Interrelations Between Soil Erosion

Conditioning Factors in Basins of Ecuador:

Contributions to the Spatial Model Construction

Daniel Delgado1,2(B) , Mahrez Sadaoui1 , Henry Pacheco3 ,

Williams Méndez2,4 , and Wolfgang Ludwig1
1 Centre de Formation et de Recherche sur les Environnements Méditerranéens, Université de
Perpignan, Via Domitia, UMR 5110, 52 Avenue Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan CEDEX, France
daniel.delgado@utm.edu.ec
2 Departamento de Construcciones Civiles, Facultad de Ciencias Matemáticas, Físicas y
Químicas, Universidad Técnica de Manabí, Avenida José María Urbina, Portoviejo 130105,
Manabí, Ecuador
3 Departamento de Ingeniería Agrícola, Facultad de Ingeniería Agrícola, Universidad Técnica
de Manabí, Lodana, Santa Ana 13132, Manabí, Ecuador
4 Centro de Investigación Estudios del Medio Físico Venezolano, Instituto Pedagógico de

Caracas, Universidad Pedagógica Experimental Libertador, Venezuela University, El Paraíso

1020, Caracas, Distrito Capital, Venezuela

Abstract. Soil erosion due to the effect of surface runoff is one of the main
environmental concerns inherent in the management plans of the hydrographic
basins in Ecuador. The objective of this work was to analyze the interrelationships
between the conditioning factors of soil erosion in hydrographic basins of the
Ecuadorian territory, as an input for the construction of a spatial model of soil
loss. The methodology considered the delimitation of the hydrographic basins, the
calculation of elevations and slopes, the classification of land cover, lithology and
R factor in Ecuador. The basins delimitation, calculation of elevations and slopes,
were carried out from a DEM of 4 km of resolution; the land cover information
was obtained from the Global Land Cover Database; the lithology factor was
retrieved from the World Global Lithological Map Database; and the R factor were
processed from the Global Rainfall Erosivity Database. The results indicated that
the average elevation of the Ecuadorian basins ranges between 57 m and 2200 m.
The average of the slopes decreases the greater the distance to the Andes Mountain,
showing a greater variation in the basins that drain towards the Pacific. Most of
the vegetation cover of the ground corresponds to closed forests and herbaceous
vegetation. There is a great variety of lithological outcrops of different natures,
which gives them different levels of erodibility. The R factor showed a similar
behavior in the areas close to the Andes while, in the sectors close to the Pacific
Ocean, the values were more dispersed.

Keywords: Erosion · R factor · Spatial modeling · RUSLE · Satellite images

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

J. R. da Costa Sanches Galvão et al. (Eds.): Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on
Water Energy Food and Sustainability (ICoWEFS 2021), pp. 892–903, 2021.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75315-3_94
 Interrelations Between Soil Erosion Conditioning Factors in Basins of Ecuador 893

1 Introduction
Human activity related to the use and exploitation of the soil resource is the main cause
of its accelerated erosion, which has a direct impact on the nutrient cycle, particularly on
carbon, as well as on the quality and quantity of water and, in agricultural and economic
productivity worldwide [1, 2].
The erosivity of rainfall is the main factor in soil degradation by reducing infiltration
rates, water retention capacity, nutrients and organic matter [3].
All regions of the world have been affected by soil erosion. However, this affects
developing countries more seriously, due to the lack of adequate technologies and
methodologies to assess risks and reduce their effects [4].
Various works [5, 6] have revealed the occurrence of intensive soil erosion processes
at a local scale in different parts of the world, through the development of the RUSLE
(Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation), which can be processed and applied with the
implementation of Geographic Information Technologies (GIT) [7] and represents the
erosion model most used to estimate long-term average annual soil loss due to laminar
erosion [8].
On a global scale, a mean annual soil erosion is estimated to be around 35.9 Pg yr−1
[2]. However, this value is highly variable from one region to another and the results
indicate a possible increase in global soil erosion driven by various factors, including
the expansion of croplands.
Between 2001 and 2012, the largest increases have been in Sub-Saharan Africa,
South America, and Southeast Asia [2].
This research was based on the analysis of elevations and slopes, land cover, lithology
and R factor in 32 basins of Ecuador that have areas greater than 500 km2 , covering
80% of the national territory, through the use of recovered and geoprocessed satellite
raster information using tools and software of Geographical Information Technologies,
allowing a better analysis of conditioning factors of soil loss due to erosion in Ecuadorian
hydrographic basins, as well as the interrelationships between them. The objective of the
research is to present a methodology that allows building a spatial model of soil erosion
in Ecuador, a valuable tool for the management and conservation of natural resources
that coexist in its hydrographic basins.

