MEC2410 11/4/2019

METAL JOINING
UNIT-II (PART-A)

Dr. Faisal Talib

MED
AMU

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JOINING PROCESS
 Joining processes are used to assemble different
members to produce the desired complex
configuration/geometry which is either too difficult or
impossible to obtain through manufacturing processes.
 Joining process is considered to be a form or class of
manufacturing techniques that covers numerous
processes of a production system.
 The joining of different elements can be either temporary
or permanent in nature.
 Also mechanism of bonding may be either mechanical or
atomic
 Joining processes involving atomic bonding are of a
permanent nature.
 A general basic classification of the joining processes is
presented in Figure 1. 2
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Joining Processes

Mechanical Atomic Bonding

Bonding

Temporary Permanent/Semipermanent
(With Screw Elements)

Rivets Stitches Staples Shrink-fits

Solid State Liquid State Solid/Liquid

(Fusion State)
Welding)

Cold Friction Diffusion Hot Forge Brazing Soldering Adhesive

Welding Welding Welding Welding Bonding

Electric Chemical Thermit

Pressure Ultrasonic Explosive
Welding
Welding Welding Welding

Arc Induction Resistanc

Gas
Welding Welding e Welding
Welding

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JOINING PROCESS (CONTD…)

 Another criterion used for a classification of the joining
processes is based on the composition of the joint.
 All joining processes can be grouped into three different
categories i.e.:
 Autogenous
 Homogenous, and
 Heterogenous.
 In the processes of autogenous category, no filler material is
added during joining.
 All types of solid phase welding and resistance welding are
examples of this category.
 In the homogenous joining processes, the filler material
used to provide the joint is the same as the parent material.
 Arc, gas, and thermit welding belong to this category.
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JOINING PROCESS (CONTD…)

 In the processes of heterogenous category, a
filler material different from the parent material
is used, like soldering and brazing processes
 It may be noted that the two material which are
insoluble in each other, such as iron and silver,
can be joined by a heterogenous process.
 This may be achieved by using a filler material
(e.g. copper and tin (Bronze)) which is soluble
in both the parent materials i.e. iron and silver.

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PRINCIPLE OF WELDING
 The bonding force between two metallic atoms increases
sharply when the distance between the atomic spacing
reduces and vice versa.
 During joining, it is possible to bring together two metallic
surfaces such that only grain boundaries separate them
(very close, almost zero angstrom distance), the two bodies
will adhere with a very large force, resulting in what is called
welding.
 In normal atmosphere, the metal surfaces are contaminated
with layers of oxides and absorbed gases
 These layers are normally few hundreds angstroms thick
causing difficulty in generating a strong attractive force when
the two metal are brought in contact.
 This difficulty can be eliminated when the contaminated
layers are removed from the surfaces.
 This is one of the biggest problem in welding.
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ADVANTAGES OF JOINING PROCESSES

 The product is impossible or uneconomical to

manufacture as single piece and can be done
through joining process.
 The product is easier to manufacture in individual
components, which are then assembled, than as a
single piece using joining processes.
 The product may have to be taken apart for repair or
maintenance during its service life.
 Transportation of the product i individual
components and subsequent assembly may be
easier and more economical than transporting it as
a single piece.
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WELDABILITY
 It is the metal's capability to be welded into a
specific structure with certain specific properties
and characteristics, and that the welded structure
will satisfactorily meet service requirements.
 Material characteristics to get welded such as
given below are also important:
 Alloying elements
 Impurities
 Inclusions
 Grain structure
 Processing history of base material
 Filler material etc.
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WELDABILITY (CONTD…)
 Other factors that influence weldability are:
 Strength
 Toughness
 Ductility
 Notch sensitivity
 Elastic modulus
 Specific heat
 Melting point
 Thermal expansion
 Surface tension characteristics of molten metal
 Corrosion
 shielding gases
 Fluxes
 Moisture content of the coatings on electrodes
 Welding speed
 Welding Position
 Cooling rate
 Preheating
 Post welding techniques (s.a. stress relieving & heat treating) etc.
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WELDABILITY OF SOME MATERIALS

