Journal of African Earth Sciences 36 (2003) 357–369

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Geology and geochemistry of bauxite deposits in Lushoto District,

Usambara Mountains, Tanzania
M.K.D. Mutakyahwa *, J.R. Ikingura, A.H. Mruma
Department of Geology, University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 35052, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Received 15 November 2001; accepted 7 May 2003

Abstract
Bauxite deposits in the Usambara Mountains of north eastern Tanzania occur as remnants of residual deposits on two geo-
morphologically related plateaus of Mabughai-Mlomboza and Kidundai at Magamba in Lushoto, Usambara Mountains. The
parent rocks for the deposits are mainly granulites and feldspathic gneisses of Neoproterozoic Mozambique belt. The plateaus
represent a preserved Late Cretaceous–Lower Tertiary old land surface (African surface). Other parts of the Usambara Mountains
and the neighbouring Pare Mountains are covered mostly by red–brown lateritic soils and impure reddish-brown kaolinitic clays.
The bauxite deposits contain mainly Al2 O3 (40–69 wt.%), Fe2 O3 (3–10 wt.%), SiO2 (0.16–7 wt.%) and other elements occur in
quantities not substantial to affect the quality or processing of the bauxite, and are attributed to the presence of relic minerals.
Gibbsite makes up to 98 vol.% of the bauxite ore in special cases. Gibbsite is accompanied by goethite in the ore. Boehmite occurs in
small amounts and is usually accompanied by hematite. Impurities include goethite, hematite, kaolinite, and minor relic quartz and
microcline. Kaolinite is the sole clay mineral encountered in the bauxite ore, suggesting mature soil profiles and a development of the
bauxite deposits on a well-drained peneplanation. Ore reserve estimates from the drilling data and surface geological mapping of the
deposits yielded bauxite reserves of about 37 million tonnes.
Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Bauxite; Saprolite; Gibbsite; Relic minerals; Old land surfaces

1. Introduction The thickness of the bauxite varies from 20 m (shallow)

The Mabughai-Mlomboza plateau, on the western
part of the Usambara Mountains, is located 7 km north
of Lushoto township, about 140 km west of Tanga (Fig.
1). It is situated on a down-faulted block, which is
slightly tilted to the SSE (Fig. 3A), thereby preserving
the old developed soil profiles or old land surface. Field
investigations of bauxite and clay occurrences in the
Usambara Mountains, in the northern part of Lushoto
District, show that the bauxite in this area is concen-
trated on the ferralitic soils, which have been described
earlier by Bagnall et al. (1963). The Kidundai-Magamba
plateau is located 4 km east of the Mabughai-Mlomboza
bauxite plateau (Fig. 2). It has a lenticular shape with a
long axis of 1.2 km, and a width of about 300 m. The
areal extension of both the Mabughai-Mlomboza and
Kidundai-Magamba bauxite plateaus is shown in Fig. 1.
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: kamugishamkd@yahoo.com, mutakyahwa@hot-
mail.com (M.K.D. Mutakyahwa).
to 40 m (deepest) (Mutakyahwa, 1991; GENMIN,
1993).
The morphotectonic setting of the plateau is almost
the same as that of the Mabughai bauxite. The plateau is
located on a down-faulted block. Toughness of the
bauxitic crust coupled with slow tectonic movements
during the bauxitization process led to the preservation
of these deposits. The process of erosion is inevitable in
such elevated areas, hence relics of bauxite crusts de-
posited in lowlands were reported by Nanyaro (1980).
The results presented in this paper summarizes most of
the findings by the authors during the project carried out
in the period 1997–1999 (NORAD, 1999).
2. Geology and geomorphology
The Mabughai-Mlomboza and Kidundai-Magamba
plateaus consist of high-grade metamorphic rocks of the
Proterozoic Mozambique belt (Fig. 1). The main rock
types, which are exposed along road cuts and in

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358 M.K.D. Mutakyahwa et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 36 (2003) 357–369

Fig. 1. Geological overview of the northern area of the Usambara Mountains, indicating the localities of bauxite and related deposits in the area.

