Mining Science and Technology (China) 21 (2011) 141e145

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Mining Science and Technology (China)

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Characteristics and genesis of clay minerals in the northern margin

of the Qaidam Basin
Wang Linlin a, b, *, Jiang Bo a, b, Peng Dehua c, Yin Chengming c, Zeng Chunlin d
a
School of Resources and Geoscience, China University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
b
Key Laboratory of CBM Resources and Reservoir Formation Process, Ministry of Education, China University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
c
Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, Qinghai Oilfield Company, Dunhuang 736202, China
d
Chongqing Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources, Chongqing 400042, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In order to develop appropriate reservoir protection measures in the northern margin of the Qaidam
Received 12 May 2010 Basin and improve its oil and gas recovery efficiency, characteristics of clay minerals from eleven clay
Received in revised form rock samples from the northern margin of the Qaidam Basin were investigated using X-ray diffraction
3 July 2010
analysis, the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and energy spectrum analysis. Clay mineral compo-
Accepted 21 August 2010
sition and distribution characteristics of the main hydrocarbon reservoirs, i.e., from the Jurassic and
PaleogeneeNeogene, were explored. We analyzed the main factors which affected these attributes. The
Keywords:
results show that the major clay minerals in the northern margin are chlorite, kaolinite, illite, smectite
Qaidam Basin
Northern marginal area
and illite/smectite inter-stratified minerals. Illite is the most widely spread clay mineral in this area.
Clay mineral Chlorite is mainly found in the entire Neogene and in shallow horizons of the Paleogene. Smectite is
Distribution characteristics enriched in the shallow PaleogeneeNeogene. There are large amounts of kaolinite and illite/smectite
Genesis inter-stratified minerals in the Jurassic. The major factors affecting the different development of clay
minerals in the region are properties of parent rocks, paleoclimate and paleowater media conditions,
diagenesis transformation, tectonic and terrain conditions.
Copyright Ó 2011, China University of Mining & Technology. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction development characteristics, distribution of the layer domains and

The importance of studying clay minerals in the process of oil
exploration and development has become increasingly prominent
in recent years [1e5]. The study of clay minerals and reservoir
protection is one of the important ways to solve problems of pre-
venting borehole wall collapse, increasing drilling speed and
quality, protecting the reservoir and improving the efficiency of oil
recovery and has been an important topic in the field of petroleum
geology and drilling engineering. Currently, domestic scientists are
mainly focused on the research of clay minerals in the entire Qai-
dam Basin [6e9]. Zhao et al. studied the characteristics of clay
minerals in the Qaidam Basin, their distribution, the factors
affecting these clay minerals in reservoirs and analyzed the envi-
ronment in which they were formed and their evolution [10,11].
Wang et al. investigated the characteristics of clay minerals and
their horizontal distribution of PaleogeneeNeogene in the Qaidam
Basin and proposed corresponding reservoir protection measures
[12,13]. However, there has been little research carried out on
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ86 15895208024.
E-mail address: wanglinlin0321@163.com (W. Linlin).
factors affecting clay minerals of different tectonic units in the
northern margin of the Qaidam Basin. The results of this research
should affect the application of an effective parameter extraction
program in the process of reservoir protection and efficient
exploitation of oil and gas resources in this region.
2. Geological background
The Qaidam Basin, located toward the northwest of the Qinghai-
Tibet Plateau, is a Meso-Cenozoic intra-continental sedimentary
basin developed on the pre-Jurassic Qaidam plate and a negative
tectonic unit confined by the Altun, Qilian and the east Kunlun
mountains [14]. The northern margin of the Qaidam Basin is
divided into a series of sub-tectonic units, such as the Eboliang
tectonic belt, the Lenghu tectonic zone, the Kunteyi, Yibei and
Serteng depressions, the Pingtai and Mahai-Dahonggou salients,
the Yuqia-Hongshan fault depression and others. These units
constitute a pattern of alternating convex and concave planes.
Reservoirs in the study area, originating in the Jurassic, Paleo-
gene and Neogene, are mainly continental clastic rocks consisting
of conglomerates, sandstone and siltstone. The Jurassic reservoir is