2 Methodology
2.1 Delimitation of Drainage Basins
To study the factors that condition rainfall erosivity in the rivers that drain to the Pacific
and tributaries of the Amazon from satellite-based rainfall and measurement stations, it
is necessary, first, to delineate the basins considered in this study at a level of defined
resolution.
DEM information from the HydroSHED database of 30 arc-sec [9], which is equiv-
alent to 1 km2 of the surface of a pixel, was used to identify the basins of areas greater
than 500 km2 in the Ecuadorian territory.
We worked with a resolution of 4 km2 , considered intermediate between a fine
resolution and a coarse resolution. This resolution was obtained using the R software.
894 D. Delgado et al.

The approximate value of each cell of this resolution (4 × 4 km) represents the average
of the 16 cell values corresponding to a fine resolution (1 × 1 km).
From the altimetric values of the DEM, the surface water flow was simulated, starting
from the principle that the water flow is distributed to all neighboring cells with lower
elevation, using the slope as a proportional distribution factor (multiple flow direction
algorithm, MFD) [10].
According to Tarboton [11], the flow takes the exit direction of the line of maximum
slope, dividing it proportionally between the neighboring cells of said sector.
Because this model produces a dispersion of the surface runoff flow, the hydrological
tool r.watershed of the GRASS GIS software implements an algorithm by estimating the
geometry of the surface network that simulates runoff, allowing to obtain accumulation
rasters of flow, direction of drainage, location of streams and watersheds that will be
useful to use the RUSLE method, based on an existing digital elevation model.
When going from a DEM of a fine resolution to an intermediate resolution, the
modification of the mean altimetry can generate depressions that must be eliminated,
forming an unreal sink when all the neighboring cells are higher than the treatment cell,
leaving the water trapped unable to circulate.
Although these automatic corrections are carried out by the r.watershed module, even
more distortions can occur during the change of resolutions, such as a false connection
between two sub-basins or between two basins, in addition to the fact that the algorithm
does not always allow to remove all sunk pixels.
Manual corrections were made using the SERVAL plugin in QGIS, achieving detailed
pixel modification.
Finally, the delimitation of the basins will be defined with their exit points, on
the border with the Pacific Ocean or the border with neighboring countries (Peru and
Colombia).

2.2 Topography and Slope

For the morphological parameters, the mean values of elevation and slope were extracted
by basins using the Software R. The DEM of HydroSHEDS was used, which is equivalent
to 1 km2 of the resolution (surface of a pixel) [9] and it was modified to a resolution of
4 km2 , as in the delimitation of the basins. The slope raster (in degrees) was created from
the topography, using the Terrain command in R, adapting by basins to obtain mapping
results.

2.3 Land Cover

The land cover characteristics were obtained from the Global Land Cover Database (ver-
sion 2.0.2) through the global component of the Copernicus Land Monitoring Service,
derived from PROBA-V satellite observations [12]. This information, which represents
the year 2015, refers to the first global maps, in a 100 m2 spatial resolution grid. To
include the studied study area, it was necessary to download four mosaics of 20 ×
20 km of land cover.
For the land cover classification, the base classification that follows the United
Nations FAO Land Cover Classification System (LCCS) was used. The global map
 Interrelations Between Soil Erosion Conditioning Factors in Basins of Ecuador 895

includes a total of 23 detailed classes and is simplified with 12 main classes, but the land
cover for our area study includes only 13 detailed classes and 10 main classes (Fig. 3
up). However, these classes can be reduced to seven main classes: (i) closed forest, (ii)
open forest, (iii) scrub and herbaceous, (iv) cropland, (v) urban, (vi) snow and ice and
(vii) bodies of water (Fig. 3 down). Subsequently, the area of each class (in percentage)
was estimated for each basin (Fig. 3 down).

