahl-Wostl and Hare 2004; To point out that the ideas about more-
etc.). These communities of practice than-human nature are culturally
are formed by people engaged in a determined, some authors (e.g., Eder
process of collective learning – in a 1996; Hannigan 2014) have considered
shared domain of human endeavor the important human dimensions in
(Wenger 1998). Social learning is a the process of socially constructing
process of social change in which nature. From my point of view, a social
people learn “from each other” so that construction of forest restoration
they can benefit from wider social and must include scientific knowledge,
ecological systems (Wenger 1998) a strong cognitive component (e.g.,
and benefit from social participation education based on restoration, social
in community practices (Lave and participation through communities
15
of practice), “popularizers” of [SER 2004; McDonald et al. 2016], the

forest restoration as a solution to forest landscape restoration principles
environmental degradation, laws and [WRI 2019]), still fall short in their
norms (imposed by governments or recommendations for including the
society), and epistemic networks. social dimension in project planning,
Thus, the social construction of forest implementation, and monitoring.
restoration is an important component The only notable exception is the
of solving the current socioecological “Practitioner’s Guide for Implementing
crisis in the media, the political and Forest Landscape Restoration
educational systems, academia, and (FLR)” from the International Union
daily life. of Forest Research Organizations
(IUFRO). This guide contains a module
concerning forest governance and
3. A CONCEPTUAL SOCIOECOLOGICAL other communications about FLR
MODEL FOR ENHANCING THE HUMAN project results (Stanturf et al. 2017).
DIMENSION IN FOREST RESTORATION Therefore, restoration projects must
PROJECTS improve their social management
and analysis tools. For this reason,
a socioecological conceptual model
Despite recognition of how important could help evaluate uncertainties
the human dimension is to forest in projections and identify social
restoration, several codes of good participation factors requiring
practices and international manuals improvement in forest restoration
worldwide (e.g., the primer of the projects (Figure 1).
Society for Ecological Restoration
1 Assessment of ecosystem &

Technical Management species function& ecology 3 4
(Reference Ecosystem)
Exchange of information Definition of common goals
& views on the & socioecological limitation
2 restoration project of the restoration project
Assessment from actors’
Social Management perspectives
(Participation of local actors)
COMUNICATION
INCENTIVES
5 6
Development & Participation by actors
implementation of FOLLOW-UP Collective learning
restoration strategies
Increase relationality & local control of natural resources
Withdrawal of most technical management
Ecosystem succession following the restoration plan
Independent adaptive ecosystem management by actors
Figure 1: A conceptual model for restoration projects with a human dimension (based on Castillo 2005).
16
The essence of the model is an intense working groups of a manageable size,

knowledge dialogue between project which will be responsible for planning,
promoters and stakeholders (identified implementing, and monitoring the
via the actors’ map), starting at the project (Stringer et al., 2006).
planning phase and based on both
Likewise, goals should be formulated,
technical and social assessments
taking into account the ecological and
(Steps 1 and 2). In the social
social limitations of the restoration
assessment, management planning
project and the participative decision-
must be based on the perspectives
making process (Step 4). Biological
of local actors through knowledge
limitations can play a critical role and
dialogue (Step 3). The first condition
discourage social participation (Step
is to understand the agricultural and
1). Therefore, it is important to have
ecological problems from the farmers’
appropriate scientific knowledge and
viewpoints. For example, activities
maintain the cost/benefit ratio of the
could be first observed in the field
project to guarantee positive biological
through the perspective of “participant
and economic results (Ceccon 2013).
observation,” followed by mapping
Due to its high immediate costs,
the property of neighborhoods and
restoration must first be triggered
villages in the region via a local
by economic incentives, while
classification of soils and vegetation
forests grow and eventually begin to
or organizing workshops with farmers
compensate for the initial costs with
to define an agenda of socioecological
long-term benefits. However, the kind
problems. A local debate about current
of incentives that will prove effective
states of native vegetation could also
depend on local political, social, and
be stimulated by gathering oral history
economic conditions (e.g., Ceccon
information and asking informants to
and Miramontes 2008; Hlaing and
imagine what the landscape would
Inoue 2013; Brancalion et al. 2017;
look like when they, or their children,
Amazonas et al. 2018).
are old (Pinilla and Ceccon 2008).
Communication must be horizontal
Using the knowledge and experience
and permeate all project phases.
gained from such work, promoters
Along with establishing the restoration
must then be capable of conducting
project itself, the technical team
participatory activities and mediating
should allow the boundaries between
the conflicts that will inevitably
expert and local knowledge to be
arise. Common rules, norms, and
questioned. Identifying common
sanctions must be mutually agreed
ground enables knowledge to be
upon among all actors. Since it is
integrated from different sources,
impractical for all participants to be
even when that knowledge is
involved in all stages of the process,
built through various logics and
the community should appoint
epistemologies (Stringer et al. 2006).
17
It is also important to ensure that monitoring, through an adaptive

the project is disseminated in the management approach, can also
media so that society, as a whole, correct actions that did not provide the
constructs meaning and recognizes expected results (Suding et al. 2004).
the importance of forest restoration Adaptive management commonly
(Berger and Luckman 1991). involves several mechanisms to
motivate social groups to learn
The next step is developing and
from each other (social learning)
implementing restoration strategies
and reflect on different values and
with intense actor participation to
viewpoints (Walters 1986; Stringer et
promote collective learning and
al. 2006). Finally, when the restored
construct a common meaning of
ecosystem acquires the capacity for
restoration among all participants
self-regulation, and when stakeholders
(Steps 5 and 6) (Wenger 1998;
have learned the tools necessary for
Maarleveld and Dangbegnon 2002;
conducting ecosystem management
Pahl-Wostl and Hare 2004; Munro
in the long-term according to the
and Jeffrey 2008, etc.). These steps
project’s initial objectives, it is
should promote further processes that
important to remove the external
enable actors to acquire knowledge
agents (Suding et al. 2004).
and skills useful for managing
restored ecosystems in the medium-
and long-term. Thus, the success
4. FOREST RESTORATION IN THE
of a restoration project cannot be
INDIGENOUS NGO XUAJIN ME’PHAA
measured by biological outcomes
IN MEXICO: THE APPLICATION OF THE
alone. It is important that the project
HUMAN DIMENSION CONCEPTUAL
helps strengthen stakeholders’
MODEL
abilities to self-determine the control
of the community’s natural resources.
Projects should increase social Mexico’s State of Guerrero has been
capital by reinforcing stakeholders’ characterized by high levels of poverty
confidence for investing in collective (64.4% of inhabitants in poverty and
activities, knowing that others will do 23% in extreme poverty) (CONEVAL
so, too. Relationships based on trust 2016). “La Montaña” (Figure 2), in
facilitate cooperation and may even particular, is one of the poorest regions
reduce the transaction costs of the in Mexico, with a Human Development
restoration project, since, rather than Index among the lowest in the
investing in monitoring, individuals country (0.515) (Sierra 2007). This
can trust each other to act as expected region is also affected by constant
structural violence, which keeps it
(Bourdieu 2011).
marginalized from health, education,
Once a restoration project is and communication services (Galicia-
established, consistent participative Gallardo et al. 2019).
18
Figure 2: Forest fragmentation in ‘‘La Montaña’’. Source: Fabio Flores.
Within this critical scenario, the Autónoma de México [UNAM]).

indigenous NGO, Xuajin Me’Phaa, This collaboration was intended to
was created in 2006 to integrate conduct research applied to NGO
families dedicated to the organic needs through a knowledge dialogue
production of honey, beans, bananas, – following a conceptual model based
pineapples, coffee, and hibiscus on the human dimension and using
(Hibiscus sabdariffa) – the latter being the participatory action research (PAR)
among the most important in terms of methodology.
income. Xuajin Me’Phaa is composed
PAR is an approach to research in
of approximately 300 peasants
communities, which emphasizes
belonging to 14 communities. Their
participation and action to understand
organic production is sold to a national
the world by trying to change it
supermarket chain and in street
collaboratively and through reflection.
markets (Galicia-Gallardo et al. 2019).
This approach is based on collective
Approximately 11 years ago, Xuajin inquiry and experimentation grounded
Me’Phaa started a collaboration in experience and social history
agreement with the Regional Center (Reason and Bradbury, 2008).
of Multidisciplinary Research
The restoration planning scale agreed
(Centro Regional de Investigaciones
upon by CRIM researchers and the
Multidisciplinarias [CRIM]) from the
NGO was the landscape unit, which
National Autonomous University
consists of large-scale physical areas
of Mexico (Universidad Nacional
19
with overlapping ecological, social, and
economic activities, as well as multiple
functions and services, including food,
biodiversity, water, shelter, livelihoods,
and economic growth. The landscape
approach combines natural resources
management with environmental
and livelihood considerations, and
it asserts that forest and degraded
land restoration will best be served by
building sustainable relationships and
negotiations among the diverse range
of stakeholders (Sayer et al. 2013).
The local landscape in the study area After a sustainability analysis
exhibited a typical spatial pattern of of organic hibiscus production,
heavy humanmade modifications. through various multi-criteria
Remnants of native vegetation indicators, the group found that the
were isolated, irregular in size (< organic production showed high
21 hectares), and susceptible to sustainability levels, well above those
alterations by their surroundings. The of the conventional system. It is also
species of trees and shrubs in these important to notice that the current
remnants presented a diversity and success of Xuajin Me’Phaa in the
spatial distribution similar to those organic hibiscus system has been
of plant communities disturbed by achieved via a high level of social
selective logging or at an early stage capital inside the NGO, which reflects
of succession (Borda-Niño et al. great participation, confidence,
2017). A study on firewood collection, innovation, and adaptability. In a
conducted by Miramontes et al. (2012), bidirectional flow, organic production
has found that the inhabitants of La has also strengthened the social
Montaña followed a deterministic capital of NGO members (Galicia-
firewood search pattern, typical of Gallardo et al. 2019). One of the
heavily degraded landscapes, since critical points of the analysis was
100% of the families use firewood to the varied and low hibiscus yields.
cook (Salgado-Terrones et al. 2017). Thus, the CRIM group began to
Yet, 100 species of woody plants research how to improve hibiscus
were also found in these remnants, yields by experimentally studying the
many of them with a high potential decomposition of traditionally used
for providing ecosystem services and new amendments (including
(Hernandez Muciño et al. 2015; Borda- trees) and their effects on this crop’s
Niño et al. 2017). productivity.
20
5. IS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF
RESTORATION BEING CARRYING OUT
INSIDE XUAJIN ME’PHAA?
After five years of intense knowledge

dialogue, the use of a conceptual
model strongly including the human
dimension, and the implementation
of the PAR methodology, it is already
possible to observe, among NGO
Figure 3: Meeting with Xuajin Me´Phaa
members, good signs of “social
organization members in “La Montaña” to plan
learning” about the importance of
a participatory management project. Source:
forest restoration and some paradigm Carlos Mases.
shifts in their relationships with local
forest ecosystems.
homegardens (THs) in the backyards
In 2013, Xuajin Me’Phaa began to carry
of community members. The name
out its productive restoration project.
“Forest of the Grandparents” refers
It is important to note that the focus
to the fact that, before the Spaniards
of productive restoration goes beyond
arrived in Mexico, the Me’Phaa ethnic
recovering degraded, damaged, or
group was nomadic, and homegardens
destroyed ecosystems (sensu SER,
were planted to offer food to any
2004). This restoration strategy
group that passed through. Diverse
focuses on using culturally important
studies recognize that Mexican
multipurpose species, which produce
homegardens are the product of a
tangible goods and services for
long history of management since
local people and increase landscape
the pre-Columbian period (Heindorf
connectivity. The most commonly
2011) and are known as traditional
used strategies for this type of
or cultural homegardens. They have
restoration are agroforestry systems
been spaces for production, selection,
and agroecology (Ceccon, 2013).
domestication, diversification, and
The Xuajin Me’Phaa project was conservation of flora and fauna and
called “The Forest of the Grandparents are related to preserving and enriching
[“Mbaá Yuskha” in the Me’phaa cultural values, as well as generating
language): Me’Phaa Cultural and appropriating technologies
Homegardens.” Funded by the Ministry (Montañez-Escalante et al. 2012).
of Agriculture and Rural Development They also provide the population with
(Secretaría de Agricultura y Desarrollo multiple products to satisfy economic,
Rural [SAGARPA]), the project aimed at social, and cultural needs (Montagnini
restoring species from 200 traditional 2006).
21
A subsequent analysis (after four connection (Aguirre-Salcedo and

years) was performed in these THs Ceccon 2020). By studying birds’
by the CRIM research group. They trajectories among forest fragments,
found that the main reason for the the research group confirmed
THs restoration was food security that these THs did indeed have a
(47% of planted species), followed by significant functional role in landscape
cultural motivations (e.g., providing connection. Birds used the THs as
decoration for houses, churches, steppingstones among forest patches
religious festivities; 18% of species). (Vargas 2018).
Around 28% of the mentioned species
The CRIM research group has
served multiple purposes (i.e. Ficus
demonstrated that, when scientists
sp.: medicine, poles and shade,
and communities work together,
Annona cherimola: food, poles and
with intense knowledge dialogue, the
shade). Native (autochthonous)
results are highly positive for both
species were preferred (57%) over
parties and the natural ecosystems.
introduced (allochthonous) species
The CRIM group has also advanced
(43%), and trees (52%) were preferred
in terms of scientific issues, receiving
over herbaceous and shrub species
external funding for eight projects, 11
(31% and 17%, respectively). Most of
postgraduate theses (finished or in
these reported species were pollinated
progress), and the publication of nine
(90%) and dispersed (64%) by animals,
papers and eight book chapters.
indicating a potential role of these
agroforestry systems in landscape
22
6. CONCLUSION
The UN’s ecosystem restoration The successful restoration of THs

decade has the potential, not only by Xuajin Me’Phha has highlighted
to generate restoration models the results of a knowledge dialogue
of productivity-based or repair between the local population and the
technology, but also to change scientific community in constructing
the paradigms of the society– a new, socially sustainable and
nature relationship. To alter these participative environmental paradigm.
paradigms, it is necessary to build This example leads us to believe that
a bridge between the natural and organizing communities, exercising
social sciences, promoting the human participation in the decision-making
dimension in projects to generate process, respecting the ancestral
social learning concerning the knowledge of local populations,
importance of forest restoration. and ensuring the autonomy and
delimitation of a territory can guide
A socioecological model of forest
us into building a new restoration
restoration is a crucial tool for
paradigm.
organizing the key social and scientific
factors in projects while helping In the next ecological restoration
decision-makers recognize the decade, including the human dimension
importance of the human dimension in forest restoration will undoubtedly be
embedded in the process. an essential way to face the challenges
of a planet in crisis.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is grateful to the Xuajin and Technology (CONACYT) for the
Me’Phaa NGO and to the inhabitants postgraduate students’ fellowship and
of the Me’Phaa communities in the to the Program to Support Research
La Montaña region of Guerrero State Projects and Technological Innovation
for their participation and hospitality. (PAPIIT) IN300119 for the financial
The author also extends gratitude support.
to the National Council for Science
23
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28
02
FOREST
LANDSCAPE
RESTORATION
IMPLEMENTATION
IN GHANA AS A
SOCIOECONOMIC
OPPORTUNITY
back to
summary
29
FOREST
LANDSCAPE
02 RESTORATION
IMPLEMENTATION
IN GHANA AS A
SOCIOECONOMIC
OPPORTUNITY
Shalom D. Addo-Danso, Reginald T. Guuroh,
Kwame A. Oduro, Haruna Abukari, and Ernest G.
Foli
1. APPROACHES TO FOREST this chapter, FLR in Ghana is traced

LANDSCAPE RESTORATION IN GHANA to two epochs: the pre-independence
era (early 1900s–1956) and the post-
independence era (1957–1992).
In Ghana, deforestation and forest We then discuss the current FLR
degradation have been of concern approaches Ghana has adopted.
since the 1900s. Efforts to improve
forest conditions and/or to recover
lost forests date back to the early 1.1. Pre-independence era (early
twentieth century (1900–1910) and 1900s–1956)
have been achieved through various
The main focus during the pre-
approaches. Although the adoption
independence era was increasing
of these approaches predates the
timber stock, mainly through forest
current global push for landscape
plantation development. This began
restoration (e.g., Osafo 1968), their
in the early 1900s when trees were
objectives were generally aligned with
planted in the Guinea Savannah
the principles of Forest Landscape
woodland and in the forest–savannah
Restoration (FLR) for restoring
transition areas from 1900–1910
ecological integrity and improving the
under the German colonial occupation
well-being and livelihoods of local
of what was then called Togoland
communities (Stanturf et al. 2017). In
30
(Tufuor 2016). This continued into 1.2.1. Politically unstable era (1957–
the 1920s when Tectona grandis 1992)
(Teak) was planted, largely to produce
the fuelwood used in boilers to Ghana experienced an unstable
supply electricity (Oduro et al. 2012; and unpredictable political climate,
Tufuor 2016). During this period, a mainly lasting from 1966 until 1992.
policy required working plans for This period was interspersed with
the establishment, thinning regimes, military overthrows, culminating in
and harvesting of T. grandis, Cedrela sometimes long periods of military
odorata (Cedrela) and Gmelina arborea rule. Compared to 1966–1992, the
(Gmelina) plantations (Tufuor 2016). period between 1957 and 1966 was
In the late 1930s, the taungya system relatively stable politically. In terms of
– an agroforestry system – was forest plantations during this era, the
introduced, with the primary aims major intervention by the then Forestry
of replanting impoverished forest Department (now the Forest Services
reserves with exotic tree species Division of the Forestry Commission
and obtaining plantation timber [FC]) was Public Forest Plantations
in a relatively short time (Tufour (Tufour 2016). This was undertaken
2016). During the initial period of between 1960 and 1987 and was
plantation establishment, the taungya confined to degraded portions of forest
system allowed tree seedlings to reserves, since access to these lands
be intercropped with food crops, was easy. These plantations were
eventually evolving into plantation established using the taungya system,
systems when the trees formed a which was dominant until 1971, when
closed canopy. Farmers were required, large-scale industrial and multiple
after canopy closure, to move to other purpose plantation development
areas, mostly in degraded state- started using both the taungya system
owned/managed forest reserves, to and other plantation models such as
repeat the agroforestry practice. At monoculture plantations and woodlot.
the time, the most common plantation By 1985, a total area of 82,500
species were, as mentioned above, T. hectares had been established with
grandis, C. odorata, and G. arborea. plantations of exotic and indigenous
species. (For more details on the
history of plantation development in
1.2. Post-independence era (since Ghana, refer to Tufuor [2016].) These
1957) plantations were largely monocultures,
and those established in southern
The post-independence era can be Ghana were primarily intended for
subdivided into unstable and stable industrial use, while those in the north
democratic eras. were mainly used for fuelwood and
environmental protection. Common
31
exotic species planted at the time were 1.2.2. Politically stable democratic era
T. grandis, Senna siamea, C. odorata, (1993–date)
G. arborea, and Eucalyptus spp. The
indigenous species included Mansonia This period is significant as several
altissima, Heritiera utilis, Aucoumea approaches were introduced, including
klaineana, Nauclea diderrichii, Khaya a) forest plantations, b) enrichment
ivorensis, Triplochiton scleroxylon, planting, c) trees in agricultural
Terminalia superba, and Terminalia landscapes, and d) assisted natural
ivorensis. regeneration. It is instructive to
mention that landscape restoration
Taungya system implementation approaches from the year 2000
took different forms during this represent the current approaches still
period. From its start in the 1930s in use.
until the 1960s, local farmers cleared
sites and planted their food crops
in between tree seedlings for up to a. Forest plantations
three years, after which time canopy
closure made it impractical to Degraded forest reserves and off-
continue further cultivation of food reserve landscapes are typically
crops under the shade. At this time, restored through plantation
the financial benefits of these trees establishment. This common
(after approximately 30 years) went approach is also adopted when the
to the Forest Services Division, and focus is to restore overexploited
the traditional authorities but the commercial tree species (Odoom
original taungya farmers received 2002; Foli et al. 2009).
no benefits. During the 1970s, large- Over the years, both the government
scale plantation development by the and the private sector have embarked
then Forestry Department continued on several programs to expand
to use the taungya system but hired plantation development in Ghana. Key
labor for site clearance rather than among them was the government-
relying on local farmers. The food led National Plantation Development
crops were still planted, but, under Program (NPDP), which was launched
this model, they were harvested in 2001 to develop a sustainable
and sold to defray the cost of initial forest resource base to satisfy future
plantation establishment. The taungya demands for industrial timber and
system, as was practiced until the enhance environmental quality. The
1970s, has been largely described as NPDP was reviewed and expanded in
unsuccessful – mainly due to a lack 2009 to introduce the National Forest
of silvicultural maintenance, including Plantation Development Program
pruning and thinning, and the lack of (NFPDP) with additional objectives
wildfire prevention and management to restore degraded forest areas and
plan (Tufuor 2016).
32
to create livelihood opportunities for area of 134,327.4 hectares of forest

forest fringe communities. plantations with predominantly
exotic tree species (Teak, Cedrela,
The NFPDP introduced the Expanded
and Gmelina) had been established
Plantation Program to cover
(Table 1, Figure 1). It is important to
private lands located outside forest
note that economically important
reserves, and it consisted of several
indigenous timber species, such as T.
components: the Modified Taungya
superba, T. ivorensis, Ceiba pentandra,
System (MTS), the Government
M. altissima, T. scleroxylon, and
Plantation Development Project
African mahogany (K. ivorensis and K.
(GPDP), the Community Forest
senegalensis) were also planted during
Management Project (CFMP), Private
the implementation of the program.
Commercial Plantation Development,
and the Model Plantation (Foli et
al. 2009; Foli 2018). The actual
implementation of the NPDP
commenced in 2002 and, by the
end of the program in 2016, a total
Figure 1: Tectona grandis (Teak) is the predominant exotic tree species used in plantations. Photo:
Shalom D. Addo-Danso
33
Table 1: Total plantation area (in hectares) established annual rate of 20,000 hectares (i.e.,
under the NFPDP from 2002 to 2016. These figures 10,000 hectares, public/public-private
include all plantations established through the major partnership; 10,000 hectares private-
components of the NFPDP. sector-led). Overall, the GFPS aims
Total area planted to establish and manage 625,000
Year (hectares)
2002 11,432.8 hectares of plantations by the end of
2003 7,333.2 2040 (GFPS 2019).
2004 13,053.4 In addition to government-led
2005 8,531.6 initiatives, the private sector has
2006 9,021.7 played a key role in plantation
2007 8,003.6 establishment and the general drive
2008 8,716.2 to restore degraded forests and
2009 5,532.8 off-reserve landscapes. Private
2010 16,628.2 sector participation in plantation
2011 10,230.6 establishment was boosted in 2000
2012 8,562.6
by the establishment of the Forest
2013 7,000.6
Plantation Development Fund
(FPDF), Act 583, to provide financial
2014 8,283
assistance for developing more
2015 5,494.7
private commercial forest plantations.
2016 6,502.4
Currently, the private sector is
Total 134,327.4
contributing to commercial plantation
Source: GFPS (2019)
development efforts through three
main initiatives: Private Commercial
Plantation Developers On-reserve
In 2016 the NFPDP was reviewed, and, (PPD), Public-Private Partnership
based on the lessons learned, a new (PPP) in collaboration with the FC,
25–year (2016–2040) strategic plan, and the Plantation Development Off-
known as the Ghana Forest Plantation reserve (NFPDP 2016). For instance,
Strategy (GFPS), was formulated to private commercial plantation
provide a comprehensive framework developers, such as FORM Ghana Ltd,
for plantation forestry in the country. MIRO Forestry (Ghana) Limited, and
Generally, the GFPS fits well into the African Plantations for Sustainable
the tenets of FLR and aligns with Development (APSD) Ghana Limited,
international initiatives towards under a PPP agreement with the
landscape restoration, such as the FC, are establishing commercial
African Forest Landscape Restoration plantations, particularly of
Initiative (AFR100). The strategic monocultures (including T. grandis
plan seeks, among other objectives, and C. odorata), in degraded forest
to establish both indigenous and reserves in the Ashanti, Bono, and
exotic tree species plantations at an Bono East regions (Naaijen and Hol
2018; GFPS 2019).
34
b. Enrichment planting 2,500 hectares of poorly stocked

forests were planted, but the practice
The most common approach for was discontinued in the 1970s, largely
improving the timber stocking of because of inadequate funding and
degraded forests is enrichment limited knowledge of the silvicultural
planting, in which seedlings of requirements of the “desired” tree
commercially important indigenous species (Nolan and Ghartey 1992;
tree species are planted in gaps or Odoom 2002).
through line planting in poorly stocked
Currently, enrichment planting has
forests. Enrichment planting was first
become a key component of efforts to
introduced in Ghana to restock forest
restore degraded forest landscapes,
areas where natural regeneration was
partly due to improved knowledge of
difficult or unsatisfactory due to poor
the ecological requirements of desired
stocking of seed bearers from the
tree species and partly due to the
so-called “desirable” timber species
focus on biodiversity and carbon (C)
(Osafo 1968). In the past, enrichment
storage (FIP 2012; Dabo 2017; MLNR
line planting was mainly used in
2018; GFPS 2019). For instance, a
wet forest sites (where enumeration
preliminary analysis of the emission
data indicated poor stocking) and
reduction potential of different FLR
in a few sites in the transition
interventions in Ghana has shown that
areas to accelerate the growth and
enrichment-planting sites in Western
development of “desirable” tree
North and Bono regions have the
species, particularly the Meliaceae
potential to reduce emissions of about
family in the immature sapling
50,000 tCO2e by the end of 2021 (FIP,
stage, and to provide conditions to
2012). Indeed, enrichment planting
enhance natural regeneration (Osafo
is currently adopted in Ghana’s
1968; Nolan and Ghartey 1992;
Forest and Wildlife Policy (2012)
Tufuor 2016). The initial enrichment
and the Ghana Forest Plantation
planting operations restocked some
Development Strategy (2016–2040)
selected forest reserves, including
as a key strategy for rehabilitating
the Subri River, Ankasa, Tano-Nimri,
and restoring degraded landscapes.
and Neung Forest Reserves, with a
Therefore, new enrichment planting
keen focus on the Mahoganies (e.g.,
interventions have been initiated by
Entandrophragma angolense, E. utile,
the FC to increase the diversity of
K. ivorensis, and Lovoa trichilioides)
economic tree species in some forest
and other important economic species
reserves. In 2011, the FC carried out
(e.g., Heritiera utilis, T. ivorensis,
enrichment planting of important tree
Pericopsis elata, T. scleroxylon, and
species, including K. grandifoliola,
Nauclea diderrichii) (Osafo 1968;
Tieghemella heckelii, Milicia excelsa,
Nolan and Ghartey 1992). At the peak
and M. altissima in forest reserves in
of this plan’s implementation, about
35
the Ahafo, Ashanti and Bono regions fringing the degraded forest reserves
(MLNR 2012). (MLNR 2018). Engaging local
communities gives their people access
An ongoing project, funded by
to employment in nursery work, site
the World Bank under the Forest
preparation, and planting maintenance,
Investment Program (FIP) of the
as well as jobs monitoring against
Climate Investment Fund, has
encroachment and illegal activities
earmarked 40,000 hectares of
(MLNR 2018).
degraded forests to be restocked
through enrichment planting (Foli
2018). So far, about 8,543 hectares
Table 2: Total area (in hectares) restocked through
of indigenous tree species, including
enrichment planting from 2017 to 2019. These figures
Sterculia rhinopetala, T. scleroxylon, E.
include all forests restocked through the three major
angolense, T. ivorensis, N. diderrichii,
government programs/projects partly dedicated to
M. altissima, and K. senegalensis,
restocking degraded forests.
have been established through
Year Total area planted (hectares)
enrichment line planting (Figure 2)
2017 4,488.9
in the Mpameso, Bura River, Tano-
2018 4,724.6
Suhyen, and Muro Forest Reserves
2019 4,563.11
in the moist semi-deciduous and the
Total 13,776.61
moist and wet evergreen forest zones
Source: GFPS (Unpublished Report).
(Anglaeere et al. 2018; Foli 2018;
MLNR 2018). Other public sector-
led programs/projects have been
initiated to restock degraded forests
and poorly stocked timber production
forests in the high forest zone. In
total, about 13,776.61 hectares of
degraded forests have been restocked
through enrichment planting under
three major programs/projects
(Forest Investment Programme,
Youth Employment Agency Youth in
Afforestation/Reforestation Project
and the Forestry Commission-funded
enrichment planting Project) that
are partly dedicated to restocking
degraded and poorly-stocked forests
in the country (Table 2). The current
enrichment planting effort strongly
involves the local communities
36
farmlands and landscapes outside
reserved forestlands (Foli 2018; MNLR
2018; GFPS 2019). This drive is partly
attributable to the fact that conserving
trees in agricultural landscapes could
provide multiple ecosystem services,
supporting the livelihoods of local
communities (Kuyah et al. 2016; Oduro
et al. 2018).
In this regard, there is a keen focus on
integrating trees into cocoa farms in
the cocoa-growing regions of Ghana
(Anaglaare et al. 2018; MNLR 2018).
Cocoa production covers an estimated
cultivation area of 1.6 million hectares,
and the sector directly supports the
livelihoods of about 800,000 farming
Figure 2: Two-year-old Triplochiton scleroxylon households (COCOBOD 2017). Yet,
in an enrichment planting trial in the Tano- cocoa expansion is considered a key
Suyhen Forest Reserve, Sefwi Wiawso Forest driver of deforestation (Ruf 2011;
District, Western North Region. (Photo: Markfred
Acheampong et al. 2019). Traditionally,
Mensah)
cocoa has been cultivated under
trees to provide shade, and the
c. Trees in agricultural landscapes
recommendation is to keep 15–18
Large areas fall outside reserved shade trees per hectare on mature
forest lands, where the FC has no cocoa farms (CRIG 2010). It has been
direct influence over the conservation established that there is the potential
of tree resources. Off-reserve areas to sustain more trees on cocoa farms,
cover approximately 14 million particularly in the Western part of
hectares of Ghana’s total land and Ghana, where large areas are under
are characterized by a mosaic of cocoa production (Abdulai et al. 2018;
agricultural fields – mostly cocoa MLNR 2018).
and food crop farms, fallow lands, Hence, there is concerted effort to
and old-growth and secondary forest encourage the adoption of cocoa-
patches and trees (Kotey et al. 1998; based agroforestry systems by
Asubonteng et al. 2018). Most off- encouraging farmers to retain trees
reserve areas have been degraded or introduce shade trees into cocoa
(Affum-Baffoe 2015), but there is a farms to promote the maintenance of
major drive to improve the situation optimum shade critical for sustained
by incorporating more trees into yield, to diversify smallholding
37
farmers’ income, and to improve FC supplied farmers with seedlings

biodiversity (Insaidoo et al. 2013; from indigenous tree species to
Asare et al. 2014; Anglaaere et al. incorporate into their farmlands, with
2018). Usually, farmers are supported estimated farm coverage of 126,348
to plant timber (e.g., Alstonia hectares (GFPS 2019). To incentivize
boonei, Celtis zenkeri, K. ivorensis, farmers to incorporate more trees in
M. altissima, M. excelsa, etc.) and their farmlands, programs have been
multipurpose tree species (e.g., initiated to assist local communities
Newbouldia laevis, Rauvolfia vomitoria, and farmers in obtaining ownership
etc.) on both new and mature cocoa rights over both naturally occurring
farms to achieve the aforementioned and planted trees by registering them
objectives. It is expected that adopting with the FC (GFPS 2019; Gaither et al.
these agroforestry systems would be 2019).
accompanied by incentive payments
through secure tenure rights to
encourage the tending of trees on d. Assisted natural regeneration
cocoa farms (Adjei et al. 2014; MLNR,
The various forms of assisted natural
2018).
regeneration, including the Farmer-
Some programs have also been Managed Natural Regeneration
designed to encourage and incentivize (FMNR) approach, are gaining
farmers to retain or plant trees, recognition as simple, cost-effective
including timber species, on their ways to restore woody plant cover in
farmlands. In the past, farmers farmlands and secure rural livelihoods
had limited incentives for retaining (Berrahmouni et al. 2015; Weston and
trees on their farms (Insaidoo et al. Hong 2013). In Ghana, the approach is
2012). For example, agreements rarely used in large-scale restoration
on compensation for damages efforts, but it is practiced on a small
after harvesting trees on farmlands scale in semi-arid areas of the north
were rarely implemented. In recent and degraded coastal landscapes in
times, efforts have been made by the south-western part of the country,
both state (e.g., Forest Services where poverty is endemic and most
Division of the FC and the CSIR- farms are smallholding (Weston et
FORIG) and non-state (e.g., non- al. 2015; USFS 2018). Economic
governmental organizations [NGOs]) trees, such as the shea tree (Vitellaria
actors to promote integrating trees paradoxa) and the dawadawa tree
into farmlands to restore degraded (Parkia biglobosa), are mainly raised
agricultural landscapes and reduce the on farms through assisted natural
risk of climate change (Insaidoo et al. regeneration in the Guinea Savannah
2013; Noponen et al. 2014; Anglaaere belt in northern Ghana. In 2009, World
et al. 2018). For example, in 2017, the Vision Australia and World Vision
38
Ghana collaborated to implement an guidance and direction concerning

FMNR project in nine communities land ownership, tenure security, and
(population of approximately 12,000 financial support for restoration
people) in the Talensi District of activities. Presently, Ghana’s Forest
the Upper East Region of Ghana. and Wildlife Policy (2012), the 2016
The project focused on restoring Forestry Development Master
multipurpose indigenous tree species Plan (FDMP), the Forest Plantation
into farmlands and community- Development Fund (FPDF) Act (2000
managed forests by encouraging and [Act 583]), and its amendment (2002
helping farmers identify regrowth from [Act 623]), and the Timber Resources
the stumps of felled trees and nurture Management (Amendment) Act (2002
them until they were established. After [Act 617]) form the broad policy and
three years, about 40,000 fruit trees legal framework for forest plantation
were either nurtured or planted within and landscape restoration in Ghana.
the landscape, and the livelihoods of Several of the reforestation programs
local communities improved (Weston in Ghana are on small scale but have
et al. 2015). Also, a pilot project contributed to restoring degraded
funded by the United States Agency forested areas and improving forest
for International Development (USAID) cover.
Feed the Future Initiative, promoted,
The Ghana Forest and Wildlife
among other practices, the FMNR
Policy (2012) seeks to promote
approach to improve tree diversity
the rehabilitation and restoration
on cocoa farms and other farmlands
of degraded landscapes through
across six coastal districts in the
forest plantation development,
Western Region of Ghana. Since 2018,
enrichment planting, and community
about 9,300 trees, comprising notable
forestry; it also seeks to promote and
timber species such as M. excelsa, T.
develop mechanisms for transparent
superba, A. toxicaria, N. diderrichii, and
governance, equitable sharing of
P. angolensis, have been nurtured and
benefits, and citizens’ participation
established in the targeted landscape
in forest and wildlife resource
(USFS 2018).
management (MLNR 2012). The
policy is intended to enhance the
active participation of communities
2. POLICY AND REGULATORY
and landowners in managing
FRAMEWORKS FOR LANDSCAPE
resources and addressing issues
RESTORATION IN GHANA
concerning tree tenure and benefit
sharing. Simultaneously, it aims to
The success achieved so far has increase government commitment
been anchored by policy and to degraded landscape restoration
regulatory frameworks that provide through massive forest plantation
39
development schemes. The FDMP agricultural landscapes by promoting

seeks to support farmers, landowners, sustainable cocoa and agricultural
and civil society groups (Figure 3) in practices. It also intends to offer
initiating the restoration of forest cover payment for environmental services
in off-reserve areas and rehabilitating by 2030. In addition, under the FDMP,
degraded forest landscapes by 2025. forest plantation development would
In line with this, the FDMP supports be promoted by establishing and
local farmers to increase the stocking managing planted forests through
of trees on farms and in fallow areas, enrichment planting and by managing
thus enhancing carbon stocks within trees on farms by 2030.
Figure 3: Support of local communities is central to FLR in Ghana. (Photo: Shalom D. Addo-Danso)
The government has also attempted to plantations. However, in 2002, an

provide systematic support systems amendment was instituted by Act
to improve farmers’ involvement 623 to support public and private
and performance concerning forest investment in forest plantations
plantation development. The FPDF (Kumeh et al. 2019). The Timber
is one such example, which enables Resources Management (Amendment)
farmers to acquire grants to boost Act, 2002 (Act 617) excludes private
their investments in forest plantations forest plantations from been allocated
on a landscape level (Kumeh et al. by the government under a Timber
2019). The FPDF provides financial Utilization Contract (TUC), and it
assistance for developing forest provides fiscal and other incentives
plantations and provides funds for and benefits to investors in the forestry
research and technical advice. Initially, sector (GFPS 2016).
the Act mainly focused on commercial
40
3. FLR, SOCIOECONOMICS, AND LOCAL income to farmers, plantation workers,

LIVELIHOODS IN GHANA and investors often comes through
funds allocated to these schemes from
government or development partners,
Improving local livelihoods has such as NGOs (Insaidoo et al. 2013).
often been an important goal of Since its introduction in 2002, the
landscape restoration policies and MTS (Figure 4) has been put under
programs in Ghana. For instance, the Community Forest Management
Ghana’s Forest and Wildlife Policy Project (CFMP), which received
(2012) outlines strategies for funding from the African Development
developing local livelihoods through Bank until 2010 (Insaidoo et al.
forest plantation development and 2012). Large-scale forest plantation
agroforestry schemes (MLNR 2012; development in degraded forest
Akapame 2016). Additionally, the reserves was also supported with
objectives of the NFPDP include funds from the heavily indebted poor
creating employment opportunities at country (HIPC) grants (Insaidoo
the rural community level to increase et al. 2012). The Forest Plantation
rural household income and food Development Fund (FPDF) was
production to create wealth and established in 2000 to provide financial
reduce poverty. The forest serves as support to individuals and groups
a livelihood resource for about two involved in plantation development
million people in Ghana (MLNR 2012). or related activities (notably seedling
At the local level, socioeconomic production and forest fire prevention)
benefits from landscape restoration (FC 2008).
can be categorized into five forms:
To a large extent, these financial
cash income, employment, livelihood
support systems have provided, and
opportunities, improvement in
continue to provide, income and
ecosystem services, and wellbeing
livelihood opportunities to actors, such
(Adams et al. 2016).
as farmers, local communities, and
investors. Apart from wages paid to
3.1. Cash income workers in forest plantations, workers
and farmers also receive cash income
Over the last two decades, major from the sale of Non-Timber Forest
landscape restoration schemes that Products (NTFPs) and food crops
have created income opportunities produced from the newly established
in Ghana include the MTS, large- plantations (Blay et al. 2008; Insaidoo
scale reforestation of degraded forest et al. 2013). Proceeds from the sale of
landscapes, and smallholder on-farm NTFPs and food crops are particularly
tree planting in off-reserve areas (Blay important sources of cash income
et al. 2008; Insaidoo et al. 2012). Cash for farmers and workers in the MTS
41
(Kalame et al. 2011; Insaidoo et al. for smallholder farmers engaged in

2013), while workers employed in tree planting on farms; nonetheless,
government plantations derive their they derive other important, non-cash
cash income mainly from wages and benefits, including access to fertile
allowances (Hoogenbosch 2010). land for farming (Insaidoo et al. 2013).
Cash income may not be substantial
Figure 4: The modified Taungya system (agroforestry system) is a key restoration model/approach used
to restore degraded forest landscapes and support local community livelihoods. Photo: Shalom D. Addo-
Danso.
3.2. Employment 3,317 by the end of 2008 (FC 2008).