Fig. 2. Map showing the Mabughai-Mlomboza and Kidundai-Magamba plateaus bauxite in Lushoto District.
 M.K.D. Mutakyahwa et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 36 (2003) 357–369
Fig. 3. (A) Bauxite of the Mabughai-Mlomboza Plateau. The photo-
graph shows the fault escarpment marking the western boundary of
the Mabughai-Mlomboza Plateau with scanty vegetation. (B) Surface
of the Mabughai bauxite with angular to sub-rounded bauxitic piso-
liths resulting from collapse of residual breccia formed during repeated
cycles of soil formation.
outcrops, are pyroxene garnet-granulites and hornblende
gneisses. The rocks are deeply weathered leading to the
formation of reddish-brown soils. In some places
bauxite and ferricretes have been preserved while in well
protected less steeper areas a deep mantle of reddish-
brown clayey soils and kaolinitic saprolite are exposed
supporting tropical forest and agriculture as it has been
described elsewhere in tropical areas (Fookes, 1997).
The geomorphology of the Mabughai-Mlomboza and
Kidundai at Magamba, is characterized by steeply rug-
ged topography with many mountain peaks separated
by deep valleys. The high peaks of the area lie between
1800 and 2500 m above sea level. The Mabughai-
Mlomboza plateau represents a down-faulted block
bounded by a sharp fault escarpment in the west (Fig.
3A), thus preserving the entire soil profile from the
ferricretes and bauxite through the saprolite horizon
to the fresh rock at the lower part in the profile
(Mutakyahwa, 1991). Generally, the Usambara-Pare
Mountains consist of a series of uplifted blocks sepa-
rated by numerous faults preserving an old land surface
in down-faulted small blocks. The authors consider a
tectonic movement after bauxitization, that is lowering
359
of bauxitized blocks without much effects of erosion.
Such process of faulting and preservation of bauxite
deposits and colluvium type bauxite have been reported
from other part of the world (Sigolo, 1988).
3. Previous work
Teale (1922) analysed weathered products occurring
on the granulites and gneisses at Amani in Tanga, the
composition of which approached that of bauxite. The
average composition of these samples was found to be
Al2 O3 57.72 wt.%, SiO2 10.53 wt.%, Fe2 O3 1.15 wt.%,
TiO2 1.66 wt.% and H2 O 26.80 wt.%. Basset and James
(1951) analysed ferralitic samples from the Usambara
Mountains which indicated low content of Al2 O3 . They
postulated the presence of bauxitic material in the al-
luvium of the surrounding rivers debouching from the
mountains onto the flatter country at the base. Nanyaro
(1980) analysed samples from Amani for alumina, which
he found to be in a range of 20–30 wt.%. The Mabughai-
Mlomboza bauxite was being mined by villagers and
rural road maintenance people for road ballast and
building material in Lushoto, before it was discovered to
be valuable bauxite. Mutakyahwa and Valeton (1989)
studied the material and was the first to report that it is a
high-grade bauxite. A follow-up study to assess the
bauxite deposit in terms of quality and reserves was
done by GENMIN (1993). The deposit was initially
estimated to contain about 15 million tonnes of bauxite
ore.
4. Methodology
The areal extension, thickness and quality of the
bauxite deposits were assessed from geological mapping,
drilling data, and chemical and mineralogical studies.
Samples were taken from outcrops, quarries, road cuts,
and the surface of the plateaus in order to supplement
the information from the drilled cores (GENMIN,
1993). Several localities on the Mabughai-Mlomboza
plateau were studied and samples of bauxite and sapro-
lite collected for laboratory analysis. Powder X-ray
diffraction from selected bauxite and clay samples was
conducted. Powdered raw materials with an approxi-
mate grain size less than 50 lm were used. The finner the
powder of the sample to be analysed, the better the re-
sults from XRD determinations. Clay samples were
analysed under three different conditions namely air-
dried, glycolated, and heated to 500 °C, in order to study
the clay mineralogy. PHILIPS PW 1730/10 and XD-D1
SHIMADZU VG-207RII X-ray diffractometers were
used to conduct the XRD analysis at the Southern
and Eastern African Mineral Center (SEAMIC) and
Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) laboratories
360 M.K.D. Mutakyahwa et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 36 (2003) 357–369
respectively. Monochronometer Cu-alpha rays were
employed in the analysis under the following conditions:
Target: Cu, voltage 40 kV, current 20 mA, scanning
speed 2 degrees per minute, scan range 2–70°, drive axis
2h. For oriented clay samples, the raw samples (sapro-
lite) were soaked separately in distilled water and shaken
overnight to have all clay minerals in suspension. By
using pipettes, suspensions from each sample containing
clay materials <2 lm were allowed to dry on glass
plates, from which the qualitative analyses of clay
mineral composition was performed. Sixty five pulver-
ized samples were analysed for chemical composition
by X-ray fluorescence. Six hundred milligrams of
each sample were fused with 1000 mg of lithium tet-
raborate (flux) at 1200 °C to form glass beads which
were X-rayed using a PHILIPS 1410 Diffractometer.
About 60 samples of bauxite, ferricretes and saprolites
were thin sectioned for petrographic studies. The main
reason was to quantify the neoformed minerals: gibbsite,
goethite, kaolinite and relic minerals.
5. Description of lateritic bauxite profiles
A high-grade bauxite crust covers the Mabughai-
Mlomboza and Magamba-Kidundai plateaus. A thick
weathered mantle, which is over 100 m thick has de-
veloped on these plateaus. Similar lateritic bauxite de-