2.4 Lithology

Information on lithology was obtained from Global Lithological Map v1.1 [13], which
has a resolution of 500 m2 . The original GIS data (ArcGis geodatabase) can be down-
loaded via this link (https://www.dropbox.com/s/9vuowtebp9f1iud/LiMW_GIS%202
015.gdb.zip?dl=0).
Once this information valid only for ArcGis had been downloaded, it was taken to
QGIS to later be processed and modified using the R Software based on the requirements
of this research (geographic space and resolution of 4 km2 ).
This map originally contains 16 lithological classes and can be viewed from a 3D
viewer using the following link: (https://www.clisap.de/fileadmin/B-Research/IA/IA5/
LITHOMAP/dev/lithomap.html). The lithological map classes for our study area were
reduced to 13 (Fig. 4 up) and we simplified it to seven main classes: (i) metamorphic
rocks, (ii) plutonic rocks, (iii) pyroclastics, (iv) rocks sedimentary, (v) unconsolidated
sediments, (vi) volcanic rocks and (vii) bodies of water (Fig. 4 down).

2.5 Rainfall Erosivity (R Factor)

The R factor data was compiled from a global erosivity map that was estimated from
the Global Rain Erosivity Database (GloREDa) [1]. This map with a resolution of 30
arc-sec (~1 km) is available from the European Soil Data Center (ESDAC) and provides
a complete set of pluvial erosivity data for the whole world based on 3625 precipitation
stations and surrounding 30–40 years of temporal coverage (predominant in the last
decade: 2000–2010) at high temporal resolution (1 to 60 min).
The global map was adapted to our study area (geographic space and resolution of
4 km2 ) (Fig. 5 up) and the mean values of the R factor for each basin were calculated
(Fig. 5 down, Table 1).

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Drainage Basins

According to the basins delimitation detailed above, the entire Ecuadorian territory was
divided into 32 sectors, where basins with areas greater than 500 km2 were considered
(Fig. 1). The area of these basins varies from 542 km2 (ID 11 in Fig. 1, Ayampe basin in
Table 1) to 38 103 km2 (ID at 31 in Fig. 1, Napo basin in Table 1). The entire study covers
more than 227 103 km2 and represents 80% of the Ecuadorian surface. Of all the selected
basins, 24 basins are located on the western slope of the Andes Mountains and were called
896 D. Delgado et al.

Pacific slope basins (CVP); of which 21 discharge directly to the Pacific Ocean within
the Ecuadorian territory (basins in yellow, Fig. 1) and the remaining 3 basins discharge
to the Pacific Ocean, but outside the Ecuadorian territory (basins in pink, Fig. 1). On the
eastern slope of the Andes Mountains, 8 basins have been delimited, corresponding to
basins of the Amazon Slope (CVA) (basins in green, Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Location map of the Pacific basins and the Amazon basins

3.2 Topography and Slope

The basins near the Andes Mountains, those that drain to the Pacific as well as the
Amazon, begin with altitudes above 2000 m (central strip in Fig. 2 left). Certain basins
such as Moyo (ID 25 in Fig. 2 left) and Santiago (ID 26 in Fig. 2 left) are located almost
entirely with altitudes greater than 900 m.
Regarding the distribution of average elevations by basin, the Mira river basin (ID
1 in Table 1) is the highest, at 2200 m, originating in the Sierra region of Ecuador and
ending in Colombia (Pacific Ocean). On the other hand, the basin with the lowest average
elevation belongs to the Daule River (ID 15 in Table 1) with 57 m, which begins at an
altitude of 145 m in the Coast region and empties into the Pacific Ocean. 50% of the
basins have average elevations above 400 m.
In the Amazon basin, the Moyo River is the one with the highest average elevation,
at 2,100 m (ID 25 in Table 1). The maximum slopes in the spatial distribution of the
Ecuadorian basins occur in the vicinity of the Andes mountain range (central strip in
Fig. 2 right), with slopes >12° (maximum 12.71°, ID 19 in Fig. 2 right) and decrease as
move away from the mountain range. Much of the basins of the Southwest of Ecuador
have large ranges of slopes, like those identified near the Andes mountain range. Accord-
ing to Peña et al. [15], soil erosion increases as the slope of the land increases, due to the
simultaneous increase in the amount and energy of surface runoff. Therefore, a higher
percentage of erosivity would be expected in the central zone of Ecuador, specifically in
 Interrelations Between Soil Erosion Conditioning Factors in Basins of Ecuador 897