Weld ability of some materials
S.No. Metal/ Alloy Welding condition
1. Aluminium alloy Weld able at high rate of heat input
Alloys containing zinc or copper are not weld able
2. Cast iron Weld able
3. Copper alloys Similar as aluminium alloys
4. Lead Weld able
5. Magnesium alloys Weld able with the use of protective shielding gas and
fluxes
6. Molybdenum Weld able under well-controlled conditions
7. Nickel alloys Weld able
8. Niobium Weld able under well controlled conditions
(columbium)
9. Stainless steels Weld able
10. Steel, galvanized Weld ability adversely affected by the presence of zinc
and pre-lubricated coating and lubricant layer
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SOLID PHASE WELDING

(NON-FUSION JOINING PROCESSES)

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SOLID STATE WELDING PROCESSES

 In solid state joining takes place without fusion at
the interface and no liquid or molten phase is
present at the joint
 Two surfaces brought together under pressure.
 The basic categories of solid state welding are:
Cold, friction, diffusion bonding, resistance,
explosion welding, and ultrasonic.
 For strong bond, both surfaces must be clean:
 No oxide films
 No residues
 No metalworking fluids
 No adsorbed layers of gas
 No other contaminants
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SOLID STATE BONDING

 It involves one or more of:
 Diffusion: the transfer of atoms across an
interface
 Facilitated by heat
 Friction
 Electrical-resistance
 Induction

 Pressure:
 The higher the pressure, the stronger the interface
 May combine pressure & resistance heating
 Relative interfacial movements:
 Create clean surfaces
 Even small amplitudes improve bond strength

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PRINCIPLES OF SOLID PHASE WELDING

 The solid state welding processes may be carried
out both at the room temperature and at an
elevated temperature without melting any part of
the joining surfaces.
 In order to understand solid phase joining process,
it better to summarize the strength and cohesion
of metals.
 A defect-free crystal fails by a cleavage (sharp
division or split) along a crystallographic plane
where the interatomic force is the weakest.
 As a result, two new surfaces are produced, and
the surface energy 'γ' is defined as the work done
in order to create these surfaces.
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PRINCIPLES OF SOLID PHASE WELDING

 The strength of a single crystal (σc) is found to

be:
 σc = √(Eγ/d) (For ductile material)--------------------1

 Where: E = modulus of elasticity of the

material, γ = work done to create cleavage
along a crystallographic plane, and d = lattice
spacing in the cleavage plane.

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PRINCIPLES OF SOLID PHASE WELDING

 In brittle solid material, the failure takes place

by the extension of cracks already present and
the bulk strength is much reduced from that
given by equation 1.
 In such cases, the bulk strength (σb) is given
by:
 σb = √(Eγ/l) -------------------------------------2

 where l = length of crack >> d.

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PRINCIPLES OF SOLID PHASE WELDING

 Failure of polycrystalline ductile material is due to
the movement of dislocations, resulting in plastic
instability
 This takes place at a stress much lower than given
by equation 1.
 Bulk strength of a material is much lower than the
bonding forces of the constituent atoms.
 So a good welding does not require to achieve a
strength equal to that between the adjacent lattice
planes.

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PRINCIPLES OF SOLID PHASE WELDING

 When two metal surfaces are brought into contact,

the real contact takes place through a small area
of asperities.
 The metallic bridging occurs:
 between the adsorbed surface layers.
 true grain boundaries are formed within the bridges.

 stronger than the bulk material (due to formation of

grain boundaries).
 also, some work hardening takes place near the
matting surfaces.
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PRINCIPLES OF SOLID PHASE WELDING

 If the yield strength (or flow pressure) of the material is
'σy' with applied force as 'pe' ,
 Fraction of the total area coming in contact and thereby
forming a weld is: pc/σy.
 However, around the welding zones, there will be some
areas which come in contact (without actual flow) where
the stresses are still within the elastic range.
 The experiential results suggest that including this area,
the total area of physical contact, with a moderate
external pressure, can be taken as: 2pc/σy.
 It is seen that the softer metal has better permanent
adherence.
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PRINCIPLES OF SOLID PHASE WELDING

 In the solid phase welding processes, the four important
factors are:
 Surface deformation,
 Surface films,
 Recrystallization, and
 Diffusion.
 The surface deformation that takes place during welding
is difficult to measure.
 In pressure welding, the bulk deformation is used as an
index of the surface deformation and is expressed as:
 100(ti-tf)/ti% (for sheet of original and final thicknesses ti
and tf respectively)
 100(di2-df2)/di2 % (for a circular specimen of original and
final diameters di and df respectively).
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PRINCIPLES OF SOLID PHASE WELDING