posits have been discussed elsewhere by Valeton (1983)
and Bardossy and Aleva (1990). The mantle grades from
a ferricrete horizon into a bauxite horizon down to the
saprolite and B/C-horizons. These horizons differ in
thickness from 4 to 40 m depending on the topography,
which governs the groundwater table in the area. Fig. 5
indicates the succession of different horizons developed
in the entire soil profile of the area.
5.1. Pisoliths
The top surface of the bauxite deposit on these pla-
teaus consists of angular to sub-rounded bauxite, go-
ethitic–hematite and maghemite pisoliths which are up
to 15 cm in diameter (Fig. 3A and B). Small pisoliths,
which are less than 0.5 cm in diameter are mainly ma-
ghemite or magnetite. The bigger pisoliths contain an
aluminous core, which is whitish composed mainly of
gibbsite and kaolinite. Alternate episodes of wet and dry
conditions led to the formation of smooth pisoliths or
concretions of varying shapes. These concretions may
have their centers filled with gibbsite (bauxite core)
surrounded by a goethite–hematite cortex or may be
entirely gibbsitic (bauxite) or iron oxide. The textures of
such pisoliths indicate the polycylic nature of the profiles
(Boulange, 1984; Aleva, 1994). The pisoliths overlie
ferricrete and vuggy bauxite. The vuggy bauxite layer
changes downward into a hard and massive bauxite, and
finally into a friable bauxite and kaolinitic–gibbsitic
saprolite (lithomarge) in deeper parts of the profiles.
These textural variations of the bauxite are similar to
those described by Bardossy and Aleva (1990) and
Valeton et al. (1991) from other deposits.
5.2. Ferricrete
The ferricrete horizon varies from a few centimeters
to 4 m in thickness. It is dark reddish-brown to reddish-
brown or yellowish brown. Usually this horizon is
massive and dense. In some places the ferricrete is
nodular and brecciated or exhibits a porous (vuggy or
spongy) texture. With increasing depth, the ferricrete
grades to the bauxite horizon. This horizon is not
strictly typical ferricrete but rather a summital bauxite
crust with relatively high iron content by relative ac-
cumulation process and loss of aluminium, resulting to
Fe–Al laterites. In this paper the term ferricrete has been
used following the definition by Aleva (1994).
5.3. Bauxite ore
The bauxite ore is pinkish white to brownish white. It
is porous, hard to friable, and light in weight. Where
porous bauxite exists, it has a vesicular (vuggy) texture.
As pore size and porosity decrease with increasing
depth, the bauxite becomes fine and friable, and acquires
a box-work texture. This bauxite crust grades down into
the friable soft kaolinite–gibbsitic saprolite (Fig. 4A and
B). Conspicuous minerals in both ferricrete and bauxite
include gibbsite, goethite, hematite and kaolinite.
Gibbsite has a shiny and platy structure in hand speci-
men (using a hand lens). Goethite is usually yellowish
brown while hematite is red. Both minerals are the main
sources of bauxite colouration. Maghemite and mag-
netite were identified by their magnetic properties.
Sparsely distributed fractured quartz grains occur in the
bauxite.
5.4. Saprolite
The saprolite horizon consists mainly of kaolinite
that can be distinguished by its white colour. Gibbsite is
seldom observed as shiny plate crystals, whereas go-
ethite and hematite are recognized by their yellowish
brown and red colours respectively. Relic quartz in the
saprolite is fractured, probably due to the dissolution
process. The bauxitic profiles of the Usambara Moun-
tains contain newly formed textures and structures as
well as newly formed minerals. Kidundai bauxite is an
exceptionally high-grade massive ore. This bauxite
probably formed by a complete alteration of the peg-
matitic body. The alteration of the pegmatite seems to
be isovolumetric, with all its relict textures preserved.
 M.K.D. Mutakyahwa et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 36 (2003) 357–369
Fig. 4. (A) Vertical profile of bauxite deposit at Mabughai. (B) High-
grade whitish brown bauxite at Mabughai-Mlomboza Plateau in
Lushoto, Usambara Mountains.
6. Reserve estimation
The areal distribution of the Mabughai-Mlomboza,
and the Kidundai-Magamba bauxite deposits is pre-
sented in Fig. 2. The deposits were mapped by several
closely spaced traverses, so as to facilitate ore reserve
estimation. The Mabughai-Mlomboza deposit is 1.5 km
long, 0.5 km wide, and covers an area of approximately
750,000 m2 . The tonnage estimate is based on the thick-
ness and area covered by the bauxite crust. An additional
tonnage is derived from the bauxite scree and pisolitic
bauxite surrounding the bauxite crust. On the average
the bauxite crust has a thickness of 14.5 m (GENMIN,
1993). The mean specific gravity of bauxite in this area is
2.7 g/cc (Mutakyahwa, 1991). The total estimated reserve
of this deposit is therefore about 29 million tonnes.
The Kidundai-Magamba bauxite deposit is smaller in
terms of areal extension compared to the Mabughai
deposit. It covers an area of about 120,000 m2 . The
thickness of the bauxite, as it was estimated from a
contoured map, is about 25 m. Taking a density of 2.7 g/
cc for the bauxite into account, the reserves of this de-
posit is estimated to be about 8 million tonnes. This
makes the total bauxite reserves in the two deposits to be
37 million tonnes. This size is sufficient enough to make
361
these deposits economically viable. Furthermore, the
occurrence of these bauxite deposits so closely together
enhances their economic viability, because they can all
be mined using the same infrastructure set-up.
7. Petrology of bauxite and saprolite
7.1. Relic minerals