Table 1. Average environmental characteristics of Ecuadorian basins

ID River Type Area (km2 ) Elevation (m) Slope (degrees) R Factor Erosivity Class
(mm/hahyear) [14]
1 Mira ECB_O 6214 2198 3.910 4164 3-Low
2 Cayapas ECB 6108 537 1.808 12593 6-Very high
3 Verde ECB 944 162 0.535 12001 6-Very high
4 Esmeraldas ECB 21301 1485 2.376 7452 4-Moderate
5 Muisne ECB 816 147 0.710 15305 7-Severe
6 Coaque ECB 656 247 0.737 9481 5-High
7 Jama ECB 1137 238 0.709 6453 4-Moderate
8 Chone ECB 2898 160 0.737 6487 4-Moderate
9 Portoviejo ECB 1905 194 0.801 3787 3-Low
10 Caña ECB 833 222 0.775 1852 2-Very low
11 Ayampe ECB 592 360 1.155 2988 3-Low
12 Guayas ECB 32499 709 1.890 6682 4-Moderate
13 Javite ECB 993 179 0.844 2868 3-Low
14 Zapotal ECB 1121 89 0.367 2605 3-Low
15 Daule ECB 640 57 0.265 3139 3-Low
16 Chongon ECB 656 106 0.599 4190 3-Low
17 Taura ECB 3472 1369 3.260 6248 4-Moderate
18 Cañar ECB 1568 928 3.671 6253 4-Moderate
19 Jagua ECB 1008 1523 5.303 4160 3-Low
20 Gala ECB 1376 1006 4.935 4024 3-Low
21 Jubones ECB 4544 2172 4.567 2411 2-Very low
22 Santa Rosa ECB 1729 405 2.427 4959 3-Low
23 Puyango ECB_O 3761 1233 3.321 5975 4-Moderate
24 Chira ECB_O 8258 1595 3.670 4445 3-Low
25 Moyo AB 3503 2150 4.001 5088 4-Moderate
26 Santiago AB 23272 2034 3.575 7690 5-High
27 Morona AB 5457 518 1.245 10514 6-Very high
28 Pastaza AB 22830 1824 2.129 5437 4-Moderate
29 Tigre AB 7767 275 0.182 9060 5-High
30 Conocoto_C AB 14501 296 0.255 9249 5-High
31 Napo AB 38322 1058 1.586 7490 4-Moderate
32 Putumayo AB 6987 229 0.102 9837 5-High
Total 227669

the vicinity of the Andes Mountains, which corresponds to the high zones of the country,
while, in the low zones, erosion would be less.
In contrast, flooding and sediment accumulations would predominate in the lower
areas. For the average slope parameter, 36% of the basin area has a range between 1.8°
and 2.4° (the most prevalent slope in the Ecuadorian basins). The maximum average
slope corresponds to the Jagua River (ID 19 in Fig. 2 right), with 5.3° and discharge to
898 D. Delgado et al.

Fig. 2. Map of elevations spatial distribution (left) and slope spatial distribution (right) in
Ecuadorian basins

the Pacific Ocean. The minimum average slope belongs to the Putumayo River (ID 32
in Fig. 2 right) with 0.1° located in the Amazon region. The measurement of the average
slopes in basins of the Amazon slope and basins of the Pacific slope that flow out of the
Ecuadorian territory, are calculated within the limits of Ecuador, clarifying that the real
average of the total basin would show variations in the results.

3.3 Land Cover

Based on the previously determined data processing, the results of the land cover for the
32 Ecuadorian basins are shown (Fig. 3).
Through this procedure, it was determined that 84% of the Ecuadorian territory is
covered with forests, of which 60% correspond to closed forests and 14% correspond
to open forests. 26% of the surface belongs to other types of coverage (Fig. 3). Closed
forests correspond to a continuous set of trees that covers more than 40% of an area,
while open forests correspond to a discontinuous set of trees with a density between 10%
and 40% of an area [16]. The high percentage of forest cover in the Ecuadorian basins
would suppose a favorable behavior in the reduction of erosive effects, considering the
benefits that this type of cover brings to the soil. In this sense, the basins that would
have the greatest erosion problems would be those belonging to the Guayas River and
the Taura River (ID 12 and 17 in Fig. 3), due to the large percentage of soil destined for
cultivation (cropland).

3.4 Lithology

Once the area of each class was estimated (in percentage) for each basin (Fig. 4), it was
determined that 71% of the studied territory is made up of sedimentary soils, of which
46% correspond to siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. 17% from mixed sedimentary rocks
and 8% from unconsolidated sediments. 29% of the surface of the study area is made
up of the remaining 11 lithological classes.
 Interrelations Between Soil Erosion Conditioning Factors in Basins of Ecuador 899

