Module 4

Metal Joining Processes

 Brazing, soldering, welding

 Solid state welding;
 resistance welding;
 arc welding;
 gas welding;
 Welding defects

Introduction

What is welding and joining?

Critical technologies in manufacturing

- mainly construction and mining industries in
large scale

Weld Defects => Catastrophic Failure

=> loss of property and human life

1
 Welding and joining

Types of Welding

Fusion Welding Pressure Welding/Solid state

Mechanical
Homogeneous Heterogeneous bonding

Gas Welding Brazing Soldering

Generic types:
Electroslag Fusion  arc, gas, power beam, resistance
MIG
Thermomechanical  friction, flash, explosive
Mechanical  fasteners
TIG
High Energy Beam Solid state  adhesive, soldering, brazing

Shielded Metal Arc – “Stick”

Electric Arc

Welding and joining

Three Types of Welds
Surface Two common applications are for hard
surfacing
The primary use of groove welds is to
Groove complete butt joints
• have a triangular cross section
• used that are at a 90 degree
Fillet angle

Five Types of Joints

Butt Corner

Lap

T
Edge

2
 Classification of Welding and Joining

Joining Processes

Permanent Non-permanent
o Welded Joint o Bolted Joint
o Soldering o Screw Joint
o Brazing Semi-permanent
o Riveted Joint o Adhesive Bonding

Classification of Welded Joints

Joining Processes Pressure welding

o Friction welding
Fusion welding o Ultrasonic welding
o Gas welding o Explosive welding
o Arc welding o Diffusion welding
o High energy beam o Resistance welding
o Thermite welding o Magnetic impelled
Transition welding arc welding
o Soldering
o Brazing
o Adhesive Bonding 6

3
 Physics of welding
Is that possible to bring together metallic surfaces together?
o Only grain boundary separate them, adherence with large
force is possible

Ideal case to conduct welding

o Practically metal surfaces contaminated with layer of

oxides
o Deals with the phenomena associated with welding
processes
o The formation of weld bonds (fusion welds and solid-state
weld, commonly differentiated by the physics of the
metallic bonding mechanism) 7

Physics of welding
Principles of fusion welding
o Fusion welds are created by the coalescence of molten base metals
mixed with molten filler metals
o Metals must be heated to melting point for fusion welds to be
produced
o Phase transitions inherent to these processes, a heat-affected zone is
created
o The cooling of fusion zone is associated with distortion, residual
stress and metallurgical changes

Principles of Solid-state welds

 at temperatures below the melting point
 are created by either the macroscopic or microscopic coalescence
of the materials in the solid state
8

4
 Physics of arc welding
Voltage – The electrical potential that causes current to flow
Current – The movement of charged particles in a specific direction

Polarity DC- (Direct Current Electrode Negative) Heat generation

DC+ (Direct Current Electrode Positive) in electrode
AC (Alternating Current) GTAW/GMAW
Electrical circuit
Electricity flows from the power source
Through the electrode and across the arc
Through the base material and back to the power source
Electrical - Thermal energy
 Arc created by the electric current: converted into heat because of
the resistance of electron flow
 The heat melts the metal to fuse it together 9

Enthalpy of Melting
Q = Heat required to melt a given volume of weld
= Heat required to melt the solid + Latent heat of fusion
Q   C p  Tm  To   L Superheating is neglected

ρ = Density (mass/volume) FZ
Cp = Heat capacity BM
Tm = Melting temperature
To = Initial temperature
L = Latent heat of fusion Fusion zone (FZ)
Heat affected zone (HAZ)
Base material (BM)
 Time-temperature curve for pure metal and alloy 10

5
 Energy Sources for Welding
Energy to produce bonds: in form of heat to melt the metals

Categorization of energy sources

Electrical sources
Uses the electrical energy available from AC or DC source
Ex. Arc welding, Resistance welding, Electro-slag welding

Chemical sources
Chemical energy stored in a wide variety of forms can be converted
to useful heat.
Ex. Oxyfuel gas welding, Thermite welding