The relic minerals identified in thin sections from
bauxite and saprolite in the Usambara Mountains in-
clude fractured quartz, zircon, rutile, hornblende, gar-
net, sphene, ilmenite and magnetite. Residual quartz
grains are usually fractured and corroded. They are ce-
mented either by gibbsite, iron oxides or kaolinite.
Wherever quartz is cemented by gibbsite, there is a
very conspicuous space between the two minerals. In case
quartz grains are embedded in iron oxide cement, fissures
between relict quartz fragments are filled by clayey iron
oxides that are sometimes allogenic. The amount of
quartz in the bauxite ranges from 0% to 15%. The
amount of quartz increases in the saprolite. However, the
quartz content differs from one sample to another de-
pending on the original composition of the parent rock.
Zircon usually shows an idiomorphic form with a
well developed zonation. The core part is well rounded
in shape and dusty in appearance, which suggests a de-
trital origin of the zircon grains and an overgrowth of
newly contributed material during metamorphism.
Usually it may be broken but does not show any indi-
cations of chemical corrosion which supports the fact
that zircon exists as a relic metastable mineral even in
highly weathered profiles.
Very small irregular residuals of hornblende and py-
roxenes are rarely found embedded in iron oxides and
gibbsite cement or a kaolinitic–gibbsitic matrix. These
minerals, which are seldom encountered in laterites and
bauxites, are worth to be mentioned because of their
importance in explaining the trace element composition
of the bauxite ore.
Garnet was found in the lowermost parts of the
bauxite and laterite horizons, and in the saprolite. In
these horizons garnet may be wholly or partly replaced
by goethite–gibbsite septa, creating irregular network or
box-work structures. Opaque minerals include magne-
tite, ilmenite and maghemite. Relic microcline was de-
tected by XRD in some samples.
7.2. Neoformed minerals
Neoformed minerals in the bauxite and saprolite in-
clude kaolinite, illite (hydromuscovite), iddingsite, goeth-
ite, hematite, gibbsite, boehmite, anatase, and leucoxene.
Kaolinite was encountered in all saprolite samples. In the
ferricrete and bauxite horizons (Box-horizons) kaolinite
362 M.K.D. Mutakyahwa et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 36 (2003) 357–369
Fig. 5. Schematic bauxite profile summarizing field observations.
may or may not be present. In thin sections kaolinite
worms or pseudomorphs after feldspars were seen.
Whole rock powder mount XRD mineralogical analyses
of selected samples are presented in Table 2. Two dif-
ferent generations of kaolinite were observed. The first
generation, kaolinite (I), resulted from alteration of pri-
mary minerals like feldspars. The second generation, e.g.
kaolinite (II), is considered to have crystallized from
aluminous solutions and allogenic kaolinite (Beissner,
1989). The latter type of kaolinite is restricted to pores
and fissures in the Box-horizons (ferricrete and bauxite).
In the Box-horizons kaolinite is commonly replaced by
gibbsite or in the presence of iron by goethite. The same
has been reported from other areas (M€ uller and Bocqu-
ier, 1986). Although much of the formed kaolinite is
dissolved leading to the formation of gibbsite in bauxite,
fine kaolinite and even kaolinite worms, which have not
suffered desilication can still be identified in the Box-
horizons. This type of kaolinite is usually stained by
goethite and spotted by hematite. Well crystallized
kaolinite usually shows all distinct peaks 7.19, 4.44, 4.35,
4.15 and 3.56 A . Good crystallinity reflects excellent
drainage conditions, which eventually leads to the alter-
ation of the kaolinite into gibbsite. The type of kaolinite
encountered in most samples indicated high crystallinity,
suggesting excellent drainage conditions in the area and
mature soil profiles. Kaolinite formation is an indicative
of a leaching regime that is very effective in removing
silicon. Under such conditions kaolinite slowly weathers,
resulting in decomposition of layer sheets into silicic acid
which is soluble and is removed by leaching, promoting
the formation of gibbsite (Foth, 1990). In ferricretes, the
crystallinity of kaolinite is always poor because of the
Fe3þ substitution in the kaolinite structure (Mestdagh
et al., 1980; Bravard and Righi, 1988). The effect of gly-
colation to kaolinite is noted by the shortening of peaks
by 30–50%. There is no emergence of other peaks after
glycolation of samples. This proved that these are mature
soils lacking swelling clays. When the sample is heated to
500 °C, the kaolinite, gibbsite and boehmite peaks dis-
appear. The bauxite ore in the Usambara Mountains is
characterized by the presence of gibbsite and boehmite as
main aluminium oxide minerals. Gibbsite which is a
gamma modification of Al(OH)3 , occurred in all samples
from the Box-horizons and in the saprolites. Gibbsite
ranges from 80 to 98 vol.% in bauxite ores, which is the
same trend as that of high water content (LOI) in the
samples (Table 1, Fig. 8A and B). In ferricrete samples it
Table 1
Major elements composition (wt.%) of bauxite ores and clay samples (Panel A); trace elements composition (ppm) for selected samples (Panel B)
Sample no. Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 SiO2 K2 O CaO MgO TiO2 H2 Oþ
Panel A
3a 60.62 10.50 1.25 n.d. 0.08 0.06 n.d. 27.49
3b 33.17 14.01 35.05 n.d. 0.06 0.06 n.d. n.d.
4b 56.44 3.39 13.18 0.07 0.72 0.09 n.d. n.d.
6 50.44 3.26 31.53 n.d. 0.06 0.07 n.d. n.d.
7a 58.20 5.64 10.53 n.d. 0.29 0.07 n.d. 25.27
7b 63.70 8.85 1.08 n.d. 0.27 0.07 n.d. 26.03
7c 60.34 10.89 1.65 n.d. 0.56 0.08 n.d. 26.40