Fig. 3. Land cover in Ecuadorian basins

As there is a great variety of lithological outcrops of different compositions (some

in small quantities), the levels of erodability conferred on the Ecuadorian hydrographic
basins are very varied. Among these, mixed sedimentary rocks, siliciclastic and uncon-
solidated, have a level of erodibility that depends on the composition of their sediments
(clay, sand, gravel, pebbles, others) and the degree of cementation, so it is difficult to
assign a exact erodibility level, which will be between medium and high levels. Inter-
mediate volcanic rocks are the third type of lithological outcrop with the highest con-
centration in the study area; Its composition is based on the crystallization of materials
expelled by volcanoes and these are very susceptible to deterioration through humidi-
fication and drying processes, so their level of erodibility is generally high. Therefore,
it is expected that the erosion index, product of the lithological classes present in the
Ecuadorian basins, is high in most of the Ecuadorian territory.
The basins of the Verde, Muisne, Chone, Portoviejo and Ayampe rivers (ID 3, 5, 8,
9, 11 in Fig. 4) are completely composed of Sedimentary Rocks. Due to the presence of
volcanoes in the Andes mountain range (intermediate strip of Ecuador in Fig. 4), a high
percentage of Volcanic and Pyroclastic Rocks is observed.
900 D. Delgado et al.

Fig. 4. Lithological classification of the Ecuadorian basins

3.5 R Factor

In Fig. 5 it can be seen how the rainfall erosivity index in the Ecuadorian basins, expressed
by the R factor, varies considerably throughout the Ecuadorian territory. The areas close
to the Andes Mountains have the lowest values of rainfall erosivity and maintain similar
ranges throughout (Fig. 5).
Analyzing the R factor by basin (Table 1), Muisne river basin (ID 5) has the highest R
factor, with more than 15,000 MJ mm/ha h year (severe erosion), and the basin with the
lowest R factor is Caña River (ID 10), with 1800 MJ mm/ha h year (very low erosion),
both on the Ecuadorian coast (Pacific slope) and with similarities in their areas (816 km2
and 833 km2 respectively). Regarding the Amazon slope, all basins present moderate to
very high erosivity rates (Table 1), expecting considerable percentages of soil loss, due
to its correlation with the R factor and the amount of sediments transported by surface
runoff. The highest erosivity indices are concentrated in the Northwest of Ecuador (ID
2, 3, 5 in Fig. 5, Table 1), in the province of Esmeraldas.
 Interrelations Between Soil Erosion Conditioning Factors in Basins of Ecuador 901

Fig. 5. Spatial distribution of the R factor in Ecuadorian basins

4 Conclusions

The processing of existing DEMs of good resolution and the application of raster infor-
mation obtained from global databases (Global Land Cover Database, World Global
Lithological Map and Global Rainfall Erosivity Database) using Geographic Informa-
tion Technologies, allowed determining and classifying factors determining factors of
soil erosion in Ecuadorian basins.
The average elevation of the Ecuadorian basins ranges between 57 m and 2200 m. A
total of 88240 km2 (39% of the study area, area of 19 basins) present average elevations
less than 750 m. 31% (area of 6 basins) presented average elevations between 750 m
and 1500 m. The remaining 30% (area of 7 basins), presented average elevations higher
than 1500 m.
In spatial distribution of slopes in the Ecuadorian basins, the maximum slopes were
concentrated in the vicinity of the Andes mountain range reaching up to 12.71°, and
decrease as move away from this sector, both for the left bank (Pacific slope) as well as
for the right bank (Amazon basins), until reaching a minimum slope of 0.1°.
84% of the study area is made up of forests, of which 60% correspond to closed
forests, conferring a possible reduction in erosive effects if the protection that this biome
902 D. Delgado et al.

offers to the soil is considered. Basins with the largest cultivation area correspond to the
Taura River (38%) and the Guayas River (30%) in Guayas province.
Geologically, there is a great diversity of lithological outcrops in varied proportions,
corresponding to rocks of different natures, conferring different levels of erodivility. A
total of 161,645 km2 (71% of study area), is made up of sedimentary material, presenting
higher concentrations in the basins of the Province of Manabí.
The results of the R factor are very changeable throughout the territory studied. The
province with the highest risk of erosivity caused by rain is Esmeraldas, because three
of the four accounts that contain the highest values of the R factor (>10,000 MJ mm/ha
hour year) are geographically located here.
The individual study of each conditioning factor in soil erosion presented different
results, demonstrating the need for a joint evaluation to determine the actual soil loss.
The information on the R factor and other factors that affect soil erosion will be
useful in the application of the RUSLE model. This analysis will provide a basis for
comprehensive management and sustainable land use in the study area.