11

Energy Sources for Welding

Optical Sources
Focused beams of electron or Laser is operated according to
the laws of optics, achieve high power densities
Ex. Laser beam welding, Electron beam welding
Mechanical Sources
Involve some type of mechanical movement which produces
the energy
Ex. Friction welding, Ultrasonic welding, Explosion welding
Solid State Sources
Characterized by a lack of motion in contrast of mechanical
sources
Ex. Diffusion welding
12

6
 Physical Properties of Metals
Physical properties of materials influence the applicability
of the various joining processes
Electrical resistivity
it has the maximum affect in resistance welding and
significant role in other processes like GMAW
Thermal conductivity
pure metals have the highest conductivity, and the addition
of alloying elements tends to decrease the values of this
property
Coefficient of expansion
The thermal expansion coefficient in welding of the
materials is critically important in analyzing the distortion
of the welded samples 13

Physical Properties of Metals

Specific heat
It is the measure of the ability of a body or gas to absorb
or store heat

Ionization Potentials
Ease of arc initiation and its stability are related to the
ionization potential – minimum possible

Metal oxides
The oxidation rate and the refractory stability of the metal
oxides formed during welding affects the transfer of
alloying elements across the arc
14

7
 Arc Welding Power Sources
Requirement of a power source is to deliver
controllable current at a voltage according to the
welding process being used

Power sources can be classified in two categories

Constant current or falling characteristic power

source
Constant voltage or flat characteristic power
source
15

Constant voltage power source

 Downward or negative slope -
sufficient internal electrical
resistance and inductance in the
Open circuit voltage

circuit
 Change in current to melt the
electrode at the required rate
 Speed of electrode control the
average welding current
 Constant electrode wire feed
results in a self regulating or self
Maintain the preset voltage
adjusting arc length system
or Relative arc length
 Any change in welding current
occurs, it will automatically Desirable for semi-
increase or decrease the electrode automatic arc welding
melting rate to regain the desired
16
arc length

8
 Constant current power source
Non-linear negative slope of the
curves (sharply dropping

Open circuit voltage

characteristics)
Desirable for manual arc
welding
Efficient striking of arc - open
circuit voltage should be high

High frequency unit supplies high

voltage (kV) along with high
frequency (kHz) with low current
Ionizes the medium between
electrode and workpiece/nozzle
starting pilot arc which ultimately
leads to the start of main arc
A change in power source (open
circuit voltage adjustment and
output current control) will
change the slope of the volt
ampere curve
17

Current voltage characteristic of an arc

Typical arc characteristics
for two different arc lengths
Voltage V

Current I

The voltage –current relationship of an arc determines the required

characteristics of the power source (AB and CD)

18

9
 Current voltage characteristic of an arc
Voltage drop across the arc
V = A + Bl ------- (I)

Voltage
where A is the electrode drop and
Bl the column drop & l is arc
length

There is optimum arc length for Current

which the arc power is
maximum.

Power source characteristic is

V = C – DI -------- (II)

The power P = VI
19

Current voltage characteristic of an arc

Example: The static volt-ampere characteristic of a

welding power source is given by the parabolic equation
𝐼 2 = −400(𝑉 − 70) and the arc characteristic is
represented by the straight line equation 𝐼 = 22(𝑉 − 16)
where ‘V’ is voltage in Volts and ‘I’ is current in Ampere.
(a) Determine the power of a stable arc.
(b) If the arc length (x) and the arc voltage (V) are related
by the expression
𝑉 = 20 + 4.0𝑥, determine the optimum arc length for
maximum power where ‘x’ is in ‘mm’.