 The strength of welded junction increases with
increasing bulk deformation.
 Moreover, no weldment takes place below a
certain critical deformation.
 The amount of deformation necessary to obtain a
specific strength decreases with increase in
temperature.
 A strong weld may be made with only 10%
deformation if the working temperature is quite
close to the melting point of the material.
 The ratio of the oxide hardness and the parent
metal hardness also effects necessary
deformation.
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PRINCIPLES OF SOLID PHASE WELDING

 The greatest hurdle in solid phase welding is
posed by the surface oxide layers and oil films.
 The liquid films can be removed by heating in
hot welding, and by means of scratch brushing
in cold welding.
 The oxide films can also be removed to certain
extent by scratch brushing.
 Moreover, these oxide layers (being hard and
brittle) fracture when the pressure is applied.

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SOLID PHASE WELDING AT ROOM TEMPERATURE

(COLD WELDING)

 A solid phase welding done at the room

temperature does not allow recrystallization
and grain growth at the interface.
 This reduces the ductility of the joint to some
extent.
 An increase in working temperature not only
increases the ductility but also eliminates some
other defects.
 Diffusion occurs during solid phase welding.

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COLD WELDING (CW)

 In CW, pressure is applied to the mating faces of the
parts, through either dies or rolls.
 Because of the resulting plastic deformation, it is
important and necessary that at least one, but
preferably both, of the mating parts be sufficiently
ductile.
 The interface is usually cleaned by wire or power
brushing prior to welding.
 In joining two dissimilar metals that are mutually
soluble, brittle, intermetallic compounds (complex
structures having solid solubility i.e. solute atoms are
present among solvent atoms in some proportions)
may form resulting in a weak and brittle joint.
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COLD WELDING (CW)

 An e.g is bonding of Al and steel where the brittle
intermetallic compound is formed at the interface.
 The best bond strength and ductility are obtained
with two similar materials.
 Can be used to join small workpiece made of soft,
ductile metals
 Applications includes electrical connections, wire
stock, Aluminum alloys used in cold welding, most
commonly, successive reels of wire are joined for
continuous drawing to a smaller diameter and
sealing of heat sensitive containers (such as
detonators etc.)

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COLD WELDING PROCESS DESCRIPTION

(FIGURE 2)
 The parts to be welded are first cleaned.
 A short section of the part is sheared.

 The parts are clamped in a die with some initial

extension.
 A forging force is applied to complete welding.

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Dies

Work-piece Work-piece

Before welding

After welding

Figure 2: Cold Working Process

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 Single Upset Cold Weld in  States of Upset During Butt

 Type 1100 Aluminum Wire  Cold Welding

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Solid phase welding equipment

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SOLID PHASE WELDING AT ELEVATED

TEMPERATURE
 Depending on the nature of the heat source
and the method of application of the pressure,
the solid phase welding processes can be
classified as:
 Forge welding,
 Butt welding,
 Oxyacetylene pressure welding,
 Flash butt welding, and
 Friction welding.

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FORGE WELDING

 The parts to be welded are heated in a furnace

 Hammered together to form the weld.

 In case of tubes, the welding pressure is

applied by the forging rolls.
 The amount of bulk deformation varies in a
wide range.

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BUTT WELDING
 The surfaces to be joined are first brought in contact
(Figure 3).
 Then, they are heated by the passage of an electric
current.
 Once the required temperature is attained, the parts are
subjected to an axial compression.
 This compression results in a lateral flow of the surface
layers (e.g. oxide) and bring the clean metal surfaces in
contact.
 The applied pressure is controlled accurately, it is held
almost constant with a sharp rise near the end of
operation.

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Figure 3: Electric butt welding

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PRESSURE GAS WELDING PROCESSES

 Two types:
Open joint pressure welding (Figure 4)
Closed joint pressure welding (Figure 5)

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PRESSURE GAS WELDING PRINCIPLES OF

OPERATION: OPEN JOINT METHOD
 The faces to be joined are heated individually
to the welding temperature.
 After heating, the two faces are brought into
contact.
 Upsetting force is applied to complete welding.

 Formation of the flash at the joint, which can

be trimmed off later.

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Work pieces are heated separately

Upsetting
force

Final weld

Figure 4: Open joint method

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PRESSURE GAS WELDING PRINCIPLES OF

OPERATION: CLOSED JOINT METHOD
 Faces to be welded are butted together under
initial pressure.
 Metal at the joint is heated to welding
temperature with a gas flame.
 Finally, the metal is upset sufficiently to
produce a weld.