The significance of employment
Landscape restoration initiatives opportunities associated with
eventually create some employment landscape restoration in Ghana is that
opportunities for permanent and most of the jobs created are often
casual workers. The HIPC-funded taken by the rural populace, who are
reforestation initiatives created 12,595 mostly among the poorest in society
full-time jobs from 2004–2009, and (Cooke et al. 2016). Forest restoration
the MTS is estimated to have provided initiatives (e.g., the MTS) have also
farming and income opportunities proven to be important for bridging
to 109,000 rural households from the gender gap in employment since
2002 –2008 (Insaidoo et al. 2012). they engage both men and women,
Individuals and groups engaged in especially in seedling production
on-farm tree planting also numbered (Insaidoo et al. 2012).
42
3.3. Livelihood opportunities 3.4. Ecosystem services
Another important socioeconomic Local communities in Ghana heavily

benefit of landscape restoration in depend on provisional ecosystem
Ghana is the opportunity it offers for services, such as fuelwood, raw
the local populace to diversify their materials for building, fresh water,
livelihoods. For instance, landscape wildlife for protein, medicinal
restoration leads to land-use changes, herbs, fruits, and a good climate for
which, in turn, frees labor for other agriculture (Boafo et al. 2016). These
livelihood activities (Adam et al. 2016). services improve with the restoration
Food crop cultivation remains the of degraded forest landscapes,
only livelihood opportunity for most offering social and economic benefits
people in Ghana’s rural communities (Chazdon and Uriarte 2016), which
(World Bank 2018), making it difficult ultimately enhance the lives of
for people to increase their income. the local people. A survey among
However, some forest plantation farmers participating in the MTS has
development projects introduce revealed that the first three reasons
animal husbandry (e.g., grass-cutter for their willingness to contribute to
rearing), which offers financial support forest rehabilitation were to regain
to participating farmers (Appiah et the natural forest, to have access to
al. 2009). Livelihood opportunities timber and NTFPs for domestic use,
are also created from NTFPs such as and to improve soil fertility for farming
fruits, honey, charcoal, and firewood (Appiah et al. 2009). This suggests
from thinning and pollarding that that landscape-level participants
come along with forest plantation in forest rehabilitation in Ghana
development. The advantage of consider ecosystem services to be
such diversified rural livelihoods is important socioeconomic benefits
that farmers can work and earn an from restoration activities. A restored
income all year round, when they landscape could make these services
would have been idle at certain times readily available and easily accessible,
of the year due to the seasonal nature decreasing the time necessary for
of crop farming. Cash income from collecting them and/or the amount of
landscape restoration activities also money spent buying them and, thus,
has a consequence on diversifying increasing household income (Adam et
livelihoods as some beneficiaries al. 2016).
use the money earned to start other
livelihoods, such as petty trading, or
to learn new trades, such as carpentry 3.5. Well-being
and masonry (Insaidoo et al. 2013).
Landscape restoration in Ghana
contributes to food security by
43
providing fertile lands in degraded Physical capital, which refers to basic

forest reserves to produce food infrastructures – such as roads,
crops in the early years of plantation affordable transport, secured shelter,
establishment (Appiah et al. 2009). and adequate water supply (Scoones
The provision of NTFPs and the 2009) – is sometimes extended to
general improvement in ecosystem local communities by the presence
services can increase human well- of landscape restoration projects.
being (Adams et al. 2016). Livelihood Insaidoo (2012) reports that a timber
improvement through landscape company occasionally reconstructs
restoration is associated with the feeder road networks leading to
enhanced human, social, financial, tree farm plots under an agroforestry
natural, and physical capitals (Scoones project in the Asankrangwa Forest
2009; Insaidoo et al. 2012). Through District of Ghana’s Western North
training programs individuals involved Region. Also in the Western North
in landscape restoration activities gain Region, residents in the Sefwi Wiawso
tree planting, agroforestry, and nursery Forest District benefit from water
establishment skills and techniques to storage tanks provided by an NGO
enhance human capital (Insaidoo et to help continuously supply water
al. 2012). Social capital development to maintain seedlings planted under
relates to the formation of tree-grower another agroforestry project (Insaidoo
associations, for individuals who grow 2012).
trees on their farms, and plantation
Financial capital is identified as the
workers’ associations, for people who
least available capital to the poor
work in state or private plantations
(DFID 1999). However, participants in
(Insaidoo et al. 2012). These groups
Ghana’s forest rehabilitation projects
help individuals develop leadership
often draw financial capital from food
skills and extend their social networks
crops produced at young plantation
through contacts with other interest
sites. Various landscape restoration
groups and stakeholders. The most
schemes seem to have enhanced
common natural capital for residents
household and community assets
in local communities is land for
through education, farmland access,
production, and, for those who have
and improved crop varieties (FC 2008).
tenure security, planting trees on their
This, in turn, enhances the ability of
lands could increase the land value.
the rural poor (especially women) to
It is important, however, to note that
cope with and recover from shocks
farmers who do not have outright
and stress (Adam et al. 2016). For
ownership of farmlands in Ghana
example, it has been observed that,
hesitate to grow trees on those lands
in communities where the MTS is
(Amanor 2010).
practiced, women’s participation in
educational activities increases, and
44
the time used to collect fuelwood is of landscape restoration finance

drastically reduced (Adam et al. 2016). (Kumeh et al. 2019). There are no
mechanisms in place to provide
information on restoration funds to
4. MAJOR CONSTRAINTS TO intended beneficiaries, thereby limiting
LANDSCAPE RESTORATION EFFORTS their participation in governance
IN GHANA and access to available funds. In
some cases, funds are released too
late in the year; thus, plantations are
Although landscape restoration established too late and miss critical
initiatives in Ghana seem to have parts of the rainy season, hindering the
yielded some positive socioeconomic success of the restoration programs
benefits, there are challenges as well, (Oduro et al. 2015; Andoh and Lee
which must be highlighted to serve as 2018).
a guide for improving future initiatives.
4.2. Land tenure system

4.1. Funding
Ghana’s land tenure system also
Funding related constraints include remains a major obstacle to
inadequate financing, inadequate ensuring equitable distribution of the
transparency in the management of benefits associated with landscape
funds, and delays in the release of restoration. The general difficulty
funds for field activities. So far, tree of securing land tenure and tree
planting initiatives in Ghana have harvesting rights – which includes the
mainly been driven by the government bureaucratic requirements of obtaining
and have usually taken a top-down harvesting and conveyance permits
implementation approach with limited – has been identified as an important
funds. However, to a large extent, demotivating factor for farmers’
this approach does not allow the engagement in reforestation activities
integration of timber tree planting and (Insaidoo et al. 2012).
traditional farming systems beyond
the first few years of plantation
establishment (before canopy closure).
The lack of income from canopy
closure to harvesting presents a
major challenge in most reforestation
schemes focusing on trees in pure
stands (Boni 2006; Insaidoo et al.
2012). Another challenge is inadequate
transparency in the governance
45
5. CONCLUSIONS
In Ghana, FLR efforts predate broader security of tenure, and financial

regional and global restoration support for restoration activities in
initiatives and have played a key role the country. Also, the GFPS provides
in improving forest cover and the a comprehensive framework for
livelihoods of local communities. plantation forestry. The GFPS fits
Several efforts have been directed well into the tenets of FLR and aligns
toward restoring degraded forest with international initiatives towards
landscapes using various approaches, landscape restoration, such as the
including forest plantations, AFR100.
enrichment planting, planting trees in Most forest landscape restoration
agricultural landscapes, and assisted programs in Ghana are designed to
natural regeneration. The key focus reduce rural poverty and promote
has included the need to increase socioeconomic development by
timber stock, restore overexploited offering employment opportunities
commercial tree species, conserve and income to local communities and
biodiversity, and store carbon. Both increasing food production. At the
the government and the private local level, socioeconomic benefits
sector have engaged in these forest from landscape restoration are usually
plantation development programs. seen in five forms: cash income,
The NFPDP was launched to develop employment, livelihood opportunities,
a sustainable forest resource base to improvement in ecosystem services,
satisfy future demand for industrial and wellbeing. For example, efforts
wood, enhance environmental quality, have been made to facilitate the
restore degraded forest areas, and adoption of cocoa-based agroforestry
create livelihood opportunities for systems by encouraging farmers
forest fringe communities. Under the to retain trees or introduce shade
NFPDP, more than 134,000 hectares trees on cocoa farms to maintain the
of forest plantations were established optimum shade critical for sustained
between 2002 and 2016. yield, to diversify smallholding farmers’
Ghana’s Forest and Wildlife Policy incomes, and to improve biodiversity
(2012), the FPDF Act (2000 [Act conservation.
583]) and its amendment (2002 [Act Key challenges to forest landscape
623]), and the Timber Resources restoration efforts in Ghana include
Management (Amendment) Act inadequate financing, inadequate
(2002 [Act 617]) form the policy transparency in the management of
and regulatory frameworks that funds, and delays in the release of
guide and direct land ownership, funds for restoration activities. The
46
land tenure system also remains a reserved areas. There are programs
major obstacle to ensuring equitable underway to facilitate the registration
distribution of the benefits associated of land and tree rights for smallholder
with landscape restoration. However, farmers to have secured tree tenure
there are efforts to review policy on and ensure clear benefits to farmers
land and tree tenure to incentivize through benefit sharing agreement
local communities to improve the schemes.
participation of local communities in
restoration efforts, especially on off-
47
6. REFERENCES
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03
POLITICAL,
SOCIAL, AND
ECONOMIC
RESEARCH OF
SOIL ECOSYSTEM
SERVICES
TO SUPPORT
SMALLHOLDERS
WHILE
RESTORING
BRAZILIAN
ATLANTIC FOREST
back to
summary
POLITICAL, SOCIAL,
AND ECONOMIC
RESEARCH OF
03 SOIL ECOSYSTEM
SERVICES
TO SUPPORT
SMALLHOLDERS
WHILE RESTORING
BRAZILIAN
ATLANTIC FOREST
Aline F. Rodrigues, Agnieszka E. Latawiec,
Adriano Tamm, Ingrid Pena, Jennifer Andrade,
Katarzyna A. Korys, Maiara S. Mendes, and Yuri
de Carvalho
1. INTRODUCTION Understanding the responses of

tropical forests to humanmade
disturbances on various biological and
The Brazilian Atlantic Forest is spatial scales has become a national
currently composed of small forest and international research priority
fragments surrounded by agriculture, (Chazdon 2008). Several initiatives
pasture, and degraded and urban exist to restore the biome, among
areas. It is home to species with a high which is the Pact for the Restoration
level of endemism, which gives this of the Atlantic Forest, which aims
biome the status of one of the largest to restore 15 million hectares in the
hotspots on the planet (Kent et al. biome by 2050. The National Plan
2000). 60% of the endangered species for Native Vegetation Recovery
in Brazil are found in the Atlantic (PLANAVEG) intends to recover 12.5
Forest region (Rezende et al. 2018). million hectares until 2030, and the
Bonn Challenge has set a goal to
53
restore 150 million hectares worldwide, (Blum 2005). Soil quality is also
of which 1 million hectares in the fundamental for water and nutrient
Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Data indicate cycling and ecosystem productivity.
that from 2011 to 2015 around 740
thousand hectares of forests in the
biome were successfully restored and 2. OVERVIEW OF SOIL ECOSYSTEM
a total of 1.35-1.48 million of hectares SERVICES IN BRAZILIAN PUBLIC
is expected to be recovering by 2020 POLICIES
(Crouzeilles et al. 2019).
Recent estimates of the current The ES approach is still new in
vegetation cover of the Brazilian Brazil’s political and social debates.
Atlantic Forest is 32 million hectares Soil remains a neglected component
(28% of the original cover; Rezende in both ES studies and decisions at
et al. 2018). Despite the effort to the policy level (Hewitt et al. 2015),
restore the forest cover, the ecosystem and there are few soil management
services (ES) provided by the biome and conservation policies that
to Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, two explicitly incorporate ES. In recent
of Brazil’s major cities, are still being decades, several public policies
compromised (Calmon et al. 2011; have been created to maximize the
Joly, Metzger, and Tabarelli 2014). chances of forest maintenance,
Restoration of the Atlantic Forest faces conservation, and restoration. These
various challenges, including seedling restoration actions and goals intend
production and planting, scarcity of to increase the performance of ES
labour, improvement of income in indicators, especially in degraded and
rural communities, awareness about disconnected biomes, such as the
the importance of restoration, and Brazilian Atlantic Forest.
comprehensive monitoring. One gap in Not only are soils rarely analyzed
the current plans is the consideration in restoration literature, but there is
of soil in restoration projects (Mendes also a scarcity of soil consideration
et al. 2019). The integrated view of in Brazilian legislation. Consequently,
ecological, social, economic, and decision-making lacks comprehensive
political dimensions with the role incorporation of soils (Pena et al.
of soils in restoration is a relatively 2019). To fill this gap, we conducted i)
new approach to restoration studies a survey on government institutional
(Callaham, Rhoades, and Heneghan websites focused on laws and legal
2008; Heneghan et al. 2008; Mendes frameworks at the federal and state
et al. 2019). Considering soils in the level to investigate whether and how
context of restoration is important soils have been incorporated into
because soils store twice to three legislation within an ES framework,
times as much carbon as vegetation
54
and ii) a literature review on ES under in public policymaking.

Brazilian legislation through articles
At the state level, we also considered
recommended by two ES researchers.1
normative acts, which do not mention
In the following, after presenting
“soil” directly but which are clearly
the data from these endeavours, we
related to ES (including soil ES). We
discuss how existing policies can
analyzed 27 laws (full list available
support smallholders.
in Annex 1). The term “preservation”
For the survey, we used the following was found in 62.96% (n = 17) of all
keywords: “soil”; “soil ecosystem cases, “conservation” in 44.44%
services”; “soil processes”. At the (n = 12), “management” in 40.74%
federal level, we identified 15 laws (n = 11), “recovery” in 40.74% (n =
(full list available in Annex 1).2 The 11), “restoration” in 29.62% (n = 8),
term “conservation” appeared in “reforestation” in 29.62% (n = 8),
most of the documents (93.3%; n = and regeneration in 11.11% (n = 3).
14), followed by “recovery” (66.6%; “Brazilian Atlantic Forest” appeared
n = 10), “management” (53.3%; n in 48.14% (n = 13), “Caatinga” in
= 8), “preservation” (46.6%; n = 7), 3.70% (n = 1), “Amazon” in 18.51% (n
and reforestation (33.3%; n = 5). The = 5), “Cerrado” in 14.81% (n = 4), and
terms “restoration” and “regeneration” “Pampa” in 14.81% (n = 4). Of the ten
appeared in four cases (26.6%; n state websites surveyed, the state
= 4), two times each term. These of São Paulo, located in the Atlantic
results may indicate little conceptual Forest biogeographic region, had the
alignment between legislation and largest number of soil laws related
the scientific literature on soil ES to “preservation,” “restoration,” and
concerning restoration, as the terms “conservation”.
used in the literature are not reflected
The review shows that some of
1 Rachel Bardy Prado is a researcher at the Brazilian the most complete initiatives
Agricultural Research Corporation. She coordinates and are Bill no.5.487/2009 – which
participates in ecosystem services research projects, such as
has established the National
analyzing and evaluating public policies for providing, and for
monitoring and modeling, ecosystem services. Thaís Pimenta
Policy for Environmental Services
de Almeida is a PhD Candidate in Environmental Sciences (Política Nacional de Serviços
and Conservation at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Ambientais, in Portuguese) and the
(UFRJ). Her research focuses on payment strategies for
Federal Program for Payment for
ecosystem services.
Environmental Services (Programa
2 Legal frameworks that addressed the word “soil” appeared
several times on government institutional websites. However,
Federal de Pagamento por Serviços
in most cases, the meaning was confined to property issues, Ambientais, in Portuguese) – and Law
being used as a synonym for land. For this research, the no.9.878/2013 – which has created
legislation that dealt with “soil” as a natural resource were the
the State REDD+ System of the state
only ones included in the dataset. The research was initially
conducted from legal frameworks without any time-limit that
of Mato Grosso (Leite and Anguita
were directly related to soil. 2017). As of 2017, basic standards
55
for developing compensation policies Ambientais, in Portuguese [PNPSA])

for ES, which should be contained in (Prado et al. 2019). To implement
national legislation, are lacking (Leite these policies, actions and articulation
and Anguita 2017). are required at all scales. In particular,
greater attention should be given to
The National Soil Survey and
smallholder engagement for effective
Interpretation Program (Programa
restoration and conservation results.
Nacional de Levantamento e
Interpretação de Solos do Brasil, in In Latin America, Payments for
Portuguese), enacted by President Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes
Temer in Decree no.9.414/2018, is are increasingly common and, in many
one of the few public policies in Brazil cases, are strongly influenced by
focusing on soil. This law aims to policy design and scientific research
continuously carry out pedological (Balvanera et al. 2012). Compared to
surveys, following a schedule previous research concerning PES in
established according to the needs Brazil, the increase in PES projects is
identified by a multi-institutional, significant, especially those related to
national consortium and compatible carbon credits and water production
with the demands arising from the (Leite and Anguita 2017). From the
policies of the federal and state valuation approach perspective, the
governments for the sector. analysis of the Brazilian states with
PES laws between 2007 and 2015
Based on our review, we stress
highlights the Water Producer Program
the following state legislations:
of the National Water Agency (Agência
the National Biodiversity Policy
Nacional de Águas [ANA]). The
(Política Nacional de Biodiversidade,
Program includes 27 ongoing projects
in Portuguese); the Forest Code
in the states of São Paulo, Federal
and The National Plan for Native
District, Goiás, Minas Gerais, Rio de
Vegetation Recovery (Código Florestal
Janeiro, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa
e Política Nacional de Recuperação
Catarina, Pará, and Sergipe (Prado et
da Vegetação Nativa, in Portuguese
al. 2019).
[PLANAVEG]); the National Policy
on Climate Change (Política Bill 312/2015, which is pending for
Nacional sobre Mudança do Clima, final approval, aims to standardize
in Portuguese) and the Low Carbon the National Policy for Payment for
Agriculture Plan (Plano Agricultura Environmental Services (Política
de Baixo Carbono, in Portuguese); the Nacional de Pagamento por Serviços
Water Producer Program (Programa Ambientais, in Portuguese). This
Produtor de Água, in Portuguese); policy already exists in other Latin
and the National Policy for Payment American countries and attempts to
for Environmental Services (Política reconcile the interests of agriculture
Nacional de Pagamento por Serviços and the environment. Noteworthily,
56
Law no.13.493/2017 establishes the the context of smallholders’ activities

Green Domestic Product (Produto (Lehmann 2007). This soil conditioner
Interno Verde [PIV], in Portuguese), is the product that remains following
which incorporates national ecological the pyrolysis of organic materials,
heritage. such as wood, sludge, manure, leaves,
and industrial and urban organic
Regarding the adherence of soil ES to
residues (Sohi, Lopes-Capel, and
policies for governing, managing, and
Bol 2010). Biochar can better the
conserving soils at the smallholder
chemical, physical, and biological
decision level, we identify some
properties of soil, thereby improving
gaps and opportunities: initiatives
crop and seedling productivity. This is
that highlight and strengthen
of particular interest for smallholder
cultural services, which should
farmers in developing countries
include new valuation dynamics
(Souchie 2011; Latawiec et al.
and local knowledge; policies for
2019), who often rely on alternative
ES popularization; policies for
production methods to increase the
supporting and valuing socio-
productivity of their seedlings and
biodiversity products, including those
crops.
from restoration initiatives; and
policies that strengthen ecosystem- Although a vast amount of existing
based adaptation and nature-based literature covers the effects of biochar
solutions. Awareness of these laws in the agricultural areas (Spokas et
and their implementation instruments al. 2012; Novotny et al. 2015; Castro
can support smallholder decisions, et al. 2018), biochar application
generating economic, social, and is a relatively new approach in
environmental benefits. the restoration context. In a study
developed in the Amazon region with
Scientific research plays a key role,
Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl. seedlings
with studies demonstrating and
(Brazil-nut tree), seedlings treated
communicating links between trade-
with 30% and 50% biochar were
offs for current and future generations
investigated. Seedlings with 50%
regarding the economic, social, and
biochar on clayey substrate showed
environmental considerations of
increased growth than with 30%
restoration.
biochar, but these differences were
not statistically significant. In general,
2.1. Case study 1 – Biochar as a tool these seedlings showed increased
to improve environmental, social, and growth compared to seedlings
economic conditions in tree nurseries cultivated in standard substrates
(Nunes and Teixeira 2011).
Biochar has emerged as a potential
Another study with Tachigali vulgaris
tool for improving soil conditions in
L. G. Silva and H. C. Lima seedlings,
57
a species native to the Brazilian Senna multijuga (Figure 2), and Trema
Savanna, tested the application of micrantha (Figure 3), when compared
different doses of biochar in the with the control. The treatments with
substrates (12.5%, 25%, and 50% 40% biochar and limestone resulted
biochar to seedling volume). The in the highest growth of Schinus
results showed significant increases terebinthifolius seedlings, likely due
in the seedlings’ height and number to the alkalinity of the substrates. The
of leaves, as well as their diameters, macronutrients present in the biochar
root systems, and dry mass (Souchie ashes may have contributed to the
2011). better growth of Trema micrantha
and Senna multijuga since both
In this section, we will present the
species have high nutrient demands
results of a case study in which
(Carvalho 2003). Cariniana legalis
biochar derived from Gliricidia sepium
(Figure 4) was the only species in
(Jacq.) Walp. was applied to the
which 40% biochar negatively affected
substrate of Brazilian Atlantic Forest
growth. This species grew better in
seedlings (Rodrigues et al. 2021). We
the limestone treatment. Biochar
also discuss the use of biochar in the
treatments often show low amounts
socioeconomic context of seedling
of Nitrogen, and this may be a reason
production.
for the low performance of Cariniana
The biochar tested in the nurseries legalis, which should demand a greater
was produced in a simple 200 L brass amount of this nutrient.
kiln over 10 hours at a temperature of
around 400°C. Biochar was tested in
the seedlings of four Brazilian Atlantic
Forest species from two nurseries: 1)
Nursery 1 – Schinus terebinthifolius
Raddi. and Senna multijuga (Rich.) H.
S. Irwin and Barneby; 2) Nursery 2 –
Cariniana legalis (Mart.) Kuntze and
Trema micranta (L.) Blume. For each
species, a control and three treatments
(20% biochar, 40% biochar, and
limestone) were established with 30
replicates each. The control treatment
was the substrate used by the nursery
owners, respectively (Annex 2).
We found that biochar positively
affected the seedling growth of
Schinus terebinthifolius (Figure 1),
58
Figure 3: Trema micrantha seedlings during the

Figure 1: Schinus terebinthifolius seedlings experiment. Source: Rodrigues et al., 2021.
during the experiment. Source: Rodrigues et al.,
2021.
Figure 2: Senna multijuga seedlings during the Figure 4: Cariniana legalis seedlings during the
experiment. Source: Rodrigues et al., 2021. experiment. Source: Rodrigues et al., 2021.
59
The cost-benefit analysis showed areas. Two areas implementing the

that seedling production in Nursery active restoration strategy were
1, for the treatment with 20% biochar, evaluated, one on the slope and one
exhibited the highest profit: US $187. in the flat area on a riverbank. The
In Nursery 2, using biochar in the natural regeneration strategy was
substrate composition of Trema also employed on the slope in another
micranta yielded a profit of US $7 section of Fazenda Dourada located
and US $8/year for 20% and 40% nearby. Before the restoration was
treatments, respectively. implemented, the areas had been
used as pasture for cattle ranching.
Our environmental and socioeconomic
Approximately six years had passed
analysis of tree seedlings in the
since restoration began. We compared
Brazilian Atlantic Forest showed
the restoration models with an
different responses to biochar
abandoned cattle pasture located in a
treatment (Rodrigues et al., 2021).
flat area, used as a reference system.
Given biochar’s potential for improving
soil quality, productivity, and Sampling was conducted in two
ecosystem services, we encourage periods: March 2016 and November
further studies on this topic. 2017. To evaluate the ecological
restoration strategies, three blocks of
30 x 60m were allocated within each
2.2. Case study 2 – Evaluation of soil treatment, making 12 blocks in total.
properties under different restoration Each blocks from the sites of active
strategies in the Atlantic Forest restoration, were divided into nine
parcels (10 x 10m), 27 in total per site.
This case study (Korys et al. 2020,
On the area where natural regeneration
under revision) was carried out
occurred, 25 parcels were installed
at Fazenda Dourada, located in
due to the relief and pre-established
the municipality of Casimiro de
vegetation. For chemical and physical
Abreu, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil
analysis, ten soil samples, at a depth
(22°44’17”S, 42°07’19.25”W). The
of 20cm, were collected with an auger
study area is located within the
from each parcel and mixed to a form
limits of an Environmental Protection
of composite sample. On the reference
Area (Área de Proteção Ambiental
site, ten soil samples were collected
[APA], in Portuguese) basin, which
randomly. Soil variables measured
is characterized by a high degree
were pH, soil moisture content (SMC),
of perturbation and fragmentation
N, P, K, Na, Mg, Zn, Cu, T-CEC, C/N ratio,
(Carvalho et al. 2004; Carvalho et al.
soil organic matter (SOM), and soil
2006).
texture.
We evaluated passive and active
restoration strategies in dissimilar
60
Our results (Korys et al. 2020, under (for example, water regulation, flood
revision) indicate that there are no control, and food security) may have
significant differences in most soil an important impact on the well-being
properties regarding the various types of small farmers and their families
of restoration models compared to and may, thus, encourage them to
the control site. However, we found be actively involved in restoration
a significant difference in pH, SOM, projects hereafter. Regardless of which
Na, SMC, Fe, and Mn. These results restoration technique smallholders
show that the main outcomes of choose, it is well known that, in many
restoration, in the early stage, may cases, forests positively affect the
be the recovery of the soil ES, such growth of crops and bring comfort to
as nutrient cycling and reduced the lives of people and animals on the
erosion. Moreover, other ES resulting farms. Trees also help increase soil
from soil recovery under restoration fertility by increasing organic matter.
3. CONCLUSIONS
Soil is a fundamental resource for important in the reality of the Brazilian

human well-being and provides smallholders, who deal with limited
several ES, such as carbon production resources. The survey of
sequestration, physical support, public policies in this context is also
and food. Therefore, we sought to fundamental because it favors and
advance the investigation of soils in facilitates access to information about
the restoration context. Increasing the smallholders’ rights and duties.
knowledge of soils in restoration Soil analysis within the restoration
projects, as well as the attendant context contributes to forest and soil
legislation, contributes to making recovery and to the maintenance of
ecosystem recovery more efficient. ES. It also provides benefits at different
This investigation becomes even more scales and for different stakeholders.
61
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F. D. Moraes, Ana Castro, Helena N. Alves-Pinto, et al., “Look down—There Is a Gap—
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that the majority (59%
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Do Brasil (Bertholletia Excelsa h B. K .) Em Função de Doses de Carvão Vegetal Como
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Demonte Ferraz, Rachel Bardy Prado,, Lucília Maria Parron Mônica Matoso Campanha
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Ricardo R. Rodrigues, Jean P Metzger, Miguel Calmon, Carlos A. de M. Scaramuzza,
Marcelo F. Matsumoto et al. “There is hope for achieving ambitious Atlantic Forest
restoration commitments”,Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation, 17 (2019): 80-83,
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science.1155365.
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2236-x.
64
5. ANNEX 1: NORMATIVE ACTS– FEDERAL LEVEL AND STATE LEVEL
Federal level
Normative Act Object
Decree no. 9.414/2018 Creates Brazil’s National Soil Survey and Interpretation Program.
Decree no. 94.076/1987 Creates the National Watershed Program and other measures.
Creates the National Policy to Fight Desertification and Mitigate
Drought Effects and its instruments; it also calls for the creation
Act no. 13.153/2015
of the National Commission to Fight Desertification, among other
measures.
Act no. 8.171/1991
Legislate concerning agricultural policy.
Act no. 9.272/1996
Act no. 7.661/1988 Creates the National Coastal Management Plan and other measures.
Legislate in relation to discrimination by the Ministry of Agriculture
Act no. 6.225/1975
for mandatory implementation of soil protection plans and anti-
Decree no. 77.775/1976
erosion plans among other measures.
Creates the National Soil Conservation Program (the PNCS [acronym
Decree no. 76.470/1975
in Portuguese]) and other measures.
Makes the Brazilian government, its states and the Federal District
Federal Constitution
concurrently legislate on forests, hunting, fishing, fauna, nature
of 1988, Section 24,
conservation, soil and natural resource protection, environmental
Subsection VI
protection, and pollution control.
Changes Act no. 12.651 of May 25, 2012, which legislates in relation
to the protection of native vegetation; changes Acts 6.938 of August
31, 1981, 9.393 of December 19, 1996, and 11.428 of December 22,
2006; and cancels Acts 4.771, of September 15, 1965, and 7.754, of
Act no. 12.727/2012
April 14, 1989, Provisional Measure no. 2.166-67, of August 24, 2001,
item 22 of Subsection II, Section 167, Act 6.015 from December 31,
1973, and Paragraph 2 of Section 4, Act no. 12.651, from May 25,
2012.
Legislates in relation to the National Environmental Policy, its
Act no. 7.804/1989
purposes and mechanisms of formulation and application, among
Act no. 6.938/1981
other measures.
Regulates Section 9, Subsection II, of Act no. 6.938 from August 31,
Decree no. 4.297/2002 1981, establishing criteria for the Ecological-Economic Zoning (EEZ)
of Brazil, among other measures.
CONAMA Resolution no. Legislates in relation to basic criteria and general guidelines for
1/1986 environmental impact assessment.
Legislates in relation to the management of public forests for
sustainable production; it also establishes the Brazilian Forest
Service (SFB) within the structure of the Ministry of the Environment.
Act no. 11.284/2006 It creates the National Forest Development Fund (FNDF) and changes
Laws 10.683 of May 28, 2003, 5.868 of December 12, 1972, 9.605 of
February 12, 1998, 4.771 of September 15, 1965, 6.938 of August 31,
1981, and 6.015 of December 31, 1973, among other measures.
65
Normative Act Object

Regulates Sections 12, final part, 15, 16, 19, 20, and 21 of Act no.
4.771 of September 15, 1965, Section 4, Subsection III, of Act 6.938
Decree no. 5.975/2006 of August 31, 1981, and Article 2 of Law no. 10.650, of April 16, 2003.
It also alters and adds provisions to Decrees 3.179 of September 21,
1999, and 3.420 of April 20, 2000, among other measures.
Creates the National Water Resources Policy; creates the National
Water Resources Management System; regulates Subsection XIX
Act no. 9.433/1997 of Section 21 of the Federal Constitution; and changes Section 1 of
Act no. 8.001 of March 13, 1990, which itself altered Act no. 7.990 of
December 28, 1989.
State level
Normative Act State Object
Legislates in relation to the preservation and conservation of state
Act no. forests; establishes the State System of Protected Natural Areas;
AC
1.426/2001 establishes the State Forest Council and the State Forest Fund,
among other measures.
Decree no. Legislates in relation to the creation of the State Forest Program
AP
3.528/2014 (PEF/AP) and other measures.
Legislates in relation to environmental licensing of the state of
Act no.
AM Amazonas; cancels Act no. 3.216 of December 28, 2007, among
3.789/2012
other measures.
Act no. Legislates in relation to the Environment and Biodiversity Protection
BA
10.431/2006 Policy of the state of Bahia.
Legislates in relation to the protection of native vegetation; changes
Acts no. 6.938 of August 31, 1981, 9.393 of December 19, 1996, and
Act no.
BA 11.428 of December 22, 2006; cancels Acts 4.771 of September
12.6511/2012
15, 1965, and 7.754, of April 14, 1989; cancels Provisional Measure
2.166-67, of August 24, 2001, among other measures.
Establishes the State Environmental Services Payment Policy and
Act no.
BA the State Environmental Services Payment Program, among other
13.233/2015
measures.
Act no. Makes the palm swamp ecosystems in the State of Minas Gerais an
MG
9.375/1986 area of common interest and permanent preservation.
Legislates in relation to financial incentives for rural owners and
squatters, known as Bolsa Verde, and changes Act 13.199, of
Act no.
MG January 29, 1999, which legislates on the State Water Resources
17.727/2008
Policy, and Act 14.309 of June 19, 2002, which deals with forestry
and biodiversity protection policies in the state.
Act no. Legislates in relation to forestry and biodiversity protection policies
MG
20.922/2013 in the state.
Act no. Legislates in relation to preserving agricultural soil, among other
PR
8.014/1984 measures.
66
State level (cont.)

Act: creates Payment for Environmental Services – especially those
Act no.
provided by Biodiversity Conservation, part of the Bioclima Paraná
17.134/2012
Program – and regulates the Biocrédito program.
PR
Decree: regulates state Act no. 17.134, of April 25, 2012, which
Decree no.
created the Payment for Environmental Services and the Biocrédito
1.591/2015
program in the state of Paraná.
Act no. Creates the State Policy to Fight and Prevent Desertification in the
RN
10.154/2017 State of Rio Grande do Norte, among other measures.
Act no. Creates the State Program for the Expansion of Irrigated Farming –
RS
14.244/2013 “More Water, More Income” (Mais Água, Mais Renda, in Portuguese).
Decree no. Creates the Soil and Water Conservation Policy in the State of Rio
RS
52.751/2015 Grande do Sul.
Decree no. Creates the Program for Sustainable Management of Family Farming
RS
53.052/2016 in the state of Rio Grande do Sul.
Decree no. Creates the Managing Committee of the State Policy for Soil and
RS
53.180/2016 Water Conservation.
Creates the State Policy on Climate Governance and Environmental
Act no. Services and creates the State System of Climate Governance and
RO
4.437/2018 Environmental Services in the State of Rondônia, among other
measures.
1. Creates rules for the use of soil to protect watersheds, courses,
Act no. and reservoirs, as well as other water resources important to greater
898/1975 São Paulo, among other measures.
SP 2. Changes Law No. 898 of December 18, 1975, which created rules
Act no. for the use of soil to protect watersheds, courses, and reservoirs, as
15.247/2013 well as other water resources important to greater São Paulo, among
other measures.
Act no.
997/1976 1. Legislates in relation to the Control of Environmental Pollution.
SP 2. Approves the regulation of Act no. 997 of 05/31/1976, which
Decree no. legislates in relation to the Control of Environmental Pollution.
8.468/1976
Creates protected areas related to water sources, streams and
Act no. reservoirs, as referred to in Article 2 of Act 898 of December 1975; it
SP
1.172/1976 also sets forth rules for the restriction of land use in such areas and
provides related measures.
Act no. Regulates the São Paulo State Environmental Policy, its goals,
SP
9.509/1997 formulation, and application mechanisms.
Regulates the guidelines and protection and restoration regulations
Act no.
SP for watersheds of regional interest in the state of São Paulo, among
9.866/1997
other measures.
Act no.
SP Regulates the recovery of vegetation in the state of São Paulo.
9.989/1998
67
State level (cont.)

Act no. Regulates the restoration (reposição florestal, in Portuguese) in the
SP
10.780/2001 state of São Paulo, among other measures.
Regulates the maintenance, restoration, natural regeneration, and
Decree no.
SP compensation of the Legal Reserve area of rural properties in the
50.889/2006
state of São Paulo, among related measures.
Regulates the guidelines and procedures for soil quality protection
Act no.
SP and management of contaminated areas, and other related
13.577/2009
measures.
Decree no. Creates the Strategy for Sustainable Development of the State of
SP
58.107/2012 São Paulo 2020, among related measures.
6. ANNEX 2: COMPOSITION OF THE SUBSTRATE USED AS CONTROL IN THE

EXPERIMENT
Nursery 1 Components Quantity

Clay 400 l
Bovine manure 100 l
NPK (4/14/8) 2.5 kg
Araxá Rock Phosphate (P2O5) 30 g
Nursery 2 Components Quantity
Organic compound 100 l
Clay 200 l
Bovine manure 100 l
NPK (4/14/8) 10 g
Araxá Rock Phosphate (P2O5) 30 g
68
04
HOW MAPPING
THE SOCIAL
LANDSCAPE
CAN
ACCELERATE
FOREST AND
LANDSCAPE
RESTORATION:
Case studies from Chile
and Honduras
back to
summary
69
HOW MAPPING
THE SOCIAL
LANDSCAPE CAN
04 ACCELERATE
FOREST AND
LANDSCAPE
RESTORATION:
Case studies from Chile and
Honduras
René Zamora Cristales, Kathleen Buckingham,
and Will Anderson
1. INTRODUCTION businesses, perceive the process of

planning and implementing restoration
differently. A decision as simple as
Over the past decade, it has become selecting a method for planting trees
easier for forest and landscape may not be based on the technological
restoration researchers to map superiority of one method or by
biophysical change. Now, they can comparing costs, but, instead, on
determine which land can benefit from decision-makers’ experiences, how
restoration, which interventions are they feel, or their other priorities. For
appropriate for each area, and where example, government officials know
interventions should be prioritized. that using machinery can help to
However, once the numbers are maximize productivity and minimize
crunched and the maps are handed off, costs when planting trees, but, if their
restoration often stalls. Why? first priority is to increase the number
When managing natural resources, of jobs or to improve rural incomes,
people make decisions based on how then they may choose to use a more
they perceive a problem or solution. labor-intensive method, even if the
Different actors in landscapes, cost is higher.
from government officials to local Understanding the range of
community leaders and small perspectives decision-makers
70
have can help build an open and Honduras. The cases presented here
organized dialogue, which can identify show how advocates for restoration in
common goals, anticipate areas of tropical, sub-tropical, and temperate
disagreement, improve collaboration, landscapes can use this information
and promote the changes needed to to make planning more participatory
achieve restoration plans with clear and to improve how information flows
goals. That shared understanding can within the network. We also hope to
help decisionmakers scale up their show how actors’ perceptions differ
work, too, by building collaborative across countries, how organizations
landscape-level action plans, which are connected and share information,
strategically guide the work in the and what kinds of organizations must
long-run (Buckingham et al. 2019). be empowered to help information
move more quickly to the right people.
By analyzing the social network that
ties these different actors together,
researchers can map the “social
2. THE KEY ELEMENTS OF
landscape,” which identifies how
LANDSCAPE RESTORATION
people are connected, what their
priorities are, how their perceptions
and information influence others, Landscape restoration is a process for
and how bottlenecks to collective rehabilitating degraded landscapes
action form. Social network analysis to provide water and food security
(SNA) examines the connections to people, maintain and improve
among organizations or individuals biodiversity, and support sustainable
and provides insights based on the value chains that create jobs and
position, number, and direction of sustainable development (Guariguata
the links in the network (Wasserman and Chazdon 2018; Stanturf et al.
and Faust 1994). Researchers have 2014). A landscape is an area usually
already implemented this methodology containing natural and agricultural
in different countries, like Rwanda spaces, where there are competing
and Kenya, not only for planning uses of the land. Restoration aims
restoration, but also to understand to find the best mix of interventions
how finance – and even seedlings – for a landscape, like agroforestry
flow within a landscape (Buckingham and reforestation, which, in the long-
et al. 2020) or how people perceive term, can safeguard natural forests,
different actors’ influences on forest maintain their connectivity, regenerate
management (Paletto et al. 2016). degraded forests, and revitalize
The objective of this chapter is to degraded agricultural lands.
showcase how mapping the social Landscape restoration has received
landscape using SNA helped plan increasing attention since 2011, when
better restoration work in Chile and
71
the international community launched (Maginnis et al. 2012). Understanding

the Bonn Challenge, a call to begin these disagreements is crucial for
restoring 150 million hectares of learning how decisions are made,
degraded land by 2020 and 350 million including how degradation is assessed
hectares by 2030. Today, more than 60 (Hobbs 2016) and what potential
countries have committed to restoring bottlenecks to implementation may be
210 million hectares (Bonn Challenge, (De Meo et al. 2011).
2020). Since 2012, regional initiatives
SNA is also useful when setting up
have popped up to turn those pledges
systems to measure the progress
into action. For instance, the African
of restoration over time. Effective
Forest Landscape Restoration
monitoring requires a clear
Initiative (AFR100) and Initiative
identification of actors at the national,
20x20 have led the movement in
landscape, and individual project
Africa and Latin America by collecting
levels to coordinate efforts to produce,
commitments of 126 million hectares
verify, and report high-quality, data-
and 50 million hectares, respectively.
backed information. By analyzing
To build the political momentum, the
the social landscape, we can identify
United Nations General Assembly
those actors and how information
declared 2021–2030 to be the UN
flows within those networks. This
Decade on Ecosystem Restoration
methodology can also be used to map
(UN, 2019), following the leadership of
any other relevant topics identified
the Government of El Salvador (MARN,
during the planning or diagnostic
2018).
process (Hanson et al. 2015).
3. IMPROVING PLANNING WITH SNA

4. CAVEATS AND LIMITATIONS
Realizing these national government

Although SNA can provide critical
commitments will require
insights, it has several limitations.
adequate planning, resources,
First, participants may not be
and implementation, which is only
authentic representatives of their
possible when multiple actors in each
groups. This can be mitigated by
landscape learn to work together.
researching the backgrounds of all
Forest and landscape restoration
participants. Second, if the number
is diverse since it involves many
of actors per group is not well
different actors living and working
distributed, some opinions could be
in the landscape. Each campaign to
overrepresented. It is imperative to
restore land is unique and becomes
ask participants to identify the leaders
increasingly complex when people
that genuinely represent a group’s
disagree on the best path forward
72
interests. Otherwise, the results will be Chile’s goals are: (a) reducing
skewed by the individual perspective the threats to biodiversity that
of the representative. Third, the first directly affect the wellbeing of
SNA is only the beginning. Landscapes rural populations; (b) eliminating
are dynamic and constantly changing. native forest cover loss by 2030; (c)
The analysis needs to be updated increasing the resilience of landscapes
and repeated to capture the interest to fires, floods, and droughts that harm
and perceptions of the main actors. local people; and (d) defining how
Alternative methodologies, such much private investment it needs to
as online surveys, have the same meet these goals.
problem, and their meager response
In 2018, the Chilean government began
rates and the lack of close interactions
designing a National Restoration
among participants will not produce
Plan to achieve its goals, helped by
accurate results.
the Initiative 20x20 Secretariat at the
World Resources Institute and the
World Wide Fund for Nature. The plan
5. TWO COUNTRIES, ONE METHOD
is currently in internal discussion after
a public consultation period and is
5.1. Forest and landscape restoration expected to be launched in late 2021.
in Chile (MMA 2020).
The restoration movement in Chile

began in 2015 after the country pledged 5.2. Forest and landscape restoration
to restore 500,000 hectares – 400,000 in Honduras
hectares of degraded agricultural lands
Honduras launched its National
and 100,000 hectares of degraded
Program to Recover Goods and
native forests – for Initiative 20x20
Services from Degraded Ecosystems
and the Bonn Challenge. In 2020, Chile
in 2018. The plan, managed by the
also committed to restoring 1 million
Ministry of Natural Resources and
hectares in key landscapes as part of
Environment (MiAmbiente), aims to
its Nationally Determined Contribution
restore 1 million hectares of degraded
to the Paris Agreement on climate
landscapes (Secretaría de Recursos
change. The Ministry of Environment,
Naturales y Ambiente, 2018). Its goals
the National Forest Corporation
are to: a) protect biodiversity and
(CONAF), and the National Forest
critical habitats; b) safeguard water
Institute (INFOR), part of the Ministry
sources; c) decrease susceptibility
of Agriculture, are the government
to natural disasters; d) increase
institutions leading this process
resilience to droughts; and e) fight
(Ministerio del Medio Ambiente [MMA]
pests that are devastating native pine
2020).
73
forests. 6. METHODOLOGY: HOW DOES IT

Honduras is now trying to understand WORK?
how information is shared among
the different government programs
In Chile and Honduras, we used a five-
charged with restoring land.
step process to analyze the social
Honduras also wants to identify
networks.
how the information flows can help
construct a roadmap for a landscape
monitoring system. For example, 6.1. Identifying the question
the Institute for Forest Conservation
(ICF) has the mandate to develop When they want to restore land
policies in forests, and the Ministry effectively, governments must know
of Agriculture (SAG) has the same how information and finance flow
authority for agricultural lands, while to and from implementers. In Chile
the Ministry of Environment and its and Honduras, the questions were
restoration program are related to drafted and discussed by the national
both sectors. Both the ICF and SAG authorities responsible for planning
have a presence in all Honduran restoration. In Chile, the key questions
provinces, with regional offices and were: “How are organizations
staff, while MiAmbiente focuses connected, and how do they share
more on environmental procedures information on restoration?” In
and regulations. This represents a Honduras, the question was: “How
challenge to MiAmbiente authorities, do organizations provide technical
who will need to develop strategies information and guidance in
to convene both the ICF and SAG to restoration?”
implement national policies at the
provincial and municipal levels. SNA
results are particularly useful in this 6.2. Convening people that influence
context for identifying bottlenecks restoration
in communication, informing
implementers of the latest plans and Since restoration at the landscape
priorities, and more fully measuring level involves various organizations
progress (MiAmbiente 2019). across the agricultural, environmental,
and other related sectors, government
officials listed the relevant
stakeholders in each landscape.
Building off a previous effort for
sustainability and restoration,
government officials leading the
restoration process in Honduras and
74
Chile identified the best representative 6.3. Identifying actors and allocating
of each group. In Honduras, for links
example, government officials needed
a leader of the coffee producers, Once the potential participants
who genuinely represented the were identified and invited, we
ideals and goals of the sector, which gathered participants together in
covers over 290,000 hectares of the national workshops. Participants
country (Alvarez, 2018). Participation grouped actors in mutually exclusive
per sector was not limited to one categories, which they themselves
person, and multiple representatives chose, to ensure that the data was
attended and actively voiced relevant and the conclusions reliable.
their opinions in both countries. In Chile, the Ministries of Environment
In 2017, Chile convened a committee and Agriculture organized a national
for restoration after catastrophic workshop to train government
fires affected 500,000 hectares of officials in SNA so that they could
land. Representatives of the different serve as facilitators. The lead author
organizations that are influential in facilitated this initial workshop
the agriculture and forestry sectors – and trained facilitators from both
from ministries to universities – have ministries. After the national training,
joined the group, led by the Ministry local government staff members led
of Environment and the Ministry workshops of between 25 and 60
of Agriculture’s National Forestry people in each of the 16 administrative
Corporation (CONAF) and Forest regions to understand how different
Institute (INFOR). Other governmental actors perceive restoration across
organizations working in agriculture, Chile’s vastly different landscapes.
such as the Agriculture and Livestock Facilitators aggregated actors into
Service (SAG) and the Institute for the seven categories, including the public
Development of Agriculture (INDAP), sector, enterprises, international
provided input as observers of the organizations, local non-governmental
process. organizations (NGOs), productive
sector associations (e.g., cattle
In Honduras, the government, through
ranchers or avocado producers),
MiAmbiente, convened the members of
civil society associations, and
the National Restoration Roundtable.
indigenous communities. In Honduras,
The government also invited the
participants chose slightly different
public institutions that are part of
categories because of the different
the Inter-institutional Committee on
context: public sector, international
Climate Change and technical partners
cooperation, private sector, academia,
of Initiative 20x20, such as the
and civil society.
International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) and the World Bank.
75
6.4. Discussing the data had the capacity to spread information

most quickly (or “closeness
Facilitators helped participants centrality”). In Chile and Honduras,
discuss the results and reach the results were sent to government
agreements that reconciled conflicting officials to spark discussion and to all
views. They encouraged the participants for transparency.
participants to identify which actors
were most central to the system and
which actors were missing but should 7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
be included. In Chile, the technical
team monitored the dialogue closely
to guarantee that all participants had In this section, we will present the
the same opportunity to voice their results from Chile’s Araucania region
visions. In both countries, facilitators and from the national workshop in
prepared a set of questions to Honduras.
kickstart discussion and incentivize
participation from all partners.
6.5. Analyzing and visualizing the data
Once the groups finished developing

the network, facilitators digitally
visualized the data to clean up the
messy hand-drawn diagrams that the
Figure 1: Participatory SNA workshop in Chile.
workshops produced. The software we
used, Kumu, also helped us analyze the
7.1. Chile’s social network for planning
data, and we identified the spreaders
restoration
(information hubs), the connectors,
and the receivers of information In Chile’s Araucania region,
in each network (Kumu 2020). By participants identified 79 organizations
measuring the number of connections sharing information on restoration.
each actor had, we found the most They answered the question: “How
influential actors in the networks (or do organizations share information
“degree centrality”); by measuring on restoration?” The results revealed
the actors with the most incoming that the organizations with the highest
connections, we found who received number of connections are CONAF,
the most information about restoration indigenous communities, small
(or “indegree centrality”); and, by landholders, forestry companies, and
measuring the distance of each actor the Regional Representation of the
from all other actors, we found who Ministry of Environment (MMA) (Figure
76
2). They serve as hubs of information for restoration if they are given
in the region. technical support.
CONAF’s presence in all of Chile’s While other productive sectors,
regions partially explains its influence. especially cattle ranchers and
Forestry is an important economic farmers, were not considered central
activity in Araucania, and forestry actors according to the analysis, that
companies own large tracts of land. To finding may, instead, indicate that
the government technical committee’s the participants see restoration as
surprise, participants identified that exclusively concerned with forests.
forestry companies could become It is important to include the main
a hub of information on restoration, productive sectors at the landscape
given their operational capacity in the level, especially those working in
territory and the fact that there are agriculture, to account for their roles in
large native forests. causing land degradation. This means
that NGOs and the government should
CONAF has the operational
more effectively communicate the real
capabilities, with its offices and
role that actors in agriculture play in
personnel, to spread information, but
restoration.
it is limited to forestry-related topics.
That is why CONAF, the Ministry of Academic institutions appear to have
Environment, and the Ministry of an influence but are not as central
Agriculture should communicate on as other actors. Because technical
work that cuts across their scopes. schools can provide practitioners
From the technical side, extension with the information necessary to
services and capacity at these implement restoration, they should be
organizations should be improved brought more closely into the network.
to unblock restoration, but they also
need to coordinate better to deliver
comprehensive information to
landowners. This division also makes
it difficult to communicate about
hybrid techniques, like agroforestry
and silvopasture, which add trees
to agricultural land and can directly
benefit people.
Araucania contains the largest
population of indigenous people in
Chile. By tapping into their networks
and deep traditional knowledge,
indigenous people can be advocates
77
Figure 2: Actors who have access to information on restoration in Chile’s Araucania region. The size of
the node indicates the increasing importance of the actor as an information hub.
The complete list of actors is available here.
The second analysis helped us dive Because forestry companies own large
deeper into the data to see who extensions of natural forest and have
received information (Figure 3). In this already demarcated priority areas
case, the results showed that small to restore, they receive information
landowners receive more incoming on why restoring and sustainably
connections, followed by indigenous managing native forests can provide
communities, medium and large an alternative business model. By
landowners, forest companies, and looking at the data, we found that, to
CONAF. All these actors directly own improve communication, landowners
and restore land and need the kind should share information with each
of information the network provides. other.
78
Figure 3: Actors who receive information on restoration in Chile’s Araucania region.
The third analysis helped us show allow mutual collaboration between

who had the greatest capacity CONAF and other actors. However,
to supply information to other the participants also recognized that
actors. We found that international Chile’s status as an upper-middle-
development organizations are the income country limits its access to
“spreaders” in the network. Because technical cooperation. Because this
they are perceived as neutral actors, is a potential block to progress, it
with few or no conflicts, they can will be important to ensure that local
transmit information transparently. government agencies, academia, and
Participants see international NGOs have the capacity fill this gap.
organizations as mediators, which
79
Figure 4: Network of who spreads information on restoration in Chile’s Araucania region. International
organizations are in light blue.
7.2. Honduras’s social network for and increase efficiency. Currently,

monitoring restoration though, information is not shared
consistently. For example, the ICF has
In Honduras, participants identified strong operational capacities in the
23 actors that share information provinces but only works in forests
about restoration. The perceptions and does not share information with
of the participants showed that the SAG (i.e., no links connecting
government organizations, such as these two institutions), which was not
the ICF, MiAmbiente, and the SAG, are included in the conversation, though
the actors with the most connections the majority of restoration will occur
(Figure 5). Though MiAmbiente is on farms and pastures. A surprising
formally in charge of restoration in actor in the discussions was the Army,
the country, participants discussed which is mandated by the government
how to improve communication to organize tree planting campaigns
between these three government but has little access to information on
institutions, avoid competition, restoration.
80
Figure 5: Actors who have access to information on restoration in Honduras.