1674-5264/$ e see front matter Copyright Ó 2011, China University of Mining & Technology. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mstc.2010.08.001
142 W. Linlin et al. / Mining Science and Technology (China) 21 (2011) 141e145
located in the Huxishan (J1h), Xiaomeigou (J1x) and Dameigou (J2d)
formations of the middle and lower Jurassic and the Caishiling (J3c)
and Hongshuigou (J3h) formations of the upper Jurassic. However,
at present, reservoirs with formed oil and gas pools or with oil and
gas as shown from drilling, are mainly located in the Huxishan
formation (Well Lengke 1), the Xiaomeigou formation (Lenghu
Oilfield III) and the Caishiling formation (Yuqia Oilfield). Reservoirs
of Paleogene and Neogene are located in the Lulehe (E1þ2), lower
Ganchaigou (E3), upper Ganchaigou (N1) and Youshashan (N2)
formations. Currently, oil and gas pools or oil and gas showing to
different degrees are seen in each reservoir of the Paleogene and
Neogene, which demonstrates that Paleogene and Neogene reser-
voirs are distributed more widely. Therefore, we selected rock
samples of the Jurassic, Paleogene and Neogene and studied the
types and distribution characteristics of clay minerals in order to
discuss further the main factors affecting the development of clay
minerals.
3. Types and distribution characteristics of clay minerals
Eleven rock samples were collected from six regions in the
northern margin of the Qaidam Basin as shown in Fig. 1. Relative,
quantitative results of clay minerals were obtained by X-ray
diffraction analysis and are presented in Table 1. The results show
that the clay minerals show similar regularity but exhibit some
specific characteristics in different regions, times and well locations
as well as in different layers of the same well locations. Clay
minerals of each region and layer mainly contain chlorite, kaolinite,
illite, smectite and illite/smectite inter-stratified minerals, but their
relative amounts vary widely.
Chlorite rarely occurs in every region and is mainly found in the
shallow layers of the Neogene and Paleogene with its relative
amounts in general ranging between 8% and 16%. The relative
amount of chlorite in the N22 of Well Yacan 3 at a depth of 2080 m
can range up to 30%. In contrast, the relative amount of chlorite in
the Jurassic is small, in general less than 5%.
The amount of kaolinite in each region changes greatly and
ranges from 1% to 87%. High levels of kaolinite are mainly found in
the Jurassic.
Illite is the most common clay mineral of the region, typically
amounting to more than 20%. Its relative amount changes from
5e10% to 70e80% with an increase in depth. Yet the relative amount
of illite is only 7% in J1 of the Well Lengke 1 at a depth of 4314 m.
Smectite is mainly found in shallow PaleogeneeNeogene layers
with relative amounts varying from 14% to 52%. Its relative amount
Fig. 1. Location of the samples.
in E23 of Well Leng 87 at a depth of 1400 m can be as high as 81%. In
general, smectite is seldom found in the Jurassic with amounts of
less than 5%. Illite/smectite as an inter-stratified mineral which, in
general, accounts for less than 10% and usually for less than 5%,
rarely occurs in this region. However, it is rather well developed in
the Jurassic accounting for more than 15% in the deeper layers of
wells E I-2 and Yu 25.
4. Genesis of clay minerals
Clay minerals are classified into weathering clay minerals,
authigenic clay minerals, diagenetic clay minerals as well as altered
clay minerals according to their genesis [9]. The main factors
affecting the formation, changes in content and characteristic
combinations of various clay minerals are properties of parent rock,
climate conditions, terrain, diagenesis, tectonic movement, etc.
Differences in development of clay minerals in various regions,
horizons and depths of the northern margin of the Qaidam Basin are
mainly induced by properties of parent rock, paleoclimate and pal-
eowater media conditions, genesis, tectonic and terrain conditions.
4.1. Properties of parent rock
Weathering clay minerals are markedly controlled by properties
of parent rock which are simultaneously the material sources of
clay minerals resulting from other causes. Frequent magmatic
activities of the northern margin of the Qaidam Basin, with varying
degrees of outcrops, from ultrabasic to acidic rocks, provide the
material basis for the formation of terrigenous clay minerals as well
as weathering and leaching-type clay minerals.
Table 1 shows that the amount of chlorite is relatively high in
the Lenghu 7, Mahai and Nanbaxian regions mainly because the
NW-trending basic and ultrabasic rock belt of the Early Paleozoic in
the northern margin of the Qaidam Basin ranges from the Serteng
Mountain in the west, through the Lvliang Mountain, Shenglikou
and the Xitie Mountain, to the Shaliu River in the east. The rock belt,
mainly composed of pure peridotite, oblique lherzolite, pyroxenite,
serpentinite, etc, is the provenance of these regions [15]. Mg-, Fe-
rich chlorite is generated from changes in the basic volcanic rocks of
the source area. The scanning electron microscopic photograph
(Fig. 2a) of the rock samples in Well Lengqi 1 shows that the rock
samples are rich in fine-grained cements. The energy spectrogram
analysis (Fig. 2b) shows that the main components of cements are
Si and Fe, which coincides with the composition of the basic
volcanic rocks.
Meanwhile, the Altun and Qilian mountains around the
northern margin of the Qaidam Basin are mainly composed of
weakly magnetic chlorite quartz schist, chlorite schist and marble
of the lower Paleozoic Serteng Group. These rocks provided the
material basis for the basin evolution of the northern margin of the
Qaidam Basin during the Meso-Cenozoic [16]. Consequently, chlo-
rite in the study area mostly originated from rock debris of the
source area.
4.2. Paleoclimate and paleowater media conditions
The formation and preservation of clay minerals depend upon
elements of the palaeoenvironment, of which paleoclimate and
paleowater media are key factors.
Wells Lengke 1 and Yu 25 in the Jurassic are rich in kaolinite of
which the relative amount is usually more than 50%, in contrast
with the rare chlorite. The main reasons are:
1) The Jurassic climate was warm and humid with heavy rainfall
in the Qaidam Basin, which contributed to the strong chemical
 W. Linlin et al. / Mining Science and Technology (China) 21 (2011) 141e145 143