20

10
 Current voltage characteristic of an arc

Solution: 𝐼 2 = −400(𝑉 − 70)

𝐼 = 22(𝑉 − 16)
For a stable arc, 𝐼𝑎𝑟𝑐 = 𝐼𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Obtain a quadratic equation of ‘V’. Find the roots and
consider the practical feasible one

𝑉 = 20 + 4.0𝑥
𝐼 2 = −400(𝑉 − 70) Put ‘V’ here and express I = f(x)
Power = V.I = (20 + 4.0𝑥). I(x)
𝑑𝑃
For maximum power, obtain = 0
𝑑𝑥

21

Role of shielding gas

Protecting the arc and molten weld pool from contamination
by the atmosphere
 Directly use shielding gas
 Slag coverage by chemical reactions in the arc
Common shielding gases:
Argon, helium, carbon dioxide and oxygen

 100% for certain applications

 Mixed together in different combinations

Properties:
Reactivity, ionization potential and thermal conductivity
22

11
 Fusion welding
 Arc Welding
Fusion (Non-Pressure)
 Consumable Electrode
Pressure (Non-Fusion)
o SMAW – Shielded Metal
Arc Welding
 Gas Welding o GMAW – Gas Metal Arc
o Oxy-Acetylene Welding
o Air-Acetylene o SAW – Submerged Arc
o Oxy-Hydrogen Welding
 High Energy Beam o ESW – Electroslag
o Electron Beam Welding
 Non-Consumable Electrode
Welding o GTAW – Gas Tungsten
o Laser Beam Welding Arc Welding
 Chemical Based o PAW – Plasma Arc
o Thermit Welding Welding
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o Carbon Arc Welding

Oxy-Acetylene Gas Welding

 Mixing of acetylene gas and oxygen in the welding

nozzle
 Proportional of gases decided the nature of flame

Neutral Flame: Ratio of oxygen to acetylene, in the mixture

leaving the torch, is almost exactly one-to-one.
Ex. Welding of mild steel, stainless steel, copper, aluminum

Inner cone Outer envelope

24

12
 Oxy-Acetylene Gas Welding
Carburizing Flame: Proportion of acetylene in the mixture
is higher than that required to produce the neutral flame.

Lower temperature than neutral flame (excess carbon)

Ex. Welding of iron and steel produces very hard and brittle
iron carbide

Oxidizing Flame: Contains more oxygen than required for a

neutral flame

Used for Copper based metals

25

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

o Consumable electrode (coated

with a shielding flux)
o Flux produces protective gas
around weld pool
o Flux coated rod
o Slag keeps oxygen off weld
bead during cooling
 Advantages
o Simple, portable and
inexpensive equipment
 Disadvantages
o Process is discontinuous due to limited length of the electrodes
o Weld may contain slag inclusions
26
o Fumes make difficult the process control

13
 Gas Metal Arc Welding
o Consumable wire electrode
o Shielding provided by gas
(Ar, He, CO2, Ar + O2 or
other gas mixtures)

Advantages
o Continuous weld may be
produced (no interruptions)
o Slag removal is not required
(no slag)
Disadvantages
o Expensive and non-portable
equipment is required 27

Submerged Arc Welding

o Consumable wire electrode
o Shielding provided by flux
granules
o Low UV radiation & fumes
o Flux acts as thermal insulator
o Suitable for thick plates
Advantages
o Very high welding rate
o The process is suitable for
automation
o High quality weld structure
Disadvantages
o Weld may contain slag inclusions
28
o Mostly for welding horizontally located plates

14
 Electroslag Welding (Resistance Welding)
o Workpiece is filled with a welding
flux
o At start, arc is created to melt the
flux powder and forms molten slag
o Molten flux short circuits the arc
o Heat is generated due to ohmic
heating of the slag
o Slag circulates and melt the
consumable electrode and
workpiece edges
 Disadvantages
 Advantages
o Coarse grain structure of the
o High deposition rate
weld
o Welding of thick plates (25 mm)
o Low toughness of the weld
o Low slag consumption
o Only vertical position is
o Low distortion
possible 29

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

o Non-consumable electrode
o With or without filler metal
o Shielded by inert gas (Ar, He,
N2)
o Used for thin sections of Al,
Mg, Ti
 Advantages:
o Weld composition is close to that of
the parent metal
o Relatively high quality weld structure
o No slag formation  Disadvantages:
o Thermal distortions of work pieces o Low welding rate
are comparable to plasma arc welding o Relatively expensive
due to concentration of heat in small o Requires high level of
30
zone operators skill

15
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

 Workpiece in a protective inert gas atmosphere

 Any filler material supplied externally
 To increase melting point of electrode – thorium or
zirconium is added to tungsten
 DCEN is normally used
 Welding Al and Mg – AC is used
 Ar is most commonly used shielding gas
 N2 is used for welding copper
31