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Work piece Work piece

Upsetting Upsetting
force force

Before welding

Final weld

Figure 5: Closed Joint Method

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FRICTION WELDING (FRW)

 The parts to be welded are kept in contact and rotated
relative to each other (Figure 6).
 The interface is heated up due to friction.
 After the desired temperature is attained, an axial
pressure is applied to complete the welding.
 After the welding is complete, the welded parts rotate
together as one piece until stopped.
 Limitation: the parts to be welded must have a rotational
symmetry.
 The interface never melts as the softening of the
material reduces the friction, and consequently the heat
input, making the process self-regulating.

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Figure 6: Friction Welding (FRW)

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FRICTION WELDING (FRW)

 Because of the combined heat and pressure:
 the interface in FRW develops a flash by plastic
deformation (upsetting) of the heated zone ,
 the flash can be easily removed by subsequent
machining or grinding.
 Types/variation in friction welding process:
 Inertia friction welding
 Linear friction welding
 Friction stir welding (Figure 7)

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Figure 7: Friction Stir Welding

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Friction welding. Pressure –60 tonnes

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Friction welding machine

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FLASH WELDING (FW)

 Also called as flash butt welding, the parts are
brought in contact with a light pressure.
 The interface is heated by the passage of an
electric current, as in butt welding.
 Heating is continued till the interface melts
when the dies as shown in Figure 8 are brought
closer.
 Thus, the liquid metal along with the oxide film,
is driven into the die cavity.

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FLASH WELDING (FW)

 This brings the solid, clean metal faces in contact
under high pressure to make the weld.
 A significant amount of metal may be expelled
from the joint as a shower of sparks during the
flashing process.
 The joint may be later be machined to improve its
appearance.
 Because the impurities and contaminations are
also squeezed out during this operation, the
quality of the weld is good.

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Objects

Before welding

After welding

Figure 8: Flash Welding (FW)

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APPLICATIONS OF FWS
 Suitable for end-to-end joining of similar or
dissimilar metals 1-75 mm in diameter and
sheet and bars 0.2-25 mm thick
 broken band saw blades, joeing pipes and
tubular shapes for metal furniture and
windows,
 welding the ends of coils of sheet or wire for
continuos operation of rolling mills and wire-
drawing equipment.

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RESISTANCE WELDING (RW)

 RW covers a number of processes in which the

heat required for welding is produced by means
of the electrical resistance between the two
members to be joined (Figure 9).
 The major advantages of RW are:
 They don't require consumable electrodes,
 No shielding gases,

 No flux is used

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RESISTANCE WELDING (RW)

 The heat generated in resistance welding is given
by:
 H = I2Rt ----------------------------3
 where H = heat generated in joules (watts-
seconds); I = current, in amperes; R = resistance,
in ohms; and t = flow time of the current in
seconds.
 Equation 3 is modified to represent the actual
heat energy available in the weld by including a
factor 'K' that represents the energy losses
through radiation and conduction.

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RESISTANCE WELDING (RW)

 Thus, Eq. 3 becomes:

 H = I2RtK ----------------------------4

or
 H = IVtK where V = IR (Ohms law) ------------------5

 where the value of 'K' is less than unity.

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RESISTANCE WELDING (RW)

 The total resistance in these processes, such

as in the spot or flash welding is the sum of the
following components:
 Resistance of the electrodes,
 Electrode-workpiece contact resistance,

 Resistances of the individual parts to be welded,

and
 Workpiece-workpiece contact resistances (faying
surfaces, surfaces that are in contact at a joint)

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RESISTANCE WELDING (RW)

 The magnitude of the current in resistance welding
operations may be as high as 100,000 A and voltage is
only 0.5-10 V.
 The actual temperature rise at the joint depends on the
specific heat and thermal conductivity of the metals to
be joined.
 Similar and dissimilar metals can be joined by
resistance welding.
 There are five methods of resistance welding: spot
(Figure 9), seam (Figure 11), projection (Figure 10),
flash (Figure 8), and upset welding.
 Lap joints are used in the first three processes and butt
joints in the last two.
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Figure 9: (a) Sequence of resistance spot welding operation (b) Resistance Spot
welding Process

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Figure 10: Projection Welding

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Figure 11: Seam Welding

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PROBLEMS

 Problem 1: Assume that two 1.5 mm thick steel

sheets are being spot welded at a current of
5500 A and current-flow time t = 0.15 s. Using
electrodes 6 mm in diameter, estimate the
amount of heat generated and its distribution
in the weld zone. Use an effective resistance of
250 μΩ.