Table 1
Relative results of quantitative analysis of clay minerals.

Sampling position Well Layer Depth (m) Cl K I S I/S Remark

Eboliang E I-2 J1þ2 4836 2 1 80 2 15 More I, more I in I/S
E2 E23 4835.8 2 4 72 2 20 More I, more I in I/S
4841 2 13 75 2 8 More I, more I in I/S
Ezhong 4 E23 234 11 9 25 52 3 More S
Lenghu Lengqi 1 N12 1710.8 16 15 42 21 6 More I
Leng 87 E23 1400 5 4 7 81 3 More S
Lengke 1 J1 4314.3 1 81 7 3 8 More K
Mahai Ma 8 E13 565.8 8 49 21 14 8 More K
Nanbaxian Xian 8 N12 1245 8 32 48 7 5 More I&K
Xian 9 N12 1373.8 11 20 36 28 5 More I&S
1470 12 13 30 43 2 More S
N1 1529 15 20 22 38 5 More S
Yuqia Yu 25 J2 231.5 4 83 6 3 4 More K
245 2 87 4 3 4 More K
249.7 1 87 6 4 2 More K
425 2 80 10 2 6 More K
616.6 3 56 11 5 25 More K, more I in I/S
685 2 74 7 2 15 More K, more I in I/S
707 1 62 8 2 27 More K, more I in I/S
Yahu Yacan 3 N22 2080 30 4 60 2 4 More I & Cl

Note: Cl, chlorite; K, kaolinite; I, illite; S, smectite; I/S, illite/smectite inter-stratified mineral.

weathering of feldspar and the mica group. Consequently,

minerals are easily hydrolyzed to kaolinite, called the surface
exposure marker.