Plasma Arc Welding

o Plasma is a gaseous mixture
of positive ions, electrons
and neutral gas molecules
o Non-consumable electrode
 Advantages
o Good tolerance of arc to
misalignments
o High welding rate
o Keyhole effect produces high
penetrating capability

 Disadvantages
o Expensive equipment
o High distortions and wide welds as a result of high heat input32

16
 Modes of Plasma Arc Welding
Transferred arc Non-Transferred arc
 Arc occurs between the
 Workpiece being electrode and the nozzle
welded is part of the  High temperature is carried
electrical circuit to the workpiece by the
plasma gas
 Plasma arc transfers  Thermal energy-transfer
from the electrode to mechanism is similar to that
the workpiece for an oxy-fuel
 It is used for welding of
 May be used for high various metals and for
speed welding plasma spraying (coating)
33

LASER Beam Welding

o Heat is generated by a high energy laser beam
o Can be conduction more or keyhole mode welding
o Shielding gas is used
 Disadvantages
Advantages
o High cost
o Very narrow weld may be obtained equipment
o Relatively high quality of the weld o Not
structure completely
o Very small heat affected zone free from
o Dissimilar materials may be welded contamination
o Micro and nano-scale welding
o Vacuum is not required
o Low distortion of work piece
34

17
 Electron Beam Welding
o Beam of high energy electrons
o Carried out in a vacuum chamber
o Formation of keyhole
Advantages
o Deep penetration weld
o Narrow weld and narrow heat affected zone
o Low distortion
o Filler metal is not required

Disadvantages
o Expensive equipment
o High production expenses
o X-ray irradiation 35

Resistance welding process

 Resistance Welding - pressure welding

technique using high current and low
voltage

 Localized heating by passing high current

at the contact surfaces causes melting

 Application of pressure in controlled way

results in welding without the use of filler
It is used for
material
welding thin sheets
of similar/dissimilar
 Substrate materials are placed between two
metallic materials
electrodes (rods or rollers) which serve as
conductor for producing the weld

18
 Resistance welding process

Voltage : 0.5 to 10 V
At 15000 Amp

Resistance welding process

Applications: Resistance Welding (RW) is used for joining vehicle
body parts, fuel tanks, domestic radiators, pipes of gas oil and water
pipelines, wire ends, turbine blades, railway tracks.

Types of Resistance Welding are:

 Resistance spot welding

 Resistance seam welding
 Resistance butt welding
 Resistance projection welding

19
Resistance spot welding (RSW) process
Diameter of the weld spot is in the
range (3 - 12 mm).

Resistance spot welding (RSW) process

Spot welding cycle

20
 Contact Resistance Heat Source - RSW

Only a small fraction of apparent area is in actual metal-to-metal

contact – create tiny metallic bridge
Oxide layer in contact carry no current
The current flow is constricted.
Assumption:
i. All bridges are of uniform size and spherical shape where the
constriction effect is restricted within the bridge
ii. All bridges are uniformly spaced
iii. Each bridge is of zero resistance

Assume there are ‘n’ bridges per unit area

Estimate the contact resistance?

Thermit Welding
o Utilizes heat generated by exothermic chemical reaction between the
components of the thermit (a mixture of a metal oxide
and aluminum powder)
o The molten metal, produced by the reaction, acts as a filler material
joining the work pieces after solidification
8Al + Fe3O4 = 9Fe + 4Al2O3
o Reaction produces Al2O3, free elemental iron and large amount of
heat
o The exothermic reaction occurs via reduction and oxidation
o Al2O3 is much less dense

Other metal oxides:

2Al + 3Cu2O = 6Cu + Al2O3
42

21
 Thermit Welding
Ignite the thermite mixture - preheating by ignite powder to start
thermite reaction
 Advantages
o heat of chemical reaction is utilized
o No external power source is required
o Large heavy section may be joined

