Applications of the Coefficient of
Isothermal Compressibility to Various
Reservoir Situations With New Correlations
for Each Situation
John P. Spivey, SPE, Phoenix Reservoir Engineering, and Peter P. Valkó, SPE, and
William D. McCain, SPE, Texas A&M U.
Summary
The coefficient of isothermal compressibility (oil compressibility)
is defined as the fractional change of oil volume per unit change in
pressure. Though the oil compressibility so defined frequently ap-
pears in the partial-differential equations describing fluid flow in
porous media, it is rarely used in this form in practical engineering
calculations. Instead, oil compressibility is usually assumed to be
constant, allowing the defining equation to be integrated over some
pressure range of interest. Thus, the oil compressibility in the
resulting equations should be regarded as a weighted average value
over the pressure range of integration.
The three distinct applications for oil compressibility in reser-
voir engineering are (1) instantaneous or tangent values from the
defining equation, (2) extension of fluid properties from values at
the bubblepoint pressure to higher pressures of interest, and (3)
material-balance calculations that require values starting at initial
reservoir pressure. Each of these three applications requires a dif-
ferent approach to calculating oil compressibility from laboratory
data and in developing correlations.
The differences among the values required in these three ap-
plications can be as great as 25%. Most published correlations do
not indicate the particular application to which the proposed cor-
relation applies.
A correlation equation for oil compressibility has been devel-
oped using more than 3,500 lines of data from 369 laboratory
studies. This correlation equation gives the average compressibil-
ity between the bubblepoint pressure and some higher pressure of
interest. Equations to calculate appropriate values of compressibil-
ity for the other two applications are presented.
Introduction
The equation defining the coefficient of isothermal compressibility
at pressures above the bubblepoint pressure is rather simple:
co = − 冉 冊
1 ⭸V
V ⭸p T
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
However, in application the situation becomes somewhat complex.
Usually the equation is integrated by separating variables:
兰 兰
p2 V2 dV
co dp = − . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
p1 V1 V p
Moving oil compressibility outside the integral sign requires the
assumption that it is constant. Because it is not constant, the use of
this equation requires a value of oil compressibility that is a pressure-
weighted average across the pressure range used in the calculations.
There are three applications for oil compressibility in reser-
voir engineering:
Copyright © 2007 Society of Petroleum Engineers
This paper (SPE 96415) was first presented at the 2005 SPE Annual Technical Conference
and Exhibition, Dallas, 9–12 October, and revised for publication. Original manuscript re-
ceived for review 1 July 2005. Revised manuscript received 5 September 2006. Paper peer
approved 10 October 2006.
February 2007 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering
• The defining equation, for which the oil compressibility
should be calculated as a single value at the pressure of interest,
often used in pressure-transient analysis.
• The extension of fluid properties from correlations starting at
the bubblepoint pressure to pressures above the bubblepoint pres-
sure. This application is also used in black-oil reservoir simulation.
• The use of oil compressibility in black-oil material-balance
equations in which the starting point is the initial reservoir pressure.
Values of oil compressibility should be calculated from labo-
ratory data with these applications in mind. Most published cor-
relations for oil compressibility do not indicate the particular situ-
ation to which the correlation applies, although values calculated
for these three applications can differ significantly. For example,
Fig. 1 gives values of oil compressibility calculated with the con-
stant-composition-expansion data from a widely available black-
oil laboratory report (Reservoir Fluid Study 1988). Two things are
readily apparent. First, coefficients of isothermal compressibility
are not constant as pressure changes. Second, the three applica-
tions require values that differ by up to 25%.
Using more than 3,500 data points measured in constant-
composition-expansion experiments from 369 laboratory studies
of worldwide origins, we have developed a correlation equation for
oil compressibility calculated as a chord from bubblepoint pressure
to a pressure of interest. We propose two equations to adjust values
from this correlation either to chord values starting at initial res-
ervoir pressure or to instantaneous values. These equations allow
estimation of oil-compressibility values for the correct application.