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SOLUTION
 From Eq. 3, Heat = (5500)2(250x10-6)(0.15) = 1134 J
 Weld nugget volume can be calculated by assuming the
material below the electrode is heated enough to melt and
fuse.
 Therefore, weld nugget volume V = (π/4d2)(t) = (π/4(6)2)(3) =
85 mm3 ------(thickness (t) = 2(1.5) mm)
 Density for steel is 7850 kg/m3…. weld nugget has a mass of
0.67 g (Density =mass/volume).
 Since the heat required to melt 1 g of steel is about 1400 J,
the heat required to melt the weld nugget is = (1400)(0.67)
= 938 J.
 Consequently, the remaining heat (196J) or 17 % is
dissipated into the metal surrounding the nugget,

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PROBLEMS
 Problem 2: Two rods of 7075 aluminium alloy,
50 mm diameter each, are joined through
pressure welding process. The rods were
heated through resistance heating. The power
supply was 10 V. Compute the time to flow
current 50 A, so that metal up to 1 mm thick
may be flushed out from each rod. Assume the
efficiency of the process as 60% and specific
energy required by the alloy to weld is 2.5
J/mm3. (Ans. 32.7 s).
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SOLUTION
 Energy required = total volume x specific energy
(u) = (π/4) x diameter2 x 2 x thickness of metal to
flow x u
 = (π/4) x 2 x 502 x 1 x 2.5 J
 Energy obtained = efficiency x voltage x ampere x
time (using Eq. 5)
 = 0.6 x 10 x 50 x t
 Energy required = Energy obtained
 Time (t) = 32.7 s

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GAS WELDING
 Oxy fuel gas welding (OFW)
 OFW process uses a fuel gas, combined with
oxygen to produce a flame, as the source of heat
required to melt the metals at the joint.
 The most common gas welding process uses
acetylene
 The process is known as oxyacetylene gas welding
(OAW)
 Used for structural sheet-metal fabrication,
automotive bodies and other repair work.

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OXY FUEL GAS WELDING (OFW)

 The heat generated is a result of the

combustion of acetylene gas (C2H2) in a
mixture with oxygen.
 The primary combustion process, which occurs
in the inner core of the flame (Figure 12),
involves the reaction:
 C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 + Heat ----------6

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OXY FUEL GAS WELDING (OFW)

 This reaction dissociates the acetylene into carbon
monoxide and hydrogen and produces about one-third
of the total heat generated in the flame.
 The secondary combustion process is:
 2CO + H2 + 1.5 O2 2CO2 + H2O + Heat ----------------7
 This reaction consists of the further burning of the
hydrogen and the carbon monoxide and produces about
two-thirds of the total heat.
 This reaction also produces some water vapour.
 The temperatures developed in the flame can reach
3575 K.

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TYPES OF FLAMES
 The proportion of acetylene and oxygen in the gas
mixture is an important factor in oxy fuel gas welding.
 As a ratio of 1:1, that is, when there is no excess oxygen,
the flame is considered to be neutral (Figure 12a).
 With greater oxygen supply, the flame can be harmful,
especially for steels, because it oxidizes the metal,
hence, it is known as an oxidizing flame (Figure 12b).
 Only in welding copper and copper base alloys is an
oxidizing flame desirable, because it forma a thin
protective layer of slag (compounds of oxides) over the
molten metal.

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TYPES OF FLAMES
 If the oxygen is insufficient for full combustion, the flame
is known as a reducing (having excess acetylene) or
carburizing flame (Figure 12c).
 The temperature of reducing flame is lower, hence,
suitable for applications requiring low heat, such as
brazing, soldering, and flame hardening operations.
 Other fuel gases, such as hydrogen and methylacetylene
propadiene, can also be used in oxy fuel gas welding.
 However the temperature developed by these gases are
low, hence, they are used for welding metals with low
melting points.
 The flame with pure hydrogen gas is colourless hence, it is
difficult to adjust the flame by eyesight, as is the case with
other gases.
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Figure 12 (a), (b), & (c): Types of flames.

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