 Disadvantages
o Mainly ferrous materials can be welded
o Relatively slow welding rate
o High temperature process may cause distortions and changes
in Grain structure in the weld region
o Weld may contain gas (mainly H2) and slag contaminations

43

Summary
 Heat generation in electrode depends on DC polarity
 Welding of aluminum AC is preferred
 Thermal conductivity of material is important parameter
for FZ and HAZ dimensions
 Flat characteristic of V-I curse is suitable for semi-
automatic arc welding
 Sharp dropping characteristic is suitable for manual arc
welding
 Inert gas is most suitable shielding gas
 Non-transferred arc in PAW is suitable for thermal
spraying or coating
 LBW or EBW is preferred for high depth of penetration
is required (formation of keyhole) 44

22
 Welding v/s Brazing or Soldering
Difference: Brazing and Welding
Metallic components are joined through fusion
or recrystallization of the base metal by applying heat,
pressure or both
In brazing, where only the filler metal melts during
processing
Difference: Soldering and Brazing
Soldering - joining process wherein metals are bonded
together using a non-ferrous filler metal with a melting
temperature lower than 450°C
Brazing - the filler metal melting point is greater than 450°C
- it is considered to be a brazing process rather than a
soldering process 45

Brazing

 Brazing is production and cost efficient

 Component distortion is minimized or eliminated
 Base metal dilution is low
 Joining of dissimilar materials can be achieved
 Different geometric sizes can be joined
 Small and wide gap sizes can be filled
 Specialized labor is not required
46

23
 Principle of Brazing
Brazing is when a filler metal or alloy is heated to its
melting temperature above 450°C
It is then distributed in liquid form between two or more
close-fitting parts by capillary action
The filler metal is brought slightly above its melting
temperature
 It then interacts with a thin layer of the base metal (known
as wetting) and is then cooled quickly to form a sealed joint

Capillary action pull the melted brazing alloy into the

space between the parts being joined
47

Advantages and Limitations of Brazing

 Join virtually any dissimilar metals
 The bond line can be very neat in appearance
 Brazing does not melt the base metal
 It allows much tighter control over tolerances without the need for
secondary finishing
 There is almost no distortion
 Possible to join non-metals, i.e. ceramics can be easily brazed to
each other or to metals

 Brazed parts may not be put in an environment which exceeds the

melting point of the filler metal (typically bronze)
 Brazed joints require a high degree of base-metal cleanliness
 Creating an aesthetic disadvantage - joint color is often different
from that of the base metal
48

24
 Brazing and soldering filler materials

Brazing: Copper alloy – Cu-Zn and Cu-Ag

Flow temperature: 750 - 980°C
Equilibrium phase diagram

Soldering: Pb-Sn
Flow temperature: 160 - 300°C
Equilibrium phase diagram

49

Principle of Soldering

 Difference from Brazing - filler metal used in case of

soldering should have the melting temperature lower
than 450oC
 Flux must be applied to the faying surfaces and then
surfaces are heated
 Solder is added to the joint - distributes between the
closely fitted surfaces
 Strength of soldered joint is much lesser than welded
joint and less than a brazed joint

50

25
 Advantages and Limitations of Soldering
A low-temp heat source can be used – not necessary to
melt base metals
Parts can be dis-assembled at any time by simply
supplying heat
Dissimilar metals can be easily joined - aluminum to
brass, and copper to steel

 Low Strength
 Damaged under high temperature conditions
 Careful removal of the flux residuals is required in order to
prevent corrosion
 Large sections cannot be joined
 Fluxes may contain toxic components 51

Brazing and Soldering

Show that joint strength is greater than filler material strength
 The heating of the parent materials is negligible to cause any
change in their structure and properties
 It can join two materials which are insoluble in each other
 Spreading and wetting capabilities of the filler liquid play a
predominant role towards producing a satisfactory joint

52

26
 Physics of Welding Arc

 Welding arc and electron emission mechanism

 Zones in welding arc
 Electrical aspects
 Initiation of arc
 Forces acting on arc
 Effect of electrode polarity
 Efficiency of arc
 Modes of metal transfer