Applications of Compressibility
In this section, we discuss the three applications of the coefficient
of isothermal compressibility.
Extension of Fluid Properties From Correlations Starting at
the Bubblepoint Pressure. When correlations are used to deter-
mine values of fluid properties, values of oil compressibility are
used to extend values of some fluid properties from the bubble-
point pressure of the oil to higher pressures. One example is oil
formation volume factor.
co = − 冉 冊
1 ⭸Bo
Bo ⭸p
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
T
兰 兰
Bo dBo
co dp = − . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)
pb Bob Bo
Bo = Bob exp关−co共p − pb兲兴. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (5)
Placing oil compressibility, co, outside of the integral sign in Eq.
4 implies that it is constant. Oil compressibility certainly is not
constant as pressure changes (as seen in Fig. 1). Eq. 5 can be used
to calculate the oil formation volume factor at pressures above
bubblepoint pressure using the value of Bob calculated at the
bubblepoint with a correlation. However, the value of co to be used
in Eq. 5 must be a pressure-weighted average of oil compressibility
from the bubblepoint pressure to the pressure of interest. In this
case, the derivative in Eq. 3 is approximated by the slope of a
chord from the bubblepoint pressure to the pressure of interest. We
43

Fig. 1—Coefficients of isothermal compressibility for Good Oil
Co., Oil Well No. 4 (Reservoir Fluid Study 1988).
will call this the coefficient of isothermal compressibility from the
bubblepoint, cofb. Values of cofb can be determined easily from the
constant-composition-expansion experiment of a routine black-oil
fluid property report (McCain 1990) and used to create a correla-
tion for cofb as a function of various properties, including reservoir
pressure, that are readily available from field data.
The Material-Balance Equation for Undersaturated Oil Res-
ervoirs. Another use of oil compressibility is in the material-
balance equation for undersaturated oil reservoirs (i.e., reservoirs
in which the pressure is higher than the bubblepoint pressure). Eqs.
6 and 7 show this application (Craft and Hawkins 1959).
Bo − Boi
co ≡ , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6a)
Boi共pi − p兲
where
Soco + Swcw + cf
ce ≡ , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6b)
So
giving the material-balance equation
NBoice共pi − p兲 = NpBo − We + BwWp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (7)
Eq. 7 demonstrates that this application starts at initial reservoir
pressure, pi, and goes to a lower pressure, p, which occurs after
some oil production. Thus, the oil-compressibility value should be
a pressure-weighted average starting at the initial reservoir pres-
sure. In this case, the derivative is approximated by the slope of a
chord from initial pressure to the pressure of interest. We will call
this the coefficient of isothermal compressibility from initial pres-
sure, cofi. This definition of compressibility is analogous to the
cumulative compressibility terms defined by Fetkovich et al.
(1998). Values of this property can be obtained using the correla-
tion for cofb with initial reservoir pressure and the lower pressure.
Tangent Compressibility for Pressure-Transient Analysis. The
partial-differential equations describing single-phase fluid flow in
porous media do not require that the equation be integrated. In-
stead, oil compressibility is calculated at the pressure of interest
with the value of the derivative of Eq. 1 determined by measuring
the slope of the tangent line to the volume-vs.-pressure curve at the
pressure of interest. In other words, the value of oil compressibility
is not a weighted average but an “instantaneous” value at the
pressure of interest. For instance, for single-phase flow, Eqs. 8 and
9 apply.
冉 冊
1 ⭸␳o
co = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (8)
␳o ⭸p T the accuracy and precision of this equation will be given later.
44
1 ⭸␳o ⭸p
= co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (9)
␳o ⭸t ⭸t
Eq. 10 is the equation describing single-phase-fluid flow of a
slightly compressible liquid in porous media (Lee et al. 2003).
1 ⭸
r ⭸r
r 冉 冊
⭸p
⭸r
=
␾␮co ⭸p
k ⭸t
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (10)
This is oil compressibility by definition; we will use the symbol co.
An equation for determining values of co at any pressure of interest
with the correlation for cofb will be presented later.