M.K.D. Mutakyahwa et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 36 (2003) 357–369

8b 56.15 13.15 n.d. n.d. 0.25 0.07 n.d. n.d.
11 30.80 9.89 46.77 n.d. 0.06 0.06 n.d. n.d.
12a 42.85 13.23 13.86 n.d. 0.16 0.07 n.d. n.d.
12b 62.30 4.24 7.78 n.d. 0.06 0.06 n.d. 25.56
13b 69.29 4.56 n.d. n.d. 0.08 0.06 n.d. 26.01
15 67.45 5.41 n.d. n.d. 0.27 0.07 n.d. 26.80
16a 66.43 5.27 1.89 n.d. 0.07 0.06 n.d. 26.28
16b 60.92 11.74 n.d. n.d. 0.16 0.16 n.d. n.d.
16c 68.56 5.34 0.32 n.d. 0.16 0.06 n.d. 25.56
17a 65.70 6.33 3.19 n.d. 0.07 0.07 n.d. 24.64
17b 61.61 10.35 n.d. n.d. 0.08 0.06 n.d. n.d.
18 69.38 2.27 2.15 0.02 0.09 0.07 n.d. 26.02
111 33.98 29.19 11.40 1.12 0.05 0.38 3.83 20.14
112 59.55 3.70 6.39 n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.49 29.78
113 59.92 4.52 6.03 n.d. 0.01 n.d. 0.54 28.48
114 43.06 14.97 16.43 n.d. n.d. 0.20 0.80 24.68
115 30.68 12.20 37.59 0.05 0.29 0.42 0.99 15.72
116 50.09 1.94 24.24 0.09 0.08 n.d. 0.21 22.46
117 62.40 3.18 0.87 n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.54 32.61
119 36.03 11.95 33.81 0.04 0.01 0.01 3.07 15.06
120 29.55 22.95 28.11 0.01 0.01 0.13 5.04 n.d.
121 37.68 6.35 39.08 0.01 0.01 n.d. 0.77 n.d.
122 30.45 11.49 41.49 0.01 0.01 n.d. 2.24 n.d.
123 30.34 12.31 39.60 0.01 0.01 0.13 2.76 n.d.
125 56.47 9.79 0.82 n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.88 31.11
126 58.19 7.66 1.36 0.01 n.d. n.d. 1.06 31.23
127 59.18 7.02 0.16 n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.66 32.27
MB1 42.60 18.40 1.82 0.11 n.d. 0.07 0.77 n.d.
MB2 46.50 14.40 1.34 0.02 n.d. 0.02 1.84 n.d.
MB3 46.60 16.80 1.19 0.02 n.d. 0.02 1.36 n.d.
MB4 55.60 7.23 1.09 0.02 n.d. 0.02 1.39 n.d.
MB5 53.70 5.08 1.63 0.02 n.d. 0.02 1.23 n.d.
MB6 56.40 5.34 1.71 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.79 n.d.
MB7 52.60 10.50 1.07 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.94 n.d.
MB8 43.80 21.30 0.82 0.02 0.01 0.02 5.28 n.d.
MB9 58.20 3.00 1.14 0.19 n.d. n.d. 0.39 n.d.
MB10 50.70 10.30 4.37 n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.25 n.d.
MB11 49.50 11.20 3.45 n.d. n.d. 0.05 1.12 n.d.