The hydrolysis process is:

potash feldspardillitedkaolinite;
muscovitedillitedsmectitedkaolinite;
black micadchloritedsmectitedkaolinite.
2) The pH of kaolinite formations and preservation varies from 5.0
to 6.0 as shown in Table 2. With the hydrolysis process, the
media tend to become alkali resulting from the precipitation of
Kþ and other alkali cations, which are not conducive to the
formation and preservation of kaolinite. However, a Kþ-rich,
slightly alkaline environment is beneficial for the enrichment
of illite. For instance, the relative amount of J1þ2 illite in Well E
I-2 can be as high as 80%. The hydrolysis process of potash
feldspar is as follows:

5KAlSi3O8(K  feldspar) þ 4Hþ þ 4HCO 3 þ 16H2O / 4HCO3


þ
þ KAl5Si7O20(OH)4(Illite) þ 4K (Leaching loss) þ 8H4SiO4 (1)

KAl5Si7O20(OH)4(Illite) þ nH2O / Kþ(Leaching loss) þ

(Al2)[Si11/3Al1/3]O10(OH)2$E$nH2O(Beidellite) þ
Al2Si2O5(OH)4(Kaolinite) þ 2SiO2 (2)

In the Jurassic Lenghu tectonic zone and the Yuqia region fault
depressionedepression sedimentation is found. The coal-bearing
strata and source rocks are well developed in this warm and humid
lake and swamp environment. The sedimentary source rocks in
Well Lengke 1 are thick and contain large amounts of organic
matter of sapropelic and humus types. The lower Jurassic of Lengke
Well 1, at depths ranging from 3480 to 4340 m and a vitrinite
reflectance of 0.70e1.30%, is in the mature to over mature stage of
the evolution of organic matter. In the evolution of organic matter,
organic acid is produced resulting in acidic paleowater media, so

Table 2
pH conditions of clay mineral formation and preservation.