The complete list of actors is available here.
Analyzing who had the most incoming agricultural extension officers hosted
connections showed the importance at municipalities, and budgets are
of municipalities as receptors of small. Significant effort should be
information (Figure 6). Municipal focused on improving capacities,
governments could become hubs for increasing the number of local
collecting information from national extension agents, and providing a
authorities and could then distribute strategy to disseminate information
it to restoration implementers. This to different types of landowners (e.g.,
connection is critically important farmers, foresters, cattle ranchers,
because participants identified that etc.).
information often must be channeled
We were surprised that palm oil or
through the municipalities before it
banana producers were missing in
reaches the landowners. Participants
the network, considering that both
recognized that there are limited
81
are major contributors to Honduras’s banana plantations. Reaching out to

economy. Other commodity producers, these industries will be critical, though,
like the Institute of Honduran Coffee because producing commodities
(IHCAFE) network, were listed, sustainably can also contribute to
suggesting that participants perceive national goals to restore land.
it to be difficult to restore palm oil and
Figure 6: Actors who receive information on restoration in Honduras.
Finally, we ran an analysis concerning considered. Many participants wanted

who spreads information (Figure 7), to ensure that the Army has access
which identified the ICF, MiAmbiente, to information that can guide its tree-
and IHCAFE. Coffee is one of the main planting efforts. Terra Group, a private
export commodities in Honduras, company with large investments
and the participants perceived that in energy and infrastructure, also
the coffee sector has an important appeared as a relevant spreader.
role in spreading information The participants perceived that this
within its network of producers. company could become a leader in
Other agricultural sectors were not investing resources in restoration.
82
Figure 7: Actors who spread information in Honduras.
8. CONCLUSIONS
SNA is a powerful tool to help us Other countries are using this tool
understand how different groups to do just that. Colombia is now
perceive the process of planning interested in developing a system
and implementing restoration. It can to measure restoration progress,
also help decisionmakers develop and one key step in this process is
participatory strategies that address identifying important actors working in
the needs of different stakeholders. restoration and what information they
While this chapter focused on are currently sharing with each other.
how information flows, the same When building a system to measure
methodology could also be used to progress, everyone must agree on
measure how finance flows through a the indicators and path forward. If
landscape or to design better systems they do not, the system could fail, but
to measure restoration progress. building new relationships where SNA
has identified that none exist can help
mitigate that risk.
83
In Guatemala, the government is to influence policies at the national

interested in mapping flows of finance level. The value of SNA is not only the
to support the implementation of participatory process it encourages,
its National Restoration Strategy. but also how it allows participants to
Guatemala could learn from Chile, understand each other’s perspectives
where SNA is providing valuable in an organized and moderated
information for the committee in setting. Leaving enough time for
charge of developing Chile’s own participants to discuss and familiarize
National Restoration Plan. By themselves with the results is key.
identifying the relevant actors in each Seeing the results sparks debates
region, SNA will help develop regional and discussions that can last for
restoration roundtables, which can hours, but those difficult discussions
discuss and validate tactical plans and are the basis for creating a shared
strategies adapted to local contexts. understanding and a guiding plan for
Understanding how information flows improvement. When people sit down
can help Chile transfer knowledge and listen to each other, collaboration
more quickly between roundtables and can flourish.
to the national government.
The major critique of SNA is that its
SNA can also provide evidence results often do not represent the
that can back up actors’ informal perceptions of people on the ground.
knowledge. In Honduras, for example, This is a difficult task because power
it validated the long-held perception relations are in constant flux, and the
that the forestry, environmental, designated leaders of an important
and agricultural sectors must group can change. However, our
communicate better and that these evidence shows that SNA – speaking
actors must connect with the Army. to people and helping them build
connections – can be the most
Participants in both Chile and
accurate way to gather information
Honduras found the methodology
about the ever-changing social
engaging and valued the opportunity
landscape.
84
9. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank all those who helped develop the workshops in Chile and
Honduras. In Chile, we extend a special thanks to the technical committee for
the National Restoration Plan, led by Luis Carrasco, CONAF, Constanza Troppa
from CONAF, Rodrigo Mujica from INFOR, Daniel Alvarez from the Ministry of
Environment, Roger Villalobos from CATIE, Anita Diederichsen from the WWF
and Mary Gronkiewicz from WRI for helping with the data analysis. In Honduras,
we are grateful for the leadership of Jorge Santos and Wendy Rodríguez from
MiAmbiente, who helped organize the national workshop despite the difficulties
at that moment in the country. Finally, we also want to thank all the workshop
participants whose perceptions were captured, and we hope these results can
enrich discussions of restoration at both the landscape and national levels.
85
10. REFERENCES
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Honduras: Heifer International.
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Satrio Wicaksono, Hanny Chrysolite, Aaron Minnick, Lisa Johnston and Bernadette
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Buckingham, Kathleen, Bernadette Arakwiye, Sabin Ray, Ornanong Maneerattana and Will
Anderson. 2020. “Cultivating Networks and Mapping Social Landscapes: How to
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De Meo, Isabella, Maria Giulia Cantiani, Fabrizio Ferretti and Alessandro Paletto. 2011.
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MMA. 2020. “Plan Nacional de Restauración de Paisajes.” Chile: Minister on Environment.

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05
PORTFOLIO OF
ECOLOGICAL
RESTORATION
OPPORTUNITIES
PRIORITIZED FOR
THE COLOMBIAN
AMAZON
back to
summary
88
PORTFOLIO OF
ECOLOGICAL
RESTORATION
05 OPPORTUNITIES
PRIORITIZED FOR
THE COLOMBIAN
AMAZON
Paola Isaacs-Cubides, Mauricio Aguilar-Garavito, Ta-
tiana Rojas-Rueda, Clarita Bustamante, Andrea García,
Wilmer Marin, Jimena Valero Garay, Diego Caicedo,
Camilo Garzón, Camilo Correa-Ayram, Jonatan Julián
Diaz Timoté, Carlos Hernando Rodríguez León, Wilson
Ramírez, and Silvia Vejarano-Rivadeneira
1. INTRODUCTION by the Instituto Amazónico de

Investigaciones Científicas (Sinchi),
approximately 1,600,000 hectares
The Colombian Amazon rainforest (ha) of dense forests were lost
is the most preserved area in between 2002 and 2018 (Figure 1) in
the country. However, it has the a continuous process of degradation
highest rate of deforestation and and fragmentation of the natural
encompasses areas with elevated vegetation (Sinchi 2019). To a great
rates of environmental degradation extent, this has primarily occurred
(Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología because Amazonian soils are nutrient
y Estudios Ambientales [IDEAM] poor, are prone to rapid degradation,
2020). The Amazon deforestation and have low fertility (Roca et al.
arc comprises the departments of 2013).
Caquetá, Guaviare, southern Meta,
Historically, the colonizers who inhabited
and Putumayo, and accounts for
these territories, which were previously
34% of the deforestation rate (Visión
occupied by indigenous communities,
Amazonia 2018), with Caquetá alone
brought with them the agricultural
containing 22% of total national
practices of the Andean zone, the inter-
deforestation (Visión Amazonia 2018).
Andean valleys, and the Orinoquía plains
According to the results achieved
89
borders with Nariño, Cauca, and Meta

(Sinchi 2015). Cattle ranching highest (Roca et al. 2013), between 2013 and
establishment took place between the 2017, represented, on average, 32.81%
1930s, to 1970s, and after that the rice of the coca cultivated area throughout
production began in Caquetá, which was all the Colombian territory and 172.73%
quickly replaced by illicit crops (Ciro, of that cultivated in the Amazon (UNODC
2016). Coca cultivation in Putumayo, 2018).
Caquetá, and Guaviare, and on their
75°0'0"W 70°0'0"W
5°0'0"N
¯ 5°0'0"N
VICHADA
Legend META
Departments
GUAINÍA
Dense forest 2018
META
Dense forest 2016
Dense forest 2012
Dense forest 2007 GUAVIARE
Dense forest 2002 CAUCA
NARIÑO CAQUETÁ VAUPÉS

PUTUMAYO
0°0'0" 0°0'0"
AMAZONAS
0 55 110 220 330 440

Km
75°0'0"W 70°0'0"W
Figure 1: Loss of dense forest cover from 2002 to 2018. (Adapted from Sinchi 2018).
Several international agreements under sustainable production and

prioritize restoring degraded areas. conservation systems. In its turn, the
These are also supported by other National Restoration Plan frames
national initiatives, such as the the direct benefits of ecological
government’s goals for zero net restoration in local employment and
deforestation in the Colombian business opportunities to impact local
Amazon by 2020 (UNDP 2015), economies (Ministerio de Ambiente y
as proposed in the National Desarrollo Sostenible [MADS] 2015).
Development Plan 2018–2022 to Nevertheless, the Amazon has been
double the number of hectares declared, by Supreme Court Judgment
90
STC4360-2018, to be a “subject of such restoration are socioeconomic,

rights,” defining a series of measures ecological, and sociotechnical,
to respond to deforestation increase in opening the possibility for leveraging
the Colombian Amazon. sustainability trajectories in different
landscapes.
Due to the natural dimensions
implied in adopting measures in the The areas that are currently losing
Colombian Amazon, this chapter vegetation cover are of great
will approach landscape restoration importance at the scale of the
to recover ecological functionality American continent, since they
and strengthen human livelihoods in guarantee biodiversity connectivity
regions that are already deforested between Central and South America,
and degraded, combining various as well as the flow of species and
strategies, including the ecological processes. These areas house the
restoration of critical areas, largest records of richness, endemism,
sustainable practices on productive and special climatic and physiographic
land, and increased vegetation cover conditions, which may be lost, due
across the landscape especially for to the degradation of the territory,
connectivity (International Union for at a rate of about 500 species at the
Conservation of Nature [IUCN] and regional level, according to the data
World Resources Institute [WRI] 2014; available in SIB Colombia (Figure 2;
Vergara et al. 2018). The challenges for Pitman et al. 2019).
80°0'0"W 75°0'0"W 70°0'0"W
5°0'0"N 5°0'0"N
0°0'0" 0°0'0"
No. especies
550
631
745
850
924
Legend
980
1029 Weighted richness
1078
Value
1248 High
2247
Endemism Low
0 55 110 220 330 440 Endemism

Km
80°0'0"W 75°0'0"W 70°0'0"W
Figure 2: Accumulated richness map showing the potential distribution of the species recorded in Biomodels
(Velásquez-Tibatá et al. 2019) and different forest structure conditions. Blue indicates the decrease in the
number of species originally reported due to forest cover loss. Similarly, high-value areas are observed in the
Amazonas Department and mountain areas (see box in the map).
91
2. REGIONAL ZONING types of disturbance identified in the

landscape. This has also allowed use
to identify areas where an economic
The chosen method presents a analysis has been performed and
spatial analysis developed to define where actions may be carried out for
restoration opportunities in the landscape restoration (Figure 3). In
Amazon region (Isaacs-Cubides et al. the end, a sustainability analysis of the
2020). Three components have been landscape was completed based on
used to define territory zoning: (1) current land use to support the need
restoration, (2) connectivity, and (3) for a diversified form of production, as
ecosystem services, according to the we propose in this chapter.
Preservation Restoration Sustainable Use

Hot Spots Best
Integrity Connectivity
services practices
Weather stations (precipitation High-integrity Landuseconflicts

Water supply Patch size
evapotranspiration) core>100 ha and aptitude
Slope
Water regulation Patch shape Resistance
Permeability
Crops types Structure of

Food
natural areas
Distance between
Crops types surrounding
Pollination natural areas Final
natural covers )fragmentation) zonification
Land use types and their Multitemporal
Carbon
biomass land use change
Natural systems in erosion-

prone areas Erosion control
Natural systems in flood-

Flood control
prone areas
Figure 3: Diagram of the components used for zoning landscape restoration opportunities in the Colombian
Amazon.
Initially, a conservation index of Potential connectivity was modeled,

the natural covers was created considering species with large habitat
considering: (1) size, (2) shape, (3) needs for supporting long-term
their structures in different ages of populations (e.g., felines [jaguars]) as
intervention of the natural covers umbrella species to indicate habitat
(Hansen et al. 2019), (4) their quality (Gonçalves Morato et al. 2014;
fragmentation degrees, and (5) the Silva-Angelieri 2016; de la Torre et al.
spatialization of disturbances to 2017). The corridor proposals from
assess the state of natural areas. Sinchi (Amazonian region), World
92
Wildlife Fund [WWF] (Caquetá), and In this sense, the areas in the
Humboldt (Putumayo) were compiled, deforestation arc (in dark green, Figure
and models were completed for the 4) have intermediate levels of integrity/
areas in the arch of deforestation that conservation, mainly due to the recent
had not yet been modeled. All models change in cover and fragmentation
were developed using the least-cost caused by deforestation. The most
path concept, aiming to rehabilitate degraded areas, with forests isolated
connectivity by prioritizing cores of from each other, are those with less
greater integrity and the areas to be integrity (in yellow and orange, Figure
connected (Adriaensen et al. 2003). 4). In these areas of low integrity,
connectivity has been lost, making
Additionally, erosion, susceptibility
these places of great importance for
to floods, land use conflict, and loss
restoration, especially in large riparian
of forest cover in riparian areas were
corridors.
evaluated to define the different
restoration priorities for degradation in
the territory.
75°0'0"W
VICHADA
META
META
GUAVIARE
Legend
Restoration priority
Low CAUCA
Intermediate
VAUPÉS
NARIÑO
CAQUETÁ
PUTUMAYO
High
Accumulation of regulating services

Value
0°0'0" Low 0°0'0"
Itermediate
AMAZONAS
0 25 50 100 150 200
High
Km
75°0'0"W
Figure 4: Map of restoration priorities evidencing the accumulated degradation in the territory.
93
Subsequently, an exercise was • Ecological integrity: Assessing

completed with local communities the degraded sites by evaluating
to support this prioritization effort, whether the sizes of the existing
brainstorming about the main polygons, the perimeter–area ratio,
ecological disturbances identified and high connectivity are relevant to
in the Department of Caquetá. This each area’s recovery.
information was used to focus local
• Regulatory framework:
analyses according to their state of
Determining whether these
degradation, providing the opportunity
frameworks, from land use to
to work with communities. Five criteria
governance plans, are viable.
were evaluated to prioritize and
determine the focus of restoration in • Economic benefit: Determining
the territory. whether the recovery of the area will
generate economic benefits.
• Connectivity: Determining
how connected the landscape is Economic benefit is one of the most
compared to preserved areas. important aspects for communities,
although they are interested in
• Viability: Determining the
maintaining the integrity of natural
technical feasibility, implementation
areas. Likewise, logistical facilities
cost, and logistical possibilities of
are important because transportation
recovery.
costs increase and, in areas of low
security, this is a risk for people (Table
1).
Table 1: Criteria weighting calculations for site prioritization carried out by the communities.
Group Group Group Group Group Group Total
Criterion
1 2 3 4 5 6 score
Ecological integrity 2 1 1 2 1 1 8
Connectivity 1 1 1 0 0 0 3
Viability 1 1 0 1 2 1 6
Regulatory framework 0 1 2 1 0 0 4
Economic benefit 1 1 1 1 2 3 9
With the spatial information available the spatial prioritization exercise,

on maps, these participants drew highlighting the flood zones of the
the priority areas according to the large rivers that come from the
aforementioned criteria. As a result, mountain (Figure 5).
the areas mostly coincided with
94
75°0'0"W
META
GUAVIARE
CAUCA
CAQUETÁ
NARIÑO
NARIÑO
Legend
Restoration prioritization
PUTUMAYO Low
Intermediate
High
Very high
Double drainage
0 15 30 60 90 120
Km Departments
75°0'0"W
Figure 5: Result of the digitization, weighing, and sum of the priority restoration areas defined in the
group workshop.
2.1. Important areas for providing

services
To complement the importance of

preserving natural areas, beyond the
ecological importance of species and
their interactions, and to recover lost
ecosystem services via restoration
activities, the following ecosystem
services of regulation were mapped
from a biophysical perspective: carbon
stocks, food, pollination, surface water
supply, water regulation, and flood and
erosion control (Table 2) (Tallis et al.
2012; Ochoa et al. 2019).
95
Table 2: Evaluated ecosystem services, proxy variables, and information sources used.
Ecosystem
Variables used Reference
services
Corine Land Cover (Sinchi 2018)
Crop and grassland areas in areas with
Food
no land overuse Land use conflict map (IGAC 2012)
Forest areas, with an influence buffer

of 50m, 300m, and 1,500m, that overlap
crop areas
Pollination Fragmentation map to show areas of Corine Land Cover (Sinchi 2018)
vulnerability due to loss of pollination
caused by the distance between
patches
Carbon storage values, according to Corine Land Cover (Sinchi 2018)

Carbon
the type of coverage for the years 2002,
Storage
2007, 2012, 2016, and 2018 Yépes et al. (2011)
Evapotranspiration and precipitation

IDEAM weather stations (Estudio
Water Supply estimate to obtain surface runoff as a
Nacional del Água 2018)
proxy of water supply
Drainage cartography and digital

Areas of high retention and regulation
terrain model (IGAC 2014)
Water of water due to type of land use, slope,
Regulation and parent material
Digital terrain model and slope
calculation (IGAC 2014)
Geopedological map of Colombia
(IGAC 2014)

Characterized by natural areas in
Erosion Control
erosion-susceptible areas
Erosion map of the Colombian
Geological Service (2015)

Characterized by natural covers in
flood-susceptible areas, adjusted by
Flood Control Flood Susceptibility (IDEAM 2012)
the wetland map
Wetland Map (Humboldt 2016)
The good condition of service provision in the Amazon region results from
the conservation of most of its area; however, degradation is threatening the
integrity of these systems. Areas of flood and erosion control are under special
threat and have been directly affecting local inhabitants. Flood zones are
96
especially broad, so the loss of forest over the years of 2002, 2007, 2012,
cover affects service provision and 2016, and 2018, especially in dense
the presence of productive activities forests, has amassed a total loss of
(Isaacs-Cubides et al. 2020). 1,657,297ha – from 40,884,775ha (2002)
to 39,227,478ha (2018) (Figure 6).
In terms of carbon service, forest cover
41,500,000.00
41,000,000.00 40,884,775.00
40,500,000.00 40,332,222.00
40,000,000.00 39,853,406.00
39,421,733.00
39,500,000.00
39,227,478.18
39,000,000.00
38,500,000.00
38,000,000.00
2002 2007 2012 2016 2018
Figure 6: Dense forest cover area (hectares) reported in the Sinchi cartography for the years evaluated.
There has also been an increase of and shrubs; Figure 7). Nevertheless,
almost a million hectares of open the amount of carbon stored in the
pastures for livestock ranching and biomass has changed from 41,437,300
pastures with natural regeneration and tons in 2002 to 39,767,900 tons in
mosaics. Natural vegetation cover has 2018, representing a loss of about
remained relatively stable over time 1,669,400 tons emitted into the
(grasslands, gallery forests, palms, atmosphere.
97
51,251,810
47,795,605
60,000,000
41,056,791
50,000,000
34,844,161
32,727,466
30,607,164
29,264,140
28,822,548
27,104,385
40,000,000
25,291,840
24,007,953
23,388,568
20,405,168
18,775,016
17,056,640
16,718,208
30,000,000
16,236,209
14,960,048
14,342,528
14,430,400
10,907,568
10,708,320
9,639,924
8,625,540
20,000,000
6,520,416
1,471,286
1,661,027
981,946
843,123
538,526
10,000,000
0
Fragmented forest with Secondary vegetation Shrubs, grasslands and Dense grasslands without Crop and pasture Open pastures,
secondary vegetation, fragmented forest with trees, mosaics of natural mosaics, pasture with annual crops
palm trees, forest pastures and crops areas, wetlands trees shrubs
plantation
2002 2007 2012 2016 2018
Figure 7: Carbon equivalent (tons) stored in land uses other than dense forests.
Food provision is at risk because Areas under erosion and susceptible

a large part of the area has been to flooding affect foothills, further
allocated to livestock, which is degrading them. By merging the
not recommended in the region mapped services to identify the
because its soils are not suitable areas of greater accumulation of
for that use, leading to reduced soil services (hotspots), greater provision
fertility. Pollination and services of services is observed in the
derived from proximity to the forest mountainous area and between the
are also vulnerable due to the high departments of Vaupés, Amazonas,
fragmentation in the altered areas, and Caquetá and, to a lesser extent,
affecting crop productivity. The in the forests still standing towards
Amazon region has a high water the south of Putumayo and Caquetá
supply, which is being lost due to (Figure 8).
poor regulation of land use changes.
98
Water Provision
Hotspots
Erosion Control
Carbon
Richness
Food
Pollination
Regulation
Figure 8: Ecosystem services accumulation zone, showing that more services are accumulated in preserved
areas and lost in altered areas.
99
Zoning of the territory based on silvopastoral systems is proposed to

preservation, restoration, and replace monocultures and extensive
sustainable use has been proposed, livestock farming, respectively. The
based mainly on drainage areas, areas conflicting use map complements this
under erosion, flood zones, and the zoning, including rehabilitation mainly
land use suitability. Potential corridors in areas with soil overuse and conflicts
have also been included and, within in wet areas (erosion and flooding).
them, preservation and rehabilitation
Since most of the altered areas show
zones are proposed, where the natural
signs of overuse and erosion, it is
cover has been lost but reconnection
necessary to improve the management
is possible.
of the productive systems and make
Landscape rehabilitation strategies way for the restoration of essential
are proposed according to the integrity elements (such as the riparian areas),
of the forest patches, with medium increase the perimeter of forest
and low integrity areas designated patches with species that improve
for implementing a transition towards forest conditions, and recover eroded
productive reconversion for those areas with strategies that will be
uses that are not diversified. The described later (Figure 9).
implementation of agroforestry or
0 20 40 80 120 160
km
Figure 9: Proposed zonification of priority areas for restoration, considering the different
opportunities for functionally rehabilitating the territory.
100
2.2. Definition of farm typologies, were identified, which resulted in

disturbance, and conservation targets generating land typologies and their
arrangements.
In the proposed zonification for
According to what the community
restoring the Amazon landscape, we
identified, the types are mixed. 46%
have looked for strategies that would
of the farms have erosion; 36% are
effectively allow, on a finer scale, the
located in areas prone to floods; and
proposed restoration measures to be
18% have deforested areas. This
accomplished in viably and profitably.
shows that what is cartographically
To implement this, during a landscape
proposed coincides with what happens
prioritization workshop, each farm of
locally.
the participants was mapped, criteria
were defined, and the disturbances
Figure 10: Example of disturbance identification and location for the Lomita farm, owned by Edier Garavito.
The following types of disturbances are reported as a result of what is

recognized and evaluated in the territory (Figure 11). For each issue, we have
constructed a matrix of limiting and stressing factors that favor restoration,
associated problems, and lines of action.
101
Problem tree Horizontal

Agricultural and mining activities located in protected areas or areas
diagram for the of ecological relevance (riversides, springs, wetlands)
Colombian Amazon
Agricultural and mining activities of moderate and large impact located in areas
of low aptitude
Problems related to
Vertical
indiscriminate land occupation
Loss or degradation of native forest cover (total/partial) in productive areas
and conflict of use
Delimitation, zonation and definition of Loss or degradation of native forest cover (total/partial) in protected areas or in
uses without proper citizen partnership areas of ecological relevance due to the expansion of the agricultural frontier
and access to environmental justice and land grabbing
Insufficient management by SINA Direct and permanent discharge of liquid and solid waste to water bodies
and agricultural, mining and without proper treatment
management authorities
Problems related to emission of
contaminants Inadequate or excessive use of agrochemicals
Unequal land distribution
Excessive use or disposal of chemical substates related to the extractive
industry and urban areas
Low community empowerment
Contamination of underground water with minerals and metals due to

Loss of traditional uses extractive activities
Inefficient or inexistent land use and Disposal of animal waste to water bodies
socioeconomic development planning
Drug trafficking and rise of illegal Bad practice and waste of water use at rural and urban regions
Problems related to change in
economies
hydrological regime
Geomorphological and water bodies flow alterations
Violence and illegal armed groups
Construction of roads and infrastructure
Low exchange of information and

technologies related to sustainable Habitat loss and fragmentation (isolation and low ecological integrity of forest
practices remnants)
Destruction of the natural landscape: total or partial loss of natural cover and
Problems related to resource
protected areas for maintenance of hydrological regimen
overexploitation
Compaction, soil erosion and massive removals
Animal trafficking and illegal or excessive hunting and fishing
Degradation or loss of ecosystems goods and services and high human footprint
in the Caquetá and Putumayo departments
Figure 11: Problem tree diagram for the Amazon.
3. PILOT RESTORATION PROPOSAL

and maintain the supply of ecosystem
FOR TWO PRIORITIZED AREAS AND
services in the Amazon.
THEIR COST–BENEFIT ANALYSIS To achieve this objective, the following
criteria were taken into account:
3.1. Objectives and goals at the scale • Connectivity criteria: Re-

of the Amazon landscape establish structural and functional
connectivity between the prioritized
Overall objective: Re-establish native forest remnants by increasing
functional connectivity in the the perimeters of forest patches
tropical rain forest to preserve the and establishing corridors and
populations and habitats of endemic landscape management tools
and interesting species identified by (LMTs) in productive areas.
the management plans and to improve • Riparian corridor criteria:
102
Re-establish the structure and reintroducing populations of

composition of native vegetation on selected species, promoting
the banks and floodplains of rivers sustainable agricultural production,
and streams. implementing LMTs, and
establishing silvopastoral systems,
• Erosion criteria: Control laminar
agroforestry systems, and forest
erosion processes, streams, and
systems of native species.
gullies in priority areas affected by
erosion. To facilitate the intervention and
the establishment of the planned
• Perimeter increase and
restoration designs, six action
revegetation criteria: Re-establish
units have been developed from the
the structure and composition of
cartography of the farms according to
native forest remnants through
land use type (Table 3).
Table 3. Action units: Farms 1 and 2.
Action units Summary of intervention
Dense Forest
Enrichment with timber species
Fragmented Forest
Establishment of corridors for Chiropters
Secondary Vegetation
Establishment of LMTs (Herramientas de Manejo del
Area Affected by Agriculture Paisaje [HMP] in Spanish) and sustainable production
systems, such as agroforestry systems
Establishment of LMTs and sustainable production
Area Affected by Livestock Ranching
systems, such as silvopastoral systems
For implementation at the landscape- c) Erosion: Controlling erosive

level, the zoning comprises the processes in slopes and eroded areas.
following components (Figure 12).
d) Flood Susceptibility: Mitigating
a) Forest: Areas where LMTs and
flooding.
revegetation have established native
forest systems or a corridor of timber e) Cores: Ordinating or preserving
species. Construction of a second cores of forest vegetation for
timber species corridor by enriching conservation.
secondary vegetation and fragmented f) Connectivity: Establishing or
forest remnants. conserving biological corridors in
b) Agroforestry: Establishing areas intended for strict restoration
LMTs and agrosilvopastoral and or at the edges of water bodies and
agroforestry systems. floodplains.
103
Legend
Flood susceptibility
Forestry
Agroforestry
Connectivity
0 1 2 4 6 8 Erosion
Km Transformed drainage
Figure 12: Example of the zoning for the proposed landscape restoration designs.
It is expected that forest remnants and species related to the preservation

the riparian corridor zones will form a of their areas (umbrella species),
forest belt, followed by an agroforestry and, at an initial stage, it consists of
buffer, which will expand the forest establishing corridors for bats, which
perimeter. Designs to improve erosion, are fundamental for pollination, seed
control flooding, and reactivate dispersal, and pest control in reviving
connectivity are also being addressed natural succession.
(Figure 13). Connectivity reactivation
is designed to host various species
through corridors for jaguars and
104
Legend
Category
HMP Agroforestry
HMP timber species and revegetation of potential corridor
Revegetation: enrichment of forest edge and interior
Preservation: interior revegetation
Ecological restoration
HMP Silvopastoral
Riparian corridor
Corridors – Agroforestry - Revegetation
105
0 0.35 0.7 1.4 2.1 2.8
Km
Figure 13: Landscape restoration design at the farm level in a lomerío and vega landscape.
The different restoration designs, whether productive or forest restoration, aim

to recreate a multi-strata scenario, which closely resembles the conditions of
the original forests. This means implementation must occur in 25-year stages,
with species planned for each stage (Figure 14).
4
STAGE
years
3 13 - 25
STAGE
ears
2 8 - 15 y
STAGE
ars
1 3 - 8 ye
STAGE
ars
1 - 3 ye
Stage 1. Cover: fast-growing pio- Stage 2. Structure: fast growing Stage 3. Consolidation: late pioneer Stage 4. Maturation: slow-growing
neer trees of which the canopy and dense early pioneer and secon- plants, trees and mid-sized treelets and long-lived canopy and unders-
covers the ground. Resistant and dary species (shrubs and small promote greater stratification and tory trees characteristic of old-
resprouting herbs and shrubs that trees) that produce large quantities loci for seed accumulation and pro- -growth forests (more than 50
fix nitrogen and are very competiti- of flowers and fruits to promote vided habitat for the fauna. Rubber- years). Timber and non-timber
ve. Species such as Cocoa, Copo- stratification that favor the develo- -trees, Cocoa, Copoazu and fast- threatened species, ombrophilous
azu and Rubber-trees are planted, pment to old-growth communities. -growing timber species can be or shade tolerant species that
as well as banana, corn and beans harvested. increase diversity. Harvesting of
for the short-run. Implementation rubber and fruits continues.
of refuges for bats.
Figure 14: Restoration model for areas affected by agricultural use (Adapted by image of Laboratório de
Ecologia e Restauração Florestal [LERF]/University of São Paulo 2016).
3.2. Management plan
Finally, a series of supplies have been presented to support decisions

concerning restoration measures to be taken. The first is a decision
tree with guidelines for restoration in the Amazon (Figure 15). The
second is a decision tree of restoration measures for different land
uses (Figure 16), and the third is a timeline of restoration measures,
in their broad sense, as well as intervention objectives (Figure 17).
106
Target: Target:
Target:
Areas requiring Mosaic of natural systems, semi-natural Mosaic of sustainable productive
Mosaic of natural systems in No No
Ecological Restoration areas in different successional stages areas and provision of ecosystem
different successional stages
and sustainable productive areas goods and services
Yes Yes Yes

Does it have Query: STRICT
Yes ECOLOGICAL ECOLOGICAL
restoration targets? Targets ECOLOGICAL
REHABILITATION RECOVERY
RESTORATION
No
Establish ecological Does it have restoration priorization and diagnostics for all scales? Implement monitoring
restoration targets program
No Yes Implement restore initiatives

and funding mechanisms Query:
Select and prioritize implementation
Adequate scale zonation: restoration areas
farm/landscape Have restoration goals
been achieved?
Query:
goals, diagnostics Yes
Estabilish short, mid and priorization and Implementation of
Basic diagnostics at all long restoration goals restoration adaptative management
scales: land uses, Flora, Fauna, Short-term
initiatives
107
soils and socioeconimic success
No
Adjust goals and Yes
plan adaptative management
Identify and prioritize restoration actions
Define and prioritize actions and interventions Mid-term
disturbances and Establish criteria, indicators and
metrics for monitoring success
degradation drivers
Yes
Yes Long-term
Query: At the restoration site: success
restoration 1. Is it possible to eliminat/ control the main
priorization degradation drivers? Spontaneous natural
Yes regeneration
and diagnostics 2. Is there little human influence and high
ecological integrity? Share the
3. Is there presence of invasive behavior? experience
Assisted natural
regeneration
No No
Is the system considerably Partial or total

Yes Restoration target have been
transformed? reconstruction
achieved!
Figure 15: Decision tree and guidelines for restoration in the Amazon.
- Dissing and implementation a

Natural and High Is the place manegement plan
Prescribed natural
semi-natural ecological a natural -Prevention, surveillance and control
regeneration
areas integrity? Yes protected Yes of unauthorized atropic uses
area? - Management plan monitoring
No No Establishment of
Landscape natural protected
management areas of national,
High tools (LMT) Is the place
Yes regional or local
Connectivity public or Yes level
value? government
High property?
No Connectivity Buying the
value? farm No
Transformed
areas - Civil society reserve
No - Community-managed natural
reserve
- Facilitation mechanisms
- Socio-environment agreements
-Payments for environmental services Sustainable use of
- Land-use planning natural protected areas
Areas
Area of Replacement and High - Prescribed natural
converted into High
relevant reconversion of ecological regeneration
agricultural connectivity
ecosystem production systems
and livestock
value? Yes and LMT
value? Yes integrity? Yes - Facilitation
use
No No
No Landscape
Assisted natural
Management Tools
regenaration
(LMT)
Is the
current land use
- Payments for evironmental
sustainable? Yes services
- Capacity building Sustainable use of
semi-natural areas
No - Facilitation mechanisms
- Payments for evironmental
Family services
Farming? - Good agricultural practices
Yes - Ecological agricultural start
- Capacity building
No - Facilitation mechanisms Sustainable use of
- Agricultural reconversion semi-natural areas
- Landscape Management Tools (LMT)
High Human - Agrosilvopastoral systems
footprint? - Best agricultural practices
Yes - Riparian restoration
- Micro-corridos
- Living fances
No
- Agricultural and livestock substitution
High High water - Alternative sustainable land-use: i.e.
connectivity No regulation Yes ecoturism, apiculture, non-timber use of
value? value? wild vegetation, etc.
Yes No
LMT or biological corridor - Agricultural and livestock reconversion
between farms - Landscape
Management Tools (LMT)
Figure 16: Decision tree for restoration measures, depending on land use.
108
3.3. Monitoring
Once the designs are implemented,

the establishment, recruitment, and
increase in native shrub and tree cover
must be verified (Aguilar-Garavito and
Ramírez 2015). To accomplish this,
the following compliance criteria are
proposed.
Short-term (up to one year):
The establishment of an herbaceous
layer made up of native ruderal species
is initiated.
90% of the material planted survives in
the revegetated areas.
Mid-term (two to five years):
The establishment of a shrub layer
composed of fast-growing native
species is initiated.
In the revegetated areas, 80% of
the planted material survives; a
community dominated by planted
vegetation has been established; and
the spontaneous colonization of native 50% of the planted material survives
vegetation in this stratum is greater in the revegetated areas, and woody
than 15%. Finally, the spontaneous shrubland has been established with
colonization of native vegetation must up to three layers: one herbaceous,
be observed in the forb layer, covering dominated by native vegetation from
up to 40% of the area. spontaneous colonization and co-
Long-term (six to ten years or more): dominated by seedlings of planted
vegetation; a shrubby layer, dominated
In the intervention areas, shrubby, by native vegetation from spontaneous
riparian vegetation or tropical colonization; and a tree layer,
humid forest should be established, dominated by the planted vegetation.
containing two layers: one herbaceous The revegetated area is expected to
and another shrubby, with heights reach heights between 13m and 18m
between 13m and 15m and covering and cover between 70% and 80% of the
80% of the altered area. revegetated area.
109
CONVENTIONS Year 1 - 3 Year 3 - 6 Year 6 - 15 Year 15 - 20 Year 20 - 30
TARGET
Strict Ecological Restoration Implementation Foothill and Andean
Activity period Implementation stage 2
Year 1 - 3 Restoration diagnostics stage 1 forest Montane and
Adaptive flooded forest
management Adaptive
Wetlands, rivers and
Agricultural management
Ecological restoration approach PNR ARN PRA CRA riverbanks
recovery
Implementation of Monitoring of priority Monitoring stage High
Different types of ecological priority/ pilot areas stage and stage 1 1 and 2 connectivity
High
restoration actions: PNR provision Low human
PRA CRA Facilitation Mechanisms of goods and footprint
(prescribed natural regeneration), sefvices High
RNA (assisted natural regeneration), ecological
PNR ARN Payment for Enviromental integrity
PRA (partial reconstruction actions) Services (PES)
and CRA (total reconstruction actions) Environmental Farm End of PES
authorities, purchase
Entrepreneurship and Maintenance of Expansion of
Environmental research institutes, development of alternatives
Leaders in ecological restoration Training sustainable local alternative
authorities academia and NGOs alternative economy economies
approach and actions enterprises and alternative uses economies
and NGOs
TARGET
Facilitation Agricultural Farm design Landscape Management Intermediate
Principal Action and planning Mosaic of sustainable High connectivity
mechanisms recovery Tools
productive areas and provision Low human
of goods and
footprint
provision of sefvices
ARN PRA CRA Intermediate
ecosystem services ecological
Facilitation Good agricultural integrity
Specific Action. PES: payment for Participatory Agroecology
PES mechanisms practices
environmental services rural
Agricultural assessment TARGET
substitution PES End of PES
Entrepreneurship and Mosaic of productive
Training sustainable
110
Adaptive develepment of and natural systems:
Decision and specific actions Farm enterprises and
management alternative economy sustainable use,
purchase alternative uses
Environmental and alternative biodiversity
agricultural authorities, uses and restored
Strict ecological restoration: Ecological areas of ecological
High research institutes,
ecological Attributes of the restored system areas of ecological relevance Restoration relevance
academia and NGOs
integrity
TARGET
TARGET Recovery and Responsible minerals extraction, Mosaic of natural and
Participative Project design
Restoration target substitution of responsible operations of roads, pipes seminatural areas,
assessment implemented
construction and and eletrical lines Project termination alternative biodiversity
extractive industry or responsible use uses, areas of ecological
relevance restored,
Previous project geomorphological
Borderline of actions of ARN PRA CRA Facilitation Facilitation
without manegement Termination restoration, improvement
environmental authorities mechanisms mechanisms
or being terminated of habitat quality
of wild life
Ecological Training sustainable Entrepreneurship and
Borderline of actions of enterprises and development of
recovery
agricultural authorities alternative uses alternative economy Moderate
Environmental and connectivity
TARGET Intermediate
sectorial authorities, High human ecological
Mosaic of natural and seminatural areas, footprint
research institutes, integrity
alternative biodiversity uses, areas of Intermediate
Borderline of mining and sectorial Illegal Priority provision
academia, companies ecological relevance restored, of goods and
authorities project substitution sefvices
and industries geomorphological restoration
Figure 17: Timeline, restoration measures in its broad sense, and intervention objectives.
3.4. Restoration cost–benefit analysis an Agroforestry System that has: (i)

timber (Abarco, Amarillo); (ii) banana
The profitability of farm production and timber (Abarco, Achapo, Macano,
systems and the alternatives that allow Ahumado, and Laurel), and (iii) banana,
for improved landscape conditions rubber tree, and timber (Abarco,
have been evaluated based on field Achapo, Macano, Ahumado, and
visits and secondary information, Laurel).
according to what was identified in
c) Agroforestry Systems: Annual
the landscape analysis and during the
costs and income per hectare of
search for sustainability.
cocoa agricultural production using
The following benefits were primary and secondary information
considered. on primary cocoa production within
a) Timber Forest Products: Annual an agroforestry system that has: (i)
costs and income of timber production banana and rubber tree; (ii) banana
generated by restoration measures and timber (Abarco, Achapo, Macano,
(m³/year). and Oak), and (iii) banana, rubber
tree, and timber (Abarco, Ahumado,
b) Non-timber forest products Macano, and Cedar).
(NTFPs): Secondary and primary
information concerning the annual d) Ecotourism: Cost analysis of
costs and income per hectare of services now available in Puerto Rico
Copoazu primary production within – Caquetá including canonying and
trekking.
111
e) Apiculture/Meliponiculture: d) Sugar cane monoculture.

Annual costs and income per hectare
An analysis of the social benefit
for the production of African and
of capturing CO2e was also carried
native bees as a product of forest
out, corresponding to the economic
preservation (we suggest only native
(monetary) valuation of what can be
bees).
generated from the environmental
f) Natural Regeneration: service provided by the different
Spontaneous restoration was taken Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR)
into account, in which the annual alternatives and the traditional
costs per hectare were obtained for production systems in terms of carbon
the year of implementation, which storage.
includes fencing and signaling, as well
It was determined that the least
as the labor costs of maintenance and
profitable production systems
surveillance.
are sugarcane and rubber tree
g) Production of Plant Material monoculture, followed by dual-
(Nurseries): The costs and income purpose livestock production,
per hectare per year for a nursery and semi-mechanized cocoa
producing seedlings, seeds, organic monoculture – which can increase
fertilizer, and other agricultural inputs. income if productive reconversion is
implemented, such as silvopastoral or
h) Production of organic fertilizer:
agroforestry systems (Figures 18 and
Humus and microorganism Compost.
19).
i) Coca Leaf and Mambe
Production (Indigenous Communities):
Annual costs and income per hectare
of coca leaf production and its
transformation into Mambe (coca leaf
powder with ashes as a stimulant) by
Uitoto indigenous producers in the
municipality of Fragüita.
The following traditional production
and land use systems were evaluated:
a) Extensive dual-purpose
livestock (milk and meat).
b) Semi-technical monoculture of
cocoa.
c) Semi-technical rubber tree
monoculture.
112
4,272.24
1,207.27
3,711,30
654.06
Semi-technical
rubber tree Sugar cane
monoculture monoculture
Semi-technical Extensive dual
Cocoa monoculture purpose livestock
-1,857.17
-2,590.59
-8,372.28
-9,105.70
Net Present Value (NPV) Private utility
Net Present Value (NPV) Social utility
Figure 18: Long-term profitability (ha/year, in USD1) of traditional land-use in Caquetá.
1 It was considered the average exchange rate of October (2019), in which US$ 1 = COL$ 3,433.31 (Banco de la República,
2020).