363
MB12 42.90 22.90 3.15 0.06 0.01 0.04 1.24 n.d.
Table 1 (continued)

364
Sample no. Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 SiO2 K2 O CaO MgO TiO2 H2 Oþ
MB13 51.00 11.30 1.64 n.d. 0.01 n.d. 0.69 n.d.
MB14 54.20 5.59 4.44 n.d. n.d. 0.05 0.62 n.d.
MB15 54.70 7.66 0.44 0.03 n.d. n.d. 0.88 n.d.
MB16 51.10 7.19 0.52 n.d. n.d. 0.03 1.03 n.d.
MB17 39.80 16.90 11.10 n.d. n.d. 0.05 1.38 n.d.

Panel B
Sample 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 125 126 127 128 129

M.K.D. Mutakyahwa et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 36 (2003) 357–369

      
Ba 324 33 159 637 24 93 34 33 59 57 78
           
Ce 102 57 48 54 86 27
      
Co 295 7 37 135 44 16 26 31 26 34 9

Cr 439 70 85 160 68 682 89 24 2 64 113 139 85 57 66 927 180
    
Cu 105 20 17 49 30 15 24 32 17 24 30 102 44
         
La 39 50 34 34 52 49 37 35

Nb 53 13 36 35 68 18 48 28 33 11 28 43 35 37 26 38 36
            
Nd 40 13 77 27 20
             
Ni 9 114 16 29
          
Pb 23 23 11 114 20 14 17
Rb 98 8 11 8 9 9 9 6 8 12 5 12 6 11 8 8 6 12

Sr 36 3 3 8 13 27 3 10 3 8 13 33 14 7 5 8 22
              
Th 13 10 34
           
U 10 13 10 15 10 16
V 686 78 87 267 273 884 74 648 234 442 79 158 192 170 133 116 530 492
       
Y 21 10 10 11 22 8 20 10 16 15
     
Zn 20 28 21 14 141 43 39 81 48 43 35 42
Zr 284 146 174 271 257 335 197 185 153 160 212 3021 1880 328 276 324 58 199

Limits of detection of elements

Main elements wt.% Trace elements ppm
SiO2 0.004 Ba 30
Al2 O3 0.004 Ce 40
Fe2 O3 0.002 Co 7
MgO 0.1 Cr 10
MnO 0.002 Cu 14
CaO 0.0004 La 40
Na2 O 0.3 Nb 7
K2 O 0.0003 Nd 10
TiO2 0.0001 Rb 3
P2 O5 0.007 Sr 3
SO3 0.004 Th 10
U 10
V 15
Y 5
Zn 5
Zr 9

Below detection limit, n.d. ¼ not detected.
 M.K.D. Mutakyahwa et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 36 (2003) 357–369 365

may be as low as 20 vol.%. The mineral has been rec-

Fig. 6. (A) Microphotograph showing gibbsite (grey-whitish) formed
by weathering of a feldspar. Gibbsite septa network is seen on parallel
lines (former feldspar cleavages). White pore spaces are visible sug-
gesting high porosity of bauxite. Dark parts represent goethite–
hematite mineral assemblage. Scale: 1 cm ¼ 0.5 mm, open nicols. (B)
Microphotograph showing high content (over 95%) gibbsite (white
aggregate) in most of the bauxite. Scale: 1 cm ¼ 0.07 mm, semi-crossed
nicols.
ognized in thin sections (Fig. 6A and B). The presence of
gibbsite depending on the mode of formation and oc-
currence in the profile has been further confirmed by
XRD (Table 2).
Two generations of gibbsite have been distinguished
depending on the mode of formation and occurrence in
the profile. Gibbsite (I) is a result of the alteration of
aluminosilicates like plagioclase, K-feldspars, and micas,
without intermediate stage in the process of ferralitic
weathering. This process of aluminium accumulation to
develop gibbsite is referred to as relative accumulation of
aluminium in weathering profiles (Stoops et al., 1979;
Beissner, 1989; Mutakyahwa and Valeton, 1995). This
type of gibbsite occurs as pseudomorphs after plagio-
clase, K-feldspars and micas. This direct alteration of
aluminosilicates results in well developed gibbsite crys-
tals, which are interlocking each other forming gibbsite
septa. In the case of feldspars, former cleavages and
fractures are clearly recognized between interlocking
crystals of gibbsite as hematite or goethite lines, thus
preserving the primary texture. Gibbsite of this type is
usually clear, displaying polysynthetic twinning, and is
unstained by iron oxides (Mutakyahwa, 1991). Also fine
crystallized gibbsite formed by desilication of kaolinite
belongs to this group. In thin sections kaolinite books
can be seen to alter to gibbsite. This type of gibbsite is
usually stained by iron oxides. The accumulation of
alumina starts along the lines of weakness like cleavages
and fractures by the dissolution of primary minerals
leading to the formation of gibbsite septa. As weathering
advances the primary minerals are completely altered

Table 2
Mineralogical composition as estimated from X-ray diffraction and normative calculations from chemical composition by XRF (methodology after
Beissner, 1989)
Sample no. Mineral composition
Gibbsite Boehmite Kaolinite Qtz/Fld Ght/Hm
3a xxxx n.d. n.d. traces traces
3b traces n.d. xxx traces traces
4b xxxx n.d. n.d x(F) n.d.
6 xxxx n.d. n.d. x(Q) n.d.
7a xxx n.d. x x n.d.
7b xxxx x n.d n.d. n.d.
7c xxxx traces n.d. n.d. traces
8b xxxx xx n.d. n.d. traces
11 traces n.d. xxxx x n.d.
12a xxx n.d. x n.d. x
12b xxxx n.d. x n.d. n.d.
116 xxxx n.d. x n.d. n.d.
112 xxxx n.d. x n.d. x
113 xxxx x n.d. n.d. n.d.
117 xxxx x n.d. n.d. n.d.
Note: The percentage of minerals is given in a symbol form as follows: xxxx ¼ >90%, xxx ¼ 75–90%, xx ¼ 10–20%, x ¼ 5–10%, Qtz ¼ quartz,
Fld ¼ feldspar, Ght ¼ goethite, Hm ¼ hematite, traces ¼ <5%, n.d. ¼ not detected.
366 M.K.D. Mutakyahwa et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 36 (2003) 357–369
leaving behind pseudomorphs of gibbsite after feldspars,
or the primary minerals are completely dissolved and
hence form a box-work texture. In some samples gibbsite
occurred in very large quantities such that the strongest
peak started with 100% intensity at 4.86 A  and the