Acknowledgement. Authors are grateful for the support received from the French Embassy in
Ecuador under the Program “Fondo de Solidaridad para Proyectos Innovadores (FSPI)”.

References
1. Panagos, P., Borrelli, P., Meusburger, K., Bofu, Y., Klik, A., Lim, K., Yang, J., Ni, J., Miao, C.,
Chattopadhyay, N., Sadeghi, S., Hazbavi, Z., Zabihi, M., Larionov, G., Krasnov, S., Gorobets,
A., Levi, Y., Erpul, G., Birkel, C., Hoyos, N., Naipal, V., Paulo, T., Oliveira, C., Bonilla, M.,
Nel, W., Dashti, H., Boni, M., Diodato, N., Van Oost, K., Nearing, M., Ballabio, C.: Global
rainfall erosivity assessment based on high-temporal resolution rainfall records. Sci. Rep. 7,
4175 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04282-8
2. Borrelli, P., Robinson, D.A., Fleischer, L.R., Lugato, E., Ballabio, C., Alewell, C., Meusburger,
K., Modugno, S., Schutt, B., Ferro, V., Bagarello, V., Van Oost, K., Montanarella, L., Panagos,
P.: An assessment of the global impact of 21st century land use change on soil erosion. Nat.
Commun. 8 (2017)
3. Panagos, P., Borrelli, P., Poesen, J., Ballabio, C., Lugato, E., Meusburger, K., Montanarella,
L., Alewell, C.: The new assessment of soil loss by water erosion in Europe. Environ. Sci.
Policy 54, 438–447 (2015)
4. Eswaran, H., Lal, R., Reich, P.F.: Land degradation: an overview. response to land degrada-
tion. In: Bridges, E.M., Hannam, I.D., Oldeman, L.R., Pening de Vries, F.W.T., Scherr, S.J.,
Sompatpanit, S. (eds.) Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Land Degradation
and Desertification, Thailand, pp. 25–29 (1999)
5. Rellini, I., Scopesi, C., Olivari, S., Firpo, M., Maerker, M.: Assessment of soil erosion risk
in a typical Mediterranean environment using a high-resolution RUSLE approach (Portofino
promontory, NW-Italy). J. Maps 15(2), 356–362 (2019)
6. Teng, H.F., Hu, J., Zhou, Y., Zhou, L.Q., Shi, Z.: Modelling and mapping soil erosion potential
in China. J. Integr. Agric. 18(2), 251–264 (2019)
7. Pacheco, H.A., Mendez, W., Moro, A.: Soil erosion risk zoning in the Ecuadorian coastal
region using geo-technological tools. Earth Sci. Res. J. 23(4), 293–302 (2019)
8. Wischmeier, W.H., Smith, D.: Predicting rainfall erosion losses: a guide to conservation
planning. Department of Agriculture, Science and Education Administration, p. 537 (1978)
 Interrelations Between Soil Erosion Conditioning Factors in Basins of Ecuador 903

9. Lehner, B., Verdin, K., Jarvis, A.: New global hydrography derived from spaceborne elevation
data. Eos, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 89(10), 93–94 (2008)
10. Holmgren, P.: Multiple flow direction algorithms for runoff modelling in grid-based elevation
models: an empirical evaluation. Hydrol. Process. 8(4), 327–334 (1994)
11. Tarboton, D.G.: A new method for the determination of flow directions and upslope areas in
grid digital elevation models. Water Resour. Res. 33(2), 309–319 (1997)
12. Buchhorn, M., Smets, B., Bertels, L., Lesiv, M., Tsendbazar, N.-E., Herold, M., Fritz, S.:
Copernicus global land service: land cover 100m, epoch, 2015, Globe (Version V2.0.2),
[Dataset] Zenodo (2019)
13. Hartmann, J., Moosdorf, N.: The new global lithological map database GLiM: a representation
of rock properties at the Earth surface. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 13 (2012)
14. Rivera, J., Gómez, A.: Erosividad de las lluvias en la zona cafetera central colombiana (Caldas,
Quindío y Risaralda). Cenicafé 42(2), 37–52 (1991)
15. Peña-Cortés, F., Limpert, C., Andrade, E., Hauenstein, E., Tapia, J., Bertrán, C., Vargas-
Chacoff, L.: Dinámica geomorfológica de la costa de La Araucanía. Revista de Geografía
Norte Grande 58, 241–260 (2014)
16. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Evaluación de Recursos Forestales:
Aportes de la información del Inventario Forestal Nacional a las políticas que involucran el
sector forestal de Guatemala (2004)