For multiphase flow at pressures below the bubblepoint pressure,
a term must be added to account for gas coming out of solution:
co = −
1 ⭸Bo
Bo ⭸p冉 冊 T
+
1 Bg ⭸Rso
1,000 Bo ⭸p 冉 冊 T
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (11)
We prefer taking derivatives of the correlation equations for Bo
and Rs to calculate co directly from Eq. 11, rather than using a
separate correlation for co.
Development of New Correlations
We have developed new correlations for the coefficient of isother-
mal compressibility and equations for calculating values for each
of the three applications for oil compressibility. Because of the
way fluid-property data are reported in standard laboratory reports,
it is more convenient to develop a correlation for cofb than for cofi
or co. Thus, our correlation gives cofb. Equations for calculating
values for cofi and co with the cofb correlation have been developed.
Correlation for Coefficients of Isothermal Compressibility
From the Bubblepoint to a Pressure of Interest. A correlation
for cofb has been developed using a technique to reveal the under-
lying statistical relationships between variables corrupted by ran-
dom error. The method of alternating conditional expectations
(ACE) is intended to alleviate the main drawback of parametric
regression: the mismatch of the assumed model structure and the
underlying relationship of the actual data (Breiman and Friedman
1985). Thus, an a priori knowledge of the functional relationship
between the dependent variable and the independent variables is
not required. The program GRACE, a user-friendly implemention
of the ACE algorithm, was used for this work. GRACE first cre-
ates individual transformations for each variable in an optimum
way. Then, these single-variable transformations may usually be
approximated by curve fitting in a commercial spreadsheet pro-
gram using low-order polynomials (Xue et al. 1997).
A database was assembled comprising 3,537 lines of constant-
composition-expansion data at pressures above bubblepoint pres-
sures from 369 service-company reservoir-fluid studies of black
oils. The statistics of these assembled data, which cover the ranges
of the independent variables to be expected in black-oil reservoirs,
are given in Table 1. Extreme caution should be used in dealing
with oils with properties outside the ranges in this table; extrapo-
lation of the equations presented is risky.
Applying the GRACE technique produced the following equa-
tions for estimating values of cofb with the independent variables
listed in Table 2.
ln cofb = 2.434 + 0.475z + 0.048z2, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (12a)
6
z= 兺z ,
n=1
n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (12b)
zn = C0n + C1n xn + C2n xn2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (12c)
To apply these equations, use the natural logarithm of each vari-
able and the coefficients listed in Table 2 to calculate a value of zn
for each of the six independent variables. The values of zn are added,
and the sum is used in the cofb equation (Eq. 13). A discussion of
February 2007 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering
Correlation for Coefficients of Isothermal Compressibility Combining Eqs. 15a and 15b yields these results:
From Initial Pressure to a Pressure of Interest. Oil compress-
ibility can be determined from initial pressure to a lower pressure 1 ⭸
co = − 兵B exp关−cofb共p − pb兲兴其
of interest, cofi, by use of Eq. 14 and the cofb correlation equations Bo ⭸p ob
(Eq. 13). Values of cofb at the initial pressure and the pressure of
Bob exp关−cofb共p − pb兲兴 ⭸
interest are calculated and then used to calculate cofi. =− 关−cofb共p − pb兲兴
Eq. 14 was developed as follows: Bo ⭸p
⭸
兰
Bo dBo Bo = 关c 共p − pb兲兴
Bob Bo
ln
Bob ln Bob − ln Bo ⭸p ofb
cofb 共p兲 = − =− = , . . . . . . . . (13a)
兰 p − pb p − pb ⭸cofb
p
dp = cofb + 共p − pb兲 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (15c)
pb ⭸p

兰
BoidBo Boi Thus, the correlation for cofb, Eqs. 12a, 12b, and 12c, can be used
ln
Bob Bo Bob ln Bob − ln Boi to develop an equation for calculating co.