4,734.52
4,334.19
4,086.25
3,767.15
1,207.27
654.06
Double purpose Integrated Integrated

cattle ranching Silvopastoral Silvopastoral
System (SPS) System (SPS)
(DSP - living with tourism and
fences and genetic
scattered trees + improvement
BF) (Primary Info.)
Figure 19: Long-term profitability (ha/year, in USD) for integrated silvopastoral systems vs. extensive dual-
purpose livestock production.
According to other proposed agroforestry systems vs. cocoa monoculture and

rubber trees, higher profitability is observed in the transformation of rubber tree
or cocoa associated with banana and manioc (Figures 20 and 21).
113
low environmental costs. In the short-
10,884.23
term, productive alternatives must be
Net Present Value (NPV) Social utility proposed to generate income from
family farming, such as banana, beans,
8,217.99
8,098.72
7,473.63
or manioc, which are nutritious food
Agroforestry system (AFS) 4: Rubber-tree,

6,332.95
sources. They complement agriculture
Agroforestry system (AFS) 1: Cocoa,

5,432.48
Banana, Rubber-tree and Timber

and ecotourism by providing income
4,807.40
4,272.24
Banana and Rubber-tree

early, as well as the introduction of
3,711.30
3,666.71
Banana and Manioc

Cocoa monoculture
Banana and Timber

Semi-mechanized
meliponiculture or apiculture and

the production of organic fertilizer
on family properties. In general,
it is important to stagger income
generation alternatives, especially in
the short-term, to enable medium-
Figure 20: Long-term profitability (ha/year, in and long-term maturation through
USD) of cocoa agroforestry systems vs. semi-
individual or collective Payment
mechanized cocoa monoculture.
for Environmental Services (PES)
schemes, forgivable loans, technical
assistance, technological endowment,
and infrastructure. For example,
honey production is a strategy
24.698,83

that requires standing forest, so its

22.032,59
implementation generates benefits

9.943,37
Agroforestry system (AFS) 6: Copoazu,
Agroforestry system (AFS) 7: Copoazu,

9.031,74
Agroforestry system (AFS) 5: Copoazu
Agroforestry system (AFS) 8: Copoazu

8.736,89
to tackle deforestation and favor

7.277,14
Rubber-tree, Banana and Timber
for processing and Rubber Tree

6.365,51
6.070,65
pollination as a service. This also

4.272,24
Rubber-tree monoculture
Semi-mechanized Cocoa
3.711,30
makes it possible to create spaces

Banana and Timber
-2.474,94
-1.741,52
monoculture
for rehabilitating degraded areas

and Timber
and making way for restoration as

a viable economic alternative. Thus,
honey meliponiculture/apiculture and
ecotourism can be seen as an added
Figure 21: Long-term profitability (ha/year, in USD)
value to forests.
of copoazú agroforestry systems vs. monoculture
of rubber tree and cocoa. Taking into account carbon stock
analyses, the most significant long-
Forest-type arrangements are
term social benefits are generated
the most profitable but should be
by dense forests (13.1 million
considered a long-term production
Colombian Pesos/ha; approximately
system. In the intermediate run,
US$3,551), followed by fragmented
agroforestry systems with Amazonian
forests (12.7 million Colombian
species are a viable alternative with
Pesos/ha; approximately US$3,443).
114
In parallel, commercial agroforestry sales, reaching higher market prices

systems generate greater social thanks to transformation. Likewise,
(monetary) benefits in the long term food products also diversify the
(approximately 9.1 million Colombian farmer’s diet and prevent expenses
Pesos/ha; US$2,467), compared to for acquiring products that can be
a mosaic of crops (only 2.5 million produced on the farm. When compared
Colombian Pesos/ha; US$678) to agrochemical products, using farm-
or livestock ranching (1.8 million produced fertilizers also increases
Colombian Pesos/ha; US$488). the quality of the product and does
not incur in additional expenses.
Following the model proposed in
Additionally, forest regeneration can
Figure 15, the most profitable and
later be a source of firewood or other
cost-effective scenarios in the long
elements for infrastructure repairs,
term are those involving a small
while the trees are also suitable for
producer, who transforms raw
producing honey, which may even
materials on the farm (Isaacs-Cubides
have different flavors according to the
et al. 2020). Additionally, a natural
type of forest or crop the bees visit.
regeneration process (“passive”
It must also be taken into account
restoration) will be more profitable,
that apiculture/meliponiculture
accompanied by the production of
activities produce, not only honey,
plant material in nurseries and, in turn,
but also a large number of products
the production of organic fertilizer
with higher added value (e.g., pollen,
for the same use on the farm (humus
propolis, waxes, royal jelly, apitoxin,
and microorganism compost). Over
commercialization of the nuclei, etc.).
a 20-year horizon, the returns for the
proposed arrangements would be The above opens new scenarios,
projected according to Figure 22. such as creating and strengthening
alternative businesses, like
It is important to consider that,
cooperatives that produce collectively
although a high initial investment
to supply the demand. It is crucial that
is required for the reconversion of
the government’s strategy focuses
production systems, the benefits in
on supporting these initiatives and
the medium- and long-term increase
generating new marketing spaces that
considerably, in addition to the
are not yet guaranteed, not only in
increase in the provision of services.
specialized markets niches with higher
By having different production types,
prices (i.e., labeling or designation of
the farm does not depend on a single
origin), but also in regional, national,
product and can market those that are
and international markets, where
at a better price. For example, copoazú
larger volumes are demanded. Above
processing for the production of
all, these processes seek to increase
frozen pulp, allows the entire harvest
the well-being of communities and
to be collected and stored for gradual
115
productive alliances, hand-in-hand

with the collective preservation of
natural areas (Isaacs-Cubides et al.
2018, 2020).
18000,00
16000,00
14000,00 13783,96
12000,00
10000,00
8000,00
6000,00
4000,00 4056,51 3831,91 3831,91

3376,04
3139,40 3620,68
2973,56
2000,00
0,00 107,36
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-2000,00
years
Natural regeneration and production of plant material (nursery) Crop: beans

Copoazu, Banana and Timber (Abarco, Achapo, Macanao, Ahumado and Laurel) Ecotourism in San Vincente del Caguán
Apiculture and Meliponiculture Private utility/ha/year
Social utility/ha/year
Figure 22: Social and private utility (ha/year, in USD) over a 20-year horizon.
Finally, it is necessary to remember capture the gains in food diversity and

that, to successfully implement security on the farms. Therefore, in
the cost–benefit analysis, diverse future analyses, it will be necessary to
structural issues must be resolved, debate the best way to approach this
such as land tenure in the Amazon; particularity.
legal barriers to the implementation of
nurseries with native species and the
promotion of large-scale ecological 3.5. Landscape sustainability analysis
restoration; funding in the first years
of establishment, as well as incentives As a final, complementary exercise, an
(such as specialized certification, analysis of the current sustainability
designations of origin, credits, etc.) of the landscape was carried out in a
for Amazon products that lead to zero prioritized area in the department of
deforestation; and rural extensions Caquetá, using the method proposed
and technical training for more by Redondo et al. (2019). This analysis
diversified production systems, which was conducted to point to the need
require a bigger workforce. It must be for accomplishing a productive
understood that many small farmers reconversion in the region, thereby
produce in family systems and do contributing to sustainability. Three
not aim to generate profit or produce principles and two indicators were
raw materials for the market. In such included in the calculation: Principle
cases, the cost–benefit analysis must 1 – Multifunctionality; Principle
116
2 – Productivity; and Principle 3 rural landscape, over a given unit of

– Well-being. Multifunctionality is time. Well-being refers to the state of
the capacity of a rural landscape to the landscape that promotes quality of
simultaneously generate and maintain life, which is conditioned by the health
multiple, different goods and services, of all components of the landscape,
which benefit society. It is related measured through the assessment of
to the influence of the landscape’s ecosystem and human health (Figure
attributes and the services provided 23). Information from the National
by natural areas. Productivity is Agricultural Census (NAC) was
the amount of products, biomass, evaluated at the farm level, and project
services, labor, and capital generated inputs were considered via spatial and
from the ecological, economic, and economic analysis.
sociocultural interrelationships in the
Seed Existence of
Soil Mesofauna
Dispersers Substitutes
Pollinators Land-use
Vulnerability of crops to types
pests and diseases
Natural area
Permeability of cover
Deviation from average Redundancy in
landscape
landscape temperature landscape relations
components
Flood
Control Water provision
Land-use
heterogeneity Quantity of
Erosion Control agricultural
Landscape products
Regulation
Water Balance
Multifunctionaly
Carbon Balance
Availability of provision Quantity of
Biomass Balance ecosystem services ecosystem
Landscape
products
Energy Balance
Sustainability
Soil Nutrient
Cycling
Well-being Productivity
Landscape
efficiency
Ecosystem
health
Human Redundancy in Landscape

health landscape quantities pollution
Physical health Migration
Animal Energy
Yield
Health Profitability balance
Mental health
Contingency
stocks
Figure 23: Principles and indicators used for the landscape sustainability analysis. Source: Redondo et al. 2019.
The principle of landscape multifunctionality is related to the transformation

of soils, which have lost heterogeneity and regulation capacity due to land-
use homogeneity, mostly for livestock production, showing a poor functional
landscape (Figure 24).
117
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URIBE VISTAHERMOSA
VI
ST
AH
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O
SA
SAN JOSÉ DEL GUAVI
ARE
LA MACARENA
6
80
13
2°0'0"N PUERTO RICO 2°0'0"N
FLORENCIA
CALAMAR
SA
BELÉN DE LOS ANDAQUÍES

SANTA RO
SAN VICENTE DEL CAGUÁN

SAN JOSÉ DEL FRAGUA
2
50
13
PIAMONTE
1°0'0"N
CURILLO Legend 1°0'0"N
12
81
7 Mutifunctionality
Productive Landscapes
SOLITA
13 35
2 Very high
CARTAGENA DEL CHAIRÁ
PUERTO CAICEDO PUERTO GUZMÁN SOLANO High SOLANO
Intermediate
Low
0 10 20 ASÍS 40
PUERTO 60 80 Very low
UÍZAMO
Km
PUERTO LEG
76°0'0"O 75°0'0"O 74°0'0"O
Figure 24: Landscape multifunctionality.
As seen on the map, most properties in the Caquetá area are in red, which
indicates very low and low multifunctionality. This impacts the Productivity
principle, directly related to agricultural production, which was scored low
due to its impact on the provision of ecosystem services and on the number
of agricultural products and ecosystems, resulting in few products with low
profitability (Figure 25).
76°0'0"O 75°0'0"O 74°0'0"O
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URIBE VISTAHERMOSA
VIS
TA
HER
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SA
SAN JOSÉ DEL GUAVIA

RE
LA MACARENA
6
80
13
FLORENCIA
CALAMAR
A
SANTA ROS

2
50
13
PIAMONTE
1°0'0"N
CURILLO
Legend 1°0'0"N
Profitability
12
81
7
Productive systems
SOLITA
13 35
2 Very high
Intermediate
Low
0 10 20 ASÍS 40
UÍZAMO
Km
PUERTO LEG
76°0'0"O 75°0'0"O 74°0'0"O
Figure 25: Quantity of agricultural products and profitability per

landscape unit.
118
In agreement with field analyses, efficiency, expressed in terms of profitability

and Productivity yield, is not cost-effective, scoring low to medium (Figure 26).
76°0'0"O 75°0'0"O 74°0'0"O
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URIBE VISTAHERMOSA
VI
ST
AH
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M
O
SA
SAN JOSÉ DEL GUAV
IARE
LA MACARENA
6
80
13
FLORENCIA
CALAMAR
SA

SANTA RO

2
50
13
PIAMONTE
1°0'0"N
CURILLO
Legend 1°0'0"N
Productivity
12
81
7
SOLITA
13 35
2 Very high
Intermediate
Low
0 10 20 ASÍS 40
UÍZAMO
Km
PUERTO LEG
76°0'0"O 75°0'0"O 74°0'0"O
Figure 26: Productivity as evaluated in the units analyzed.
The principle of Well-being refers to to proximity to natural areas. However,

the state or states of the landscape it is important to highlight the
that promote good living, which migration rates that have historically
is conditioned by the health of all occurred due to the presence of armed
components of the landscape and their conflicts. Well-being is not present if
relationships with landscape integrity. people must migrate from their lands
The principle was placed in an and are at risk due to security issues
intermediate category, closely related (Figure 27).
119
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VI
ST
AH
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SA
SAN JOSÉ DEL GUAV
IARE
LA MACARENA
6
80
13
FLORENCIA
CALAMAR
SA

SANTA RO

2
50
13
PIAMONTE
1°0'0"N
CURILLO
Legend 1°0'0"N
Well-being
12
81
7
SOLITA
13 35
2 Very high
Intermediate
Low
0 10 20 ASÍS 40
UÍZAMO
Km
PUERTO LEG
76°0'0"O 75°0'0"O 74°0'0"O
Figure 27: Well-being indicator for the study area.
The relationship between the uses sustainability indicators will improve.

and transformations of the land in the The region has enormous potential for
study area indicates low sustainability. developing distinguished, productive
The arrangement close to natural projects. There are also areas whose
areas reflects a high value in flood inhabitants are prone to developing
control, erosion control, ecosystem such initiatives, so their support
health, and landscape regulation, in is essential. The signing of peace
addition to a high rating regarding agreements has left an extensive
landscape efficiency and income level series of additional projects underway.
(Figure 28). This leads us to suppose Their success and the implementation
that, as the proposed production of new projects depend on the
arrangements are implemented, the possibility of continuation.
120
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IARE
LA MACARENA
6
80
13
FLORENCIA
CALAMAR
SA

SANTA RO

2
50
13
PIAMONTE
1°0'0"N
CURILLO
Legend 1°0'0"N
Sustainability
12
81
7
SOLITA
13 35
2 Very high
Intermediate
Low
0 10 20 ASÍS 40
UÍZAMO
Km
PUERTO LEG
76°0'0"O 75°0'0"O 74°0'0"O
Figure 28: Sustainability of productive landscapes in the study area
4. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We want to thank the communities (Visión Amazonía), GEF Corazón de la

of Caquetá Ferney Vaquero, Ever Amazonía, TNC, ACT, Cordespa, David
Castro, Hugo Prada, Yolanda Castro, Fajardo from WWF. We also thank all
Enrique Daza, Carlos Morales, Carlos workshop attendees and collaborators
Fernández, Albeiro Palomo, Cacique – Jorge Amador, Carlos Cortes, Blanca
Jhon Arbeláez, José Morales, Elí Monroy – and the local scientists
Cuellar, Aurelio Cuellar, Guillermo from Caquetá. This work was part of
Parrase, and Puerto Rico Canoying. the TW-91 agreement financed by the
We extend thanks to the entities that WWF and The Humboldt Institute, in
collaborated with us, Yezid Beltran association with the Sinchi Institute.
121
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4d13-957e-0bcc1af8f108
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06
CHALLENGES AND
PERSPECTIVES
FOR RECOVERING
SOCIOECOLOGICAL
SYSTEMS IN
THE CAATINGA,
A BRAZILIAN
TROPICAL DRY
FOREST
back to
summary
125
CHALLENGES AND
PERSPECTIVES
FOR RECOVERING
06 SOCIOECOLOGICAL
SYSTEMS IN
THE CAATINGA,
A BRAZILIAN
TROPICAL DRY
FOREST
Marcos Vinicius Meiado, Larissa Monteiro Ra-
fael, Raphaela Aguiar Castro, and Renato Garcia
Rodrigues
1. THE BRAZILIAN SEMI-ARID DOMAIN and the BSA area a political region of
AND THE CAATINGA newly expanded boundaries, based
on climatic criteria for promoting
social development (Resolução No
The Caatinga comprises an ecological 107/2017 2017). When considering the
region, largely located in the interior geographical limits of these two areas,
of the northeast region of Brazil, and, the Caatinga is not entirely contained
because it overlaps the limits of the in the BSA region, nor is the BSA region
Brazilian Semi-arid (BSA) region, its entirely in the Caatinga (Figure 1).
characterization is confused with Concerning the socioenvironmental
that of the semi-arid area. Neither development of these area, these
the limits of the Caatinga nor those dissonances may imply that fewer
of the BSA region are agreed upon in public policies and less resources
various sectors of society (Ab’Sáber are applied for managing the socio-
1974; Rizzini 1997; Instituto Brasileiro ecological systems in the Caatinga.
de Geografia e Estatística [IBGE] 2019;
de Queiroz et al. 2018). However, the
Caatinga is commonly considered
a natural region (Silva et al. 2017)
126
The BSA region covers approximately 1). The BSA domain comprises a true
7.5% (1,128,697 km2) of the entire physiognomic and social mosaic,
national territory and comprises which, despite high rates of endemism
coastal and inland areas of the (Fernandes et al. 2020) and despite
Brazilian northeast, including a small being the most populated semi-arid
inland portion of the southeast (3– region in the world (Alves-Rufino and
18o; 35–47o). It takes in 10 States Silva 2017), has only received a greater
– Alagoas, Bahia, Ceará, Maranhão, volume of research attention in recent
Minas Gerais, Paraíba, Pernambuco, decades. Its exceptionality is explained
Piauí, Rio Grande do Norte, and Sergipe by the geographical arrangement of its
– totaling 27,870,241 inhabitants biotic, physical, climatic, and historical
distributed among 1,262 municipalities elements.
(de Sousa Medeiros 2018) (Figure
Figure 1: Differences in the limits of the BSA region and the

Caatinga, as well as the location of four different ecosystem types.
127
The landscape of this area is complex (Figure 3). However, on the leeward
and based on the predominance of slopes of the brejos, rain shadows
flattened surfaces, called depressions, cause significantly reduced humidity
where there is a high water deficit. The to the point of the area being classified
presence of deciduous vegetation and as arid or semi-arid. Some brejos are
the higher occurrence of Cactaceae crystalline plateaus, and others are
populations reflects the dynamics of sedimentary structures raised or bent
a mostly rocky and poorly developed with a tabular aspect, such as the
substrate (Figure 2). Because of these Chapada Diamantina and the upper
characteristics, the soils are affected parts of the Borborema Plateau, which
by the rains, which, although sporadic, are among the highest features in the
are concentrated and have strong region (between 2,033 m and 1,100
erosive power, removing the surface m). These orographic determinants
layers of the soils and impacting the are important modulators of the
dynamics of plants and animals. The physiographic variation in the BSA
soils have also been impacted by the area, including the diversification of
historical conversion of the area into ecological activities and land use
pastures and livestock grounds – a (Corrêa et al. 2019).
transformation associated with the
Water infiltration, soil, and vegetation
perceptions the region’s population
characteristics are also relevant to
has about the vegetation being sparse,
the region’s landscape dynamics. The
with no ecological value, and the area
watercourses reflect the irregular rain
being dry for most of the year.
patterns and the fluctuations of the
In this landscape of rocky pediments, water table level. The only perennial
elevated surfaces stand out and play river to cross the region is the São
an important role, at the local level, Francisco. This river, which has its
for controlling moisture distribution. source in the tropical humid Canastra
These elevated surfaces are areas of mountain range of southeastern Brazil,
moisture accumulation because they flows from south to north and mainly
retain precipitation on their tops and reaches the south-central sector
windward slopes (orographic control) of the BSA region. As it is the only
from the humid winds originating in perennial river in this dry region, the
the Atlantic (Figure 2). These areas are São Francisco has been the target of a
known as brejos in the region (Corrêa public project for water transposition
et al. 2019), and they are also called to other basins in the northern sector
altitudinal refuges (Lopes et al. 2017). of the BSA area. The other rivers in
The brejos have the highest population the region are seasonal and dry up
concentrations in the BSA region, rapidly after rains. Because these
as they are a refuge, not only for the seasonal rivers cannot carry their
biota, but also for human settlements sediments away, this material has
128
little cohesion, which allows it to rapidly remobilize during the next rainy event
or makes it susceptible to other erosive forces (Corrêa et al. 2019). The rivers,
especially the seasonal ones, greatly influence the spatial organization of the
BSA region’s population, which tends to concentrate mainly in the urban areas
near permanent water bodies (Figure 3).
1 Areia Branca - RN 2 Carnaúba dos Dantas - RN
3 Buíque - PE 4 Morro do Chapéu - BA
Figure 2: The landscape of different sectors of the BSA region; 1. Northern semi-arid coast; 2. Seridó
Desertification Center; 3. Tucano-Jatobá sedimentary plateau in the Catimbau National Park; 4. Exception
area typical of the highlands in the semi-arid northeast. The numbers in the photographs correspond to the
ecosystem types shown in Figure 1.
According to Ab’Saber (1999), a high The forms of land use and occupation
population density places strong practiced since the first contact
pressure on the natural resources with Europeans have increased the
of semi-arid regions. Since the first pressure on ecological systems.
contacts with Europeans, Brazilian Slash-and-burn agriculture and
land use has been dominated by extensive livestock farming, which feed
cattle breeding, and, consequently, on the local landscape’s resources,
extensive areas have been remain recurrent practices in various
converted into pastures, impacting portions of this territory. The large
landscape function and giving rise to concentration of land, characteristic
desertification nuclei. of this domain, contributes to the
insecurity of small producers and,
129
as it is associated with periodic for the region, reinforce the stigma

droughts every decade, increases the that poverty and extreme poverty in
socioeconomic vulnerability of rural this area are a consequence of the
areas, placing even more pressure on droughts. New processes, including
the physical–biological resources of the advance of industrialization
the semi-arid region. The historical in some production centers and
processes that formed the people the expansion of urban areas, are
of the semi-arid northeast, as well imposing new challenges for these
as the public policies developed dynamics.
Figure 3: Population map by municipalities (2017 estimate) according to

elevation and proximity to water bodies in the BSA region.
130
2. CLIMATE MODULATION IN CAATINGA other extreme, floods caused by

SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS events of high magnitude and low
recurrence, such as extreme peaks
of precipitation, aggravate erosive
The BSA region boasts great spatial
processes, impacting the landscape’s
and temporal variability. Its largest
surface structure (Carvalho et al.
area covers extensive rocky pediments,
2020). It is difficult to determine the
interspersed by elevated sectors
spatial-temporal variation of the
consisting of crystalline massifs,
processes that modulate the semi-
phanerozoic basins, and a large, bent
arid region of northeastern Brazil
relief (Corrêa et al. 2019). Seasonal,
(Barbosa and Kumar 2016; Marengo
interannual, and decadal variations
et al. 2011) and this imposes limits
in precipitation respond, on different
on researchers’ ability to predict
scales, to the atmospheric regimes;
future scenarios for conservation and
however, the set of atmospheric
landscape restoration practices.
mechanisms that determine the semi-
arid condition of the Brazil’s northeast The climate is the main conditioner
is not yet fully understood. The region of the vegetation that covers the
is under the influence of the Atlantic landscape of the BSA region. The
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), irregular, interannual precipitation
the Mesoscale Convective Complexes, pattern, the concentration of the
the High-Level Cyclonic Vortex, and few rainy days, the high rates of
north–northeast coastal instability evapotranspiration, and the water
lines. Together with these systems, deficit in the soil favor plants better
there are large, interannual variations, adapted to xerophytic conditions.
which can cause extreme phenomena, Precipitation seasonality is of great
such as severe droughts or floods; relevance for evaluating climate
these are linked to the El Niño impacts on water resources and
Southern Oscillation, La Niña, and the agriculture (Alves-Rufino and Silva
Atlantic Dipole. The tropical Atlantic 2017). Thus, the intense seasonality of
Dipole pattern favors anomalies in precipitation, especially in the northern
sea surface temperature, influencing sector of the BSA region, evidences the
the latitudinal position of the ITCZ and most dependent and related portions
determining the seasonal distribution of land-use change (Figure 4).
of precipitation over the Equatorial
Atlantic (Marengo et al. 2011).
In the twentieth century, several
episodes of drought were recorded,
and there was an especially
anomalous period in the 1990s
(Barbosa and Kumar 2016). At the
131
Figure 4: Seasonality of precipitation, showing the highest values in the northern sector of the BSA region.
Climate diagrams are highlighted to evidence the different precipitation and temperature patterns in the
northern (Cabaçeiras) and southern (Espinosa) sectors of the BSA region.
132
One of the main problems that will land use and occupation, mainly: (1)
affect socio-ecological systems in BSA extensive livestock farming, which
region is related to how susceptible modifies the composition of plant
the area is to desertification. This communities, reducing soil cover and
global problem affecting arid, semi- increasing soil susceptibility to erosion
arid, and sub-humid dry climate and (2) irrigation projects developed
regions covers most of Brazil’s semi- for commercial and subsistence use
arid region. The players promoting this and resulting in soil salinization and
process include climatic elements, erosion. It is worth highlighting the
superficial landscape processes, historical importance of these land-
and anthropic activity (Corrêa et use processes since, over a single
al. 2019; Pérez-Marin et al. 2012). generation, it is difficult to observe
Approximately 7% of Brazilian territory the losses of landscape functionality.
is subject to desertification (Pérez- However, the result of more than
Marin et al. 2012). Water scarcity and 300 years of inadequate agricultural
policies of coexistence with the semi- practices is evident in many areas of
arid make the population dependent the BSA region (Sampaio et al. 2003).
on the resources of the Caatinga for
In addition to restoring degraded
subsistence. The areas with the oldest
areas, the fight against desertification
evidence of bare, eroded, soil and with
involves initiatives that articulate
little or no herbaceous vegetation
knowledge and practices from the
cover, are called desertification nuclei.
government, the private sector,
These nuclei are mainly concentrated
the academic–scientific sector,
in the north-central sector of the BSA
and society, in a coordinated and
region, which has the highest level
continuous way, aiming at cultural,
of precipitation seasonality, covering
economic, and political change.
the states of Piauí (Gilbués), Ceará
Thus, the anthropic causes that
(Jaguaribe, Inhamus and Iraçuba),
heighten the desertification process
Rio Grande do Norte/Paraíba (Seridó),
in almost the entire BSA region can be
and Pernambuco (Cabrobó) (Instituto
suppressed, and desertification may
Nacional do Semiárido [INSA] 2014)
be mitigated (Pérez-Marin et al. 2012).
(Figure 4). It is noteworthy, however,
The systematic monitoring of climatic
that other areas of similar appearance
events will also have a major role,
are not recognized as a nucleus, such
along with the projects and initiatives
as a region near the municipality of
for maintaining and recovering the
Ingazeira, in the Pajeú River Basin.
Caatinga’s socio-ecological systems,
In BSA region, unlike other areas keeping in mind the role played by
where desertification is driven by climate variability in the success or
climatic events, the susceptibility loss caused by sudden changes in the
of the landscape strongly relate to operating systems. These examples
133
highlight the complexity of sustainably When considering the recovery of

developing the region; plans and socio-ecological systems in the
initiatives should consider the Caatinga, it is necessary to group
uncertainties of atmospheric systems. all initiatives into two main types of
effective measures: (1) measures
to avoid expanded degradation
3. RECOVERY DYNAMICS FOR in an environment susceptible to
CAATINGA SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL desertification and which is constantly
SYSTEMS modulated by climatic conditions
and (2) measures to maximize
initiatives for degraded ecosystem
The relationship between society and recovery, whose efficiency is also
the environment in which it lives has directly influenced by the climate.
numerous, peculiar characteristics, Also, the involvement and integration
which can be altered over time and of different social sectors, such as
can directly influence the conservation the government, the private sector,
of local biological diversity. Recent the academic–scientific sector,
ethnoecological studies have and society, can guarantee the
demonstrated a close relationship effectiveness of initiatives aimed at
between traditional ecological recovering socio-ecological systems.
knowledge and the dynamics of All four social sectors directly
recovering socio-ecological systems influence initiatives aimed at avoiding
(Albuquerque et al. 2019). There is no environmental degradation and
way to think about and discuss the those that ensure the maximization
recovery of degraded environments of initiatives for recovering degraded
in the twenty-first century without environments. Furthermore, the
including social integration in the interaction between these four social
context of ecological restoration. sectors promotes new initiatives,
This social integration becomes which indirectly influence practices
even more important in the recovery that also drive the recovery of socio-
of environments in the BSA domain, ecological systems in the Caatinga
which, as mentioned above, has a (Figure 5).
high population density and unique
environmental characteristics. The
environments of Brazil’s semi-arid
region differ from the humid tropical
forests found in other parts of the
country, which have, in recent decades,
received more attention from initiatives
for recovering degraded (Brancalion et
al. 2015; Ribeiro-Rodrigues 2009).
134
Degradation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Private Academic - Society

Government
Sector Scientific
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Recovery
Figure 5: Flowchart of interactions, which directly (continuous arrows) and indirectly (dashed arrows)
influence the reduction of environmental degradation and increase recovery initiatives for degraded areas in
the Caatinga, a Brazilian dry tropical forest.
Below, we will discuss these direct and across nine states in northeastern
indirect relationships and how they Brazil, in addition to the northern part
drive the recovery of socio-ecological of Minas Gerais, which is located
systems, considering the importance in southeastern Brazil. Thus, joint
of giving society a prominent role initiatives from the federal, state, and
in initiatives related to reducing municipal governments can further
environmental degradation and guarantee and maximize positive
increasing in initiatives for recovering efforts to reduce environmental
degraded areas in the Caatinga. degradation. For example, effective
measures in this sector should create
and expand protected areas (PAs),
3.1. Initiatives from different social since the semi-arid ecosystem is
sectors and their interactions to reduce one of the least legally protected
environmental degradation in the environments in Brazil. According
Caatinga
to the National System of Protected
Areas, territorial spaces and their
The first social sector that should
environmental resources, including
develop initiatives to reduce
jurisdictional waters, with relevant
environmental degradation in the
natural characteristics, are legally
Caatinga is the government, at the
PAs. These PAs have well-defined
federal, state, and municipal levels
conservation objectives and limits,
(Arrow 1, Figure 5). As mentioned
under a special regime of public
above, the BSA region is distributed
administration, to which appropriate
135
guarantees of legal protection apply. Machado (Nascimento and Meiado

This system was established by Law Forthcoming) and Melocactus
N° 9.985 on July 18, 2000 (Lei nº. sergipensis N.P. Taylor & M.V. Meiado
9.985 2000). (Meiado 2016; Taylor et al. 2014) are
critically endangered, and still legally
Article 225 of Brazil’s 1988 Federal
unprotected, in the Caatinga; they have
Constitution states: “everyone has
small, declining populations and are
the right to an ecologically balanced
located on private properties outside
environment, of common use by the
PAs.
people and essential to a healthy
quality of life, imposing to the Although the Caatinga may seem to
government and the community the have an adequate number of PAs,
duty of defending it and preserving which generates the false impression
it for the present and future that its biodiversity is protected,
generations.” However, the Caatinga Siqueira-Filho et al. (2012) reveal
is one of the least formally protected that the area under full protection
Brazilian ecosystems, with only 9% corresponds to 2.4% of the Caatinga’s
of its territory protected mostly (73%) territory. Many endangered species
through sustainable use, such as remain, and there are several remnants
Áreas de Proteção Ambiental (APAs), of the Caatinga with an excellent
national forests, and private reserves degree of conservation, where rare and
– the latter resulting from voluntary endemic species are present, including
efforts of the civil society. Although species still unknown to science,
the importance of PAs for sustainable which are unprotected and have
use is evident, allowing society to no support from legal mechanisms
reconcile nature conservation with (Siqueira-Filho et al. 2012). Siqueira-
sustainable use of the Caatinga’s Filho et al. (2012) presented this
natural resources, these PAs are alarming data almost a decade ago,
considered less effective at preserving but very little has been accomplished
biodiversity (Siqueira-Filho et al. to change the scenario. Recognizing
2012). The vulnerability of PAs to only the rights guaranteed by the
sustainable use becomes even more Federal Constitution will not reduce
worrisome due to the high rate of environmental degradation in the
endemism observed in the Caatinga, Caatinga ecosystem. Thus, legal
which boasts a high number of rare instruments are necessary to creation,
species with restricted distributions, or, at least, expand, the PAs in the
such as several representatives of the Caatinga, especially those under full
Cactaceae family (Meiado et al. 2015). protection. It is also essential that
Cactus species, such as Discocactus mechanisms be generated so that
zehntneri Britton & Rose, subsp. petr- the PAs can meet their objectives
halfarii (Zachar) M.R. Santos & M.C. satisfactorily, as mentioned by
136
the Department of Biodiversity degradation in these areas, it is

Conservation of the Ministry of the essential that all private sector
Environment. Partnerships between companies incorporate social and
the government and the academic– environmental responsibility initiatives
scientific sector are extremely into their agendas (Pereira et al. 2011).
important, as they can assertively and In most cases, this implementation
effectively direct initiatives to reduce is driven by globalization and,
environmental degradation (discussed more recently, by revolution in the
later in this chapter). Society also has media, such as the use of social
the right and duty to charge, monitor, networks to disseminate social
and supervise governmental initiatives and environmental responsibility
aimed at reducing environmental initiatives, which generate positive
degradation, since representatives visibility for companies with ecological
are democratically chosen (Arrow 19, responsibility (Lázaro and Gremaud
Figure 5). 2016). Commercial irrigation
agriculture has also been introduced
The private sector can also directly
along the terraces of the few perennial
impact the reduction of environmental
rivers in the BSA region, such as the
degradation (Arrow 5, Figure 5),
São Francisco (Corrêa et al. 2019; Silva
especially large companies, which are
et al. 2017). This production, in turn,
increasingly establishing themselves
focuses on supplying demand from
in areas inside the Caatinga regions of
the international market. These large
Brazil’s northeastern states, providing
producers and their irrigation farms
a regional deconcentration movement
create jobs for the local population but
of Brazilian industrialization (Alves
increase concerns about disturbing
2009; Silva-Filho et al. 2015).
the natural landscapes, particularly
Establishing large, private sector
soil salinization and expanding
companies in regions far from
degradation (Corrêa et al. 2019).
urban centers brings numerous
socioeconomic development benefits According to Arantes (2006),
to small cities in the countryside. companies that demonstrate socially
Many of such companies increase and environmentally responsible
the area’s income generation and initiatives show that they appreciate
create new jobs, absorbing part of the effects of their actions more highly
the local workforce (Arrow 6, Figure than those that do not adopt such
5). These initiatives are important practices. Social and environmental
for the economic sector, since they responsibility practices are connected
bring a new financial contribution, to the concept of business eco-
which boosts and diversifies the efficiency, which prioritizes: (1)
local economy. However, to ensure reducing the intensity of material
the reduction of environmental used in goods and services, (2)
137
reducing the amount of energy used, proactive attitudes towards protecting

(3) reducing the dispersion of any the environment: considering damage
toxic material in the environment, (4) and degradation, correctly using
supporting recycling, (5) maximizing resources, and acting to protect
the sustainable use of natural biodiversity. These environmental
resources, (6) extending the durability certifications are accredited by
of products, and (7) increasing the the Brazilian government – more
quality of goods and services (de specifically, by the National Institute
Paula et al. 2017). Given the necessity of Metrology, Standardization, and
of expanding ecological awareness Industrial Quality (INMETRO). They
in the private sector, society has a provide economic gains to companies,
very important role in encouraging as they lower the costs of reducing
corporate eco-efficiency initiatives, natural resource consumption (Arrow
as it can, in some cases, choose 4, Figure 5). They also generate greater
and encourage the consumption of visibility, which can be a positive
products from companies that are advertisement for the company
ecologically responsible and socio- in front of its direct, non-certified
environmentally certified (Arrow 18, competitors, thereby offering greater
Figure 5). public recognition and new business
opportunities.
Private sector companies that
adopt social and environmental In recent decades, another social
responsibility practices and help sector having a growing impact on
reduce environmental degradation reducing environmental degradation
can still plead certifications that bring in the Caatinga is the academic–
economic advantages to the company, scientific sector (Arrow 8, Figure
such as ISO 14.000 and 14.001. NBR 5). The knowledge promoted by
ISO 14.000, published by the Brazilian this sector through theoretical
Association of Technical Standards foundations, with practical and
(ABNT), specifies the requirements scientific proofs from numerous
of an environmental management studies, supports decision-making
business system, which allows in the government, the private sector,
companies to develop a structure for and society. Researchers’ ecosystem
environmental protection. In turn, ISO characterizations, alongside their
14.001, updated in 2015, incorporates lists of flora and fauna, disclose the
the need for sustainable development presence of essential or rare species
initiatives in companies that already in the Caatinga. In this way, criteria are
operate with an environmental established for prioritizing areas that
management business system. may obtain legal protection. Based on
With the new version of ISO 14.001, such research, in 2018, a proposal for
companies are expected to have more creating another protected area in the
138
Caatinga – the Serras Caatingueiras health through medicinal plants or

Wildlife Refuge – was prepared through spiritual enrichment, cognitive
and unanimously approved by the development, recreation, and aesthetic
Environmental Council of the State experiences (De Groot et al. 2002).
of Pernambuco. This proposal was The Caatinga also has several areas
inspired by successive monitoring of with potential for ecotourism, such
the flora and fauna biological diversity as the Catimbau National Park in the
in the Caatinga, influenced by the São Pernambuco, or the Boqueirão da
Francisco River Integration Project; Onça National Park in Northern Bahia
this research was carried out by two (Figure 6), in addition to researchers’
centers at Vale do São Francisco prospection and domestication of
Federal University: the Environmental native species with great ornamental
Monitoring Center and the Caatinga potential (Cavalcante et al. 2017).
Fauna Conservation and Management
Proving the capacities of these
Center (Arrow 15, Figure 5) (Núcleo de
services highlights the need to
Ecologia e Monitoramento Ambiental
maintain environments with low
[NEMA] 2018).
or no anthropic interference. The
Understanding the dynamics of loss of an ecosystem function due
ecosystems and the services they to degradation processes can be
provide to people’s lives should also be difficult to reverse, if not irreversible.
a function of the academic–scientific The academic community has been
sector (Arrow 9, Figure 5). Studies studying the degradation of the
conducted in the Caatinga have Caatinga for years. Vasconcelos-
already proven how the ecosystem Sobrinho (1970) identified the
functions and offers services: how emergence of desertification nuclei.
biogeochemical cycles are regulated The studies conducted by Siqueira-
(while reducing carbon stocks), Filho and his collaborators in the
how areas are degraded and are in book Flora das Caatingas do Rio
different stages of succession (Althoff São Francisco: História Natural e
et al. 2018; Moura et al. 2016) and Conservação highlighted that this
how biological and genetic diversity process of degradation was intensified
is maintained through interactions by the various economic cycles that
between plants and microorganisms emerged later, which influenced
(Rodrigues et al., 2018) or through the inadequate land use practices
pollination relationship between native (Siqueira-Filho 2012). The evolution of
bees and native plant species (Novais environmental degradation processes
et al. 2010). Conserved ecosystems has also been demonstrated from
also support agricultural activity and geoprocessing analyses (Santos
food provision (De Groot et al. 2002), and Tabarelli 2002). Based on all
in addition to maintaining human these results, guidelines regarding
139
the actions necessary to reduce

degradation in the Caatinga can be
developed by the academic–scientific
sector. For example, researchers from
the Federal University of Pernambuco,
and collaborators from other
educational and research institutions,
have defined several conservation
strategies for the Caatinga: (1) halting
further habitat loss and desertification,
(2) maintaining the main ecosystem
services necessary to improve the
living standards of the rural population,
and (3) promoting the sustainable use
of natural resources in the region (Leal
et al. 2005).
140
Figure 6: Distribution of the main PAs in Brazil’s semi-arid region. The Boqueirão das Onças
and Catimbau National Parks are highlighted, as well as the Ararinha Azul Protected Area. APA
= Environmental Protection Area; PN = National Park.
141
Together, the private sector and done to ensure the coexistence of

society can and should carry out people with the semi-arid conditions.
initiatives necessary for maintaining The traditional knowledge from the
research and understanding and semi-arid region has accumulated
respecting the importance of the practices of dependence on natural
academic community (Arrows 7 and resources and is an important source
17, Figure 5). On the other hand, for bioprospection and scientific
the academic–scientific sector can knowledge concerning the dynamics
increase community projects, which of the region’s socio-ecological
will expand the knowledge generated system (Albuquerque and Melo, 2018).
from scientific enterprises beyond
In recent decades, as the biocultural
the limits of universities. Community
value of these peoples has been
projects, such as the Tatu Bola
recognized, initiatives from civil society
Wildlife Refuge developed by the Vale
in partnership with the government
do São Francisco Federal University,
and the private sector have gained
which developed environmental
greater volume and guaranteed
education initiatives in rural schools
the development of sustainable
in Pernambuco, should be expanded
technologies for people’s coexistence
and encouraged for greater integration
with the semi-arid (Arrows 18 and
between society and the scientific
19, Figure 5). These initiatives play
knowledge generated by the academic
an important role in the recognition
community (Arrow 9, Figure 5)
and change of social representation
(Campelo 2015).
for the BSA. The performance of
As mentioned above, society plays organized civil society has increased,
a major role in the dynamics of and the Caatinga Biosphere
restoring the socio-ecological Reserve (Figure 6) was created
systems in the Caatinga (Arrow in 2001, resulting in international
10, Figure 5). Historically, the SAB recognition and increasing interest
region is pictured by a population from the academic–scientific
that lives in poverty and misery sector in landscapes considered a
caused by sporadic droughts and priority for conservation (Conselho
semi-arid conditions, reflected in Nacional de Reserva da Biosfera
the physical–biological environment da Caatinga [CNRBC] 2004). It is
of the inhospitable Caatinga. This important to highlight the value
social representation of the region’s that increasing networks has for
poverty reflects public policies, which ensuring the effectiveness of social
have focused almost exclusively on and environmental initiatives. Being
fighting the effects of drought through responsible for the association
compensatory or paternalist policies between distinct segments of society,
(Arrow 2, Figure 5). Little has been they can increase the scale of action,
142
produce and mobilize a large flow use of coal, and a 73% reduction in the
of strategic information, exercise use of gas, implying improvements
institutional political power, and in the economic, environmental,
increase the capacity to mobilize and social, and health dimensions of the
sensitize society in general (Melo community (Rufino and Santos 2018).
2018).
Still, regarding society’s role in
Groups such as the Articulação reducing degradation and building
do SAB (ASA Brasil), the Casa da networks to include socio-biodiversity,
Mulher do Nordeste (CMN), the an important focus for action is the
Rede de Agroecologia, the Centro population living inside PAs and their
de Desenvolvimento Agroecológico surroundings (Arrow 10, Figure 5).
(SABIÁ), the Serviço de Tecnologia These are primary players for both
Alternativa (SERTA), and the Instituto the recognition and conservation
Sociedade, População e Natureza of these PAs. Although, in Brazil,
(ISPN) are examples of network there is no legal definition for PAs,
power. These organized initiatives the broader concept is considered
share, with their communities, the here, including both the PAs’ System
joint development of practices (SNUC), as well as other centers
that free the most socially and devoted to maintaining socio-
environmentally vulnerable peoples, biodiversity, such as legal reserves,
rethinking traditional practices and Areas of Permanent Preservation
seeking movements, paths alongside (APPs), indigenous lands, Quilombola
science, and practices of valuing the territories, and protection sites created
Caatinga for people’s food security. after international conventions and
Among several initiatives, the treaties, such as biosphere reserves,
development of social technologies World Heritage Sites, geoparks and
is widely recognized. Projects such Ramsar sites (Figure 6) (Rafael 2017).
as Cisternas, Mulheres da Caatinga, Thus, one of the major challenges to
Sistemas Agroflorestais (SAFs), Casas the effectiveness of PAs is including
de Semente, Biodigestores, and Fogão society in the legitimation and
Agroecológico have promoted income maintenance of these BSA territories.
generation and improved the quality of Understanding the relationships
life, as well as water and food security, between PAs and communities can
for these communities, reducing the improve PA maintenance and provide
pressure on natural ecosystems. important elements for conservation
A study concerning the efficacy of planning and initiatives. Just as the
ecological stoves, conducted at Casa Caatinga is a true heterogeneous
da Mulher do Nordeste, has found that mosaic of vegetation, the communities
there has been a 45% reduction in the will be heterogenous as well (Rafael
use of firewood, a 71% reduction in the 2015). Thus, the understanding of this
143
relationship also implies considering 3.2. Contributions of different social

the differences between these spaces sectors and their interactions,
and communities. improving measures for recovering
degraded areas in the Caatinga
Examples in the BSA that seek
this articulation can be observed Restoring semi-arid systems is a great
in the National Action Plan for the challenge because the dynamics of
Conservation of the Blue Macaw, a ecological systems are still becoming
project of reintroducing Cyanopsitta known, the role of global climate
spixii (Wagler 1832) (Psittacidae: change in regional and local climate
Psittaciformes) to its natural habitat. variability is still underestimated,
This project aims, among other and the biotic, geographical,
objectives, to promote good practices and archaeological genesis and
of sustainable management for the evolution are still poorly understood.
food, water, energy, and economic Consequently, technologies aimed
security of local communities and to at such restoration are scarce or
ensure the safety of this Psittacidae incipient.
species (Figure 6). Constant efforts
to ensure that local communities Beyond concerns about ecosystem
benefit from PAs involve approaches conservation and guaranteeing in situ
such as conservation and integrated conservation of endangered species
development projects, inclusive through creating and expanding
management approaches, and PAs and enforcing laws that fight
the creation of opportunities for environmental crimes in Brazil, the
biodiversity conservation in the wider government must also increase the
rural landscape through community number of initiatives for recovering
PAs (Scherl et al. 2006). At the degraded environments in the
local level, participatory methods Caatinga and in all other Brazilian
have stood out concerning data ecosystems (Arrow 11, Figure 5). Many
collection from both the physical of these initiatives are based on the
and social environments. Examples Brazilian Forest Code, which must be
of this approach are ethnobiology taken as a legal basis for ensuring that
(cf.: Albuquerque et al. 2019), the forest laws are followed by all citizens.
Participatory GIS (cf.: Bourgoin As mentioned above, the laws
2012; Rambaldi et al. 2007; Sieber regulating the use and exploitation of
2006), and the investigation of native forests in the national territory
formation processes and orientation are found in the Brazilian Forest Code.
of social communications (cf.: Buijs For almost a century, laws have been
et al. 2011; Forrester et al. 2015). discussed and presented for this
purpose. In the mid-1930s, during
the expansion of coffee cultivation
144
in the southeast region of Brazil, across the entire restoration chain

the first Forest Code (1934) was in the Caatinga, offering complete
presented, which has gone through services, which involve diagnosing
intense modifications, ensuring and environmentally zoning areas to
more effective initiatives concerning be restored, determining operational
forest restoration. However, some procedures for applying the best
modifications proposed and techniques, and evaluating and
incorporated into the Brazilian Forest monitoring the restoration projects.
Code do not meet the concerns of Companies with this technology and
environmentalists and researchers knowledge should be encouraged
about environmental preservation and by and receive support from the
have actually significantly reduced government (Arrow 12, Figure 5)
forests – such as the reduction of to boost the market by generating
PAs in rural properties, either Areas employment and income for local
of Permanent Preservation or legal communities, whose members can be
reserves. Another characteristic hired to work in the various sectors of
inherent in this set of laws is the the restoration production chain or act
need to standardize regulations, in partnership to produce seedlings of
which, in some cases, disregards native species (Arrow 6, Figure 5).
differences and particularities of the
In general, communities’
distinct ecosystems across, such as,
understanding of ecological dynamics
for example, dry tropical forests and
and the complexities that involve
humid tropical forests.
ecosystems will allow the valuing and,
One way for the private sector mainly, the valuation of ecosystems
to directly act in the restoration (Bennett et al. 2005). Therefore, the
initiatives (Arrow 13, Figure 5) is to results of research developed in the
invest in the seedling production Caatinga should help communities
market, which must be prepared understand the differences and
to meet the local demands of the particularities of this ecosystem
restoration initiatives in the BSA and and inform necessary adaptations
comply with the Forest Code through in the laws to ensure more effective
the environmental and agricultural initiatives that promote regional public
adequacy of rural properties. However, policies for biodiversity conservation
due to the climatic characteristics and economic planning – thereby
of the BSA, care must be taken when controlling drivers of degradation
producing seeds and more vigorous (Andrade and Romeiro 2009). The
seedlings (discussed below) (Lima problem with the standardized
and Meiado 2017, 2018a, 2018b; initiatives in the Brazilian Forest
Lima et al. 2018). The private sector Code, which some consider harmful
may also create companies that act because they do not account for
145
the unique characteristics of each create, approve, monitor, and enforce