Kaolinite Illite Smectite Chlorite

Fig. 2. Scanning electron microscopic photograph and energy spectrogram of rock
pH 5.0e6.0 6.0e7.0 8.0e9.0 >7.0
samples in Well Lengqi 1.
144 W. Linlin et al. / Mining Science and Technology (China) 21 (2011) 141e145
that feldspar and other minerals directly hydrolyze into kaolinite
which is preserved in these acidic media. Illite resulting from
K-feldspar hydrolysis directly converts into kaolinite, as shown in
the following reaction, instead of into Beidellite in this acidic
environment. Rare chlorite and smectite are formed and preserved
in the alkaline environment.
2KAl5Si7O20(OH)4(Illite) þ 2Hþ þ 2HCO3 þ 13H2O /
5Al2Si2O5(OH)4(Kaolinite) þ 4H4SiO4 þ 2Kþ þ 2HCO3
3) Pore water is drained away by the oil and gas generated in the
evolution of organic matter, which hinders the reaction of
kaolinite and water. Therefore, kaolinite was preserved without
reconversion in the diagenetic process after the deposition and
burial in the Jurassic.
The climate has been dry in the Qaidam Basin since the Paleo-
gene so that physical weathering is predominant, compared with
relatively weak chemical weathering. Illite and smectite from the
source area were directly transported and deposited in the basin,
where they are preserved under conditions of weak weathering.
Incomplete hydrolysis of feldspar and other minerals result in
generally small amounts of kaolinite and relatively increased
amounts of illite and smectite in the PaleogeneeNeogene of the
study area. In addition, the climate in the Neogene was drier than
that in the Paleogene. Correspondingly, the degree of salinization
was higher and the concentration of Kþ increased, which led to part
conversions from kaolinite into illite and from smectite into the
illite/smectite inter-stratified mineral and illite. The large amounts
of illite in wells Lengqi 1, Xian 8 and Yacan 3 reflect this feature.
4.3. Diagenesis
The development of clay minerals is not everywhere the same
because of different depths of the rock samples from the same
geological age. With an increase in temperature and depth, diage-
netic changes occurred in feldspar and quartz, which produced the
clay minerals kaolinite, illite and others. Meanwhile, conversion
was bound to take place among clay minerals. Common conver-
sions, in which the dissolution of minerals with potassium such as
K-feldspar, mica and other minerals within the rocks provide the
necessary potassium source, is from kaolinite and smectite to illite
and chlorite [17,18]. The conversion from smectite to illite releases
Mg2þ, Fe2þ and Fe3þ, which promotes the conversion from kaolinite
to chlorite. Smectite and kaolinite are almost entirely converted to
illite and chlorite because of the great depth of N22 in Well Yacan 3 of
the Yahu structural belt. We speculate that chlorite was converted
from kaolinite because we did not find any chlorite/smectite inter-
stratified mineral.
The amount of Jurassic kaolinite in Well Yu 25 is high. With
increasing depth, the amount of kaolinite declines, while the
amounts of illite and illite/smectite inter-stratified mineral gradu-
ally increase. The overlying strata are denuded, minerals are found
at more shallow depths and diagenesis is slowed down or stopped
altogether, mainly because of later tectonic movements. Although
the E32 of Well E 2 in the Eboliang region is young in geological age,
there is, in contrast strong diagenesis with predominant illite and
illite/smectite inter-stratified mineral as well as very small amounts
of smectite and kaolinite at great depths. Smectite accounts for 52%
at a depth of 234 m for Well Ezhong 4 of similar geological age.
Although there are geographical differences between these two
wells, the effect of diagenesis differences induced by different
depths on the conversion of clay minerals is also demonstrated.
4.4. Tectonic and terrain conditions
The height of the terrain affects the strength of weathering.
Well Ma 8 is located in the Mahai structural high part of the
MahaieNanbaxian anticline belt, which is the Dahonggou uplift
sub-region in the northern faulted block belt of the Qaidam Basin.
Although the climate of E13 is dry, large amounts of smectite and
illite were formed in Well Ma 8. However, owing to the impact of
(3) a late Neogene tectonic movement, the Mahai structure uplifted
further. The strata above N2 and part of N1 in the top are denudated,
resulting in more intense weathering. In the end, a large amount of
kaolinite was formed.
The mechanical sedimentary differentiation of clay minerals is
clearly affected by terrain conditions. The order of decrease in the
grain size of clay minerals is kaolinite > illite > smectite, while
chlorite only occurs in the fine-grained fractions. Well Yacan 3 of
the Yahu structure is located in a structural low part, which is
another reason for its abundance in fine-grained minerals of illite
and chlorite.
5. Conclusions
1) Developed clay minerals in the study region are chlorite,
kaolinite, illite, smectite and illite/smectite inter-stratified
minerals. Illite is the most developed clay mineral of the region,
typically with a relative amount of more than 20%, which may
increase to more than 80% with increasing depth. Chlorite
rarely occurs and is mainly found in shallow layers of the
Neogene and Paleogene. Smectite mainly occurs in the shallow
PaleogeneeNeogene, while it is seldom found in the Jurassic.
The relative amounts of kaolinite vary considerably, but are
large in the Jurassic. The amount of illite/smectite inter-strati-
fied mineral is low, but increases in the Jurassic.
2) Frequent magmatic activities in the northern margin of the
Qaidam Basin, from basic to ultrabasic, provided the material
basis for the formation of terrigenous clay minerals as well as
weathering and leaching-type clay minerals. Paleoclimate
differences in the Jurassic, Paleogene and Neogene are the main
causes for characteristic differences in clay minerals of their
corresponding strata. Diagenesis, weathering and sedimentary
differentiation as well as tectonic movements have a large
impact on the development of clay minerals in this region.
Acknowledgments
Financial support for this work, provided by the National
Petroleum and Gas Resources Strategic Area Selection Survey &
Evaluation projects in 2005, is gratefully acknowledged.
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