cofb 共p 兲 = − =− = , . . . . . . . (13b)
兰 pi − pb pi − pb
i pi
dp ⭸cofb ⭸z
= cofb共0.475 + 0.096z兲 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (16a)
⭸p ⭸p
pb

兰
Bo dBo Bo where cofb is calculated with Eq. 12a, z is calculated with Eq. 12b,
ln
Boi Bo Boi ln Boi − ln Bo and ⭸z/⭸p is given by
cofi =− =− = . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13c)
兰 p − pi p − pi
p
dp p
pi −0.608 + 0.1822 ln
⭸z pb
The difference between Eqs. 13a and 13b can be used to determine = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (16b)
⭸p p
an equation for cofi.
共p − pb兲cofb共p兲 − 共pi − pb兲cofb共pi兲 = ln Boi − ln Bo. . . . . . . . . (13d) Calculating the Coefficient of Isothermal Compressibility for
Saturated Oils. For consistency, the tangent compressibility for
Thus, pressure-transient analysis should be calculated from correlation
equations for Bo, Rso, and Bg by differentiating the equations for Bo
共p − pb兲cofb共p兲 − 共pi − pb兲cofb共pi兲 ln Boi − ln Bo and Rso:
= = cofi. . . . (13e)
p − pi p − pi
1 ⭸Bo 1 Bg ⭸Rso
co = − + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (17)
Finally, rearrange to obtain the equation for calculating cofi with Bo ⭸p 1,000 Bo ⭸p
the correlation equations for cofb.
共p − pb兲cofb共p兲 − 共pi − pb兲cofb共pi兲
cofi = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (14)
p − pi

Correlation for Coefficient of Isothermal Compressibility Tan-

gent at Some Pressure of Interest. The chord-slope compress-
ibility from the bubblepoint pressure to any pressure above the
bubblepoint, cofb, can be rewritten from Eq. 5 as
Bo = Bob exp关−cofb共p − pb兲兴. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (15a)
The tangent, or instantaneous, compressibility, co, is defined as:
1 ⭸Bo
co = − . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (15b)
Bo ⭸p

February 2007 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering 45

Fig. 2—Coefficients of isothermal compressibility calculated
from Eqs. 12a, 12b, and 12c compare well with measured values.
Evaluation of the Proposed Correlations
Fig. 2 compares the results of calculations of cofb using Eqs. 12a,
12b, and 12c with the data used in developing the correlation. Fig. 3
compares these data with calculations of co based on Eqs. 15c, 16a,
12a, 12b, and 16b. The bulk of these calculations fit the data very
closely. In both figures, the scatter of the measured results at
46
Fig. 3—Coefficients of isothermal compressibility calculated
from Eq. 15c compare well with measured values.
higher values appears to be caused by data from a few laboratory
reports that may have some internal error.
A comparison of the calculations and the data in terms of average
relative error (ARE) and average absolute relative error (AARE)
appears in Table 3. Figs. 4 through 7 show that the calculations
hold up well across the ranges of the independent variables.
Comparison of Published Correlations for
Coefficients of Isothermal Compressibility
Table 3 shows ARE and AARE, both in percentages, of compari-
sons of various published correlations (De Ghetto and Villa 1994;
Al-Marhoun 2003; Dindoruk and Christman 2001; Petrosky and
Farshad 1998; Labedi 1990; Whitson and Brule 2000; Almehaideb
1997; Hanafy et al. 1997; Calhoun 1953; Vazquez and Beggs
1980; Kartoatmodjo and Schmidt 1994; Elsharkawy and Alikhan
1997; Ahmed 1989; Farshad et al. 1996) for oil compressibility.
Table 4 gives statistics for the independent variables in the data set
used for these comparisons. The coefficients of isothermal com-
pressibility calculated with data within 200 psi of bubblepoint
pressure were eliminated because the data had only four significant
figures, making the round-off errors near the bubblepoint exces-
sively large.
Fig. 4—ARE as a function of temperature. Each data point rep-
resents an average of approximately 240 calculations.