ecosystem, could also be solved whether rural properties are restoring
with partnerships between the or compensating degraded PAs.
government and the academic–
After degradation, and when the
scientific sector (Arrow 3, Figure 5).
need for restoration is perceived, the
This solution would begin with the
knowledge of the academic–scientific
vast amount of scientific knowledge
sector also becomes fundamental for
researchers have amassed concerning
successful plans (Arrow 16, Figure
the exclusive characteristics of the
5). Experiments carried out in the
Caatinga, which will support the
most diverse locations, with specific
necessary adjustments in the laws
edaphoclimatic characteristics,
already proposed, as well as new
provide the necessary guidelines for
environmental public policies that
specific conditions, fast responses,
will ensure reduced environmental
and reduced costs. To this end, studies
degradation (Arrow 15, Figure 5).
are continuously being performed
The slow processes of enforcing and in the Caatinga, pointing out which
implementing actions related to the species should be used, investigating
compliance with the Brazilian Forest their characteristics, their behavior
Code is also a challenging problem along succession, and how they
(Arrow 2, Figure 5). Some negative should be planted (Melo et al. 2012).
examples can be pointed out, such Moreover, recent studies, performed
as the Rural Environmental Registry, by the Federal University of Sergipe in
which is a mandatory, electronic partnership with Embrapa Semiárido,
registration for all rural properties, have proposed new pre-germination
aiming to integrate environmental treatments for seed hydration memory,
information. This system should have which increase germination and confer
been available since 2013, one year tolerance to abiotic stresses to seeds
after the validation of the Forest Code. and seedlings native to the Caatinga
However, its production deadline and commonly used in restoration
was extended numerous times, and, initiatives (Lima et al. 2018; Lima and
only from May 2014 onwards have Meiado 2017, 2018a, 2018b).
landowners been able to register.
The academic–scientific sector is
Other obstacles associated with
also investigating species distribution
this slowness are the Environmental
and the implementation stages
Adequacy Plans, often delayed by a
of restoration plans (Planos de
lack of investment in human resources
Restauração de Áreas Degradadas
and the absence of immediate political
[PRADs]). Additional research looks
positions that criminalize the practice
for alternative techniques to seedling
of environmental degradation, which
planting, which is commonly used
ends up holding that states may
in humid environments (Guerra et
146
al. 2020) but is not fully effective for the private sector and by society as a
all vegetation types of the Caatinga. whole. In this sense, the academic–
Improving the physical, chemical, and scientific sector can pass this
biological characteristics of the soil knowledge on to the private sector and
before planting tree species is more society through lectures and training
effective in highly degraded areas, courses (Arrows 9 and 14, Figure 5). A
such as those where the soil surface recent example of such training is the
has been lost. The Federal University online course covering the production
of Pernambuco has carried out and technology of seeds and seedlings
several studies on this topic, training promoted by Embrapa Semiárido in
professionals who are capable of 2020, which has used digital, distance
working in the region and who know learning platforms to train 5,000+
how to develop the studies that are still people during the COVID-19 social
necessary to determine appropriate isolation period. Thus, the activities
restoration techniques (Universidade carried out in universities, such as
Federal de Pernambuco [UFPE] 2019). symposia, workshops, and congresses
Since 2014, the Center for Ecology and should be made more accessible
Environmental Monitoring of the Vale and widely disseminated to the
do São Francisco Federal University public, using appropriate language
has been performing experiments and for external, rather than in-discipline,
implementing different nucleation audiences. The private sector may
methods to restore the Caatinga also need information obtained
and successfully develop the PRADs from scientific studies, as well as
in areas of the São Francisco River professionals who can coordinating
Integration Project, proving the restoration plans in other specific
efficiency of the partnership between situations – such as owners of mining
the academic–scientific sector and companies, large-scale agricultural
the government, represented by the activities, or any construction or
Ministry of Regional Development activity in legally deforested areas
(Arrow 3, Figure 5). (e.g., hydroelectric, wind, and solar
power plants), who must restore
As the results of these studies are
vegetation as environmental
published and made known, they
compensation mandated by law
are becoming a reference for further
(Arrow 14, Figure 5).
implementation in non-scientific
contexts. Developing techniques In the BSA region, degraded areas
that allow greater establishment of are susceptible to desertification.
vegetation following soil recovery, Human actions play an important
together with the high survival of role in the degradation of morpho-
seedlings and rapid recolonization of pedological landscape elements
the Caatinga, can also be replicated by (Arrow 20, Figure 5) (Pérez-Marin et
147
al. 2012). Thus, restoration initiatives 3). Actively participating civil society
should keep in mind the economic organizations being responsible for
and historical circumstances to which managing the basins and watersheds
the population is subjected (Corrêa et has been important for debating and
al. 2019). The practices must reflect defining priorities of water use and the
whether their increase in the semi-arid planning and implementation of public
region – an area with little productive policies and community practices for
land – has involved and benefited recovering and preserving springs,
the population. Scientific knowledge with the sensitization and mobilization
and the application of restoration of the community (Melo et al. 2012;
techniques have proven, promising Silva dos Santos et al. 2018).
results (Fagundes et al. 2018; Teixeira
The second challenge will strongly
et al. 2020). Considering, however,
impact soil quality and vegetation
that human activity has caused the
suppression, which can lead to
degradation of these areas, what
desertification. This problem is
social technologies have been
emphasized, as public policies and
developed to make communities
public–private partnerships do
protagonists, rather than assistants?
not stimulate forestry programs in
How have restoration practices
the region, which could reduce the
included the local community? These
degradation of native vegetation,
reflections are even more legitimate
recover human-modified areas, and
when noting that recovery programs
generate income for communities
for the BSA region are extremely costly,
(Arrow 2, Figure 5) (Resende and
and, in addition to the ecological
Chaer, 2010).
challenges of adaptation, the local
population may also play an important According to Albuquerque and
role in maintaining these programs. If Melo (2018), ecological restoration
people do not see the value of these may not be enough to ensure the
initiatives, many projects will be resilience of peoples and biodiversity.
condemned to long-term failure. Scientific knowledge must be added
to traditional efforts to ensure the
The recovery of degraded areas in
quality of life of this population, which
the BSA raises two geographical
is extremely vulnerable to climate
challenges: the impact of urban areas
fluctuations, landscape instability, and
on natural resources (Ojima et al.
the initiatives of public and private
2015) and the impact of rural areas on
players that increase and/or alleviate
native forest fragments. The first will
community poverty. The participation
strongly impact the quality of water
of society in restoration practices
in rivers and water bodies, given the
has been observed, mainly, in two
history of socioeconomic development
main initiatives: the development
concentrated in these areas (Figure
of agroforestry systems and the
148
production and commercialization Similar projects can help communities

of seeds and seedlings. Agroforestry value ecosystems and can empower
systems are responsible for increasing initiatives to distribute benefits. In
biomass production, reforestation, and 2015, a law “on the access to the
agroecosystem diversification. These genetic heritage, on the protection
initiatives reduce firewood harvesting and access of associated traditional
for domestic and agricultural use knowledge and the distribution of
and guarantee greater family farming benefits for the conservation and
productivity (Pérez-Marin et al. 2017). sustainable use of biodiversity” (Law
Nº. 13.123 2015) was passed. This
Examples related to seeds are
legal support should be one of the
projects, such as that developed by
instruments protecting traditional
Articulação do SAB, the Programa de
knowledge, mainly because the
Formação e Mobilização Social para a
Caatinga is an ecosystem with
Convivência com o Semiárido: Manejo
potential for bioprospecting, which is
da Agrobiodiversidade – Sementes
already being widely exploited.
do Semiárido. This program aims
to rescue and enhance the genetic
heritage of native species cultivated
for agriculture by strengthening the
practices communities have already
established, such as community seed
banks (Muniz and Sanches 2018).
CONCLUSION
The BSA region and, consequently, of the territory, where practices that
the Caatinga, is at a crucial favor quality socio-ecological systems
moment. Its representation as a dry should be stimulated and organized
landscape, of little ecological value for the entire region. The climate
and archaic productive practices, variability of the BSA region is complex
filled with a population living in and points to challenging impacts
extreme poverty and adapted to for the Caatinga. It is, therefore,
drought, is being set aside. It is now urgently necessary to systematically
being viewed as a region with great monitor the dynamics of the morpho-
potential for sustainable production pedological, climatic, and social
practices and of great cultural and processes in the region to ensure the
bioprospection value. This change in sustainability of the Caatinga’s socio-
social representation is an excellent ecosystems.
opportunity for reorganizing the use
149
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07
NEW FINANCIAL
OPPORTUNITIES
FOR UPSCALING
ECOLOGICAL
RESTORATION
AND MAXIMIZING
SOCIAL BENEFITS:
The partnership between
Ecosia and the Atlantic Forest
Restoration Pact
back to
summary
157
NEW FINANCIAL
OPPORTUNITIES
FOR UPSCALING
07 ECOLOGICAL
RESTORATION
AND MAXIMIZING
SOCIAL BENEFITS:
The partnership between
Ecosia and the Atlantic Forest
Restoration Pact
Joaquim José de Freitas Neto, Fabiane
Carolyne Santos, Pieter van Midwoud, Antonia
Buchard-Levine, and Severino Rodrigo Ribeiro
Pinto
1. INTRODUCTION the effectiveness and implementation

of restoration initiatives at regional
and local levels (Schuyt 2005). This
One of the main challenges for compromises the capacity for agreed
advancing towards achieving contributions to be properly fulfilled
the ecological restoration goals within established deadlines. To
defined in different international shed light on this problem, 210 out
agreements is developing institutional of 350 million hectares are currently
arrangements to enable long-term pledged for restoration initiatives
financing. Despite the attractiveness within the Bonn Challenge/The New
of the various international initiatives York Declaration on Forests (IUCN
– such as proposals promoting 2020) – restoration commitments that
multilateral arrangements at different directly affect tropical landscapes.
scales, allowing the design of more However, only 18% of these pledges
audacious, multiplayer projects – the show evidence of the restoration
low availability of constant financial initiatives (NYDF Assessment
contributions significantly impacts Partners 2019). This small advance
158
toward fulfilling the commitments has in the list of activities compensating

often been associated with financial for the suppression of native
resource limitations, which hinder vegetation.
executive initiatives for restoring forest
Thus, in the command-and-
landscapes in the tropics.
control scenario, large-scale forest
Developing multisectoral restoration activities in Brazil are
arrangements is increasingly mostly encouraged as a way to
necessary for attracting financial attain the environmental adequacy
resources to carry out forest of rural properties and economic
restoration initiatives. In several enterprises (Couto Garcia et al.
examples, such arrangements have 2013). Consequently, restoration is
been designed through partnerships often seen simplistically, as a mere
between the private sector and public counterpart to a higher objective.
authorities, via classical instruments Thus, the multiple opportunities
known as “command-and-control.” that may arise from restoration
In Brazil, environmental legislation, initiatives are disregarded. However,
such as the Law for the Protection this view runs against the current
of the Native Vegetation (Law No. ecological restoration concepts and
12,651/2012), establish conservation practices discussed worldwide, which
rules for the natural forest cover on expect integrative approaches to
rural properties through two legal forest landscape restoration (FLR)
instruments: the Legal Reserve (the to be adopted on multiple scales
amount of native vegetation that must (Mansourian et al. 2020). The planning
be conserved and/or restored inside and implementation of restoration
a rural property, with the percentage activities should, not only focus on
varying according to biome, land size, ecological and functional results, but
and location) and the Permanent also generate positive impacts for
Preservation Area (natural features the communities directly or indirectly
for which the conservation and/or affected by the projects (Mansourian
restoration of native vegetation cover et al. 2017). Thus, the objective is
is mandatory, such as riverbanks, to maximize social and economic
springs, slopes, and hilltops). For opportunities, from the establishment
economic enterprises, other legal and/or stimulation of the forest
instruments, described in CONAMA restoration production chain in the
Resolutions1 No. 237/1997 and No. region where restoration initiatives
371/2006, regulate the conditioning take place, thereby generating a
factors for the issuance of installation cascade of co-benefits to those
and operation licenses; forest involved (Erbaugh and Oldekop 2018).
restoration initiatives are incorporated
Although the environmental adequacy
1 National Council for the Environment (CONAMA). activities stimulated by command-
159
and-control are currently the main 2. TECHNOLOGIES AS NEW FUNDING

forces behind the restoration chain OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOREST
in Brazil’s various biomes, inducing RESTORATION
input (seeds and seedlings) production
and executive planning (Couto Garcia
et al. 2013), these instruments have Among the various areas in which
a limited ability to enhance the technologies have been creating new
ecological and social opportunities niches, the environmental agenda has
of restoration projects. For example, gained more space and attention in
entrepreneurs and landowners do not devising initiatives of social interest –
comply with current environmental combining online initiatives to support
legislation (Bustamante et al. 2019). the conservation and restoration of
Among the reasons strengthening natural ecosystems, protect species,
this non-compliance, we highlight and compensate for “environmental
the inefficiency of regulation, footprints.” One of these new niches
supervision, and penalty enforcement is based on companies and startups
by environmental agencies, from with business models focused on
the municipal to the federal. This attracting consumers concerned
restricts pressure for compliance in about and engaged in environmental
economic sectors that export products causes; such firms tailor parts of
conditioned to good practice and the profits from their products and
environmental adequacy certifications. services to environmental projects
as a way to fulfill Corporate Social
Given this scenario, and contrary to
Responsibility (CSR) principles. This
the major global trends encouraging
embraces changes in society, which
FLR implementation and its co-
is increasingly interested in using
benefits, new financing fronts must
tools and/or products that have a
be opened so that such incentives
low impact on natural resources and
are not solely linked to applying
that encourage effective biodiversity
legislation – a mechanism often
conservation and ecological
inefficient and exclusionary in terms of
restoration initiatives (Faruqi et al.
social opportunities. This will provide
2018).
space for other drivers to become the
protagonists of upscaling restoration In recent years, several applications
initiatives in tropical forests. and digital tools in different business
sectors – such as tourism, online
search engines, airline ticket
purchases, retail, etc. – have been
developed from this perspective and
market vision. They allocate financial
resources into environmental projects
160
worldwide, promoting initiatives to allocation to critically endangered

offset carbon emissions, reduce tropical forests, directing economic
greenhouse gases, create habitats for inputs to carry out projects in priority
endangered species, and ensure food areas (hotspots) for biodiversity
security for vulnerable communities. conservation and ecosystem services,
The potential applications and tools which also overlap with areas of
hold for fundraising and mobilizing high social vulnerability (IUCN 2012;
people has proven enormous. Globally, Faruqi et al. 2018). In this way, several
these products have a great capacity projects have been developed, aligned
for capillarity and they are easy to with the reality of communities living
access through services available in regions targeted for restoration
on multiple platforms, such as interventions and maximizing the
mobile devices, laptops, and desktop ecological, social, and economic
computers. However, as in any other benefits for these areas, as expected
partnership model, practitioners must in an FLR framework. Investors are
identify and ensure the transparency also becoming increasingly concerned
of company investments, given that about whether the supported projects
the practice of greenwashing is seen follow global initiatives aligned with
in multiple segments – attracting socio-environmental and economic
new users under the guise of more goals, such as the Sustainable
sustainable processes and products Development Goals (SDGs) and
(Pimonenko et al. 2020). Conversely, regional/international restoration
to attract partnerships with restoration commitments (Pimonenko et al. 2020).
organizations and trustworthy
Below, we present a case study of
companies, investors must clearly
the partnership between the German
understand the benefits and costs of
company, Ecosia (a financing agent
FLR implementation, and practitioners
for ecological restoration projects),
must assure that risks are reduced in
and the Pact for the Restoration of the
the long-term (Liagre et al. 2017).
Atlantic Forest (a coalition for planting
This new niche for funding more than three million seedlings in
environmental projects via the the Brazilian Atlantic Forest). From this
internet and mobile platforms is example, we aim to demonstrate how
already a reality and has become such investments can build a long-
increasingly important for widening term agenda of initiatives in multiple
the portfolios of funding agents – a territories and increase ecological
much-needed factor for upscaling and social benefits by supporting
effective biodiversity conservation restoration project implementation.
and ecological restoration initiatives.
Another interesting feature of these
initiatives is the frequent resource
161
3. THE PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN biodiversity hotspots (Mittermeier

ECOSIA AND THE PACT FOR THE et al. 1998). The restoration projects
RESTORATION OF THE ATLANTIC Ecosia supports help maintain water,
FOREST energy, and food security for traditional
communities, smallholder farmers, and
indigenous peoples.
3.1. Ecosia
Ecosia also has a transparency policy.
Ecosia2, based in Germany, defines It discloses its financial statements,
itself as “a search engine that plants presenting, month by month, its
trees”. The company was created restoration investments in the
by Christian Kroll in December countries in which it operates. For all
2009, and it is a social business, supported projects, several audits and
which maximizes social and/or monitoring activities are carried out
environmental benefits through so that Ecosia can present to its users
contributions to the social causes the effective results of its investments.
it supports (Yunus 2008). Ecosia Communication initiatives are also
has an average of 15 million active designed so that these results may
monthly users, and it invests in forest be presented to the organizations
restoration initiatives in 24 countries; Ecosia supports (Figure 1). This set
most of the ecosystems benefiting of initiatives aims to transparently
from these investments are global reveal the destination of the resources
invested in planting initiatives.
2 To learn more, visit: http://www.ecosia.org.
Figure 1. Ecosia’s Chief Tree Planting Officer, Pieter van Midwoud, visits the nursery at Reserva Ecológica
Guapiaçu (Rio de Janeiro state) during the planting audit in 2019. (Source: Centro de Pesquisas Ambientais
do Nordeste – Cepan).
162
3.2. The Pact for the Restoration of the 3.3. Establishing a partnership between
Atlantic Forest Ecosia and the Pact
The Pact for the Restoration of the In 2017, a partnership was celebrated
Atlantic Forest (hereafter, the Pact) between Ecosia and the Pact. This
is a multisectoral coalition created in collaboration was intended to support
2009, which brings together more than restoration projects throughout the
300 institutions from various social Brazilian Atlantic Forest, subsidize the
and economic sectors – including planting of one million trees (alongside
public agencies, companies, small the institutions that signed the Pact),
farmers, research centers, individuals, and operate in different regions of the
non-governmental organizations biome – ultimately covering almost
(NGOs), and several other players – to the entire area of the Brazilian Atlantic
promote largescale forest restoration Forest. The Pact member institutions
in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. The were supported through the
Pact is configured as an “umbrella” construction of a National Campaign
organization, which attracts, directs, for Leveraging Forest Restoration
and systematizes forest restoration Projects, created to assist ongoing
efforts in the biome. The Pact has a projects that had the potential, via
participatory governance system, with offered financial contributions, to
a coordinating council composed of 25 expand their restoration capacities
institutions representing third sector and work in synergy with other
organizations, private initiatives, supporters. The Campaign was also
universities, and different levels of structured to ensure the inclusion
the government. Over ten years since of, and equal opportunities for, the
the creation of the movement, the various restoration institutions in the
Pact acts in different dimensions Atlantic Forest, since there are great
of ecological restoration activities, disparities in structures, operational
fostering training, transferring capacities, and technical knowledge
technology, and inducing public concerning ecological restoration
policies related to restoration agendas. among institutions and geographical
The Pact’s governance structure, as regions.
well as the experiences gained and
As the Pact is a coalition rather than a
lessons learned along this trajectory,
legal institution, when the partnership
have inspired new networks and
with Ecosia began, the Centro de
coalitions in different territories and
Pesquisas Ambientais do Nordeste
at various scales of operation. The
[Cepan], a member of the Pact’s
Pact is currently considered one of the
National Coordination Council and, at
largest coalitions devoted to restoring
that time, the movement’s national
native ecosystems in Latin America
coordinator, was initially responsible
(Pinto et al. 2014).
163
for managing the entire campaign. asked, as a prerequisite, to formalize

In addition to the bureaucratic their participation as members of
management of contracts and the Pact. It is important to highlight
resource transfers to supported that there is no burden related
institutions, Cepan provides technical to participating in the coalition;
assistance for preparing reports therefore, this was a simple and
and systematizing the geospatial, effective strategy to attract new
taxonomic (planted native species), partners and ensure that the
and operational information requested forest restoration initiatives would
by Ecosia for conference purposes. follow the technical standards
recommended by the movement.
3.4. Framework of the National • Registration: To formalize

Campaign for Leveraging Forest participation in the Campaign and
Restoration Projects in the Atlantic ensure the transparency of the
Forest proposed activities, the eligible
institutions were responsible for
The Campaign was structured in two forwarding documents supporting
phases: Phase 1 (July 2017 to March the suitability of their organizations,
2018) and Phase 2 (July 2019 to as well as a simplified form detailing
date). Institutional participation in the their forest restoration activities and
Campaign is designed to reduce the methods. Data, such as geolocated
number of stages, thus simplifying the images indicating the intended
formalization process and plantation restoration sites and a file with
reporting. In general, the registration spatial information of the area
flow is structured in four main steps (size, location, number of trees to
(Figure 2). be planted), were also requested
to assist in monitoring restoration
• Mobilization: The Campaign’s
activities via geoprocessing and
technical team, coordinated by
remote sensing tools. These
Cepan, mobilized institutions
tools were used by the Campaign
actively restoring the Brazilian
coordinators and Ecosia to check
Atlantic Forest, including both
and validate the projects at a later
signatories and non-signatories
date.
of the Pact. After they expressed
their interest in the Campaign, the • Analysis: Once this information
institutions were screened by the was received, the administrative
technical team to determine whether and technical documents were
they fit the Campaign rules. To thoroughly checked to ensure the
strengthen the Pact’s organizational institutions’ fair and transparent
structure, non-signatory institutions participation and to verify the
eligible for the Campaign were technical quality of the proposed
164
projects. The analysis considered for receiving payment for the

both ecological restoration activities carried out, the institutions
standards and local and regional committed to preparing a simplified
socio-economic benefits. report containing information
from the planting(s), geolocated
• Approval: After these data were
photographs, maps, and areas
analyzed, the approved projects
of intervention. These data were
were openly communicated, and a
forwarded to Ecosia’s technical
simplified contract was signed by
team for validation and follow-up.
the partner institutions supported
by the Campaign. As a condition
Planting partners are

mobilized through
Pact’s membership list Institutions are
registered in the
Campaign after
providing documents
and information
about planting
Institutions’ submitted
materials are analyzed
Institutions are approved
for participation;
they plant trees and
report to the Campaign
Figure 2. Flowchart of participation in the National Campaign for Leveraging Forest Restoration Projects in
the Atlantic Forest.
3.5. Campaign results Because of this Campaign, several

institutions were able to develop their
Through the two Campaign phases, projects on a larger scale, expanding
18 institutions were supported across their activities in projects to restore
eight Brazilian states (Figure 3), the Atlantic Forest. It is important to
including almost all biogeographic mention that, due to the great diversity
regions of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. of institutions involved in this initiative,
The organizations corresponded to other groups were also mobilized and
the following sectors: 83% NGOs; engaged in the projects under the
11% private companies, and 6% institutions’ leadership, including,
public companies. At the end of the for example, traditional communities
Campaign’s second phase, 3.03 million (indigenous and quilombolas),
trees had been planted, representing community-based restoration
1,718 hectares restored and 871,749 collectives, and groups of women
euros transferred to the initiative. working in the forest restoration chain.
165
Figure 3. Location of forest restoration initiatives financed by the Campaign.
166
These results significantly contributed the Atlantic Forest, encourage new

to the Bonn Challenge restoration multisectoral arrangements, increase
goal accepted by the Pact: one forest cover, biodiversity conservation,
million hectares of restored land and ecosystem services, and create
by 2020 (Crouzeilles et al. 2019). new socioeconomic opportunities in
This commitment aims to reduce the restoration chain across several
degraded areas globally, leverage regions in the biome (Figure 4).
new forest restoration initiatives in
Figure 4. Forest restoration initiatives by partners supported by the Campaign. In the upper-right and upper-
left corners, restoration initiatives carried out by Reserva Ecológica Guapiaçu (Rio de Janeiro state); in the
lower-left corner, planting performed by Grupo Dispersores (Minas Gerais state); and, in the lower-right
corner, a plantation coordinated by Associação Ambientalista Copaíba (São Paulo state). Source: Cepan.
4. LESSONS LEARNED AND tools and applications, are, without

PROSPECTS doubt, innovations for constructing
new arrangements to upscale and
finance restoration projects, creating
The new support opportunities for a market of prospects that “unties”
restoration projects, linked to digital the association, often observed in
167
Brazil, between restoration initiatives to the success of the initiative’s

and strict command-and-control projects. Much of Brazil’s restoration
demands. The Campaign results – the financing comes from governmental
partnership between Ecosia and the funds or environmental compensation
Pact – demonstrate that it is feasible initiatives for compliance with
to build a biome-wide initiative and legislation. Such funding requires
strengthen restoration initiatives several steps and procedures related
regionally. To summarize the lessons to documentation. The release of
learned from this case, we mention resources is delayed, and subsequent
four key factors that can lead to the accountability is required. Moreover,
success of an initiative such as this: the resources from the funds are not
flexible enough in use because they
a) The results of this case
are often distributed according to
study show that this type of support
the activities and inputs planned at
is strategic for strengthening the
the beginning of the project. This can
installed capacity of restoration
compromise the proper management
initiatives in regions where activities
of a restoration project; in certain
are incipient, often enabling the
cases, resources must be relocated
acquisition of inputs and equipment to
due to the project’s progress. In
optimize field operations. Disparities in
the Campaign, the participating
the installed capacities for restoration
institutions were given total freedom
in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest are
to manage the resources transferred
clear, for example, when the number
to them in ways they considered most
of institutions and restoration projects
strategic, enabling them to accomplish
in the southeastern and northeastern
the planting goals established in the
regions of Brazil are compared. The
contract.
latter is known to be disadvantaged
as far as institutions and structures c) The restoration activities
for accommodating large-scale promoted by the Campaign allowed
restoration initiatives are concerned. the regional markets to be developed
These regional differences largely and structured to produce and sell
stem from the lack of forest restoration native species, fostering commercial
investments in the Northeastern operations within the restoration
region – a gap that can be filled by production chain. Activities such as
contributions directed to projects in acquiring the seeds and seedlings of
the region that are properly managed, native species, as well as hiring labor
enabling the continuity of financial for tree planting, are necessary to
support and executive actions. make projects feasible. Considering
that most of the projects supported
b) De-bureaucratizing the transfer
by the Campaign were located in
of resources to the institutions
municipalities with unfavorable
supported by the Campaign is key
168
socioeconomic contexts, these about the projects it supported

initiatives stimulated the local and guarantee benefits for the
economies and assisted families in communities receiving the projects.
vulnerable situations by transferring Ecosia actively participated in all
resources to the social players stages of the Campaign’s construction
participating in the projects. and operation. These facts present
three essential elements for selecting
d) Another important point is the
social businesses and technological
commitment of the funding agent.
initiatives that can effectively
During the four years of partnership for
contribute to projects of this nature:
the Campaign, Ecosia maintained an
1) transparency in disclosing data
active agenda of field visits to partner
and the resources contributed;
institutions, monitoring activities and,
2) effective participation in field
mainly, generating information for its
operational activities; and 3) active
users. This was intended to ensure
communication between the financing
the greatest possible transparency
agent and the supported institutions.
5. CONCLUSIONS
From the discussions raised by the environmental services fundamental to

Campaign, we emphasize the need to human well-being.
create new arrangements and fronts
Given that business initiatives with
of long-term and non-bureaucratic
socio-environmental impacts may act
financing to support restoration
at the global level, there is immense
activities on the ground and,
potential to establish long-lived
consequently, to effectively advance
relationships between such funders
the ecological restoration agenda
and institutions and/or coalitions
globally. Restoration activities will only
capable of coordinating and acting
be upscaled when the investments
in the executive restoration agenda.
manage to reach the institutions
We encourage these opportunities
on the other end, which perform the
to be widely explored – with special
restoration on a local and regional
attention given to points highlighted
scale, because they are at the forefront
throughout this chapter – in the
of these activities. Furthermore,
context of the FLR agenda. This path
mobilizing people for educational
must be followed in the future to
activities, also on a large scale, is
achieve increasingly prosperous social
essential for society to culturally
and environmental benefits in tropical
incorporate the importance of
forests worldwide.
ecological restoration for maintaining
169
6. REFERENCES
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Daniel Luis Mascia, Edenise Garcia, Edson Sano, et al. 2019. “Ecological Restoration as a
Strategy for Mitigating and Adapting to Climate Change: Lessons and Challenges from
Brazil.” Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 24 (7): 1249–70. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11027-018-9837-5.
Couto Garcia, Letícia, Juliana Silveira dos Santos, Marcelo Matsumoto, Thiago Sanna Freire Silva,
Aurélio Padovezi, Gerd Sparovek, and Richard J Hobbs. 2013. “Restoration Challenges and
Opportunities for Increasing Landscape Connectivity under the New Brazilian Forest Act.”
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Crouzeilles, Renato, Edson Santiami, Marcos Rosa, Ludmila Pugliese, Pedro H. S. Brancalion,
Ricardo R. Rodrigues, Jean P. Metzger, et al. 2019. “There Is Hope for Achieving Ambitious
Atlantic Forest Restoration Commitments.” Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation 17:
80–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecon.2019.04.003.a
Erbaugh, James T, and Johan A Oldekop. 2018. “Forest Landscape Restoration for Livelihoods and
Well-Being.” Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 32 (June): 76–83. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.
Faruqi, Sofia, Andrew Wu, Eriks Brolis, Andrés Anchondo Ortega, and Alan Batista. 2018. “The
Business of Planting Trees - A Growing Investment Opportunity.” World Resources Institute,
Washington, DC, USA. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.1700332.
IUCN. 2012. “Identifying and Mobilizing Resources for Biodiversity Conservation.” Gland: IUCN.
https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/12856.
IUCN. 2020. “Progress | Bonn Challenge.” https://www.bonnchallenge.org/progress.
Liagre, Ludwig, Pedro Lara Almuedo, Sven Walter, Douglas McGuire, Christophe Besacier, Rao
Matta, and Michela Conigliaro. 2017. “Sustainable Financing for Forest and Landscape
Restoration.” Rome: FAO and UNCCD. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5032e.pdf.
Mansourian, Stephanie, John A Stanturf, Mercy Afua Adutwumwaa Derkyi, and Vera Lex Engel.
2017. “Forest Landscape Restoration: Increasing the Positive Impacts of Forest Restoration
or Simply the Area under Tree Cover?” Restoration Ecology 25 (2): 178-83.
Mansourian, Stephanie, John Parrotta, Poorna Balaji, Imogen Bellwood‐Howard, Suhas Bhasme,
R. Patrick Bixler, Agni Klintuni Boedhihartono, et al. 2020. “Putting the Pieces Together:
Integration for Forest Landscape Restoration Implementation.” Land Degradation &
Development 31 (4): 419–29. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.3448.
Mittermeier, Russell A., Norman Myers, Jörgen B. Tliomsen, and Silvio Olivieri. 1998. “Biodiversity
Hotspots and Major Tropical Wilderness Areas: Approaches to Setting Conservation
Priorities.” Conservation Biology 12 (3): 516-20. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-
1739.1998.012003516.x.
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NYDF Assessment Partners. 2019. “Protecting and Restoring Forests: A Story of Large
Commitments yet Limited Progress. New York Declaration on Forests Five-Year
Assessment Report”. Climate Focus. https://forestdeclaration.org/images/uploads/
resource/2019NYDFReport.pdf.
Pimonenko, Tetyana, Yuriy Bilan, Jakub Horák, Liudmyla Starchenko, and Waldemar Gajda. 2020.
“Green Brand of Companies and Greenwashing under Sustainable Development Goals.”
Sustainability (Switzerland). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12041679.
Pinto, Severino R., Felipe Melo, Marcelo Tabarelli, Aurélio Padovesi, Carlos A. Mesquita, Carlos
Alberto de Mattos Scaramuzza, Pedro Castro, et al. 2014. “Governing and Delivering a
Biome-Wide Restoration Initiative: The Case of Atlantic Forest Restoration Pact in Brazil.”
Forests 5 (9): 2212–29. https://doi.org/10.3390/f5092212.
Schuyt, Kirsten. 2005. “Opportunities for Long-Term Financing of Forest Restoration in

Landscapes.” In Forest Restoration in Landscapes, edited by Stephanie Mansourian, Daniel
Vallauri, and Nigel Dudley, 161–65. New York: Springer-Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-
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Capitalism.” Global Urban Development 4 (2).
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08
ELIMINATING
HUNGER AND
POVERTY
THROUGH
REGENERATIVE
AGROFORESTRY
TRAINING
back to
summary
172
ELIMINATING
08 HUNGER AND
POVERTY
THROUGH
REGENERATIVE
AGROFORESTRY
TRAINING
John Leary, Lindsay Cobb, and Andrew Zacha-
rias
1. INTRODUCTION monocrop intensification of just a

few crops, farming families in the
developing world fare better when
Through years of working with they have well-diversified farms
farmers to plant millions of trees in with a polyculture of products. Due
the developing tropics, international to limited or erratic rainfall, lower
development nonprofit Trees for soil quality, and challenging growing
the Future (TREES) recognized that conditions, farmers in the developing
families recognized that families world will never be able to replicate
can achieve financial and nutritional the productivity of monocrop
stability when they combine several intensification that is found on the
beneficial agroforestry techniques in plains of North America and Eurasia –
what are known as “Forest Gardens.” areas known for large, flat swaths of
When trees, crops, and other species rich soil created by the Ice Age.
had the opportunity to thrive on TREES set out to reshape the global
farmland, TREES saw deforestation food system by urging farmers to
and hunger decline, while income practice agroforestry as a regenerative
seemed to increase. and sustainable approach to farming.
Contrary to the American farming The Forest Garden Approach (FGA)
experience, which focuses on the is a regenerative agroforestry model
173
designed to guide smallholder farmers 1.1. Phase 1: Protection

out of hunger and poverty by giving
them the tools and knowledge to In the protection phase, staff members
reverse decades of land and soil provide farmers with the skills and
degradation. The four-year training resources needed to protect their
program is an in-depth course Forest Garden sites. Farmers achieve
in agroforestry and regenerative this by planting green walls – also
agriculture. known as “living fences” – around the
perimeters of their Forest Gardens.
TREES’s Forest Garden methodology
They then plant fast-growing fertilizer
follows a phased approach, which
trees throughout their sites, often in
begins by mobilizing resources and
alleys among their crops, to further
stakeholders, then guides farmers
stabilize their soils and enhance
through a series of steps, teaching
fertility.
them to design, establish, and manage
their Forest Gardens before graduating 1.2. Phase 2: Diversification
from the program. The training
program consists of 16 workshops As the green walls grow and soils
and is guided by the following major become increasingly fertile, farmers
phases: begin to diversify the products they
grow in their Forest Gardens. During
this phase, farmers plant higher-
value vegetables, along with fruit,
nut, and timber trees. They also learn
increasingly advanced skills and
techniques that will help them manage
their Forest Gardens more effectively
and sustainably.
1.3. Phase 3: Optimization
In the third major phase, farmers

learn to adopt advanced Forest
Garden planting and care techniques,
integrated pest management, and
conservation practices that optimize
and ensure the long-term health,
productivity, and profitability of their
land (Figure 1).
174
Figure 1: This Senegalese farming family transformed their land through the Forest Garden Approach. Their
Forest Garden produces a diverse mix of trees and crops to eat and sell. Here, they have planted cashew and
mango trees over their manioc. Photo: TREES.
Farmers progress through these three draws from successful elements of

phases by participating in at least four farmer empowerment and training
annual workshops over the course of methodologies. The design of
the four-year program. the training program follows the
constructivist theory that people learn
best when constructing knowledge
2. I N S T R U C T I O N A L LY- S O U N D and meaning through their experiences
AGROFORESTRY TRAINING (Januszewski and Molenda 2013).
This theory has influenced the actual
training workshop design. It mimics
As this study measured the impact
the participatory and facilitated
of the TREES training program, it
nature of Farmer Field Schools, a
is important to point out elements
well-researched, field-based learning
of the instructional design. The
methodology. The FGA curriculum
Forest Garden Approach (FGA)
175
features inquiry-based teaching smallholder farmers in the developing

activities, especially concerning tropics.
topics with a large amount of content,
characterized by a series of probing
questions intended to draw out ideas
from farmers, validate their knowledge,
and equip them to make their own
decisions (Hattie 2008).
The FGA also draws on direct
instruction, not aligned with the
constructivist theory but documented
as an effective teaching strategy,
especially when teaching processes
like how to grow seedlings (Figure 2).
Direct instruction tends to include
a process of clarifying learning
intentions, success criteria, and guided
and independent practice. Training
activities also use reciprocal teaching;
farmers have the opportunity to teach
other farmers to keep interest high
and build the cooperative environment
necessary for effective training,
teaching, and learning (Hattie 2008). Figure 2: A TREES trainer (left) meets with a lead
farmer to discuss the progress of his Forest
In 2015, TREES began measuring the
Garden and provide insight and instruction. Here,
triple-bottom-line impacts of the FGA
they are assessing a row of Cajunus cajun, a
on hunger and poverty. The challenges nitrogen-fixing bush. Photo: Ecosia.
in transforming the way 8 billion
people grow, sell, and eat their food
3. METHODOLOGY
are manifold. Hurdles and barriers
include Big Agriculture and Big Food
corporations’ hold on the market, 3.1. Measuring food security, dietary
existing polices and regulations, trade diversity, and sustainable changes to
agreements, new weather patterns agriculture
brought on by climate change, social
and political unrest in regions, and the Over four years and continuing
longstanding practices of generations post-publication, TREES conducted
of farmers. However, the rest of this community-based surveys to
chapter shows how TREES is making collect quantitative data about the
a measured impact on the lives of effectiveness of its program in three
176
areas: food security, dietary diversity, 3.2. Measuring nutrition with the HDDS
and the physical attributes of Forest survey
Gardens as they develop. One of these
surveys (the Technical Data Form) To gather data on dietary diversity and
was conducted for all Forest Gardens food insecurity, TREES staff members
on an annual basis. This survey conduct annual cluster-sample
charted the physical dimensions of surveys using three closed-ended, pre-
the Forest Garden, including size and coded questionnaires adapted from
trees present, as well as the numbers commonly used, well-tested USAID
of plant species, marketable products, surveys. TREES staff members are
and food products. A food-related trained in the interview process and
survey has also been conducted conduct the annual surveys during a
with a randomized sample of the five-week period, usually at the leanest
TREES program participants. This times of the year. Over six years, the
survey consists of the Household TREES team has completed more than
Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) 44,000 surveys, comprising more than
(Swindale and Bilinsky 2006) and the 6 million data points.
Household Food Insecurity Access USAID defines Household Dietary
Score (HFIAS) (Coates, Swindale, and Diversity as “the number of different
Bilinsky 2007), developed by the U. S. food groups consumed over a given
Agency for International Development reference period.” (Swindale and
(USAID) and the Food and Agriculture Bilinsky 2006, p. 1). It is used as
Organization (FAO), respectively. The an indicator of overall nutrition in
HDDS provides information about the participants. Studies by USAID and the
diversity of food sources in the diets of FAO have shown “a more diversified
respondents, and the HFIAS measures diet is associated with a number of
the occurrence and frequency of improved outcomes in areas such
food insecurity. In addition to these as birth weight, child anthropometric
surveys, TREES has begun collecting status, and improved hemoglobin
measurements of tree cover using concentrations.” (Swindale and
photogrammetry and unmanned aerial Bilinsky 2006, p. 1). A diversified diet
systems (drones). Together, these is also associated with such “factors
three reporting processes provide as caloric and protein adequacy,
insight into the FGA’s effectiveness at percentage of protein from animal
reducing hunger and poverty. sources (high quality protein), and
household income. Even in very
poor households, increased food
expenditure resulting from additional
income is associated with increased
quantity and quality of the diet.”
(Swindale and Bilinsky 2006, p. 2).
177
3.2.1. HDDS technical information HDDS (0–12) = Total number

of food groups consumed by
To better reflect a quality diet, the
members of the household. Values
number of different food groups
for A through L will be either “0” or
consumed is calculated rather
“1”. Sum (A + B + C + D + E + F + G +
than the number of different foods
H + I + J + K + L)
consumed. Knowing that households
consume, for example, an average Second, the average HDDS indicator is
of four different food groups implies calculated for the sample population:
that their diets offer some diversity in
both macro- and micronutrients. This Average HDDS = Sum (HDDS)/Total
is a more meaningful indicator than Number of Households (N)
knowing that households consume An increase in the average number
four different foods, which might all be of different food groups consumed
cereals. provides a quantifiable measure of
The following set of 12 food groups is improved household food access. In
used to calculate the HDDS: general, any increase in household
dietary diversity reflects improvement
a) Cereals in the household’s diet.
b) Root and tubers Grouping of Dietary Diversity will
c) Vegetables be decided after the initial baseline
surveys. The defined target should be
d) Fruits
filled in using the groupings below.
e) Meat, poultry, offal (organs)
f) Eggs
1. High Diversity: HDDS = 9 to 12
g) Fish and seafood
2. Moderate Diversity: HDDS = 5 to 8
h) Pulses/legumes/nuts
3. Low Diversity: HDDS = 0 to 4
i) Milk and milk products
j) Oil/fats
3.3. Measuring access to food with the
k) Sugar/honey HFIAS
l) Miscellaneous
The HFIAS is a USAID survey based
on the idea that the experience of
3.2.2. Calculation of HDDS food insecurity (access) causes
predictable reactions and responses,
First, the HDDS variable is calculated which can be captured and quantified
for each household. The value of this through a survey and summarized
variable will range from 0 to 12: in a scale. The HFIAS has been used
178
across several countries, and it has b. Insufficient quality (includes variety

been reported as a reliable survey and preferences of the type of food):
capable of distinguishing “the food
2. Were you or any household member
secure from the insecure households
not able to eat the kinds of foods
across different cultural contexts.”
you preferred because of a lack of
(Coates, Swindale, and Bilinsky 2007,
resources?
p. 2). TREES staff members follow the
same protocol for the HFIAS survey as 3. Did you or any household member
described for the HDDS survey. have to eat a limited variety of foods
due to a lack of resources?
4. Did you or any household member
3.3.1. HFIAS technical information
have to eat some foods that you really
TREES staff members visit the did not want to eat because of a lack
respondents directly after the lean of resources to obtain other types of
season each year, because the food?
greatest number of households are c. Insufficient food intake and its
likely to be affected by food insecurity physical consequences:
(access) at this time. Each of the
5. Did you or any household member
questions in the survey is asked with
have to eat a smaller meal than you
a recall period of four weeks (30
felt you needed because there was not
days). The respondent is first asked
enough food?
an occurrence question – that is,
whether the condition in the question 6. Did you or any household member
happened at all in the past four weeks have to eat fewer meals in a day
(yes or no). If the respondent answers because there was not enough food?
“yes” to an occurrence question, a 7. Was there ever no food to eat of any
frequency-of-occurrence question is kind in your household because of a
then asked to determine whether the lack of resources to get food?
condition happened rarely (once or
twice), sometimes (three to ten times) 8. Did you or any household member
or often (more than ten times) in the go to sleep at night hungry because
past four weeks. there was not enough food?
The following questions are posed to 9. Did you or any household member
determine HFIAS: go a whole day and night without
eating anything because there was not
a. Anxiety and uncertainty about the enough food?
household food supply:
1. Did you worry that your household
would not have enough food?
179
3.4. Monitoring sustainable agricultural soil temperature.

efforts with drones
By simply quantifying the area of a
In a bid to clearly measure the Forest Garden that is covered by plant-
environmental impacts of Forest life (as identified through normalized
Gardens, TREES began using drones difference vegetation index (NDVI)
in 2018 to monitor the annual analysis), TREES can take a well-
development of the agroforestry informed position on the effectiveness
systems of participant farmers. The of the Forest Garden Program for
products of the studies include a increasing perennial plant-life in
photographic time-series of the Forest a sustainable agricultural system.
Gardens, as well as a time-series of Ultimately, this process is similar to
above-ground biomass measurements those employed in other farm systems,
and leaf area indices, which track the in which agriculturalists use drones
Forest Gardens’ ability to store water and remote sensing to catalogue their
and maintain microclimates. Drone fields.
imagery is used to calculate the TREES
Leaf Area Index (T-LAI) and the Above 3.4.2. Above-Ground Biomass (AGB)
Ground Biomass (AGB).
AGB is defined by the FAO as “all living
biomass above the soil including
3.4.1. TREES Leaf Area Index (T-LAI)
stem, stump, branches, bark, seeds
Microclimates are the climates of very and foliage” (Schoene et al. 2007, p.
small or restricted areas, distinct from 19). AGB is critical in the fight against
those in the immediate vicinity. The climate change as it is an important
creation of a cool, humid microclimate mechanism of carbon sequestration.
is a key product of the FGA, as it As the amount of biomass increases
allows the Forest Garden to retain on Forest Garden sites, the capacity to
water more effectively and produce sequester carbon from the atmosphere
more food for longer periods of time. also increases.
One key indicator of microclimates is AGB is calculated by capturing
the LAI of an area. Researchers have photographs via drones flying in
found compelling evidence that “LAI overlapping rows above the survey
plays an important role in controlling area. The resultant hundreds of
microclimate within tropical forest photographs are then processed with
ecosystems” (Hardwick et al. 2015, p. Agisoft PhotoScan modeling software,
191) and that an increase in vegetation which creates a 3D model of the Forest
has close relationships with air Garden. This georeferenced model is
temperature, relative humidity, vapor created to scale, and measurements
pressure deficit, specific humidity, and can be derived from it. The Forest
180
Garden area is then isolated from the HOUSEHOLD DIETARY DIVERSITY SCORE
rest of the model, and a measurement
tool in the software is used to 9 8.87 target 7.6
8.9 8.7
AVG (OUT OF 12)

7.2
calculate both area and volume. The 7 5.8
volume metric is the AGB, and it is 5