weakest with 4.2% intensity at 3.11 A. Gibbsite (II) is
defined as gibbsite crystallized from aluminous rich so-
lutions draining in the profile and filling pores and fis-
sures. It is referred to as absolute accumulation of
alumina (Beissner, 1989). This type of gibbsite develops
perpendicularly to the walls of pores and fissures. Several
generations of gibbsite crystals of this group were rec-
ognized. A set of small gibbsite crystals developed di-
rectly from the pore walls. This was followed by a set of
slightly bigger crystals growing towards the centre of the
pores. The gibbsite crystals in the centre of the pores are
usually big and well crystallized with very conspicuous
lamellae twinning.
Boehmite forms several percentages in the bauxite ore
from Lushoto. It can be easily recognized by XRD ana-
lyses. The 6.14 A  peak with an intensity of 9.5%, the
 peak with an intensity of 5.8% and a 2.39 A  peak
3.18 A
with an intensity of 12.2% have been recognized in
samples 7B and 107B. Boehmite occurs in small ortho-
rhombic plates (<2 lm) unlike tabular monoclinic
gibbsite, when viewed under the microscope. It differs
from gibbsite by showing a higher refractory index.
Goethite, hematite and maghemite result from alter-
ation of iron bearing primary minerals. Goethite septa
forming box-work or sponge structures are recognized
under the microscope. In some samples goethite changes
to hematite by dehydration. Amphiboles may change
through several stages starting with uncrystallized
(amorphous) iron oxide material which subsequently
alters into goethite and hematite. Maghemite and mag-
netite occur together within the surface soil. These are
metastable minerals which occur as relics in weathered
products (Bardossy and Aleva, 1990).
8. Geochemistry
Major and trace elements have been analysed in
bauxite ores and are presented in Table 1, panels A and
B. Al2 O3 content ranges between 40 and 69 wt.% while
Fe2 O3 varies between 3 and 29.19 wt.%. SiO2 content
varies from 0.16 to 41.49 wt.%. TiO2 content ranges
from 0.21 to 10.20 wt.%. Alkali and alkali earth ele-
ments are customarily leached out during chemical
weathering as they are known to be extremely mobile.
The amounts of these elements are very low ranging
from 0 to 0.8 wt.%. In general, the bauxite ores of the
Usambara Mountains are similar to other minable
bauxite deposits in the world described by Jacob
(1984). Trace elements that occur in considerable
amounts in the bauxite ore include Zr that ranges from
Fig. 7. Cluster analyses R-mode diagram from nine bauxite samples
developed on the Usambara granulites.
58 to 3021 ppm. Chromium, Cu, Ni, V, Co and Nb are
in amounts ranging from several ppm to hundreds ppm
(Table 1, panel B). The results of cluster analysis sug-
gest that certain elements in ferralitic phases occur to-
gether. The cluster analysis (Davis, 1973) was employed
to evaluate the element associations in the bauxite ores.
Three main clusters namely: (1) SiO2 –CaO–MgO with
the coefficient of correlation ranging 0.90–0.75 (2)
Al2 O3 –H2 O–Na2 O–SO3 with the coefficient of correla-
tion ranging 0.94–0.72. (3) Fe2 O3 –V–Sr–La–MnO–Ba–
P2 O5 –Ce–Cu–K2 O–Rb–Co–TiO2 –Cr with coefficient of
correlation ranging 0.95–0.83 (Fig. 7). Under strict
conditions cluster 3 may be further sub-clustered into
(3a) Fe2 O3 –V–Sr–La, (3b) MnO–Ba–P2 O5 –Ce–Cu and,
(3c) K2 O, Rb, Co, TiO2 , Cr. Each cluster of elements
reflects similar geochemical behaviour of the elements
during bauxitization.
9. Discussion
The pisolitic- and versicular bauxites on the Mabug-
hai and Kidundai plateaus in Lushoto, indicate a re-
sidual brecciation. This in-turn suggests repeated cycles
of soil formation (Valeton and Melfi, 1988). It has been
advocated by Valeton (1999) that tectonic activities
during Tertiary times in Gondwana continents dislo-
cated the palaeosurfaces. Today the oldest surfaces are
found in highest position. This is possibly the case of the
Mabughai and Kidundai plateaus where the bauxite
deposits are both morphologically and tectonically
preserved. Excellent drainage conditions prevailed in the
area leading to the formation of gibbsite from the pri-
mary aluminosilicate minerals. The presence of the
fractured quartz grains, with gibbsite filling the fractures
in the bauxite ore, reflects the drainage in the profile
such that silica (quartz) is quickly dissolved giving no
chance for the reaction of aluminium and silica to form
kaolinite.
 M.K.D. Mutakyahwa et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 36 (2003) 357–369
Boehmite is a neoformed mineral detected by XRD
in small quantities. Though it is not common for this
mineral to occur in lateritic bauxites, it is likely that
some gibbsite may be incipiently transformed into bo-
ehmite by dehydration as it has been described else-
where by Chesworth (1975), Trolard and Tardy (1987,
1989). Tardy and Nahon (1985), Trolard and Tardy
(1989) experimentally demonstrated the formation of
such minerals by means of thermodynamic conditions