February 2007 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering
Fig. 5—AARE as a function of temperature. Each data point
represents an average of approximately 240 calculations.
Many of the publications proposing the correlations listed in
Table 3 did not specify the applications for which they were de-
veloped, so we compared them with both cofb and co and reported
the lowest values of ARE and AARE.
Figs. 4 through 7 compare the results of this work with three
other published correlations. The Vazquez and Beggs (1980) cor-
relation was selected for this comparison for its apparent popular-
ity in the petroleum industry, and the other two (Al-Marhoun 2003;
Dindoruk and Christman 2001) were chosen as recently published
correlations that have low values of ARE and AARE. The results
of this work hold up well across the full range of each of the
independent variables and generally have values of ARE and
AARE that are closer to zero than the other three correlations.
Sorting on stock-tank-oil gravity, °API, and reservoir pressure (not
shown here), yielded similar results.
Conclusions
The three different applications for the values of the coefficient of
isothermal compressibility require different calculations from ex-
perimental data, and the calculated values among the three are
significantly different results.
We have presented a correlation for the fluid-property applica-
tion that gives results approximately as accurate as the experimen-
tal data. This correlation produces a weighted average of oil com-
pressibility between the bubblepoint pressure and the reservoir
pressure of interest, cofb.
We have presented an equation, based on the cofb correlation, that
can be used to obtain accurate estimates of cofi, the weighted average
oil compressibility from initial reservoir pressure to some lower
reservoir pressure, for use in the oil material-balance application.
Finally, we have presented an equation that can be used to
obtain accurate estimates of the tangent compressibility co at a
particular reservoir pressure.
Nomenclature
AARE ⳱ average absolute relative error, %
Fig. 6—ARE as a function of bubblepoint solution-gas/oil
ratio. Each data point represents an average of approximately
240 calculations.
Eq. 6, psi−1
cf ⳱ formation (pore-volume) compressibility, psi−1
co ⳱ coefficient of isothermal compressibility,
measured with the slope of the tangent line at
the pressure of interest, psi−1
cofb ⳱ coefficient of isothermal compressibility,
measured with the slope of the chord from
bubblepoint pressure to pressure of interest,
psi−1
cofb(p) ⳱ coefficient of isothermal compressibility
measured with the slope of the chord from
bubblepoint pressure to pressure p, psi−1
cofb(pi) ⳱ coefficient of isothermal compressibility
measured with the slope of the chord from
bubblepoint pressure to initial reservoir pressure
pi, psi−1
cofi ⳱ coefficient of isothermal compressibility
measured with the slope of the chord from
initial reservoir pressure pi to pressure of
interest, psi−1
C0n,C1n,C2n ⳱ coefficients for use in Eq. 12c for the nth
independent variable
k ⳱ absolute permeability
N ⳱ original oil in place, STB
Np ⳱ cumulative oil production, STB
p ⳱ pressure, psia

兺冏 冏
1 calc − meas
100
n meas
ARE ⳱ average relative error, %
calc − meas
兺
1
100
n meas
API ⳱ stock-tank-oil gravity, oAPI
Bg ⳱ gas formation volume factor, RB/Mscf
Bo ⳱ oil formation volume factor, RB/STB
Bob ⳱ oil formation volume factor at bubblepoint
pressure, RB/STB
Boi ⳱ oil formation volume factor at initial reservoir
pressure, RB/STB Fig. 7—AARE as a function of bubblepoint solution-gas/oil
Bw ⳱ water formation volume factor, RB/STB ratio. Each data point represents an average of approximately
ce ⳱ effective fluid compressibility, defined in 240 calculations.