3
recorded year-to-year to show the 0
BASELINE YEAR 1 YEAR 2 YEAR 3 YEAR 4
growth of plant material on the Forest
Garden site. HOUSEHOLD DIETARY DIVERSITY CHANGES
75 66.67
57.89
4. RESULTS
50
39.75
30.96
27.80
25
TREES has found clear measurements 13.49 10.38
7.68
of success in reducing hunger and 0
0.00 0.00
reversing deforestation through the % BASELINE YEAR 1 YEAR 2 YEAR 3 YEAR 4

High Diversity Low Diversity
FGA, with promising correlations
between the various data points. Figure 3: Household dietary diversity increases
among families over four years and low dietary
diversity is eliminated by the end of the program.
4.1. Nutrition results: HDDS increase
TREES staff members surveyed

Forest Garden farmers annually over 4.2. Food access results: HFIAS
a period of four years. On average, increase
farming families began with a score
of 5.8 (out of 21) and achieved an Over the four-year survey period,
average score of 8.7 by the end of the TREES staff members recorded a
four years (Figure 3). The number of 33.23% drop in severely food insecure
families reporting high diversity in their families and a 44% increase in food
Forest Gardens increased by 44% and, secure families. On a 27-point scale
notably, families reporting low diversity for food insecurity (0 being food secure
fell to zero. and 27 being severely food insecure),
families began with an average of 9.4,
The increase in diversity was also and achieved a 1.1 score by the end of
calculated by the percent increase year three (Figure 4).
in access to vitamins. On average,
families saw a 344% increase Families also reported improvements
in access to yellow and orange in how often they lacked food, skipped
vegetables, a 477% increase for yellow meals, or went without food. When
and orange fruits, and a 120% increase asked whether there was ever no food
for leafy vegetables. to eat or no resources to get food, 37%
181
responded “yes” when first surveyed. saw increases in every surveyed

At the end of the program’s third year, Forest Garden. Where participants
0% reported having this problem. encountered setbacks, like livestock
interference or high tree mortality
FOOD INSECURITY (HFIAS) rates, AGB increases were modest.
9.4
Where participants were able to
9
implement the FGA adeptly, AGB
AVG (OUT OF 12)
5
4.80 target
5.8
skyrocketed. On average, AGB
3.7
3 2.8
1.1 increased by 16,800%.
0
BASELINE YEAR 1 YEAR 2 YEAR 3 YEAR 4
Farmers go through an extensive
HOUSEHOLD FOOD INSECURITY INDEX CHANGES training program to acquaint
50
50.00
themselves with regenerative practices
40
41.12
and trees as a source of opportunity.
31.88 32.16
With this training, farmers are taught
30
19.55 how to protect their lands, optimize
their spaces, and diversify their food
20
7.89
10 6.00
11.86 11.75
6.68
and marketable resources. Farmers
0
% BASELINE YEAR 1 YEAR 2 YEAR 3 YEAR 4
who follow the steps of the FGA and
Food Secure Severely Food Insecure the various techniques provided by
Figure 4: Food insecurity among families falls
TREES staff members, will see tree
year by year when farmers adopt the FGA.
cover increase (Figure 5), dietary
diversity increase (Figure 3), food
security increase (Figure 4), and
4.3. Drone monitoring program results income increase.
4.3.1. T-LAI and AGB both increased

through the FGA
Many Forest Garden plots were

unable to produce baseline T-LAI
measurements because of their
existing lack of trees, but all Forest
Gardens received a goal. An analysis
of the first year’s datasets showed
that these expectations were almost
universally confirmed. Virtually all
the surveyed Forest Gardens showed
increased T-LAI scores, with some
exceeding their calculated goals by
several thousand percent (Figure 5).
AGB measurements in the first year
182
Figure 5: A one-year difference of three Forest Gardens in Senegal, West Africa, captured by drone
photography. Source: TREES.
4.3.2. Dietary diversity increased and Farmers reported being able to feed
hunger decreased themselves and their families with
increasingly more diverse meals as
When farmers are given expert training their Forest Gardens grew. Just as
and education in strategic regenerative their gardens’ diversity improved, so
agroforestry practices, the benefits are too did their food security. Farmers
clear. With healthy soil and a steady with a greater diversity in products
microclimate, Forest Garden farmers were less vulnerable to unexpected
soon begin seeing improvements in weather or pests. When planting
their dietary diversity and the amount just one crop, a heat wave could
of food they are able to grow. have wiped out their entire year’s
183
work, but, through optimization and “Will your household be able to cope
diversification of the land, they became in the future?” showed that program
more immune to irregularities. They participants gained more stability
could still lose one or two crops, which in their trades. 100% of participants
were unable to deal with stressors, but answered “yes” to this question by
hardier crops would survive to harvest. year 3. This result should not be
overlooked, but there is still more
The drop in food insecurity is
work to be done in gathering income
particularly visible in the first year
data from project participants to gain
of Forest Garden training. Families
complete confidence in TREES’ ability
reporting severe food insecurity
to end poverty through Forest Garden
dropped by nearly 30%. This shows
training.
how beneficial introducing tree cover
and regenerative practices is for
reducing hunger and malnutrition. 4.3.4. Tree cover increased, and
growing conditions improved
4.3.3. Incomes increased As shown by the T-LAI and AGB drone
measurements, TREES’s available data
Much as it improves nutrition, diversity
shows that proper training in the FGA
in a Forest Garden also improves
enables farmers to increase their T-LAI
income reliability. With more food
and AGB.
groups growing on their lands, farmers
had a more diverse array of marketable A higher T-LAI score indicates tree
products to sell. A farmer who had only canopies and vegetative protections
two marketable products to sell when capable of protecting the soil from
practicing traditional farming methods wind and moisture-leaching sunlight.
had an average of 12 products to sell Reduced hours of direct sun mean
just three years later. Through their a farmer’s land and microclimate
training, farmers learned how to do will remain cool. This reduces
more with their lands throughout the evapotranspiration, increasing the
year. Forest Garden farmers reported air’s capacity to hold water vapor and
being the only ones selling certain increasing humidity. Ultimately, the
vegetables at market because other Forest Garden has more available
farmers focused on the typical one or water for crops. The physical barrier
two cash crops. provided by T-LAI results in less soil
erosion from wind in the dry months
The available data on income changes
and fast flowing water during the rainy
brought about by the FGA provides
seasons.
some confidence that agroforestry
training is increasing incomes. Because Forest Garden farmers in
Responses to survey questions like the TREES program begin with very
184
little vegetative cover, there was communities and the necessary

often no T-LAI available for baseline investment to scale these efforts,
measurements. In these cases, staff further research is needed around
members gave the Forest Garden farmers’ financial literacy and ability to
a goal for the following year. As save.
TREES continues to monitor Forest
TREES is using Forest Garden training
Garden projects with T-LAI, it can
to address topics, like savings and
better identify desired T-LAI levels
investing, with smallholder farmers.
and designate goals based on those
TREES has dedicated a chapter of its
figures.
training manual to Village Savings
The impressive AGB increases from Clubs. By offering farmers more
baseline to year one are promising. information on poverty escapes,
As biomass increases, so should the TREES is ensuring that farmers can
land’s ability to sequester carbon and do more with their increased incomes.
provide participants with additional This also heightens the organization’s
sources of food and marketable ability to gather data on income and
products. The improvements in dietary financial barriers for farmers.
diversity and marketable products
show a positive correlation to support
this. 5.2. Measuring soil quality
Technological advancements are

5. CHALLENGES making it easier to measure soil
improvements. One area of future
research is to assess the chemical,
5.1. Calculating income physical, and biological soil
improvements achievable through
The ability to calculate income agroforestry. Whether through drones
fluctuations regularly and confidently or with lab-based soil photography,
in the developing world is lacking. it is necessary to better research
It is often difficult to have a the impacts of agroforestry on
candid conversation with project soils. With more insight into the soil
participants about their incomes improvements achievable through
and how they spend their money. agroforestry, TREES can more
TREES staff members are looking for accurately quantify the climate
ways to collect income data more adaptation elements of the Forest
systematically from participants, Garden, which can increase investment
thereby gathering the amount of data in agroforestry, ensure widespread
required to prove the efficacy of FGA adoption, and assist farmers in
training for ending poverty. To gain achieving the above results at higher
increased participation from target levels in shorter periods of time.
185
6. CONCLUSION
With a rapidly increasing global when we integrate trees and promote

population, societies must determine diversity.
how to feed their people with limited Through this FGA process, tree
land. The cereal–livestock industry cover and diversity simultaneously
and the agribusinesses responsible increase, achieving food security and
for the majority of deforestation assert reducing extreme poverty through
that Big Agriculture is needed to feed a methodology that regenerates
the world. One of the common points land, offering a new paradigm for
they make is that organic agriculture agriculture.
takes more space because it produces
less per acre and that organic It is vital for the greater agricultural
agriculture will result in increased community to recognize the proven
deforestation. This research proves need for agroforestry training to
that the opposite is in fact true. It’s combat and ultimately end hunger and
possible to feed a growing population poverty in the developing world.
and produce more food on less land
186
7. REFERENCES
Coates, J., Swindale, A. and Bilinsky, P. (2007) “USAID Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance:
Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) for Measurement of Food Access:
Indicator Guide”, Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling, Version 3, Washington
D.C.
Hardwick, S., Toumi, R., Pfeifer, M., Turner, E.C., Nilus, R. and Ewers, R.M. (2015) “The Relationship
between Leaf Area Index and Microclimate in Tropical Forest and Oil Palm Plantation:
Forest Disturbance Drives Changes in Microclimate.” Agricultural and Forest Meteorology
201: 187-95.
Hattie, J. (2008) Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement,
New York: Routledge.
Januszewski, A. and Molenda, M. (2013) Educational Technology: A Definition with Commentary,

New York and London: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
Schoene, D., Killmann, W., Lupke, H. and LoycheWilkie, M. (2007) Forests and Climate Change
Working Paper 5. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Swindale, A. and Bilinsky, P. (2006) “Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) for Measurement
of Household Food Access: Indicator Guide”, Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance,
Version 2, Washington D.C.
187
09
NATIVE FOREST
SEEDS AS
AN INCOME
GENERATOR
WITHIN THE
FOREST
LANDSCAPE
RESTORATION
CHAIN
back to
summary
188
NATIVE FOREST
SEEDS AS
09 AN INCOME
GENERATOR
WITHIN THE
FOREST
LANDSCAPE
RESTORATION
CHAIN
Fatima C.M. Piña-Rodrigues, Ana Margarida
Castro Euler, Juliana Muller Freire, Manuel de
Jesus Vieira Lima Junior, Angela Maria da Sil-
va Mendes, André Salgado de Andrade Sandim,
Daniel Oliver Franco, and Danilo Ignacio Urzedo
1. FOREST LANDSCAPE RESTORATION: has triggered a worldwide process

REGULATIONS AS DRIVERS OF NATIVE of goals being established regionally
SEED PRODUCTION and nationally (Jacobs et al. 2015).
Brazil is among these countries, with
a target to restore 12 million hectares
The implementation of large-scale (Brasil 2017), as well as 22 million via
restoration programs has failed the Initiative 20x20 by 2030 (“Brazil”
mainly because of the complex 2020), including 3.28 million hectares
gaps among science, policies, pledged by three Brazilian states: São
communities, markets, and society Paulo (0.3 million), Espírito Santo (0.08
(Aronson et al. 2010). Nevertheless, million), and Mato Grosso (2.9 million).
global commitments require a forest Initiative 20x20 is a country-led effort
landscape restoration (FLR) of at to bring 20 million hectares of land
least 350 million hectares by 2030, in Latin America and the Caribbean,
according to the Bonn Challenge launched at COP 20 to support the
(Bonn Challenge 2020). This target Bonn Challenge.
189
Over time, many mechanisms have afforestation programs. Over this

been adopted to ensure restoration. period, around 4 million hectares
Legislation has been said to be an were planted in Brazil, mostly with
effective, but not always efficient, imported seeds from exotic species
strategy for mandatory restoration (Ferreira 1992). This was the starting
(Chaves et al. 2015). However, FLR point of a regulatory system focused
is not an exclusive government on producing high-quality seeds and
agreement. It depends on the formal establishing seed collection areas.
and informal network of multiple However, all of this collapsed in
stakeholders, capable of incorporating 1987 with the end of governmental
livelihoods and social strategies into incentives (Ribeiro-Oliveira and Ranal
the restoration chain (van Oosten 2014).
2013). The Brazilian government has
The national seed laws were based
implemented environmental laws in
on the agricultural system, controlling
favor of economic lobbying (Soares-
any plant material produced and
Filho 2013; 2014). Still, the current
traded to ensure its genetic quality
Brazilian reforestation rate (FAO 2015)
(Brasil 1977; 2003). Nevertheless,
is ten times lower than the committed
the importance of native forest
restoration target. For comparison
seed was only firstly raised in the
purposes, it took half a century for the
context of international conservation
forestry industry to achieve 7 million
debates at the beginning of the 1990s
hectares of Pinus and Eucalyptus
(Sandholz, Lange, and Nehren 2018).
plantations, with both strong
Successive international discussions
governmental support and fiscal
induced mechanisms, such as the
incentives. For upscaling, restoration
environmental agenda – including
requires innovation – developing new
restoration in both private and public
models and institutions based on local
areas (Graichen et al. 2016; NYDF
situations and knowledge (Brancalion
Assessment Partners 2019) – which
et al. 2017). In this context, seed and
were modified and consolidated in
seedling production is suggested as
Brazil’s Forest Code (Brasil 1965;
the initial gap in which to begin the
2012).
FLR process in Brazil and other Latin
American countries (León-Lobos et al. At this time, the pioneer commercial
2020). native seed producers were research
institutes and public environmental
The large-scale production of forest
agencies in the southeast region of
seed species was originally devised
Brazil (Ribeiro-Oliveira and Ranal
to supply the burgeoning pulp and
2014). After 1990, there was an
paper companies. From 1967 to
increase in private commercial forest
1987, a governmental incentive (Law
nurseries (Ribeiro-Oliveira and Ranal
5106/1966) supported large-scale
2014; Moreira da Silva et al. 2016),
190
and many initiatives contributed to multiple stakeholders for upscaling

diversifying the native forest seed productive systems of (Schmidt et al.
system in Brazil. In 1994, the lack of 2019; Urzedo et al. 2020)genetically
seeds to meet governmental demands diverse and locally adapted seeds from
for restoration induced the state of Rio large number of species. However,
de Janeiro to set up the first network scarcity of native seeds is a critical
of stakeholders to produce seeds for restriction to achieve restoration
the nurseries (Piña-Rodrigues et al. targets. In this paper, we analyze
2007). They were followed in the 2000s three successful community-based
by the second generation of eight networks that supply native seeds
networks financed by the Brazilian and seedlings for Brazilian Amazon
Government (Table 1). These networks, and Cerrado restoration projects. In
which began in the main biomes, were addition, we propose directions to
the pioneer arrangements for the promote local participation, legal,
community-based systems (Urzedo et technical and commercialization
al. 2015; Piña-Rodrigues et al. 2017). issues for upscaling the market of
The third generation is dominated native seeds for restoration with high
by community-based networks, quality and social justice. We argue
with multiple stakeholders focused that effective community-based
on creating local opportunities for restoration arrangements should
native plant supplies and significant follow some principles: (i.e. Between
household livelihood improvements 2001 and 2006, more than USD 3.7
(Schmidt et al. 2019; Urzedo et al. million was invested, mostly for
2019) and the 4th generation has just developing technologies, conducting
started with networks induced by training initiatives, and creating
compensatory legal mechanisms and opportunities for quality native
companies, such as the Arboretum seeds to be supplied in a socially
and the Rio Doce Basin Seeds and inclusive way. Initially designed to
Seedlings Networks. reinforce human resources, as well
as to organize information and make
The community-based system has
it available, networks have become
enhanced the third generation of
a system based on the commitment
networks, and other initiatives have
of local communities. However, after
been implemented, based on the
government financial support ended,
demand created by legal mechanisms
the restrictions on autonomy, the
in various regions of Brazil (Urzedo
deficient market integration, and the
et al. 2019), mainly to comply with
lack of continuity in public policies
mandatory restoration (Brancalion et
caused the second generation of seed
al. 2010). Seed networks have been
networks to disintegrate (Table 1).
recognized as an essential governance
system, which necessarily involve
191
The delay in implementing the new 369 active nurseries in the state of
forest code (Brasil 2012) greatly São Paulo (Silva et al. 2015), only
impacted the restoration chain. 36 were officially registered on the
Almost 15% (F. C. M Piña-Rodrigues, National Seed and Seedling Registry
unpublished review) of the 218 – RENASEM (Ministério da Agricultura
nurseries in the state of São Paulo, 2019). This highlight important biases
producing 41 million native seedlings in the production chain and warns
per year (Martins 2011), either closed of the need for organization and
or paralyzed their activities. Moreover, legalization of plant material for the
the inflexibility of Decree 5153 ecosystem restoration chain.
(Brasil 2004), based on agronomic
standards and procedures, induced
informality in the seed and seedling
chain. For example, in 2013, from
192
Table 1. Seed networks created in Brazil from 1994 to the present and the current situation. FNMA = National Environment Fund; CEPAN= Northeast
Environmental Research Center ; INPA = National Amazon Research Institute; UFAM = Federal University of the Amazon; IOV = Ouro Verde Institute; IDESAM
= Amazonas Conservation and Sustainable Development Institute; ISA = Socio-Environmental Institute; UFMT = Federal University of Mato Grosso; IBAMA
= Brazilian Institute of Environment; UFMS = Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul; UFS = Federal University of Sergipe; UNIVASF = Federal University
of Vale do São Francisco; SFB = Brazilian Forest Service; UNB = University of Brasília; UFES = Federal University of Espírito Santo; UFRRJ = Federal Rural
University of Rio de Janeiro; UFSCar = Federal University of São Carlos; FAI = UFSCar Institutional Research Support Foundation; UFSC = Federal University
of Santa Catarina. AM = Amazonas state; AP = Amapá state; BA = Bahia state; DF = Federal District, Republic Capital; GO = Goias state; ES = Espirito Santo
state; MG= Minas Gerais state; MS = Mato Grosso do Sul state; MT = Mato Grosso state; NE= Northeast Brazil; PR = Paraná state; RJ = Rio de Janeiro state;
RS = Rio Grande do Sul state; SC = Santa Catarina state; SP = São Paulo State.
State and Main Current

Name Foundation Source of Funds Main Activities
Ecosystem Organization Situation
Amazon Seed AM
FNMA INPA Projects Functioning Scientific research
Network Amazon Forest
Training
Areas of Seed Collection,
193
Amazon Native Collection, Production,
AM
Seed Center Project UFAM Projects Functioning Management and Analysis of
Amazon Forest
(CSNAM) Native Seeds
Scientific Research and
Production
Apuí Seeds
AM Native Seed and Seedling
and Seedlings Projects IDESAM Fundo Vale Functioning
Amazonia Production
Network
Portal da
Amazônia Seed MT BNDES Native Seed and Seedling
Project IOV Functioning
Network (Portal Amazon Forest Amazon Fund Production
Seeds)
Training
Seed Collection Areas by
Amapá Seed AP Embrapa-
Projects Projects Functioning Matrices, Scientific Disclosure
Network Amazon Forest AP
Native Seed and Seedling
Production

Training
MS
Pantanal Network FNMA UFMS FNMA Functioning Scientific research
Pantanal
Scientific disclosure
Training
Southern Amazon MT
FNMA UFMT FNMA Closed Scientific Research and
194
Network Amazon Forest
Disclosure
MT Xingu Seed
Training
Xingu Seed Deciduous Forest Network
Projects Projects Functioning Native Seed and Seedling
Network Cerrado Association
Production
(Savannah) (ISA)
Jirau
MT Environmental
Hydroelectric Native Seed and Seedling
Cerrado Projects IBAMA Mandatory Functioning
Dam Seed Production
(Savannah) Compensation
Network
Cerrado
DF, GO Seed Training
Cerrado Seed
Cerrado Projects Network FNMA Functioning Native Seed and Seedling
Network
(Savannah) Association Production, Scientific Disclosure
UNB

Cerrado de Pé -
Seed Collectors Cerrado de
DF, GO Environmental Native Seed and Seedling
Association Pé Seed
Cerrado Projects Mandatory Functioning Production, Gramineae and
- Chapada Collectors
(Savannah) Compensation Savannah Species
dos Veadeiros Association
195
National Park
Training
Caatinga Seed NE Embrapa
FNMA Projects Functioning Scientific Research
Network Caatinga UFS
Scientific Disclosure
São Francisco
Integration NE Project São
Native Seed and Seedling
Project Seed Caatinga Francisco PBA- UNIVASF Projects Functioning
Production
Network Deciduous Forest 23
Legal Public Environmental Training

BA
Arboretum compensatory Attorney Mandatory Functioning Native Seed and Seedling
Atlantic Forest
Fund SFB Compensation Production
Forest
Regional Network Pool of Training
Institute
of Seeds and RJ Private and Native Seed and Seedling
of Rio de Private Closed
Seedlings of Rio Atlantic Forest Governmental Production
Janeiro
de Janeiro Organizations Scientific Disclosure
UFRRJ

Training
Caparaó Seed ES
Projects UFES Projects Closed Native Seed and Seedling
Network Atlantic Forest
Production
196
Green Brazil ES Matrices
Projects Vários Projects Closed
Network Atlantic Forest Native Seed and Seedling
Production
Agreement
Legal
Rio Doce Seed ES, MG CEPAN, Training
compensatory RENOVA
and Seedling Deciduous Forest UFSCar, Functioning Native Seed and Seedling
Foundation Foundation
Network Atlantic Forest Xingu Seed Production
RENOVA
Network
Atlantic Forest
Seed Network Training
from Rio de Seed Collection Areas by
RJ, ES, BA
Janeiro, Espírito FNMA UFRRJ FNMA Closed Matrices
Atlantic Forest
Santos and Scientific Research
Bahia - RioESBa Scientific Disclosure
Network

Fundação Training
Rio-São Paulo RJ, SP de Florestal Seed Collection Areas by
FNMA FNMA Closed
Network Atlantic Forest de São Matrices
Paulo Scientific Disclosure
Training
197
Middle Tietê Seed Collection Areas by
Seasonal Forest SP Refloresta
Projects River Basin Closed Matrices
Network Seasonal Forest Institute
Committee Native Seed and Seedling
Production
Environmental
SP Refloresta Refloresta Matrices
Native Seeds Mandatory Functioning
Atlantic Forest Institute Institute Native Seed and Seedling
Compensation
Production
Training
Atlantic Forest Certification
SP UFSCar CNPq and
Seed Network Projects Functioning Seed Testing Services
Atlantic Forest FAI Projects
(REMAS) Scientific Research
Training
SC, PR, RS
Southern Network FNMA UFSC FNMA Closed Matrices
Atlantic Forest
Scientific Research
2. COMMUNITY-BASED SEED to be regularized. If we consider that

PRODUCTION FOR RESTORATION: this area will be restored by planting
CASE STUDIES tree species, it represents almost one
million seedlings to comply with the
local commitments imposed by public
Community seed networks have policies (Brasil 2017).
applied common policies for
Forest protection is a major challenge,
promoting local integration with
and, therefore, it is necessary to seek
restoration markets. Although seed
methods that encourage people to
networks converge in the broader
continue preserving while generating
sense of methods, their organizational
income. However, especially in
models vary according to specificities
the north, there is no consolidated
at the local level. Here, we describe
market for the restoration chain.
three seed networks, delineating the
The legislation is complex for small
major local approaches, applied on a
producers, and, consequently, seed
spectrum, to achieve goals according
and seedling production is informal.
to each network’s identity and
In Amapá, there are no regularized
socioeconomic characteristics.
nurseries for producing seeds and
seedlings of native forest species
2.1. Amapá Seed and Seedling Network (Ministério da Agricultura 2019).
– Arraiol do Bailinque The Amapá Seed and Seedling
Network was an initiative from
The state of Amapá is an Embrapa Amapá,1 proposed with
environmentally privileged region the participation of traditional
in the Brazilian Amazon. In addition communities and family farmers
to an incredible diversity of associated with the Amapá Family
ecosystems associated with the School Network – thus reconciling
territories of traditional communities, technical training, income generation,
it has the lowest historical rate of and environmental conservation. The
deforestation (INPE 2019), which Arraiol do Bailique community in the
makes it the most preserved state regional seed network, situated in
in the Brazilian federation. Amapá’s the Eastern Amazon, near the mouth
existing environmental liabilities are of the Amazon River on the banks
concentrated in areas of agricultural of the Arraiol River (Figure 1), has a
settlements located close to the population of 75 inhabitants, gathered
main highways. Data from the Rural in 22 family units. Their activities
Environmental Registry – CAR (SFB
2020) points out a total of 6,919 1 https://www.embrapa.br/amapa/busca-de-noticias/-/
registered properties, with an area noticia/34842264/projeto-desenvolvido-no-bailique-recebe-
premio-bndes-de-boas-praticas-em-sistemas-agricolas-
of around 600 thousands hectares tradicionais
198
are fishing, hunting, wood extraction, and medicinal plants (Euler et al.
buffalo breeding, and management 2019). The community has stood
of native açaizais (Euterpe oleraceae out in recent years for its example of
Mart. – açai palm) and meliponiculture organization, having been the first
in lowland forests, in addition certified by the Forest Stewardship
to management of agroforestry Council (FSC) to produce native açaí
homegardens producing fruits, spices palm fruits.
Figure 1: Arraiol do Bailique community location. Source: Andrade 2019.
In 2015, a partnership with participatory mapping of forest

Embrapa Amapá made possible species, collecting and managing
the establishment of the first native forest seeds, and good practices for
seed collection areas (SCAs) of processing and storing forest seeds
forest and creole seed2 species. This associated with bottom-up strategies
project trained local inhabitants, for business plans and marketing
with courses on tree mapping, communication (Figure 2). This was
done to transform seed production as
2 These are cultivars developed, adapted, or produced by an alternative for generating income,
family farmers, land reform settlers, or indigenous people, associated with the well-being and
which have well-determined phenotypic traits, are recognized
as such by the respective communities and which, in the
involvement of local inhabitants. The
understanding of the Ministry of Agriculture, and considering entire process followed participatory
sociocultural and environmental descriptors, are not practices, both in decision making
substantially similar to commercial cultivars (Peschard 2017).
199
and in performing activities. Despite spread out in the community areas.

the great challenge, the community Based on their local knowledge, they
decided to produce legal seeds by designed a productive calendar to
accomplishing the requirements of the assist the community in planning
seed production regulatory framework, family production throughout the year
according to Decree 5.153/2004 (Euler, Amorim, and Guabiraba 2018).
(Brasil 2004). Along with workshops, The objective was reconciling forest
they discussed principles, such as seed production with other activities
tree source selection (matrices), a in the forest, homegardens, and
minimum number of trees per species, agroforestry systems, as well as those
seed processing, and harvesting involving açai management, forest
and storage techniques based on restoration and enrichment, and the
principles from other forest seed cultivation of medicinal plants. The
networks and, at the same time, main source of income and livelihood
incorporating local knowledge. in the area is açai palm seed collection
for the Arraiol do Bailinque people’s
The Arraiol do Bailinque engaged 16
own consumption, for selling to other
collectors of 13 species with economic
local and national markets, and for
and social value (Table 2), totaling
seedling production.
153 matrices of native forest species
Figure 2: Training activities for seed collection (a) and management of forest seeds (b) carried out in the
Arraiol do Bailique community, Amapá, Brazil. Source: Ana M. C. Euler.
200
Table 2: List of species and matrices in the community (PAA). The main goal of the PAA is
SCA of the Arraiol do Bailique, Amapá, Brazil, in the to “guarantee access to food in the
Eastern Amazon. (Source: Ana M. C. Euler) proper quantity, quality and regularity
Common
Number of according to the needs of populations
Scientific name selected
name
trees living in food and nutritional insecurity,
Astrocaryum
as well as to promote social inclusion
Murumuru 4 in rural areas by strengthening family
murumuru
Callycophylum agriculture” (Chmielewska and
Pau-mulato 13
spruceanum Souza 2011). In the PAA, the “Seed
Andiroba
Carapa
13 Acquisition Program” purchased seeds
guianensis
from small farmers’ organizations to
Inter-havest
açaí
Euterpe oleracea 14 distribute them to other smallholders’
families (Silva and Almeida 2013).
Native açaí Euterpe oleracea 26
Despite the positive results in
Hevea
Seringa 8 agricultural production – increasing
brasiliensis
Buriti Mauritia flexuosa 15 the use of previously non-traded
Pentaclethra products, such as forest seeds – the
Pracaxi 5
macroloba PAA Seed Acquisition was canceled
Spondias in Amapá after 2018. Still, the main
Tapereba 13
mombin destination of the seeds and seedlings
Theobroma was the smallholders’ properties
Cacau 15
cacao
to improve their homegardens with
Theobroma
Cupuaçu
grandiflorum
15 fruit species and forest species of
Virola
commercial value. They also sold
Ucuuba 13 (and still sell) small quantities to
surinamensis
neighboring communities, with
All collectors and their auxiliaries emphasis on açaí palm seedlings.
collect seeds from the matrices on The price of seedlings includes only
their properties, most of which are 10 the costs of inputs (seedling bags,
minutes away from their homes by fertilizer, pesticides) and consumption,
boat. Seed harvesting is concentrated not labor and working time.
in the months of the Amazonian winter
(January to June) because, during The seedling production system
this time, the species are fruiting, and engages everyone, from young people
most of the seeds are recalcitrant, with to elders (Figure 3). According to the
great restriction for storage. However, Arraiol do Bailique nursery business
the seed market is the bottleneck plan, the expected annual production
in the innovative seed business. of seeds is 150kg, with a projected
Governmental programs have been annual revenue of about USD $670
the main driver of seed demand with from seed’s trade and USD $17,000
Brazil’s Food Acquisition Program from the açaí seedling trade, and a
201
production cost of USD $9,520. The is a secondary economic activity,

final annual income per family from carried out by 16 families, along with
the nursery activity is about USD $470. açaí and agricultural production.
The production of seeds and seedlings
Figure 3: Substrate prepared by young people and local leaders in the nursery of the Arraial do Bailinque,
Amapá, Amazon. (Source: Marcia do Carmo).
A future scenario must include the could be an opportunity. Prior to

effective implementation of the 2018, the Brazilian Committee of
Rural Environmental Register (CAR) Seed Science proposed the program’s
imposed by Law 12.651/2012 (Brasil nationwide implementation to the
2012), which mandates that all rural Ministry of Agriculture and received
properties restore legal reserves and a good acceptance. A multi-
protected areas. This will increase stakeholder program design must be
forest seed demand. Nevertheless, implemented, exploring the key issues
in the short-term, it is necessary and challenges of scaling up, such as
to encourage and to finance forest farmers’ organizational capacities,
restoration and to purchase seeds and transportation, the design of payment
seedlings through public programs. systems, and financing (Nehring and
The PAA’s Seed and Seedlings design Mckay 2013).
202
2.2. Amazonas Native Seeds Center website or directly to the municipality

for afforestation programs (Figures
The Amazonas Native Seed Center 4A and 4B). The commercialization
(CSNAM) began its activities in 2001, of 63 species has already produced
linked to the Federal University of about a ton and a half of seeds, giving
Amazonas. In partnership with the smallholders opportunities to access
National Amazon Research Institute markets and generate income. Seed
(INPA), the CSNAM has focused on collectors still need support for their
educational performance. Production self-organization, production, and
research and extension also contribute logistic. Botanical identification, price
to maintaining the productive chain of seeds demand, protocols for seed
of native Amazonian seeds. The analysis, laboratory research and
CSNAM is supported by national level technical training are still pointed out
governmental agencies and programs, as a bottleneck for the amazon tree
developing projects to promote the seed species chain. We have been
restoration of urban areas, permanent working with the tree seed researchers
forest reserves, and restricted areas, of our main partner, INPA (National
as well as establishing agroforestry Institute of Amazon Researches), in
systems (León-Lobos et al. 2012). order to promote technical datasheet
Since 2005, the CSNAM has worked for seed information, where we had
toward capacity building and training written up to now around 50 leaflets.
of indigenous people (Sateré-Mawé) We are also promoting together, the
and smallholders for seed harvesting establishment of an Amazonia Native
– resulting in more them 150 trained Seed Bank, in a research basis, for
seed collectors, 100 species for the protocols of seed analysis and
afforestation. There are 11 SCAs conservation, and in a tree seed
across eight municipalities in the state database for Amazon species.
of Amazonas, with 3,117 mother-
trees of 240 species from 33 botanical
families. Seed production is carried
out only by collectors trained by the
CSNAM to manage harvests and
process seeds. First, seed collection
areas are identified and inventoried;
then, mother-trees are selected. The
collecting groups receive equipment
and carry out phenological monitoring.
The seeds are transferred to the
CSNAM, which performs quality tests
and stores the seeds for selling via the
203
seedling production according to the

network’s parameters (Piña-Rodrigues
et al. 2007).
Here, we will report on the “Native
Seeds Group” from Capão Bonito, in
the southwest of São Paulo. It was
instituted in 2005 with the project
“Seeds of the Future,” financed by
a paper company to comply with
environmental requirements. This
community-based seed network
(CSN) is supported by the Refloresta
Institute, with 70 participants divided
into 19 groups of seed collectors.
The network is composed of farmers
and residents of the largest Atlantic
Forest continuum in Brazil: the
Intervales State Park, in the state
Figure 4: Young collectors trained by the CSNAM, of São Paulo. They collect and
Manaus, Brazil (4A). Preparation of botanical manage native seeds of the Atlantic
material for identification (4B) course by the Forest, with the Refloresta Institute
CSNAM, Manaus, Brazil. (Source: M. J. V. Lima providing technical assistance,
Junior). offering commercial management,
and storing and selling seeds to
2.3. Atlantic Forest Seed Network forest nurseries, including those in the
network itself. The network’s activities
The Atlantic Forest Seed Network are an important source of income
(REMAS) was organized in 2010 and is generation and supplementation for
a mix of some organizations from the the families that inhabit the region,
second generation of networks, such which is characterized by a low human
as Seasonal Forest (RESD), Rio-São development index (HDI) compared to
Paulo,3 and the Rio-Espirito Santo and other regions in the state. Until 2013,
Bahia (RIOESBA)4 (Table 1). Currently, there were 45 participants divided
the REMAS serves as a technological- into nine groups, most of whom
transfer link, collaborating with were women (75%), but now only
networks, groups of collectors, nine women collectors remain in the
and nurseries to promote seed and group, and the others left the network
to search for new sources of income.
3 http://www.sementesriosaopaulo.sp.gov.br/
The main cause of this reduction
was the low demand for forest seed
4 http://www.if.ufrrj.br/rioesba/capacitacao.html
204
caused by political uncertainties. They

were generated by the insecurities
and delay for implementing the
Forest Law 12651/12 (Brasil 2012),
which reduced the area planned for
mandatory restoration by almost 58%
(Soares-Filho et al. 2014).The Native
Seed Group produces seeds from 225
species, with 2,000 matrices across
37 SCAs. The group’s strategy for
maintaining its activities is to use
seeds to produce and sell seedlings
via the Refloresta Nursery and in
commercial partnership with the
Forestry Institute of Research (IPEF)
to sell small quantities of seeds
to landscapers and other buyers,
instead of focusing only on mandatory
restoration (Figures 5A and 5B).
Figure 5: Training Course for seed multipliers and

collectors (5A) with production planning practices
(5B) and seed handling conducted by the REMAS
in support of the Portal Seeds Network, Mato
Grosso. (Source: F. C. M. Piña-Rodrigues)
205
2.4. Xingu Seed Network Annually, seed demand is surveyed by

the Association Xingu Seed Network
In the Upper Xingu region of Amazonia, (ARX) with potential buyers, who place
the most representative CSN began their “annual orders” to comply with
with the Y Ikatu Xingu campaign mandatory restoration. Then, the
(“Save the Good Water of Xingu,” in links are contacted to send the lists
Kamayurá indigenous language). Its of species and quantities that can be
objective was to mobilize farmers in the produced by each group of collectors to
vicinity of the Xingu Indigenous Park meet demand. Each collector processes
to ensure compliance with mandatory the seeds and transports them to
land restoration (Durigan, Guerin, and the nearest seed house. Regularly,
da Costa 2013). Attempting to meet seeds are transported to the central
seed demand, indigenous communities, administration of the ARX, which is
smallholders, and urban residents for responsible for storing the seed long-
natives were mobilized to organize term, conducting seed quality tests,
community-based seed collection, selling seeds to those placing orders,
thus forming the Xingu Seed Network and marketing and administrating the
(RSX) in 2007 (Urzedo et al. 2016). This commercial process.
movement initiated the third generation
The main characteristic of the RSX is
of forest seed networks, with a bottom-
that it produces seed based on prior
up system of decision and organization
demand. This process ensures greater
and without direct interference from
security and reduces losses because
public authorities.
it prevents the collection, transport,
Ten years later, the RSX became an and storage of seeds without having a
association and one of the most potential buyer or use for the material,
significant commercial native seed bringing more certainty of revenue to
producers in Brazil (over 25 tons yearly), the communities. Its successfulness
composed of 568 collectors. It is a is evidenced by its long-term existence
reference for other national initiatives. and productivity. Over ten years, the
The RSX is organized into fourteen RSX has had a cash income of USD
groups, supported by a local seed $1.3 million, producing almost 220
house for storing all material produced tons of forest seeds from 214 species.
by each group of collectors. These Urzedo et al. (2016) have explored
endeavors are coordinated by several how collectors’ participation in the
local leaders, who are considered as RSX has helped diversify household
“links” in the production chain. Each income sources and improve
link is responsible for representing the livelihoods in terms of nutrition level,
community during network meetings education, home and shelter, local
for decision-making processes (Urzedo knowledge, cash income, and women
et al. 2016; Schmidt et al. 2019). empowerment (Figures 6A, 6B and 6C).
206
Figures 6: Participatory construction of the harvest schedule (6A and 6B), and comparison and joint
construction of the harvest schedules (6C) in training workshops and exchange of knowledge in the Xingu
Seed Network, São Felix do Araguaia, Mato Grosso, Brazil. (Source: F. C. M. Piña-Rodrigues)
207
3. CAN SEED PRODUCTION BE AN Like any entrepreneurial organization,

INCOME GENERATOR IN THE FLR a CSN requires initial investment,
CHAIN? LESSONS LEARNED FROM personnel, supplies, equipment, and
COMMUNITY-BASED NATIVE SEED a cash flux to maintain its economic
NETWORKS and social sustainability. The majority
of CSNs began with projects of
organizations and governments,
Nationwide estimates indicate that which provided much of the initial
seedling production can reach 142 funding (Table 1). As a non-profit
million seedlings yearly (Moreira da company, CSNs access capital that is
Silva et al. 2016), requiring more than unavailable for business entrepreneurs
800 to 2,000 tons of native seeds and set partnerships aimed at creating
annually (Freire, Urzedo, and Piña- value for everyone involved, providing
Rodrigues 2017). However, Brazil´s structures that help people escape
production is far from achieving from poverty and gain control over
the restoration target of 12 million their lives.
hectares (Brasil 2017), with an
The classic financial feasibility
estimated production in 2013 of 57
analysis for investments uses
million seedlings and 97 tons of seeds
indicators to estimate the
by 1,276 nurseries (Silva et al. 2015).
attractiveness of a scenario. The
CSNs can be classified as social indicators are applied to cash
entrepreneurship. They are flow (planned and ongoing capital
distinguished from “regular” inflows and outflows) based on a
entrepreneurs by three characteristics: minimum expected rate of return
the predominance of a social mission, on capital, which corresponds to
the importance of innovation, and the aforementioned gain. Among
the role of earned income (Lepoutre the main indicators of the financial
et al. 2013). A CSN, as a social viability analysis are the internal rate
entrepreneurial organization, has of return (IRR), the present value and
an explicit and embedded social net present value (PV and NPV), the
objective, which engages multiple net profitability index (ILL), and the
stakeholders, promotes life quality, discounted pay back (DPB).
and empowers women. Here we can
To assess CSNs as social
also add the notion of ‘‘social’’ for
entrepreneurial organizations, we
entrepreneurs who develop products
proposed a model based on a network
and services that ‘‘cater directly
from the Amazon, in the state of
to basic human needs that remain
Acre (F. C. M. Piña-Rodrigues et al.,
unsatisfied by current economic or
2020). We have chosen this group
social institutions’’ (Seelos and Mair
because it represents a typical CSN,
2005).
with the engagement of multiple
208
stakeholders, a formal association

of indigenous and rural settlements,
and forest seed harvesting as an
alternative source of income. We
applied a simulation–optimization
procedure to estimate the expected
profit and the associated probability of
making a certain desired profit (Chen,
Subprasom, and Chootinan 2001). We
employed a traditional balance sheet
to evaluate social entrepreneurship
to obtain data concerning previous
investments, total production, income,
operating expenditures, revenue, and
net cash flux (Tilghman 2015). Costs
included the community organizing
process itself in a pilot project with
30 collectors from 15 families,
one engineer (part-time), and one
technician (full-time), with the initial
purchase of equipment, construction,
and four annual meetings. We applied
an attractiveness rate of 0.5% per
month and a correction factor of
a total of 1,298kg of seeds, with an
15.8% for seed price, based on a
average market price of USD $97.70
market survey for the same species
and a gross revenue of USD $47,222.
during the studied period and at the
The initial investment was estimated
time of analysis. We evaluated three
to be USD $61,388, composed of
scenarios: (1) refundable private
USD $38,891 in investments and USD
investment, (2) nonrefundable
$22,297 as working capital. In Scenario
public or private investments and
1, the network entrepreneurship had an
(3) mixed association investment
attractiveness IRR below the projected
and nonrefundable private or public
minimum, a negative NPV, and an ILL <
funds. All scenarios were proposed
1, demonstrating financial unfeasibility
to meet a leverage ratio of 1:1 (each
in the evaluated period (Table 3).
dollar invested generated USD $1 in
There is an indication that the seed
a positive economic impact) in the
collection network was not viable in
shortest time, until 60 months, based
this model, with external repayable
on the total sale of the seed supply.
capital, and under market interest.
The studied community collected However, the CSN paid for itself (PBD)
209
at 37 months – that is, before the is identified, social sustainability

end of the 60 months of analysis – is compromised, so an external
indicating its potential as a regular agent is needed to allow for social
form of entrepreneurship. engagement. External contribution
consists of technical assistance,
In Scenario 2, it was not possible to
management, planning, and strategic
calculate the IRR, NPV, or ILL, since
projects designs, but launching a
these indicators are applied to an
CSN essentially requires at least an
investment amount and, therefore,
estimated nonrefundable capital of
did not apply here. The NPV of the
USD $61,388. In this condition, it is
CSN is related to cash flow, and,
possible to generate an income of
in this case, it was positive. Thus,
around USD $24,711 per year (USD
without any investment, there was
$823.70 per year per collector), plus
a positive NPV, and the project was
nearly USD $14,000 in salaries for a
feasible in the first month after its
group of 32 members – thus, ensuring
establishment and complete operation
economic and social sustainability.
(DPB). In this scenario, it is possible
Although the income of collectors
to consider that the CSN could reach
in CSNs is higher than that in other
a sustainable situation; however, it is
networks (USD $256.50 per year per
necessary to pay attention, because,
collector), it is important to consider
as capital depreciation occurs during
the differences between the scenarios
the project, these values must be
established by each author (Urzedo et
reserved, calculated and invested at
al. 2020). As the CSN is a project that
the minimum rate stipulated.
foresees the dissemination of native
Finally, in Scenario 3, the IRR was plant species, it is assumed that via
positive from the investment of USD the gains of this action – with regards
$4,618 by the association and of to the carbon balance, which must be
USD $46,189 from private or public negative, and the dissemination of
nonrefundable investment. PBD was biodiversity through the restoration
positive from the beginning (one projects it originates – it is possible to
month after initiation); however, the indicate full sustainability in projects
other indicators (NPV and ILL) only for the collection, processing, and
became positive when the investment trade of native seeds.
reached USD $50,808 in the fourth
month after the total implementation
of the CSN.
Social entrepreneurship, such as the
proposed CSNs, may not bring the
best financial indicators. However,
once the social fragility of the actors
210
Table 3: Financial feasibility indicators applied for Although arrangements vary according
a seed network in Acre, Amazonia. Scenario 1 = to each initiative regarding social and
refundable investments; Scenario 2 = public or private economic realities, the RSX in the state
nonrefundable investments; Scenario 3 = association’s of Mato Grosso has been a national
equity investment and nonrefundable private or public reference (Table 1). It is considered
funds. Exchange: USD $4.33 = R $1.00. a model because of its commercial
Indicators Scenario Scenario Scenario production of a substantial volume of
1 2 3
seeds for sale across ten years (over
Nonrefundable
USD 200 tons, i.e., around 5,000 hectares)
initial -
$50,808
investment and its efficient use of estimated prior
IRR (Internal demand to guide seed production.
Rate of 0.496% High 22.3%
Return)
This arrangement has supported the
development of seed suppliers in many
NPV (Net - USD USD USD
Present Value) $41,545 $9,611 $795 other regions in Brazil.
ILL (Net Community seed supplies require
Profitability 0.32 High 1.07
Index) multiple stakeholders to participate
DPB in bottom-up decisions for planning,
37 4
(Discounted
months
1 month
months
managing, and evaluating the
Pay Back) processes of income generation and
rural development. Key organizations,
4. KEY LESSONS – CSNS
such as NGOs, universities,
associations, and cooperatives, are
The bridge between collectors and the essential driving forces of sustaining
market has been developed mostly the actions for seed supply. These
via the efforts of non-governmental organizations have been promoting
organizations (NGOs), universities, resilience, maintaining local structure
research institutes, and governmental for seed supply and restoration.
agencies. Commercial production is However, seed networks are isolated
established based on the collectors’ and require a national organization
supply capacity, which is directly so that they may have more influence
connected to the market demand over the decision-making process –
mapped by the partner organizations mainly in regulating seed production
responsible for supporting the business policies.
management. Therefore, native seed In general, for FLR, it is necessary to
markets are strongly associated maintain both systems, the private
with legal requirements and formal system via nurseries and commercial
institutions, which can and have seed suppliers and the community-
changed over time, resulting in unstable based network for obtaining seeds and
restoration demands and an uncertain producing seedlings. However, each
future for these organizations. system demands different strategies
211
for sustaining its productivity. While both need a market that remains more
the private sector can profit from stable, with long-term public policies
subsidized investments over one to and legislation compatible with the
five years, CSNs require nonrefundable characteristics of the seed sector and
investments to achieve their social its present and potential reality.
and economic objectives. However,
212
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216
10
CERRADO DE PÉ
ASSOCIATION:
Community engagement
promoting ecological
restoration and local
livelihoods in the
neotropical savanna
back to
summary
217
CERRADO DE PÉ
10 ASSOCIATION:
Community engagement
promoting ecological
restoration and local livelihoods
in the neotropical savanna
Alexandre Bonesso Sampaio, Isabel Belloni
Schmidt, Danilo Ignacio Urzedo, and Claudomiro
Almeida Cortes
1. INTRODUCTION focused on assisting the recovery of