under which they crystallize, that is the variation of
temperature and moisture. The first cluster of elements
SiO2 , CaO and MgO can be explained by the presence
of kaolinite in the bauxite. Owing to high cation ex-
change capacity of Ca and Mg, the two elements may
be fixed on kaolinite and gibbsite (Boski and Herbosch,
1990). Some amount of silica is due to residual relic
quartz. Where the silica content rises above 12 wt.% in
bauxitic ores, the presence of reactive silica in form of
kaolinite is assumed. Sub-cluster (3a) reflects the ab-
sorption of V, Sr, and La on goethite and hematite.
This group of elements is again highly correlatable with
group three and four (Fig. 7) MnO–Ba–P2 O5 –Ce–Cu
Fig. 8. (A) Ternary diagram SiO2 –Al2 O3 –Fe2 O3 showing that lateri-
tization favoured bauxitization. (B) Ternary diagram SiO2 –H2 Oþ –
Fe2 O3 showing that water content occupies the same area of aluminium
content revealing the presence of gibbsite as the main mineral.
367
sub-cluster (3b) comprise of the elements that have the
affinity to manganese oxides. Manganese oxides are
known to be scavengers for trace elements. However,
relic minerals like sillimanite, monazite and opaques
may play an important role on the sub-cluster (3b).
K2 O–Rb–Co–TiO2 –Cr cluster (3c) comprise of ele-
ments which are known to have affinity to neoformed
titanium minerals like leucoxene and anatase. These
elements are as well associated with relic rutile, ilmenite
and magnetite. The affinity of bauxitophilic elements
like Ti or Al to strongly depleted elements like K, Sr,
Ba, Na and Ca has been discussed by Boski and
Herbosch (1990). In the cluster 2 (Al2 O3 , H2 Oþ , Na2 O
and SO3 ), water is attributed to gibbsite structural
water, while Na and S are strongly depleted in bauxite.
Their small amounts in the bauxite indicate the affinity
of these elements to gibbsite. The ternary plots SiO2 –
Al2 O3 –Fe2 O3 and SiO2 –H2 O–Fe2 O3 (Fig. 8A and B),
indicate that the lateritization process in the Usambara
Mountains favoured the bauxitization through alu-
minium mobilization. This is in agreement with
Schellmann (1979, 1982) in the classification of laterites
as the ternary diagrams from the Usambara bauxite
ores provide the same trend.
10. Conclusion
The bauxite deposits in the Usambara Mountains
were formed during the Upper Cretaceous–Lower Ter-
tiary times. Prolonged periods of humid tropical climate,
which dominated the Gondwana continents at that time
led to the formation of lateritic bauxite. Large penepla-
nation surfaces developed on the Gondwana continents
were dominated by continuous drainages prior to their
tectonic uplifts. The process which preserved and modi-
fied the already formed bauxite deposits by over-printing
processes. The plateaus in the Usambara Mountains are
essentially down-faulted blocks, which are bounded by
faults to protect the deposits from excessive erosion.
Valeton (1999) discussed in detail the formation of
saprolite-bauxite facies of ferralitic duricrusts on palaeo-
surfaces from different parts of the world, among them is
the bauxite in the Usambara Mountains. Some of the
bauxite deposits, which formed at that time have been
morphologically and tectonically preserved, while in
other localities they have been eroded leaving behind
lower saprolite horizons and fresh parent rocks. Miner-
alogically the Usambara bauxite (Mabughai and
Kidundai) comprises of gibbsite and boehmite as major
aluminium oxide minerals. Gibbsite content, in high-
grade bauxite ore ranges between 90 and 98 vol.%.
Mineralogical impurities in the bauxite ore include go-
ethite, hematite, maghemite, kaolinite and quartz. The
chemical composition of the bauxite ore is reflected by
the mineralogical content. The high-grade bauxite ore
368 M.K.D. Mutakyahwa et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 36 (2003) 357–369
contain 40–69 wt.% Al2 O3 . Iron content ranges from 2%
to 14%, while the silica content varies from 0.5 to 12
wt.%. Estimated ore reserves of the Lushoto bauxite
deposits/are about 37 million tonnes. The reserves can be
economically exploited for chemical industries. This type
of bauxite can also be used for the production of various
refractory materials and other cements.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to B. Msanya of Sokoine
University of Agricultural (SUA) for the assistance
rendered during XRD analysis. Matemu from Southern
Eastern African Mineral Centre and Kente from SAR-
UJI co-operation are acknowledged for assisting in
XRD and XRF analyses. We are indebted to the Frame
Agreement on the Royal Norwegian Government Sup-
port to the University of Dar es Salaam, Programme
TAN 103 through NORAD, which sponsored this
project. The Alexander von Humboldt Foundation is
acknowledged for sponsoring Mutakyahwa to stay in
Hamburg on sabbatical to enable him complete part of
this work. The authors acknowledge the participation of
the Late James Kahatano in the project.
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