February 2007 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering 47

 pb ⳱ bubblepoint pressure at reservoir temperature, psia
pi ⳱ initial reservoir pressure, psia
r ⳱ radial distance
Rsb ⳱ solution-gas/oil ratio at bubblepoint, scf/STB
Rso ⳱ solution-gas/oil ratio, scf/STB
So ⳱ oil saturation, fraction
Sw ⳱ water (brine) saturation, fraction
t ⳱ time
TR ⳱ reservoir temperature, °F
V ⳱ volume
We ⳱ water (brine) encroached into reservoir from
aquifer, res bbl
Wp ⳱ cumulative water (brine) produced, STB
z⳱ sum of transforms defined by Eq. 12b
zn ⳱ transform for independent variable n defined by
Eq. 12c
␥gSP ⳱ separator-gas specific gravity
␮ ⳱ viscosity
␳o ⳱ oil density, lbm/ft3
␾ ⳱ porosity, fraction
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SI Metric Conversion Factors
°API 141.5/(131.5+°API) ⳱ g/cm3
bbl × 1.589 873 E−01 ⳱ m3
ft3 × 2.831 685 E−02 ⳱ m3
°F (°F−32)/1.8 ⳱ °C
psi × 6.894 757 E+00 ⳱ kPa
John P. Spivey has more than 20 years of experience in the
petroleum industry, with interests in pressure-transient analysis,
production-data analysis, reservoir engineering, continuing
education, and software development. From 1984 to 1990, he
February 2007 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering
worked for SoftSearch Inc. (later Dwights EnergyData) devel-
oping petroleum economics and engineering software. In
1990, Spivey joined S.A. Holditch & Assocs. (which was later
purchased by Schlumberger); while there, he conducted res-
ervoir-simulation, gas-storage, and tight-gas-application stud-
ies and taught industry short courses in well testing and pro-
duction-data analysis. In 2004, he started his own reservoir-
engineering consulting company, Phoenix Reservoir
Engineering, and software development company, Phoenix
Reservoir Software LLC. Since 1992, Spivey has served as a vis-
iting assistant professor or adjunct assistant professor at Texas
A&M U., teaching undergraduate and graduate classes in
gas-reservoir engineering and pressure-transient analysis. He
holds a BS degree in physics from Abilene Christian U., an MS
degree in physics from the U. of Washington, and a PhD de-
gree in petroleum engineering from Texas A&M U. Spivey is the
editor of SPE Reprint Series Vol. 52, Gas Reservoir Engineering,
and Vol. 57, Pressure Transient Testing, and coauthor of the SPE
textbook Pressure Transient Testing. He has published numerous
papers and articles in industry journals and trade publications.
Peter P. Valkó is a professor of petroleum engineering at Texas
A&M U. Previously, he taught at academic institutions in Austria
and Hungary and worked for the Hungarian Oil Co. Valkó
holds BS and MS degrees from Veszprém U., Hungary, and a
PhD degree from the Inst. of Catalysis, Novosibirsk, Russia.
February 2007 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering
William D. McCain Jr. has been a visiting professor in the Dept.
of Petroleum Engineering at Texas A&M U. since 1991. McCain
started his engineering career with Esso (now Exxon) Research
Laboratories in 1956, where he assisted in research on surface
processing of petroleum fluids. He was Professor and Head of
the Petroleum Engineering Dept. at Mississippi State U. from
1965 to 1976 and taught at Texas A&M U. from 1984 through
1987. McCain was a consulting petroleum engineer with Caw-
ley, Gillespie & Assocs. from 1987 until 1991. He was with the
petroleum engineering consulting firm S.A. Holditch & Assocs.
from 1991 until 2000, retiring as Executive Vice President, Chief
Engineer, and member of the Board of Directors. McCain’s
engineering specialties within the consulting company were
properties of petroleum fluids, surface processing of petro-
leum, and reservoir engineering, especially for gas conden-
sate and volatile oil fields. He has written two editions of the
widely used textbook, The Properties of Petroleum Fluids, holds
three U.S. patents, and has more than 40 publications in the
petroleum engineering literature. Involved in short-course
teaching for more than 20 years, McCain has taught for sev-
eral major oil companies, independents, professional societies,
and educational consulting companies throughout the world.
He holds a BS degree from Mississippi State U. and MS and
PhD degrees from the Georgia Inst. of Technology, all in chemi-
cal engineering.
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