degraded ecosystems’ health, integrity,
and sustainability (SER 2002).
Land degradation is a worldwide Recently, landscape restoration has
issue affecting the well-being of gained a more holistic understanding
3.2 billion people and costing more through international policies, not
than 10% of the annual global gross just for regaining ecological integrity,
product (IPBES 2018). More than but also for enhancing human well-
one billion hectares of degraded land being and economic opportunities
offer numerous opportunities for land (Sabogal, Besacier, and McGuire 2015).
management (Gibbs and Salmon Consequently, ambitious international
2015). Restoring degraded lands has commitments have pledged to
emerged as a leading global challenge, restore 350 million hectares (Mha)
since it is considered a key cost- of degraded ecosystems by 2030 to
effective intervention for mitigating promote biodiversity conservation,
environmental changes (Griscom et climate action, and local livelihood
al. 2017). Ecological restoration was improvements (e.g., the Paris
originally a scientific research field Agreement and the Bonn Challenge).
218
The largest worldwide restoration intervals, and mowing around them

programs are in the tropics (Lewis et to control grass competition (Moreira
al. 2019), where there is the highest da Silva et al. 2016). This technique
feasibility for ecosystem services was developed for forest restoration,
recovery (Brancalion et al. 2019). where the trees, in a few years, grow
Among the tropical countries, Brazil and create a canopy dense enough
has a leadership position, having to shade out the grass and create
set an economy-wide emissions the conditions for secondary forest
target based on land management succession. In the case of grasslands
with a sophisticated institutional and savannas, however, this
system (Brazil 2017). The Brazilian technique has resulted in inadequate
government has pledged to support afforestation, i.e. introduction of
the restoration of 12Mha by 2030 trees in higher densities than would
through the National Restoration naturally occur (Veldman et al. 2015).
Policy (Decree No. 8972/2017) and the The methods for restoring degraded
Nationally Determined Contributions lands must consider place-specific
(Brazil 2015). This restoration pledge conditions, selecting the most feasible
follows the required percentage techniques (Holl and Aide 2011) and
of native vegetation that must be the right plant material sources for
conserved on private properties, each place (Oldfield and Olwell 2015).
according to Brazil’s Forest Code (Law
To implement Brazil’s restoration
No. 12651/2012). It is estimated that
targets, there are numerous
around 21Mha must be protected on
improvements to be addressed
private land to fulfill legal requirements
for innovations, technological
(Soares-Filho et al. 2014). In the
development, and local knowledge
Cerrado region, the country is
incorporation (Durigan et al. 2010) –
expected to restore 5Mha of degraded
considering diverse environments and
ecosystems, mainly savannas and
disturbance regimes. One of the key
grasslands (Brazil 2017).
interventions for upscaling restoration
The most common practice for is developing more accessible and
tropical restoration is planting tree effective techniques to recover
seedlings (Chazdon 2008; Zahawi ecosystem functionality in a way
and Holl 2009) on plantations of that is less costly for landowners.
commercial trees, resulting in a lack In recent years, direct seeding has
of ecological functionality and few been successfully adopted in the
local livelihood opportunities (Lewis Brazilian Amazon for restoring
et al. 2019; Coppus et al. 2019). In thousands of hectares, significantly
Brazil, restoration projects also mostly reducing costs and improving efficacy
promote using nursery-raised tree (Campos-Filho et al. 2013; Freitas
seedlings, planted at regularly-spaced et al. 2019). Even more recently,
219
based on successful experiences are integrated with local knowledge

with forests, direct seeding has been and livelihoods (Schmidt et al. 2018).
applied to other ecosystems in Brazil. With an emergent restoration economy
The pioneering endeavors to restore demanding native seed and seedlings,
degraded savanna and grasslands in indigenous and rural communities
Central Brazil through directly seeding have experienced new opportunities
grasses, forbs, shrubs, and trees have for income and livelihoods through
demonstrated several benefits for the native seed trade. This strategy
improving ecological functionality involves linking regional markets with
processes with higher seeding communities that harvest, process,
densities and reducing implementation and store seeds. One example is the
costs (Sampaio et al. 2019). Xingu Seed Network, the largest native
seed supplier in Brazil. Each year, it
At the same time, operating restoration
commercially produces over 20 tons
projects requires a wide array of
of seeds, which are applicable to
specific products and services
regional forest restoration projects
embedded in the emergent restoration
in southeastern Amazonia (Urzedo et
supply chain (Brancalion and van
al. 2016). Local restoration networks
Melis 2017). Improving the availability
can emerge from and significantly
of native seeds for tropical restoration
contribute to establishing effective
is essential for achieving landscape
restoration grassroots actions with
restoration with more participation
relevant social and economic benefits.
and shared co-benefits (Jalonen et
al. 2017; Merritt and Dixon 2011). In this chapter, we explore how
The lack of diverse native species in community participation and the
restoration programs is compounded direct seeding technique for restoring
by a global shortage of high-quality the neotropical savanna have created
plant material supply for enhancing innovative methods and seed supply
biodiversity. The inclusion of native systems, which offer significant local
seed in tropical regions is strongly livelihood outcomes in Central Brazil.
limited by species selection and seed By focusing on the experiences of
sources (Thomas et al. 2014), the the Cerrado de Pé Association and
poor performance of seed market restoration projects in the Chapada
systems (Lillesø et al. 2017), a low dos Veadeiros National Park, we
level of local participation, and understand the local organization
restrictive regulations (de Urzedo process for seed collection,
et al. 2019; Nyoka et al. 2014). processing, trading, and seeding in
Restoration networks in Brazil response to the emergent restoration
have demonstrated the capacity economy. We argue that community
to involve multiple stakeholders in engagement promotes more inclusive
advancing restoration markets that and advanced restoration actions in
220
the tropics through the incorporation ecosystem. They have no specific

of local knowledge and socioeconomic experience with including a mix of
benefits. native grasses, forbs, shrubs, and trees
for neotropical savanna restoration.
Since 2012, the pioneering national
2. RESTORING NEOTROPICAL
endeavor to adopt direct seeding for
SAVANNA THROUGH DIRECT SEEDING
restoring savanna and grassland has
been conducted in the Chapada dos
Using direct seeding techniques Veadeiros National Park in Central
to restore degraded lands in Brazil Brazil. This park covers 240,000
was once commonly considered hectares of Brazilian savanna
disadvantageous because of poor (Cerrado), with approximately 600
species performance, low seeding hectares of degraded areas. These
density, and the high costs of research projects have aimed to
purchasing native seed (see, de Souza test different technical methods of
and Engel 2018). This reality changed reintroducing various native plants
when a restoration campaign in the to restore the savannas. These
Upper Xingu region in Amazonia actions have been coordinated by
promoted the first national evidence a partnership between different
of feasibly promoting large-scale governmental and non-governmental
direct seeding (> 5,000 hectares) organizations, including the Chico
with ecological success and over a Mendes Institute for Biodiversity
decade of experience (Freitas et al. Conservation (ICMBio), the Brazilian
2019). The direct seeding technique Agricultural Research Corporation
generally involves using a mix of (Embrapa), the University of Brasília
seeds (regionally called muvuca) from (UnB) and the Cerrado Seed Network.
native and green manure species, The initial scientific investigations
which are dispersed manually or have offered fundamental scientific
via regular farm machinery, such as knowledge concerning how to
spreaders, when possible (Campos- intervene in the degraded savannas
Filho et al. 2013). Although the and grasslands of the Cerrado region,
restoration outcomes in the Upper using more adapted techniques to
Xingu region are well documented as include diverse lifeforms (shrubs,
exemplifying a feasible technique with grasses, and trees) (Pellizzaro et al.
lower costs – a technique which has 2017; Sampaio et al. 2015; Sampaio
also been adopted in other regions et al. 2019). It has been found that,
of the Amazon and Brazil (Durigan, through direct seeding, it was possible
Guerin and da Costa 2013; Urzedo et to establish 62 tree, shrub, and grass
al. 2017) – these interventions have species in savannas previously
concentrated on restoring the forest dominated by invasive grasses. Since
221
these experiments began, the use of scale seed production resulted in poor
direct seeding for restoring savannas seed cleaning process, with a high
and grasslands has been widely percentage of impurity. The increasing
debated, spread in scientific and regional seed demand and positive
technical efforts, and incorporated in market responses began to promote
various restoration projects by several local interest in developing a supply
organizations in Brazil. system with specific organizational
systems and structures for seed
Savanna restoration through direct
production. Although local collectors
seeding has been further scaled-up in
were initially unsure about the
the Chapada dos Veadeiros National
feasibility of commercial native seed
Park as part of an environmental
supply, more people became interested
licensing process funded by a large
in harvesting seed based on clear
power line company. This project
evidence of income generation.
has impacted an area of almost
3,000 kilometers. According to the
National Environmental Policy (Law
3. LOCAL ENGAGEMENT AND
no. 6.938/1981), environmental offset
KNOWLEDGE FOR SAVANNA SEED
schemes are a mandatory action for
SUPPLY
infrastructure projects to mitigate
environmental impacts. Licensing
conditions are linked through the A reliable supply of native seed was
environmental impact assessment essential for operating direct seeding
process with requirements to fund for the savanna restoration projects.
restoration activities. In this case, the However, there was no preexisting,
power line company was responsible organized seed market of native
for funding the restoration of almost biodiversity in Central Brazil. The
100 hectares of degraded pastures, native shrub, forb, and grass species
which were formed before the creation were not well-known because of their
of the park in 1961. For restoring poor economic uses in conventional
these savanna and grassland areas, farming systems. Pastures are usually
direct seeding was applied between seeded with exotic African grasses
2015 and 2016 – 19 tons of seeds because native grasses in Cerrado
from native shrub, grass, and tree are unpalatable to cattle, which will
species. The plant material was only graze on the fresh sprouts of
obtained by contacting local people these native grasses that appear
with knowledge of the region’s when the areas are burnt. Because
biodiversity. However, there was no native grasses have undervalued uses,
official organization for commercial local people and farmers normally
seed supply. The lack of previous do not recognize the value of these
experiences and standards for large- species. This reality is reflected, for
222
example, in the lack of specific popular seed collection, most collectors

names to identify diverse grasses. All had little previous involvement with
types are clustered under the same grass, forb, and shrub species. The
common names, such as capim development of this information
agreste. The local relationship with required extensive action research
native species has strongly changed because the previous scientific
since the development of the regional data available for native savanna
restoration market. species mostly concerned taxonomic
information and few species
After five years of scientific research
germination protocols.
and the first large-scale restoration
project in the Chapada dos Veadeiros For building local capacities, research
National Park, the regional restoration institutes and universities provided
market began increasing demand several training opportunities for
for native seed to implement direct species identification, seed production,
seeding projects. To configure a and commercial operations. This
seed supply system, seed collectors knowledge was initially spread through
engaged with multiple stakeholders local practices between organizations’
to establish institutional systems staff members and collectors in the
and technical development. In 2017, process of learning and exchanging
local collectors, with the support of knowledge. Through various
other actors, formalized a community community workshops and informal
organization to represent their contexts, collectors exchanged
commercial and social activities. The technical practices about requirements
Cerrado de Pé Association (CPA) was for collecting, processing, and storing
created by approximately 18 collectors diverse plant materials for restoration.
from six different municipalities in This learning process has produced a
the region around the Chapada dos significant amount of scientific data
Veadeiros National Park. for 70 native species (Pellizzaro et al.
2017).
Applying local knowledge was a
relevant element in the process of Promoting local engagement was an
consolidating organizational and essential practice helping initially form
productive systems. Since 2012, the community network. Undoubtedly,
various aspects of the systems have the local people’s interest in becoming
been studied with, and learned from, seed collectors resulted from a
the local people, such as native combination of the opportunity to
species identification, plant population act for Cerrado conservation and
mapping, periods for harvesting, seed household income generation.
cleaning processes, and storage and To coordinate local participation,
seeding technique. Although some strong leadership was required –
local people were familiar with tree promoting trust and collaboration
223
between collectors and helping 4. STRUCTURING A COMMUNITY

them understand the importance of NETWORK FOR SAVANNA
Cerrado restoration and the positive RESTORATION
impacts of seed supply for community
livelihoods. This leadership was
mostly carried out by the first seed Many different projects have recently
collector in the region, Claudomiro demanded specific products and
de Almeida Cortes (co-author of this services for restoring degraded
chapter), who played a key role in lands in Central Brazil; however, seed
continuously motivating and informing supply shortage is a major restriction
the collectors’ groups. In addition to for scaling up the direct seeding
supporting people in harvesting seeds technique. This scarcity in plant
based on technical procedures, the material supply has pushed the CPA
local leader also strongly encouraged to expand its activities and develop
local negotiations and mediated local a regional market to attend to the
conflicts. For example, all collectors emergent restoration demand. This
were responsible for defining lists challenge requires, not only production
of species and amounts of seed capacity, but also a well-designed
production based on their individual process and structural arrangements
capacities. Initially, this task was very between multiple stakeholders to
complex for collectors, who needed formulate bottom-up frameworks.
much support from the local leader The seed network operates in a
to accomplish it. Although around social business model to stimulate
30 collectors experienced many the integration of social benefits and
challenges in the first year after the economic opportunities to reduce local
association was created, they were still poverty. Over six years, the community
able to trade 19 tons of seeds from 50 groups have been responsible for
different native species, representing supplying 36.6 tons of seeds from 70
more than US $40,000 in household native species to restore 228 hectares
income. With these impressive initial of savannas and grasslands (Figure 1).
outcomes, the CPA was recognized The seed trade has distributed more
as a promising initiative, with national than US $77,000 as household income
visibility through social media and to 60 seed collectors in eight different
even television. communities, including smallholders,
traditional communities (Maroon
people), and urban collectors.
224
Figure 1: Savanna and grassland seed production and trade for landscape restoration in Central Brazil, 2012
to 2018.
One of the prominent internal Network is responsible for structuring

organizational struggles was the commercial arrangements –
establishing a commercial i.e., mapping restoration demand,
arrangement compatible with the establishing long-term contracts, and
required operations of Brazil’s supporting these relationships with
association model. Because seed trade documents.
collectors are usually local people and
Addressing local seed supply is not
small farmers without any experience
only a matter of technical knowledge
running a business, they faced
but also of a deep understanding of
many issues in, first, understanding
the collective work. However, most
the legal procedures and, second,
seed collectors had no previous
developing mechanisms to implement
experience with collective groups. In
them. However, with the support of
the case of Kalunga Maroon people,
local actors, such as the Cerrado
the community has a traditional
Seed Network, collectors learned
organizational system; however, they
about administration, bookkeeping,
lacked interaction with collectors from
inventory control, and other elements
other localities because of cultural
of bureaucracy. The main strategy
and physical barriers. The adopted
involved linking communities, which
framework supports the autonomy
have harvested, processed, and
of local groups for managing local
stored seeds, with regional markets
issues with a community leader,
(Figure 2). While the CPA and seed
who represents them in external
collectors work more closely with
activities. This model was inspired
seed production, the Cerrado Seed
by the successful case of the Xingu
225
Seed Network (Urzedo et al. 2016). people, miscommunications, unfair

However, the formation of local negotiations and centralized decision-
groups was not a final solution. making processes, it reinforces the
When groups face constant conflicts need to design place-specific actions
based on the local reality, such as to mobilize resources and actions
difficulties aggregating and motivating according to very local needs.
seed supply capacity mapping market demand
seed seed
Cerrado de Pé
Cerrado Seed Network Seed Buyers
Association
$ $
ordered seed seed demand

seed $
Collectors Seed Transport

Ecological Restoration
Collection Seed Quality Control
Processing and Drying
Seed Storage
Figure 2: Community-based native seed supply, encompassing the productive system and commercial
operations promoted between collectors, the CPA, the Cerrado Seed Network, and seed buyers for landscape
restoration in Central Brazil.
Local agreements are essential This a vital activity because the

for promoting fair production and ecosystem and social dynamics are
equitable distribution of benefits. not linear. Several Cerrado species
Because of this, the community are quite variable in their annual seed
network has established general rules production; some years they produce
and meetings to promote collective large yields, and, in other years, the
negations for planning, production, and production is drastically reduced or
trade. Collectors must have a clear, even nonexistent. The amount of seed
annual plan, which is locally negotiated collected from every species depends
to indicate the species and quantities on each collector’s labor capacity for
of seed they intend to harvest yearly. harvesting, cleaning, and storing, as
226
well as his or her access to harvesting De Dominicis (2017) asserts that

areas. This is determined in a meeting half of the 11 species studied were
at the beginning of the year. underpriced based on the commercial
seed price initially proposed by the
However, these factors may change
CPA. After the CPA was created,
throughout the year, and, for various
collectors began using a more
reasons, collectors may not be able to
complex seed pricing formulation
meet their commitments. In this case,
based on specific conditions applied
they must inform other collectors to
for each species. To improve
harvest the species and quantities to
negotiations, every year the seed
accomplish the order because each
trade price is adjusted in a meeting,
collector is required to harvest and
during which several collectors gather
process just the species and amount
to define prices based on their seed
previously ordered. Another challenge
production notes. However, seed
is that the specific timing required
price still does not properly consider
for restoration actions has serious
administrative and organizational
administrative consequences for
costs, such as the costs of organizing
how services and products must be
community workshops and training
supplied. In the Cerrado region, the
courses, which are usually funded by
climate is seasonal, which directly
partner organizations (Schmidt et al.
influences the seed collection
2018). At the same time, the final seed
period and restoration interventions.
price must also consider feasibility and
Generally, grasses tend to produce
encourage the use of direct seeding for
seeds from December to June, shrubs
restoration.
from June to September, and trees
from August to November, while To build commercial credibility,
restoration actions are normally the CPA began to acknowledge
implemented from November to practices to improve the quality of
January. This requires arrangements supplied plant material. After one
to promote specific logistics and year selling seeds with low-level
commitments between collectors, purity, the CPA and the Cerrado
seed buyers, and seed planting to Seed Network decided to change
make large-scale restoration actions their procedures and begin selling
possible. better-cleaned seeds. This change
facilitated product standardization,
For initial seed pricing standards,
storage, transportation, and seeding.
the research projects paid for seed
This demand also reflects on high
collection based on a general estimate
investment in physical structures and
of time allocated to operate the
equipment. The large volume of seed
activity. The first approach assumed
production requires specific materials
that ten hours of labor was necessary
for transport and storage and for
to produce one kilo of native seed.
227
maintaining the quality of the plant with better training and commercial
material. For instance, the collectors arrangements, community networks
recently built a proper storage facility increase the number of collectors,
to store seeds, using money from expand the seed trade, and generate
projects and donations obtained from income. The case of the CPA in Central
crowdfunding. Quality standards are Brazil is evidence of how integrating
also embedded in the mandatory diverse networks can create forces
procedures for native seed commercial for developing a regional restoration
supply (Law no. 10.711/2003). Among economy with more social and
the requirements, it is necessary to economic benefits. Unfortunately,
have a responsible technician for all native seed suppliers in Brazil and
plant material production processes, other tropical regions are limited by
to produce activities reports, and to numerous impediments. Below, we
conduct seed testing in an official discuss some of the key lessons
laboratory. These requirements are learned from the community-based
difficult for small organizations to process in Central Brazil, which may
achieve, which is a clear limitation improve the performance and co-
to increasing the number of national benefits in restoration grassroots
initiatives. However, legally registered actions.
seed suppliers are tempted by
The limited offer of diverse and high-
uncommitted seed buyers, who pass
quality native plant material supply
over both organizations and the law to
is still a major challenge to meeting
buy directly from the informal market.
regional and national restoration
This situation creates strong instability
targets. Large-scale actions require a
for community networks and supports
high number of species more adapted
informal channels, which only favor
to different ecosystems – favoring
irresponsible restoration practitioners
individuals and species adaptation,
and companies.
evolution, and reduced inbreeding
depression (Broadhurst et al. 2008).
4.1. Lessons for scaling up community- In the Cerrado region, for instance,
based restoration there are 12,000 different native plant
species, but restoration projects are
Local communities have great only incorporating 352 species (www.
potential for increasing native seed webambiente.gov.br). The inclusion
sources using local knowledge of more species from different sites
to adapt and develop specific directly demands more collectors and
arrangements to structure institutional organizations spread throughout the
systems. When local engagement territory, which is strongly aligned with
aligns with capacity building and the seed networks’ role. Although seed
support of multiple stakeholders, networks have helped diversify seed
228
production, production capacity is may also be made in terms of

limited compared to restoration goals. production processes. Improving seed
A greater market opportunity is also collection and processing requires
expected for native seed suppliers if vast innovations – creating more
national restoration is implemented, efficient techniques for reducing costs
following national regulations. and increasing local profits. Many
However, the current number of seed seed collectors have already been
suppliers is very limited compared to innovating collection and extraction
the legal requirements. For example, methods using their traditional
we have identified only a few native knowledge, but their abilities could
seed producers in the Cerrado region, be fostered toward further innovation
including the Xingu Seed Network by mechanizing the processes. This
(Mato Grosso State), the CPA (Goiás mechanization could be extended
State), the Aprospera Agroecology beyond seed processing to all
Association (Federal District), and restoration activities (Schmidt et al.
the Nascentes dos Geraizeiros seed 2018). Processing seeds through
collectors (Minas Gerais State). machines is a potential method
for optimizing the current manual
The seed supply process should not
processes; this methodology could
only focus on strategies for scaling
adapt the equipment used in the crop
up production. It should also establish
industry, considering the heterogeneity
interventions to improve the quality of
of native seeds.
sources. Although Brazil’s seed law
has considered implementing a quality The ideal situation will be realized
control system, the requirements are when seed collectors are organized
not aligned to the reality of native seed and selling seeds in several regions
suppliers and the specific needs of spread throughout Brazil. The
the sector. The legislation guarantees establishment of a well-developed
seed origin and quality, protecting restoration supply chain requires
collectors and buyers. Therefore, strong enforcement of the law with
these difficulties must be overcome long-term investments. The national
by improving the law to make it more restoration plan must consider
realistic for small organizations and the importance of local people’s
native species characteristics and participation in practices, markets, and
conditions. To adapt to the current decision-making processes. This is
legal requirements, the government a feasible intervention for increasing
must acknowledge the participation of the supply of products and services
different stakeholders in the decision- for restoration with local innovation
making process, which can make and new techniques. Direct seeding
the law a more realistic framework. has particularly boosted the regional
Many qualitative improvements demand for native seed, which is
229
expected to increase even further stakeholders has already promoted a

over the coming years. Although it is national plan (the Seed Patch Project)
necessary to adapt this technique for to disseminate the use of direct
different contexts and ecosystems, seeding for restoring degraded land in
it is expected that direct seeding will Brazil and to influence the decision-
be popularized across the diverse making process to better incorporate
restoration projects in Brazil, with this technique in governmental plans
significant demand for native seed. For and regulations.
example, a coalition between different
230
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11
XINGU SEED
NETWORK:
Socioeconomic impacts
and community benefits
back to
summary
234
XINGU SEED
11 NETWORK:
Socioeconomic impacts and
community benefits
Eduardo Malta Campos Filho, and Rodrigo
Gravina Prates Junqueira
1. INTRODUCTION interests of medium- and large-sized

nurseries. Native seedling plantations,
however, often have low genetic
The Xingu Seed Network in the diversity, support fewer species, and
Brazilian Amazon is a great example lack a full range of functional traits,
of ecological restoration with resulting in expensive, but poor-quality
positive socioeconomic impacts and ecosystems. The Xingu’s experience
community benefits. In this region, a in Central Brazil has demonstrated
focused community-based network an alternative restoration practice
has been developing native seed through direct seeding, which involves
supply since 2007. It can, therefore, applying a mix of seeds (regionally
provide extremely valuable experience called muvuca) from native and green
as a model for upscaling restoration manure species. The muvuca is sown
based on local knowledge, with either with conventional farmer’s
improvements for household machinery, such as spreaders and
livelihood. seeding machines, or manually, when
machines are not available or are
In Brazil, and across the world,
inadequate for the terrain.
transplanting tree seedlings has
been the most common intervention Brazil’s Forest Code and Nationally
for Forest Landscape Restoration Determined Contributions require the
(FLR), which is strongly aligned country to restore 8 million and 12
with conventional forestry and the million hectares of forest by 2030.
235
Accelerating the use of muvuca would • It is recommended for areas that

help achieve these goals. Muvuca have been cleared for agriculture
requires an innovative, replicable, and and grazing, which are dominated
scalable business model to generate by invasive grasses.
a huge seed supply. The Xingu Seeds
Network (RSX), supported by its
association (ARSX), is a powerful
case demonstrating such a model.
The RSX collects seeds in the north
of Mato Grosso and commercializes
them to buyers. Its governance is
innovative and is seen as a replicable
and scalable model, which is already
subsidizing the creation of other seed
networks.
2. MUVUCA
The ARSX’s main product today is

the native seed mix for direct seeding
reforestation: muvuca (Figures 1 and
2). Different compositions of muvuca
have, so far, proven to be successful
for ecologically restoring different
forest types in three biomes: Cerrado
(Savannah), Atlantic, and Amazon
rainforests.
The main benefits of muvuca are:
• It yields up to ten times more trees
per hectare at half the cost of
planting seedlings, requiring less
maintenance.
• It allows for restoring the native
fields of Cerrado, considering
its major characteristic is the
coexistence of trees, shrubs, and
herbs.
236
Figure 1: Mix of native and green manure seeds ready for direct seeding in Querência/MT, Brazil. Source:
Rogério Assis/ISA
Figure 2: Native forest (8-year old), established by direct seeding in Querência/MT, Brazil. Source: Heber
Souza/ISA.
237
3. XINGU SEED NETWORK (RSX) AND

ITS ASSOCIATION (ARSX) – HISTORY
AND CURRENT FRAMEWORK
The RSX was first created to satisfy

regional demands for forest restoration
projects using muvuca in the state of
Mato Grosso, but it is now the largest
native seed supplier in Brazil. The
ARSX – the RSX’s organizational
structure – is a complex arrangement
of an association articulating different
network members in the seed
value chain. The ARSX has grown River, near the Xingu Indigenous
significantly over the past 13 years, Territory (TIX). The ASRX collects
achieving +12% growth per annum in seeds over an area of 700,000
collectors, reaching > 500 collectors hectares across 11 municipalities at
and R$ 930,000 (US$ 165,230)1 in the north-eastern portion of the state
revenue in 2018. of Mato Grosso and south Pará, in
The ARSX closes the gap between the Cerrado and Amazon biomes. The
buyers and seed collectors, articulates RSX groups are composed of diverse
the network, and is in charge of arrangements, including 16 indigenous
central storage and logistics. Since its groups (14 TIX and two Xavante),
creation, the RSX has produced 230 17 rural settlements, one extractive
tons of seeds from 270 native species, reserve, and two urban groups. This
contributing to more than 6,000 biodiversity between the collection
hectares of restoration projects in areas makes the RSX a provider of
the Cerrado, the Amazon and Atlantic seeds from many species.
rainforests. The ARSX serves as a platform for
Seed collection is labor-intensive; the selling seeds from collectors to the
volume demanded is high, and the market. As a simplification, the RSX’s
weight per seed is low. Still, the ARSX operation can be divided into three
network structure can easily aggregate elements: collector groups, central
new collectors and new groups of seed articulation (the ARSX), and customers
collectors. who implement the restoration.
Different actors are involved in the
The RSX’s activities are concentrated process, which begins with seed
around the tributaries of the Xingu collection and ends with the delivery of
seeds to the customers (Figure 3).
1 Exchange rate of R$1 = US$0,18, in October 2020.
238
Seeds are sold at a price that

includes the costs of the operation
(transportation, maintenance,
taxes, human resources, etc.). The
amount passed on to the collectors
corresponds to their seeds, the value
of which is calculated by assessing
the differential work of monitoring
flowering and ripening events,
collecting, cleaning, drying, and
storing, besides participating in local
and regional meetings for capacity
building and organization.
The network provides a shared
infrastructure for quality control at
different levels. Initial quality control
is conducted by the collectors and
checked at the seeds warehouses,
where the viability rate is also tested.
Beyond that, the RSX owns a central
lab in Nova Xavantina, which receives
seed samples collected for analyses.
For each seed lot sent to the lab, it
provides the degree of purity (%) and
germination rate (%). Some lots are
also studied for water content (%),
weight of a thousand seeds and for
different storage conditions. Recently,
another lab in the same University
began studying genetic variability
aspects of trees established with the
Xingu Network seeds.
The most important part of the
network is the seed collectors:
individuals who collect seeds as part
of their culture and/or as a way of
Figure 3: Workshops gathering seed collectors and subsistence. The RSX is composed of
seed buyers/planters in Bom Jesus do Araguaia/
568 seed collectors, distributed in 27
MT, Brazil, 2018. Source: Guilherme Pompianno/
different groups among urban areas,
ISA.
rural settlements, and indigenous
239
villages. Representants of local ethnomathematics, and operational

partner institutions support local processes facilitates the work in each
collectors’ groups and the whole ARSX group.
in performing operational, social, and
These training programs can be more
environmental functions. Each group
productive if they are implemented
of seed collectors elects a local leader
in a structured way. As the RSX is
to perform operational functions
composed of a diverse group from
and act as the communication link
different backgrounds, levels of
between the ARSX and seed collectors.
knowledge, levels of instruction, and
The ARSX’s strategy is to promote even languages, learning formats
productive learning, exchange, must be carefully composed to make
and alignment spaces for network the most of everyone. Participative
members, with limited resources and formats enable closer and more
time available, which is a constant careful interaction and a richer
challenge. Technical training knowledge exchange. However, the
and community empowerment ARSX must first classify and prioritize
meetings are important for keeping meetings and training according to
members active and engaged. These operational and socioenvironmental
meetings promote personal and impact – train internal multipliers with
professional development, experience a learning specialist, who also helps
sharing, and bonding (Figure 4). them structure the existing knowledge
Technical knowledge, such as seed using appropriate methodologies for
handling, use of new technologies, each training program.
Figure 4: Local meeting for evaluating last year’s work and discussing the organization and workplan for the
year. Canabrava do Norte/MT, Brazil. Source: Tui Anandi/ISA.
240
Collectors working as local links are interdependence between the ARSX

another fundamental gear of the and its partner institutions brings
RSX’s operational process, reducing resilience and feedback but also some
turnover and increasing groups’ management barriers. Formalizing the
productivity through a new and simpler responsibilities of each organization
compensation model. Keeping local may allow for better targeting to
links performing longer is important capture financial resources and
for process improvement and to improve the efficiency and
productivity. Turnover in this position assertiveness of these institutions’
may lead to loss of productivity and, actions inside the ARSX.
in extreme cases, the disarticulation
of groups. A new compensation
format is being tested to verify the 4. SOCIAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE
effectiveness among the links. The XINGU SEED NETWORK
strategy is to improve the engagement
of current local links and encourage
new leaders to apply for this position The diversity and depth of the
by establishing a financial recognition RSX’s contributions go beyond the
model that is easy for everyone to environmental field and are also
understand. significant in the social field. The main
impacts generated by the RSX, besides
• Fixed: 5% of the network’s forest restoration, are:
annual seeds revenue in two
annual payments, shared among • Community income generation.
all links. • Strengthened territorial
• Variable: 5% of the groups’ seeds management, which increases
revenue (current process). territorial protection and
conservation.
Management and technical assistance
positions are held by a group of • Strengthened community
17 individuals, only six of whom governance (sense of belonging
are contracted by the ARSX. The and collective purposes).
other 11 are contracted by partner • Professionalization of
institutions that have supported the communities’ productive
ARSX since its beginning. The ARSX organizations.
has grown organically and is driven
• Female autonomy and
by its strategic partners. Establishing
empowerment, as most seed
clear roles, costs, and revenue
collectors are women.
within organizations increases their
autonomy and enables a structured • Increased technical knowledge,
management process. The strong which circulates among
241
rural, urban, and indigenous c. Stock Management

communities, producing new
knowledge. Stock is divided between nine
temporary storage facilities and
• Valorization of traditional (mainly
three main seed houses (Canarana,
indigenous) knowledge.
Porto Alegre do Norte, and Nova
• Increased environmental Xavantina). The responsibility for
awareness. stock management rests on the
• Currently, the RSX is focused on technician of each seed house. An
selling seeds for reforestation. online system provides the office with
The main processes involving stock information from each house.
the ARSX operation are
delineated in the following d. Cost Management
sections.
Credits from seed sales and debts
related to seed house maintenance
a. Group Management
costs, administrative costs, salaries,
• Support the operational activities and collectors’ payments are the
of local links and collectors. responsibility of a central office in
Canarana/MT.
• Monitor collection.
Currently, the ARSX operates in the
• Supply physical and logistic direct seeding chain in the activities
structure for storing and of collection, preparation of the seed
transporting seeds. mix, and distribution. To increase its
• Manage internal conflict and impact, bolster its financial resilience,
support decision-making. and reach new markets, the ARSX
could extend its activities to technical
assistance and forest restoration
b. Commercial Orders Management services.
Seed collection occurs according to Recent financial results from the ARSX
the natural cycle, when fruits are ripe show an impressive revenue and
and mature seeds available. Therefore, financial flow towards seed collectors,
the ARSX has organized its production but sales are still concentrated in a
to have only a few order periods during few clients, which is a fragile point.
the year, from May to September, so A remarkable level of revenue was
that it may have time for collection achieved by the ARSX: approximately
before the rainy/planting season, R$ 800,000 to R$1 million (about US$
which lasts from November to March. 142,100 to 177,600) in 2017, 2018 and
2019. Around 60% of the ARSX’s gross
242
revenue is transferred to collectors. survey, 40 producers belonging to

the RSX, from settler farmers to
However, the ARSX’s seed sales are
urban and indigenous groups, were
very concentrated in a few clients,
interviewed. The groups differed in
mostly strategic partners. In 2018,
their perceptions of impacts on their
both in volume and revenue, the
natural, social, and human capital,
Instituto Socioambiental (ISA), a
which could relate to the sociocultural
Brazilian NGO, was still a vital seed
background and vulnerability context
buyer, accounting for more than 50%
of each group. Communities that
of the ARSX’s turnover, and 65% of
were already organized were most
the volume produced is destined for
likely to strengthen their social capital
restoration projects conducted by the
through participation. Cash income
ISA.
earned from seed sales correlated
Nevertheless, revenue from seed sales with reported household gains in
does not yet guarantee the ARSX’s financial capital but not with changes
financial sustainability. Thus, the in other dimensions of capital. In
ARSX has also developed projects communities without any tradition of
to claim resources from social and local organization and cooperation,
environmental funds, which may an external intervention can actually
support capacity building, meetings, weaken social capital. Conversely,
interchanges, working with women and organized communities can achieve
youth, applied research, etc. better household livelihood outcomes
as a result of participation in the native
seed market (Urzedo et al. 2015).
e. Social and economic impacts
Participation in the seed network
Participation in the seed market empowered women, especially in
can affect households’ economies the indigenous communities, since
and livelihood opportunities across seed collection and processing were
different dimensions of capital and entirely compatible with the skills and
sociocultural backgrounds. The traditional responsibilities of women in
impacts depend on sociocultural the indigenous communities. It reflects
background and vulnerability context in the health and nutrition of their
of each group, such as the existence families, largely to improved diets due
of sources of income, educational to the addition of fruit pulp, which is a
opportunities and community by-product of collecting seeds (Urzedo
organizations. Sociocultural groups et al. 2015).
less integrated with the market
Seeds also contributed most to
achieved better livelihood outcomes
household income (US $5,916 ± 6,825
through participation in the seed
yr–1) in urban areas, consistent
market (Urzedo et al. 2015). In this
with the production logic expressed
243
by all urban respondents. They had seed production in training courses

invested in a seed production system offered by the RSX (Urzedo et al.
with good infrastructure (tools and 2015).
machines), allowing them to produce
Participation in the seed network also
large quantities of seeds and earn
empowered women, especially in the
high financial returns. In contrast,
indigenous (0.96 ± 0.10; p < 0.01) and
settler farm households produced,
farming (0.86 ± 0.20) communities.
on average, one-third the number of
According to all indigenous
seeds. The indigenous population
respondents, seed collection and
produced even less. On average,
processing were entirely compatible
indigenous communities (with five
with the skills and traditional
to 89 producers) produced less than
responsibilities of women in the
an average urban household in the
indigenous communities. Respondents
network (Urzedo et al. 2015).
in all groups reported improvements
All three groups perceived significant in the health and nutrition of their
improvements in human resources, families, with the greatest average
with the greatest improvements improvement among indigenous
reported by the settler farmers. people (0.85 ± 0.12). They all attributed
Specifically, knowledge about the this largely to improved diets due to
forest was enhanced by participation the addition of fruit pulp, which is a
in the seed network, again especially by-product of collecting seeds from
among settler farmers (0.87 ± 0.16; p species such as Hymenaea courbaril
< 0.01). Two-thirds of farmers reported L., Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth,
that seed collection gave them an Mauritia flexuosa L. f., Guazuma
incentive to identify and monitor the ulmifolia Lam., and Annona muricata L
phenology of forest species, as well (Urzedo et al. 2015).
as to innovate their systems and
Compared to urban households,
technologies for collecting seeds.
which are integrated into the market,
Additionally, 75% of settler farmers
indigenous people and settler farmers,
reported that seed production had
who are less integrated into the
improved their families’ access to
market, achieved better livelihood
education (0.77 ± 0.20; p < 0.01)
outcomes through participation in the
by helping them purchase school
seed market. This illustrates how an
supplies and uniforms and support
intervention to integrate households
their children staying in cities to
into the same supply chain can
study at the high school or university
have different impacts in different
level. The indigenous population (91%
socioeconomic and cultural settings,
of respondents) reported that the
and it confirms the importance
greatest gain in human capital (0.72 ±
of designing and implementing
0.14) was learning new techniques for
interventions in participatory
244
consultation with local communities stakeholders. At the same time, a well-

since their perceptions and objectives established team with well-defined
will mediate the outcomes of the roles and assignments and clear
intervention (Urzedo et al. 2015). processes will also ensure smooth
work execution.
In communities without any tradition
of local organization and cooperation, On the other hand, a well-designed
an external intervention can actually business and marketing strategy
weaken social capital. Conversely, with a clear market positioning will
organized communities can achieve lead to new customer acquisition,
better household livelihood outcomes while including technical assistance
as a result of external support for and restoration services will broaden
marketing non-timber forest products the impact of the ARSX and increase
(Urzedo et al. 2015). revenue.
Both indigenous and settler farmer Defining a marketing and sales
communities had women’s groups strategy is critical to consistently
that were involved in planning and moving forward in the FLR market
encouraged a dialogue about the and reducing dependence on project
network, including reflection on the financing. Until 2019, the ARSX did not
importance of seed production for have a team dedicated to business and
women and their households in the marketing issues nor a commercial
community (Urzedo et al. 2015). strategic guideline. It acted reactively
Collective action by women can to the market as a seed supplier,
provide them with greater voice and limiting itself to managing incoming
negotiating power and can help with orders. Therefore, there is great
economies of scale (Shackleton et al. untapped market potential. In 2020,
2011). ARSX started the implementation of
a structured business and marketing
strategy, with the support of experts of
5. PERSPECTIVES AND NEW different areas.
CHALLENGES
The expansion of ARSX operations
may take place on two main fronts:
By 2020, it is expected that the ARSX by expanding its customer base and/
will reach a new level of production or by expanding its portfolio, including
and, consequently, of social and restoration services. Few people have
environmental impact. Its revisited the necessary technical knowledge
institutional governance model will and confidence to independently begin
allow for more agile and assertive to perform muvuca seed restoration.
decision-making, considering the This is addressed through a training
multiple viewpoints of all internal process in which ISA, other NGOs
245
and consultants advise these people To fulfill the purpose of environmental

in advance and during the first year conservation, the current political
hoping that there will be more clients context in Brazil demands from
for the seeds. the ARSX a clear representation
strategy, which will help increase the
To obtain more adhesion to direct
engagement of actors for social and
seeding from restoration projects
environmental causes. At the local
and prospect new customers, it is
level, this would involve using the
necessary to understand the difference
network’s capillarity through collectors
between the economic sectors,
and local links to develop or engage in
considering the particularities in their
environmental conservation actions
decision-making processes and to
and encourage youth to join the ARSX.
what actions and arguments they
To spread the use of muvuca as a
are most sensitive to. Therefore, four
reforestation technique and leverage
different sales and communication
restoration activities, the ARSX must
strategies have been outlined for four
also establish partnerships and
different targets: the public sector,
increase representativeness among
companies, rural producers, and
state and federal agencies.
restoration consultants. The public
sector must firstly be compelled to Concerning this idea, the priorities
know what are direct seeding and seed are to map political stakeholders
networks in order to authorize such and establish a clear strategy
projects as acceptable restoration for the executive and legislative
strategies also for legal matters. spheres, defining an action plan
After that, tax exemptions for selling with measurable objectives. This
native seeds and more adequate would necessarily train executive
regulation would be nice. Companies board members and local links for
and corporations take years to change political representation actions at
their way of doing things on the local, state, and federal levels and
ground. So, we must persevere and reinforce communication efforts and
also search for animated friends inside the positioning of the Seed Networks
that can take that process of change as disseminators of an array of native
from table to table. Rural producers seeds and muvuca as an ecological
and consultants require different and restoration strategy.
complex strategies, from television
and other media appearances to on-
farm technical assistance, visits,
courses, field-days and expeditions2.
2 See the video at https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=RV70egD16BY.
246
6. REFERENCES
Urzedo, D. I., E. Vidal, E. O. Sills, F. C. M. Piña-Rodrigues and R. G. P. Junqueira. 2016. “Tropical

Forest Seeds in the Household Economy: Effects of Market Participation among Three
Sociocultural Groups in the Upper Xingu Region of the Brazilian Amazon.” Environmental
Conservation 43 (1); 13-23. doi:10.1017/S0376892915000247.
Shackleton, S., F. Paumgarten, H. Kassa, M. Husselman, and M. Zida. 2011. “Opportunities for
Enhancing Poor Women’s Socioeconomic Empowerment in the Value Chains of Three
African Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs).” International Forestry Review 13 (2): 136–
51. https://doi.org/10.1505/146554811797406642.
247
12
HOW A
COMPANY IS
RESTORING
ITS 3,000
HECTARES
OF FOREST
LIABILITY AND
SUPPORTING
LOCAL
COMMUNITIES
back to
summary
248
HOW A COMPANY
12 IS RESTORING ITS
3,000 HECTARES
OF FOREST
LIABILITY AND
SUPPORTING
LOCAL
COMMUNITIES
Itajacy Kishi, Fagno Reis, Diego Solidera, Dione
Solidera, Augusto Borges, Gustavo Mariano
Rezende, and Daniel Luis Mascia Vieira
1. INTRODUCTION (Energia Sustentável do Brasil S.A.

[ESBR] 2019).
To comply with the Brazilian Native
In the 2010s, two large hydropower
Vegetation Protection Law, the
dams were built on one of the largest
consortium Energia Sustentável
rivers in the world: the Madeira River,
do Brasil [ESBR] acquired and
located in the state of Rondônia,
implemented a 100m-wide forest
Brazil. The Jirau Hydroelectric Power
buffer along the perimeter of the
Plant (HPP) has an installed capacity
reservoir, setting a protected area
of 3,750 Megawatts (MW) and
of 18,293 hectares (ha). Although
operates with a water level between
mature and secondary forests
82.5m and 90.0m above sea level.
surround most of the lake, pastures
The reservoir area is variable, being
covered approximately 4,900ha of the
616km² at its normal maximum water
protected area.
level. Its average physical guarantee
is 2,212.6MW, and it has provided
power for the National Interconnected
System since September 6th, 2013
249
2. THE RESTORATION ARRANGEMENT Environmental Education Program

of the Jirau HPP. It currently has 157
members. The COOPPROJIRAU’s
In November 2011, the ESBR, the objective is to contribute to
concessionaire of the Jirau HPP, hired sustainable community development,
the Brazilian Agricultural Research encourage production activities of
Corporation (Embrapa), Genetic agriculture and sustainable harvesting
Resources and Biotechnology Unit, of its members, organize production,
to develop the plan to restore the and promote the industrialization
native vegetation of the protected and commerce of products. It also
area surrounding the Jirau HPP provides native seed and seedling
reservoir. The plan aims to guide a production services and restores
restoration’s adaptive management, native vegetation.
which involves defining restoration
techniques for different types of land
use and cover, monitoring intervention 3. THE RESTORATION METHOD
results and re-planning interventions.
For the restoration implementation,
a local cooperative was hired: the Given the Amazon forests’ high
Cooperative of Rural Workers from capacity to recover from pasture and
the Jirau Environmental Observatory agriculture (Aide et al. 2000; Poorter
(COOPPROJIRAU). This cooperative et al. 2016), natural regeneration is
is responsible for collecting seeds, the most cost-effective method of
producing nursery-grown seedlings, tropical forest restoration (Chazdon
and planting and maintaining and Uriarte 2016). In Jirau, some
restoration sites. Its members are pastures have recovered naturally
also being trained to monitor the as Vismia spp. dominated early
restoration sites, according to a secondary forests (Rocha et al. 2016).
protocol for evaluating indicators of However, sites used as pastures for
restoration success, established by decades and repeatedly slashed,
Embrapa (see a similar protocol in burned, and sprayed with herbicides
Vieira et al. 2017). to prevent tree regeneration are stably
covered by the African grass Urochloa
The COOPPROJIRAU was brizantha (Rezende and Vieira 2019).
established in September 2010, and In these cases, active restoration is
it is headquartered in Nova Mutum recommended (Holl and Aide 2011).
Paraná, Porto Velho, Rondônia. It
was created through discussions Since 2011, the Jirau restoration
between rural producers, extractivists, program has actively restored
and the technical staff of the Jirau forests in the stable pastures, at
Environmental Observatory, under the a rate of 80ha per year, using an
250
adaptive management strategy. Since 2015, the restoration method

This began with conventional tree for non-resilient sites has included
seedling planting, using a 3 × 2m a mix of techniques: (i) harrowing
spacing and approximately 50 tree the soil to remove the grass layer,
species. Planting procedures included stimulate the emergence of native
harrowing the soil to eliminate the pioneer seedlings, and prepare the
grass layer and de-compacting soil soil for seeds and seedlings; (ii) direct
before placing the seedlings, and seeding of pioneer trees to guarantee
controlling grass re-infestation with their high abundance as seedlings;
herbicide. Such soil preparation and (iii) planting a great diversity of
procedures triggered a fast forest tree seedlings at a low density (5 x
recovery, while no intervention resulted 5m = 400 seedlings/ha) to rapidly
in 100% grass cover (Rezende and guarantee high species richness in the
Vieira 2019). By monitoring the restoration sites (Figure 1). By planting
success of the restoration sites, we seeds and seedlings, the project also
developed a mixed-methods approach guarantees labor and income for local
for assisting natural regeneration and communities.
actively restoring.
251
A B
C D
E F
Figure 1: Restoration activities performed by the COOPPROJIRAU at the Jirau reservoir; A. Seed harvesting; B.
Seed processing; C. Family nursery; D. Seedling planting. Restoration sites E. An aerial photography above the
canopy of a young restoration site evidencing Cecropia spp. trees, which colonized the site after soil preparation,
mixed with other seeded and planted tree species; F. Inside the restoration site. Source: COOPPROJIRAU 2019.
252
4. WORK AND INCOME GENERATION for the services of the cooperative

members, which resulted in an average
of R$32,126.88 (US$6,297) per family/
Since 2011, the COOPPROJIRAU year. The restoration of the Jirau HPP
has produced seedlings and planted protected area generates income
and maintained forests in the and environmental awareness about
Protected Area of the Jirau HPP the conservation of riparian areas
reservoir. From 2011 to 2019, the in the communities surrounding the
COOPPROJIRAU restored 559ha and reservoir. The satisfaction of the
produced 560,000 seedlings. The families involved in the activities is
work involves the group’s members recognized by their work engagement
in seed collection and processing, and by their expressed commitment to
seedling production, soil preparation, protecting the areas being restored.
direct seeding, seedling planting,
and maintenance. A total of 106
cooperative members participate in 5. IMPROVING THE DIVERSITY AND
producing seedlings — 60 men and QUALITY OF SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS
46 women, representing 83 families. PROVIDED BY THE COOPERATIVE
Between 2011 and 2019, the members
sold R$1,514,730 (US$296,900)1
in seedlings, which resulted in In 2017, the production chain
an average of just over R$18,250 processes for seedlings and seeds
(approximately US$3,577) per family. among the cooperative members
Seed collection is performed by at were evaluated by Embrapa’s research
least 20 cooperative members — 15 team, seeking to recommend practices
men, and five women, representing to increase species diversity, optimize
eight families. Approximately R$60,000 production, and improve the quality of
(US$11,760) is invested annually by seeds and seedlings.
the COOPROJIRAU to acquire seeds The cooperative’s initial strategy to
from members of the cooperative. achieve a high diversity of seedlings
In forest restoration activities — available for restoration was to
specifically in soil preparation, produce a minimum of ten species per
direct seeding, seedling planting, family. Considering that there were
and maintenance — at least 37 about 40 family nurseries, this strategy
cooperative members are involved: 30 was expected to guarantee tens to
men and seven women, representing hundreds of tree species. However, the
ten families. From 2011 to 2019, production of seeds and seedlings was
R$2,891,420 (US$566,745) was paid limited to only a few species: those
easy to collect, those highly abundant,
1 Conversion rate from BRL to USD: R$1 = US$0.20 (July those close to the cooperative
2020).
253
members’ houses, and those with

good germination rates and rapid
growth in the nursery. Additionally, (i)
the period between the cooperative’s
order being placed and the delivery
of seeds and seedlings by the
cooperative members was very short
— only five months; (ii) the seedlings
were required to be a minimum of
50cm in height; and (iii) the same
amount was paid for the seeds or
seedlings, regardless of species.
Currently, the practices recommended
by Embrapa and adopted by the
cooperative include having a list of
species to be produced, built from the
phytosociological data of the mature
forests in the region. Rare species
and those typical of different forest and seedlings for each species, is
types are prioritized, but there is defined with the cooperative members
still the possibility that the collector at least one year in advance, which
(cooperative members) will include allows them to collect seeds along
new species after being checked by the of the year and provides more time
cooperative technician, who excludes for seedlings with slow growth rates
exotic species. Also, the effort required to reach the minimum size. Since
for seed collection and processing restoration activities are new skills
varies greatly among species, for the cooperative members, training,
depending on the availability of mother as well as knowledge accumulation,
trees, production per tree, collection systematization, and dissemination,
method, and difficulty of seed must be offered to them concerning
processing. Consequently, production the location of mother trees,
costs also vary (Urzedo 2014). phenology, collection techniques,
Production costs are also affected processing and storage techniques,
by differences in the percentages of and germination characteristics of
seedling germination, viability, survival, regional species. In this way, seed and
and growth. Therefore, it is important seedling production will become more
for the COOPPROJIRAU, alongside efficient, expanding the diversity of the
its members, to define the prices of species produced. Table 1 provides
seeds and seedlings by species. The guidelines for increasing biodiversity
seed order list, with quantities of seeds in the restoration project.
254
Table 1. Guidelines to enhance the processes of seed and seedling production for forest restoration.
Processes Guidelines
Allow cooperative collectors to include new species, after approval
by the technician, who plans the restoration activities.
List of species demanded
Promote research about the aptitudes of the regional species in
by project manager
the laboratory, greenhouse, and field — increasing the pool of local
species for ecological restoration.
Do not require a minimum size (e.g., 50cm) for seedling acquisition
Minimum size for seedling
as a criterion of seedling quality. This excludes several late-
sale
successional species essential for conservation.
Present the list of ordered species at least one year in advance of

planting, after the restoration site has been defined and diagnosed.
Ordering in advance
Such planning increases the timeframe for seed collection and
seedling production, thereby allowing more species to be included.
Map areas and mother trees and disseminate this information

among seed collectors to facilitate tree location and expand the
Mother trees
number of mother trees. Mapping is also necessary to comply with
Brazilian seed legislation.
Build species-specific protocols for seed collection, aiming at
Seed collection
sustainably collecting mature, healthy seeds.
Preparing and storing Seeds intended for direct seeding must be adequately processed
seeds before storage. Develop seed processing and storage protocols.
Fair prices for different species or species groups should be
established for seed and seedling commerce. The processes can
Buying seeds and
be characterized to help calculate the production cost, with the
seedlings
participation of the cooperative members who produce the seeds
and seedlings.
6. JIRAU HPP MOTIVATIONS TO research institution and a cooperative

KEEP AN ARRANGEMENT WITH A of rural producers. In this case, the
COOPERATIVE AND A RESEARCH Jirau HPP understands that the
INSTITUTE forest restoration of its protected
area has no previous recipe. It must
build a method based on adaptive
The large-scale restoration of the management, supported (i) by global
environmental liabilities of large scientific knowledge concerning
enterprises — such as hydroelectric the regeneration and restoration of
power plants, roads and other tropical forests and (ii) by monitoring
infrastructure works, mining, and the results from different methods in
large farms — is usually accomplished an intervention gradient (Rezende and
by hiring specialized companies, Vieira 2019).
with technical managers and their
The Jirau HPP understands that hiring
workforce. The arrangement presented
the local cooperative to carry out
here is surprising because it involves a
the restoration provides social and
255
environmental gains to the enterprise environmental licensing. When

and the local population. There is a implemented, these actions can
strengthening of the relations between positively impact the quality of life
these players, as they share and in these communities, reducing the
affect the same territory. Specialized negative interference stemming from
companies, which operate in activities the enterprises’ construction.
with their staff members, have a well-
defined time horizon, and aim only for
commercial gains, would not bring 7. THE FUTURE OF THE
similar benefits. COOPPROJIRAU
Involving communities in the

restoration process around the Jirau The COOPPROJIRAU is ready to reach
HPP has increased their awareness new customers. It has already begun
and perception of environmental and a partnership with the NGO Centro
sustainability practices, which turns de Estudos da Cultura e do Meio
them into agents of change for the Ambiente da Amazônia (Rioterra).
territory, they live and gives them the This partnership focuses on projects
opportunity to explore the environment of planted forests, agroforestry
sustainably. The continuous income systems, and ecological restoration
generation for the local communities in the Amazon. The COOPPROJIRAU
involved has also made it possible also sponsors projects aimed
for them to be included in other at agricultural production by the
businesses, thereby further expanding cooperative members themselves,
their income sources. such as the implementation of
The Jirau HPP, Embrapa, and the agroforestry systems, including the
COOPPROJIRAU work together to production of Açaí, Copoazu, and
enable the cooperative members to be Cocoa seedlings, and a recently
autonomous in the entire restoration concluded project of a cassava flour
process and offer seeds, seedlings, agroindustry, an infrastructure which
and services to other customers. The is also being used to process Açaí
Jirau HPP uses this same type of and other fruits. These products are
arrangement for issues concerning the supplied to supermarket chains in the
cooperative members’ agricultural and municipality of Porto Velho, and the
extrativism activities. Açaí pulp is also supplied to markets
in other states.
Enterprises of this magnitude
invariably affect the region’s
communities. However, they also
bring a robust infrastructure, as well
as legal actions pointed out during
256
8. FINAL RECOMMENDATIONS
We understand that every small empowering and stimulating their

territory can restore its ecosystems creativity. One of the main lessons
and seriously involve its local learned through this project is that
communities, regardless of the type the restoration production chain must
of degradation and the responsible promote the education, knowledge,
players. Involving local communities and empowerment of rural families,
means maximizing local people’s enabling them to sustain the chain
work and income, and capacity in the long term, reaping various
building, while valuing local ecological environmental and socioeconomic co-
knowledge. Local people can be benefits.
responsible for the ecological
restoration in their territories,
257
9. REFERENCES
Aide, T. Mitchell, Jess K. Zimmerman, John B. Pascarella, Luis Rivera, and Humfredo Marcano-
Vega. 2000. “Forest Regeneration in a Chronosequence of Tropical Abandoned Pastures.”
Restoration Ecology 8 (4): 328–38.
Chazdon, Robin L. and María Uriarte. 2016. “Natural Regeneration in the Context of Large-Scale
Forest and Landscape Restoration in the Tropics.” Biotropica 48 (6): 709–15. https://doi.
org/10.1111/btp.12409
Holl, Karen D. and T. Mitchell Aide. 2011. “When and Where to Actively Restore Ecosystems?”
Forest Ecology Management 261 (10): 1558–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foreco.2010.07.004
Poorter, Lourens, Frans Bongers, T. Mitchell Aide, Angélica M. Almeyda Zambrano, Patricia
Balvanera, Justin M. Becknell, Vanessa Boukili, et al. 2016. “Biomass Resilience of
Neotropical Secondary Forests.” Nature 530 (7589): 211–14. https://doi.org/10.1038/
nature16512
Rezende, Gustavo Mariano and Daniel Luis Mascia Vieira. 2019. “Forest Restoration in Southern
Amazonia: Soil Preparation Triggers Natural Regeneration.” Forest Ecology and
Management 433: 93–104.
Rocha, Gustavo P. E., Daniel L. M. Vieira and Marcelo F. Simon. 2016. “Fast Natural Regeneration
in Abandoned Pastures in Southern Amazonia.” Forest Ecology and Management 370 (C):
93–101.
Urzedo, D. I. 2014. “Trilhando Recomeços: A Socioeconomia da Produção de Sementes Florestais

do Alto Xingu na Amazônia Brasileira.” PhD diss., University of São Paulo.
Vieira, D. L. M., P. Sartorelli, A P. Sousa, and G. M. Rezende. 2017. Avaliação de Indicadores da

Recomposição da Vegetação Nativa no Distrito Federal e em Mato Grosso. São Paulo:
INPUT.
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13
DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
AND NEW
OPPORTUNITIES
FOR DEVELOPING
FOREST
LANDSCAPE
RESTORATION IN
THE ATLANTIC
FOREST OF
BRAZIL
back to
summary
259
DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
AND NEW
13 OPPORTUNITIES
FOR DEVELOPING
FOREST
LANDSCAPE
RESTORATION IN
THE ATLANTIC
FOREST OF BRAZIL
Felipe Marauê Marques Tieppo, José Almir Ja-
comelli Junior, Leandro Luiz Ferreira Abrahão,
Leonardo Andrade Pimenta, Jeferson Leal Silva,
Célia Marciano da Silva, Isabela Salton, and Tia-
go Miranda Mendes
1. INTRODUCTION for maintaining crucial national

economic processes. For example,
more than one-third of the Brazilian
The Brazilian Atlantic Forest is one of gross domestic product (GDP) is
the 34 global biodiversity hotspots generated within the natural limits
(Hoffman et al. 2016) due to its high of this ecosystem. The main basins
rates of endemism and the alarming responsible for the water supply of
scenario of natural habitat loss. For a thousands of municipalities are also in
more accurate picture, less than 12% this region.
of forest fragments remain in the area In particular, the Rio Doce basin,
covered by this ecosystem, which one of the main basins in Brazil,
makes the Atlantic Forest a priority responsible for providing hydrological
for restoration initiatives in Brazil. environmental services for various
The Atlantic Forest is responsible for purposes, has an impressive
providing essential environmental environmental degradation trajectory,
services for human well-being and dating only 115 years back. The
260
colonization effort in this region mainly Panicum maximum Jacq., gave

began in the early twentieth century the region a reputation concerning
with the construction of the so- its “natural potential” for livestock
called “infiltration road,” which production (Espindola and Wendling
exists to this day and which, in its 2008). Extensive cattle ranching, in
early years, significantly fomented places without the capacity to support
devastation. Over just seven years, it, is the main source of degradation in
logging increased by 1,300% and the the basin today and has culminated in
population by 467% (Espindola 2015). severely degraded and eroded areas.
Coffee plantations accompanied the However, even livestock has suffered
logging, which made the region one of from the loss of natural capital.
the leading local producers at the time. From 1977 to 2001, there has been a
In a few decades, when the region’s 33% reduction in the cattle herd – a
mineral potential was discovered, it difference of about 1.5 million animals
became known as the “steel valley,” (Fundação Renova 2019).
and large steel companies were built
Adding to this historic degradation
alongside mining companies. In
scenario, in November 2015, 56 million
1939, João Monlevade, a city located
cubic meters (m3) of mine tailings
in the basin, housed the largest
spread off after the rupture of the
charcoal steel plant in the world.
Fundão dam, in the municipality of
Under the constant demand for wood
Mariana, Minas Gerais. After 17 days,
for the steelmakers’ boiler plants,
about 36% of this material’s total
deforestation rates grew even more.
volume reached the sea. The rest was
Across much of the basin, in areas
retained along the riverbed (Figure 1).
covered by forests, agriculture was
soon replaced by extensive livestock
production, which, through the
invasion of exotic African grasses,
261
Figure 1: Numbers depicting the collapse of the Fundão dam in Mariana.
The rupture of this dam was or permanent preservation areas,

considered the largest environmental which are protected areas with the
disaster in Brazil, devastating objective of delivering environmental
remnants of the Atlantic Forest services, according to Brazilian Act nº
and causing losses of human lives 12,651/2012. In this way, the rupture
and immeasurable social damage. of the dam exposed one of the biggest
However, the dam’s rupture brought a environmental paradigms in Brazil:
demand for initiatives of reparation, “How can social and environmental
compensation, and indemnification development be promoted as part of
of unprecedented governance in an integrated plan?”.
Brazil. As part of an agreement
Therefore, forest restoration
signed between mining companies
initiatives in the basin, in addition
and federal and state governments,
to proposing innovative methods,
a Foundation was created (Renova
should help improve development
Foundation) to coordinate a series
rates by incorporating the human
of socioeconomic–environmental
variable as the protagonist in these
programs. Among these, two specific
activities. Including people in forest
programs, both of a compensatory
restoration activities will help break
nature, have the obligation to recover
one of the main filters for scaling
5,000 springs and 40,000 hectares
these activities: the longevity of the
(ha) of degraded areas in the
initiatives. The major challenge is
basin, specifically located in water
to propose a model supported by a
recharge areas and legal reserves
social framework and approached
262
from a bottom-up perspective. This up these activities. The parts that

is the key to ensuring stakeholders’ make up this chain are strategic for
engagement and socioeconomic developing local and regional markets
benefits. Consequently, placing people for services and supplies. Producers
at the core of the strategy is likely to of the seeds and seedlings of native
prevent failure throughout all stages of species and restoration services
the restoration chain. providers are the structuring links of
this chain, are present in all business
Understanding the structure and
flows (Figure 2), and directly correlate
function of the production chain
with the success of restoration
is fundamental to increasing the
activities.
probability of success and scaling
Figure 2: Model of the forest restoration production chain. Source: Centro de Pesquisas Ambientais do
Nordeste 2019, adapted from Lemgruber et. al 2016.
Structuring and implementing part results that are being achieved in

of the forest restoration production the Rio Doce basin for consolidating
chain by strengthening its key links forest restoration activities to foment
is an unprecedented opportunity for natural capital gain, developing local
scaling up restoration initiatives. restoration markets, and generating
Thus, the objective of this chapter is social opportunities via income
to present some real initiatives and increases.
263
2. THE RIO DOCE BASIN (Agência Nacional de Águas [ANA]

2016). The drainage area corresponds
to about 87 thousand km² (an area
The Rio Doce basin encompasses 228 equivalent to Austria), 86% of which is
municipalities, 202 in Minas Gerais in MG and 14% in ES. The basin has
(MG) and 26 in Espírito Santo (ES) a rich biodiversity and contains two
(Figure 3). There are 209 municipal global hotspots, the Atlantic Forest
headquarters located in the basin’s and the Cerrado. 98% of the basin’s
territory, with a resident population of area corresponds to Atlantic Forest
approximately 3.6 million inhabitants and 2% to Cerrado areas.
Figure 3: The Rio Doce basin and municipalities where the Renova Foundation’s forest
restoration activities are in progress.
According to Köppen climate subtropical highland climate, with

classification, there are three climatic summer rains and hot summers, at the
types in the basin: (i) a dry-winter headwaters of the Rio Doce tributaries;
humid subtropical/subtropical and (iii) a hot climate with summer
highland climate, with summer rains rains in the middle and low Rio Doce
and mild summers, at the slopes of the portions and its tributaries (Plano
Espinhaço and Mantiqueira mountain Integrado de Recursos Hídricos da
ranges and the Rio Doce headwaters; Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio Doce [PIRH
(ii) a dry-winter humid subtropical/ DOCE] 2010). In the basin, red-yellow
264
latosols and red argisols predominate, 3. THE DEPRECIATED RESTORATION

corresponding to approximately 80% of PRODUCTION CHAIN IN THE RIO DOCE
the territory. According to PIRH DOCE BASIN
(2010), the basin is rich in precious
stones and has large mineral reserves.
The underground hydrological system Given the history of high degradation
is conditioned to its geomorphological rates in the Rio Doce basin, forest
characteristics, constituted by two restoration activities have been
types of aquifers, granular/porous (9%) unable to mitigate the pace at
and fissured aquifers (91%). which natural areas have been
transformed into other land uses,
Semideciduous seasonal forests
mostly for human activities. This is
predominate in the areas where
a common phenomenon in tropical
the Renova Foundation carries out
areas, where ecological restoration
restoration. According to Empresa
is still practiced at very incipient
Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária
scales compared to the scale of
(Embrapa) (2020), this forest type
changes in natural habitats. Also,
is conditioned by double climatic
some fundamental restoration chain
seasonality and constituted by
links, with few exceptions, have either
phanerogams, whose leaf buds have
been nonexistent or completely
scales that protect them from drought.
disorganized in terms of technology
It also has deciduous species with
and activity management. This has
sclerophyllous leaves, which results
resulted in little supply of specific
in leaf abscission between 20% and
inputs and (mainly) technologies
50% for the vegetation community of
suitable for forest restoration,
this ecosystem. Species are selected
which has been partly mitigated by
for restoration based on the premises
companies that plant eucalyptus in the
of the region’s environmental filters.
region.
To establish the forest, practitioners
select native species, whose main A study conducted by the Renova
ecosystem functions are rapid Foundation, entitled “Assessment
growth, resistance to drought, and the of Forest Nurseries in the Rio Doce
formation of dense canopies; chosen basin,” has revealed how weakened
species are also, preferably, animal one of the links in this chain has
dispersed. been. The assessment encompassed
6,241.8km and visited 75 forest
seedling nurseries (36 in MG and
39 in ES). The study has identified a
low technological level in seedling
production, the absence of updated
lists for the species produced, and
265
an alarming economic scenario in conversion rate trend, and, since 1998,

the nursery operations. After the new they have been leading projects for
forest code reduced the legal demand sustainably developing the basin.
for forest restoration in Brazil, this Therefore, institutions that collect
sector has been living with sparse seeds, produce native seedlings, carry
demand for the production of native out forest restoration projects, and
seedlings and mostly serving local train specialized works have kept
markets, producing exotic species for necessary links in the restoration
various purposes. The assessment chain alive in the basin and are the real
has also identified that the labor exceptions to the decline scenario.
force of seed collectors is mixed
with other activities in the nursery.
That is, most of those who collect 4. FOREST RESTORATION PROGRAMS
seeds also produce seedlings, and
this has implications for economic
opportunities and the quality of A series of activities has begun among
seedling production. forest restoration programs, seeking
to reverse the destructive situation,
The other services that could possibly structure the restoration production
attend to the demands of a project chain in the Rio Doce basin, and
of this scope are represented by operationalize the restoration of
eucalyptus plantation companies 40,000ha and 5,000 water springs
(which have no expertise in forest through environmental compensation
restoration initiatives) or local NGOs initiatives (derived from the Fundão
(which have carried out projects led dam rupture). These programs have
by low-tech farmers). Furthermore, been established through complex
the supply chains that could meet governance, which has included
the demands of planting native different state agencies, the federal
species, when they existed, were government, city halls, water agencies,
extremely specialized in agricultural and the basin committee. The
or silvicultural crops, offering few programs are carried out on third-party
innovations for the challenges forest properties and, thus, their operating
restoration poses. model was designed to place rural
It is worth mentioning that, despite producers and local institutions at
high land use conversion rates in the center (Figure 4). The model
the basin and how difficult it would begins with a public notice, through
be for any initiative to reverse those which local governments collaborate
rates through forest restoration to mobilize farmers. As soon as the
projects, restoration has still persisted. necessary number of farmers and
Examples, such as the NGO Instituto areas is reached, technicians from
Terra, have always been against this local organizations beging engaging
266
the farmers, jointly validating the areas forest restoration; (ii) recovery of
that will be recovered by the program. degraded areas; (iii) alternatives to
With the areas defined, individual provide water supply for livestock; (iv)
projects are designed for each rural sanitation; and (v) water and soil
property. The projects are currently conservation practices.
divided into five subcategories: (i)
Figure 4: Operational model of forest restoration programs.
Projects are the starting point of The planned methods involve active
restoration initiatives, and they restoration (direct planting of seeds
formalize the demand for another and/or seedlings) or assisted and
fundamental stage of the restoration passive restoration (types of assisted
chain: the production of seeds and natural regeneration). As planting
forest seedlings. With the projects and maintenance are conducted,
approved and seedlings and seeds monitoring ensures that both quality
produced, the operational team carries work and the program’s indicators
out the remaining initiatives. Often, the are achieved, like the plant richness
landowners themselves implement and density and canopy cover. The
the all or parts of the projects, indicators also assist in another
which consist of approximately important part of the program – the
eight months of implementation Payment for Environmental Services
(pre-planting and planting) and (PES) – which occurs after the
three months of maintenance and project’s first year and lasts for at least
monitoring of the recovered areas. five years for all involved farmers.
267
5. STRUCTURING THE FOREST d) Seeds and seedlings, which,

RESTORATION PRODUCTION CHAIN in addition to the inputs themselves,
include hatching initiatives for the first
network of seeds and seedlings in the
The estimated budget for the forest Rio Doce basin.
restoration programs is R$1.5 billion e) Research and development,
(US$287 million)1. Of this amount, which aims to develop new
1.37% has already been implemented technologies for forest restoration.
between 2016 and 2019, and 5% is
f) Payments for Environmental
contracted for the 2020/2021 cycle.
Services (PES).
The budget service packages can be
grouped into the following categories: g) Other services, like forest
inputs, small consultancies,
a) Implementation and
machinery, implements, etc.
maintenance services, including
mobilization activities for farmers, The distribution of the budget among
project development, technical the service packages is in constant
assistance, planting and maintenance review and can be thoroughly reviewed
of restoration sites, and fire prevention as soon as a new technology or
and firefighting. scenario is incorporated. Figures 5 to
7 illustrate how this budget is divided.
b) Management and monitoring.
c) Inputs, for those not directly
included in item (a).
Budget implemented (2016 to 2019)

Implementation and
6% maintenance services
14% Inputs
1%
Management and monitoring
2%
50% Other services
Payment for Environmental

Services
24%
Research and development
3% Seeds and seedlings
Figure 5: Distribution of the budget already executed by the service packages.

Committed budget (2020 and 2021)
Implementation and
0% 15% maintenance services
Inputs
7% 268 Management and monitoring

1%
Other services
Services
24%
3% Research
Seeds andand development
seedlings
3% Seeds and seedlings


Implementation and
Implementation and
Inputs
7% Inputs
1% 7% Management and monitoring
Other services
1%
15% Other services
62% Payment for Environmental
Services
15% 62% Payment for Environmental
Research and development
Services
0% Research and development
Seeds and seedlings
0%
Seeds and seedlings
Figure 6: Distribution of service packages for the budget already committed for 2020/2021 cycle.
Programs' budget
2%
Programs' budget
2% Implementation and
6%
3% maintenance services
Implementation and
6%
6% Management and monitoring
Other services
13%
Other services
13%
Services
70% Services and development
Research
70% Research and development
Seeds and seedlings
Seeds and seedlings
Figure 7: Distribution of service packages for program budgets.
The projects are not executed directly current partnership with three local
by the Renova Foundation; it is, institutions, and the impact of the
instead, responsible for managing forest restoration chain links are
several partners and hired institutions, already evident in these partnerships.
which are responsible for the final The partnerships stretch across
initiatives. One of Renova’s main different stages of the projects, from
premises is strengthening local mobilization to the management of
institutions so that, at the end of forest implementation activities, and
legal commitments, these institutions they directly act on the fundamental
can coordinate, not only initiatives links mentioned above.
related to forest restoration, but also
For 21 years, Instituto Terra, an NGO
those related to general, sustainable
located in Aimorés, MG, has been
land use. To demonstrate how
working toward the environmental
the program works, Renova has a
recovery of degraded areas of the
269
Atlantic Forest (the middle portions planting at their farm (Fazenda Bulcão
of the Rio Doce basin), developing Private Reserve) and in the restoration
reforestation initiatives, producing projects they develop in the region.
native seedlings, conducting applied
The old pastureland, which was
research, protecting the water
previously completely degraded,
springs, and providing environmental
now houses a forest rich in diverse
education. Instituto Terra is the result
Atlantic Forest flora species (Figure
of the initiative of Lélia Deluiz Wanick
8). Along with green recovery, spring
Salgado and Sebastião Salgado, who,
waters have returned, and endangered
over a decade ago, when faced with
species of Brazilian fauna have a
the environmental degradation of
safe haven again. This experience
pastureland acquired by Salgado’s
has also enabled the development
family, decided to restore what
of the Olhos d’Água Spring Recovery
decades of environmental degradation
Program, which has been in operation
had destroyed. They mobilized
since 2010. In 2016, the same
partners, raised funds, and founded,
year the Renova Foundation was
in April 1998, the environmental
created, the first agreement between
organization dedicated to the
Renova Foundation and Instituto
sustainable development of the Rio
Terra institutions began to flourish.
Doce valley. The couple’s dream has
With Instituto Terra’s know-how
already been very fruitful. As a result
accumulated in forest restoration and
of Instituto Terra’s initiatives, more
spring protection activities, along with
than 21.1 million square meters (m2)
its potential for local coordination in
of degraded Atlantic Forest areas in
the region, the Renova Foundation
the middle of the Rio Doce basin are
turned to Instituto Terra to catalyze its
being recovered, and more than six
initiatives and obtain the best results,
million seedlings from Atlantic Forest
intending to extend the upcoming
species have been produced to supply
program.
Figure 8: View of Fazenda Bulcão before and after restoration, located in Aimorés, MG, Brazil.
270
Since that time, the institution has Directly, the project’s initiatives
implemented forest restoration promote improved environmental
services, produced seedlings, and conditions, especially around water
provided technical assistance to springs, resulting in greater water
landowners. By providing scholarships, availability in the region, which
the Renova Foundation has also benefits the entire community. These
strengthened a particularly important property improvements become a
Instituto Terra initiative: training gain for the farmers; after all, most of
professional workers in the Center their income comes from their lands.
for Studies in Ecosystem Restoration Another possibility of reinvestment
(NERE in Portuguese). The partnership in the property is obtained through
has already generated good results, payment for the services provided by
and some numbers are reported below. the rural producers (i.e., their reward
for fencing the areas and upholding
• 216 family farmers mobilized
agricultural best practices). All
and engaged in environmental
producers also receive the PES, which
recovery.
is yet another income option for these
• 511 springs protected and families.
under recovery.
When specialized workers are trained,
• 196 domestic wastewater the development of rural areas is
treatment mini-systems installed. directly improved. Young graduates
• Technical assistance for take the techniques they have learned
monitoring activities in the 511 for recovering degraded areas and
springs. maintaining sustainable agricultural
production to different regions of the
• 505 springs georeferenced. valley. In addition to being employable
• 35 people employed. in the expanding restoration sectors,
these new professionals take their
• 50,000 seedlings of native
knowledge back to their hometowns
species purchased.
and begin gradual, bottom-up
• 430 small dams and other paradigm changes, which is a very
structures built to prevent erosion. positive outcome.
• 20 scholarships given to In addition to the many direct
students/technicians trained to impacts generated by Instituto Terra’s
work on environmental recovery at initiatives, other variables not yet
the Rio Doce basin. properly measured (but visible in the
cities where the NGO operates) are the
direct and indirect services involved
in the restoration chain. This can be
seen, for example, in the mobilization
271
and/or strengthening of companies innovation.

that transport employees involved in
Together with the Renova Foundation,
planting campaigns and of companies
the CIAAT has already mobilized
supplying food, inputs, or wood
and engaged producers to recover
poles for fencing, wires, fertilizers,
500 springs and to promote forest
etc. As a perspective for the future,
restoration through directly planting
new partnerships are being created
seeds. They have also recovered 255
between Renova and Instituto Terra.
springs and 461ha for permanent
This includes the recovery of over
preservation and water recharge.
500ha in two municipalities in the Rio
These initiatives are making the region
Doce basin and the expected training
more dynamic, training local labor,
of 70 additional students by 2026.
and directly generating 190 jobs.
Another partnership worth mentioning The local trade and services network
is the one Renova has forged with the has also been driven by the supply of
Center of Information and Technical inputs, food, fuel, and transportation.
Assistance (CIAAT in Portuguese), For example, the transport
which is located in the municipality of cooperative CPtransleste increased
Governador Valadares, MG. The NGO its fleet and began to share capital.
has been acting as a development A larger technical team with several
agency for 13 years, focused on specializations has been migrating to
the solidarity economy. The CIAAT the Rio Doce Valley, adding expertise in
has created an intervention model restoration and other skills necessary
called Development of Sustainable for regional development. Considering
Communities (DCS), which is based the scale of the activities being
on improving social and human implemented, and to be implemented,
capital via methods of popular in the region, such partnerships enable
participation and the theories of a wide variety of different projects,
Integrated Territorial Management focused on regional development and
and Local Development. The CIAAT’s based on the axes mentioned above.
work considers an area’s main local
The current forest restoration project
difficulties and potentialities to supply
is drawing the world’s attention to the
deficiencies and optimize capacities.
Rio Doce, and it is sensitizing the local
The DCS method uses people (social
population, making them receptive to
capital) as its foundation, since
new projects. The CIAAT plans to take
people are the agents for promoting
on a greater dimension, structuring
the desired transformations toward
itself administratively and physically
a sustainable society. DCS is based
and acquiring the capacity to manage
on social organization, solidarity
large projects for the region. As a
entrepreneurship, environmental
projection for the future, the CIAAT and
awareness, and technological
the Renova Foundation are drafting
272
new work proposals, which include the The relationship between settled
planned recovery of 1,815ha and 660 families and the land is different
springs. The groups expect to conduct because the settlement is, not only the
another 48 months of work together, place where goods are produced to
creating up to 213 jobs and favoring obtain financial resources, but also the
the economies of 13 municipalities in place where families build their lives
the Rio Doce basin. and the lives of future generations.
Therefore, the relationship with nature
Another partnership the Renova
takes place in another dimension.
Foundation maintains in the basin
Peasants, even if just empirically,
is with the Francisca Veras Training
know the importance of maintaining
Center (CFFV in Portuguese), an entity
agrobiodiversity and ecosystem
working toward agrarian reform. This
services for agricultural production
provides an important example of
and human well-being. Unlike
how a forest restoration program can
agribusiness logic, which aims to
impact agrarian reform settlements
maximize immediate profit and the
and be scaled into a restoration
use of natural resources, peasant
method that remains underdeveloped
agriculture requires constant gains
in Brazil: agroforestry systems.
over time, which are obtained by
Agriculture is present and relevant in
optimizing natural resources. The
all municipalities in the Rio Doce basin.
land becomes the basis of social
It consists of two distinct operational
reproduction, and this is where
models: peasant agriculture and
agroecology arises.
agribusiness. Peasant agriculture
is responsible for producing most The CFFV – formed by settled families
of families’ food (approximately and by professionals in agriculture,
70%), has restricted access to forestry, education, health, and culture
public policies (such as credit), and – has been working with the settled
is heterogeneous in production families in the Rio Doce region,
and composition. It encompasses especially regarding environmental
agrarian reform settlements, small conservation. In the last three years,
farmers, quilombolas, ribeirinhos, the settlements in the region have
and indigenous or others traditional received thousands of seedlings, and
communities. Agribusiness receives degraded areas and springs have
large investments from the State, been recovered. As a result of this
accumulates wealth, employs a high project, families have been intensely
degree of technology, and participates mobilized to multiply the agroforestry
in international production chains. systems, which are considered a
Still, the agribusiness system is forest restoration modality. The
characterized by low employment implementation of agroforestry
rates. systems accounts for the region’s
273
consolidated production chains, implemented in areas with a history

such as the milk production chain of degradation and natural resource
(which will require the construction depletion. Thus, in addition to
of silvopastoral systems), as well complying with the environmental
as the chains for fruits, vegetables, requirements of Brazilian legislation,
grains, etc. All these initiatives will be these families will now have a
closely linked to a larger strategy of diversified, alternative source of
connection with nature, environmental income.
recovery, the income diversification of
Lastly, it is worth mentioning that the
settled families, and, consequently, the
current projects are impacting one
theoretical and practical construction
of the most important links in the
of environmental sustainability in
restoration chain, which was fragile
agrarian reform areas.
before the programs started: nursery
The scope of the Renova Foundation’s staff members and seed producers.
work has great synergy with the The programs have acquired a total of
activities carried out in these agrarian 1.3 million seedlings from 12 nurseries
reform settlements. Currently, the to restore the springs, riparian areas,
Renova Foundation and the CFFV and water recharge areas, with a total
have established a partnership to investment has been US$1.6 million
recover 180ha via varied methods: (R$8 million). In addition to these
agroforestry systems, direct planting seedling purchases, the first seed and
of seeds and seedlings, and assisted seedling network in the Rio Doce basin
natural regeneration. The activities has been created to introduce direct
will take place in four agrarian reform seeding methods into the basin’s
settlements and three municipalities restoration agenda. Seed networks
in the Rio Doce basin. The full scope have the social function of mobilizing
of activities will range from family traditional communities, settlements,
mobilization, to project development, and indigenous peoples, who conduct
planting, and maintenance. At the peak seed collection activities. Currently,
of the activities, 124 jobs are projected 51 seed collectors of the Tupinikim
to be created, and – as in the previous and Guarani ethnic groups have
examples – the local trade network already been mobilized in the Aracruz
will increase with the acquisition region of ES. A total of 3.5 tons of
of specific inputs and machinery native seeds have been purchased
for forest restoration. Additionally, from groups of collectors, distributed
all seedlings for this project will across indigenous groups and
be produced in the settlements. seed producers, totaling R$300,000
This is a good example of how (US$60,000) of the budget allocated to
forest restoration for environmental supply native species. Thus, the seed
and productive purposes is being collector role is being presented to
274
local communities as a potential work Therefore, initiatives, such as technical

option. assistance, which consider the
economic and social aspects of the
In general, the first impacts of
farm, are fundamental. To distribute
movement in the links of the forest
this assistance, different lines of work
restoration chain can already be seen
within the rural property are monitored
in this area. However, it is too early to
for three years to help improve
attest to consistent and lasting results.
productivity and land use. One main
The program approach that the Renova
function of the technical assistance is
Foundation is developing seeks to
helping farmers optimize their property
strengthen local institutions and frame
by producing more, with higher
producers as protagonists (rather than
quality in less space. This reduces the
just participants) in the initiatives. For
pressure on areas destined for forest
example, the producers are involved
restoration, or areas that must be
in the program in a way that applies
preserved, such as the riparian areas
participatory methodologies – from
and legal reserves. Additionally, tools
the selection of the restoration areas
such as PES compensate producers
to how the program is executed. The
for areas that will not be economically
areas destined for restoration are
productive but will provide more
not the focus; rather, the property
ecosystem services and enhance
must be understood as a unit that
production in the future.
provides environmental services.
275
6. REFERENCES
Agência Nacional de Águas [ANA]. 2016. Encarte Especial Sobre a Bacia Do Rio Doce: Rompimento
Da Barragem Em Mariana/MG. Brasília: ANA.
Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária [Embrapa]. 2020. “Aspectos Ecológicos.” https://

www.cnpf.embrapa.br/pesquisa/efb/aspec.htm.
Espindola, Haruf Salmen. 2015. “Vale do Rio Doce: Fronteira, Industrialização e Colapso
Socioambiental.” Fronteiras: Journal of Social, Technological and Environmental Science
4 (1): 160–206.
Espindola, Haruf Salmen, and Ivan Jannotti Wendling. 2008. Elementos Biológicos na Configuração
do Território do Rio Doce. Varia Historia 24 (39): 177–97. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-
87752008000100009
Fundação Renova. 2019. Definição de Critérios de Priorização de Áreas para Recuperação

Ambiental da Bacia do Rio Doce.
Hoffman, Michael, Kellee Koenig, Gill Buntin, Jennifer Costanza and Kristen J. Williams.
2016. “Biodiversity Hotspots (Version 2016.1) [Data Set].” Zenodo April. https://doi.
org/10.5281/zenodo.3261807.
Plano Integrado de Recursos Hídricos da Bacia do Rio Doce [PIRH DOCE]. 2010. Plano Integrado
de Recursos Hídricos da Bacia do Rio Doce e dos Planos de Ações de Recursos Hídricos
para as Unidades de Planejamento e Gestão de Recursos Hídricos no Âmbito da Bacia do
Rio Doce. Consórcio Ecoplan – Lume.
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Severino R. R. Pinto, Fabiane C.

Support Graphic Project and Book Layout

Forest Landscape Restoration: Social

Opportunities in the Tropical World Forest landscape restoration [livro eletrônico] :

NC 4.0. To view a copy of this license, do Nordeste - Cepan, 2020.

visit https://creativecommons.org/ ISBN 978-65-87648-02-6

licenses/by-nc/4.0 1. Conservação da natureza 2. Ecologia 3. Meio

1. Sustentabilidade ambiental : Ecologia 304.2

Aline Graziele Benitez - Bibliotecária - CRB-1/3129

Severino Rodrigo Ribeiro Pinto has a Post-Doctorate in

Fabiane Carolyne Santos has a MSc. in Forest Sciences

Cindy E. Prescott is professor of Forest Ecology in the

Adriano Tamm - Instituto Internacional Camilo Correa-Ayram - Instituto de

Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) presents a tremendous opportunity to

04 How mapping the social landscape can

08 Eliminating hunger and poverty through

1. INTRODUCTION to shift paradigms to confront, and

of the financial sectors to provide prevalent in present economic models

of society; and iii) the societal Wenger 1991; Wenger 1998).

of practice), “popularizers” of [SER 2004; McDonald et al. 2016], the

1 Assessment of ecosystem &

The essence of the model is an intense working groups of a manageable size,

It is also important to ensure that monitoring, through an adaptive

Figure 2: Forest fragmentation in ‘‘La Montaña’’. Source: Fabio Flores.

Within this critical scenario, the Autónoma de México [UNAM]).

After five years of intense knowledge

A subsequent analysis (after four connection (Aguirre-Salcedo and

The UN’s ecosystem restoration The successful restoration of THs

Aguirre-Salcedo, Citlali and Eliane Ceccon. “Socioecological Benefits of a Community-Based

“Bonn Challenge.” Last modified August 20, 2019. http://www.bonnchallenge.org/

Borda-Niño, Mónica, Diego Hernández-Muciño, Eliane Ceccon. 2017. “Planning Restoration in

Ceccon, Eliane. 2013. Restauración en Bosques Tropicales: Fundamentos Ecológicos, Prácticos y

CONEVAL (Consejo Nacional de Evaluación de la Política de Desarrollo Social). 2016. “Indicadores

Durand, Leticia. 2014. “¿Todos Ganan? Neoliberalismo, Naturaleza y Conservación en México.”

Galicia-Gallardo, Paola, Carlos González-Esquivel, Alicia Castillo-Alvarez, Alejandra Monroy-

Hannigan, John. 2014. Environmental Sociology. London: Routledge.

Lindig-Cisneros, Roberto and Lindig-Cisneros Erica. (2017). “Social Construction of Ecological

MARN (Ministerio de Ambiente y Recursos Naturales). 2018. “UN Decade of Ecosystem

Miramontes, Octavio, Og de Souza, Diego Hernández and Eliane Ceccon.2012. “Non-Lévy

Montagnini, Florencia. 2006. “Homegardens of Mesoamerica: Biodiversity, Food Security, and

1. APPROACHES TO FOREST this chapter, FLR in Ghana is traced

to create livelihood opportunities for area of 134,327.4 hectares of forest

b. Enrichment planting 2,500 hectares of poorly stocked

farmers’ income, and to improve FC supplied farmers with seedlings

Ghana collaborated to implement an guidance and direction concerning

development schemes. The FDMP agricultural landscapes by promoting

The government has also attempted to plantations. However, in 2002, an

3. FLR, SOCIOECONOMICS, AND LOCAL income to farmers, plantation workers,

(Kalame et al. 2011; Insaidoo et al. for smallholder farmers engaged in

3.2. Employment 3,317 by the end of 2008 (FC 2008).

3.3. Livelihood opportunities 3.4. Ecosystem services

Another important socioeconomic Local communities in Ghana heavily

providing fertile lands in degraded Physical capital, which refers to basic

the time used to collect fuelwood is of landscape restoration finance

4.2. Land tenure system

In Ghana, FLR efforts predate broader security of tenure, and financial

FC (Forestry Commission). 2008. “National Forest Plantation Development

Rival Springer, 437-63. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5176-

Insaidoo, Thomas F. G., Mirjam A. F. Ros-Tonen, Lucien Hoogenbosch, and Emmanuel

1. INTRODUCTION Understanding the responses of

and ii) a literature review on ES under in public policymaking.

for developing compensation policies Ambientais, in Portuguese [PNPSA])

Law no.13.493/2017 establishes the the context of smallholders’ activities