53

Basics of Welding Arc

 Arc develops due to flow of current - charged particles should have
reasonably good electrical conductivity
Charged particles are generated by
Thermo-ionic emission
Increase in temperature of metal increases the kinetic energy of free
electrons
When it crosses the limit, electrons are ejected from the metal surface
Tungsten and carbon - having high melting point exhibit thermo ionic
electron emission tendency
Field emission
Free electrons are pulled out of the metal surface by high potential
difference between the work piece and electrode
Secondary emission
High velocity electrons also collide with other gaseous molecules -
results in decomposition of gaseous molecules into atoms and charged
particles (electrons and ions) 54

27
 Zones in Arc Gap
Cathode spot: Region where from Electrode
electrons are emitted
Cathode drop region: Voltage drop
affects the heat generation and
Cathode spot
melting rate of the electrode Cathode
Plasma: flow of charged particles Cathode drop
i.e. free electrons and positive ions zone
takes place
Anode drop region: Voltage drop Anode spot
Plasma
affects the heat generation and Anode drop
melting of anode zone
Anode spot: Electrons get merged Anode
and their impact generates heat for
melting
55

Electrical Aspects of Welding Arc

Welding arc – effective resistance for flow of current in an
electric circuit
Resistance - is a function of temperature
- inversely proportional to the density of charge
particles

V = VC+ Vp + Va (cathode drop + plasma drop + anode

drop region)
Power of the arc = V*I where I = current

 Variation of arc length mainly affects plasma heat

 Shielding gas influences the heat generation in the cathode
56
and anode drop zones

28
 Effect of Electrode Polarity
Generation of Heat
2/3rd of heat is generated at the anode and 1/3rd at the cathode
Mass of electron is less than mass of ions - it gets accelerated at high
velocity and more heat is generated at anode
DC Welding - DCSP/DCEN
• used for non-consumable electrode and for deep penetration
- DCRP/DCEP
• used for consumable electrode welding process and thin sheets
AC Welding
o Polarity changes in every half cycle of current
Arc Stability
o SMAW provide better arc stability with DCEN than DCEP.
o GTAW commonly uses DCEN
o When cleaning action is required, AC is more preferable
57

Arc Efficiency or thermal efficiency and melting efficiency

Heat loss due to

by convention and radiation to surrounding
Only a part of heat generated by the arc to be used for
melting purpose (excluding superheat)

Arc efficiency - ratio of the heat generated at anode and

total heat generated in the arc (using non-consumable
materials)
In consumable arc welding process - heat generated both
at cathode and anode for melting of filler and base metal
In general, consumable arc welding processes offer higher
arc efficiency than non-consumable arc welding process
58

29
 Modes of metal transfer

Transfer of molten metal from the tip of a electrode to the

weld pool

Factors
Shielding gas, composition of the electrode, diameter of the
electrode

Types of metal transfer

o Short Circuit Transfer
o Globular Transfer
o Spray Transfer
o Dip Transfer
59

Modes of metal transfer - Short Circuit Transfer

 Low welding current - droplet grows
slowly
Current

 When drop touches weld pool, short-

circuiting takes place
 Due to narrow arc gap, molten drop
does not attain a size big enough to fall Arc Time
Short
under gravitational force
circuiting
 After short circuit - welding current
flow increases abruptly and results in Arc
excessive heat generation
 The molten metal of droplet becomes
Short circuiting
thinner (low surface tension) Pinching
 Molten metal is transferred to the weld Finally, re-ignites arc and
pool flow of current starts
 An arc gap is established that increases
arc voltage abruptly Repeated over cycle

30
 Modes of Metal transfer – Globular transfer
 Welding current is low (more than short circuit transfer)
and arc gap is large - droplet can grow slowly
 Droplets continues to grow until gravitational force exceeds
the surface tension force
 As soon as drop attains large size enough and so
gravitational force becomes more than other drop-holding-
forces
 Drop separates from the electrode tip and is transferred to
the weld pool
 The droplet transfer occurs when it attains size larger than
the electrode diameter
 No short-circuit takes place
61

Modes of Metal transfer – Spray transfer

 Welding current density is higher
than globular transfer
 High welding current density results
in high melting rate and greater
pinch force
 Droplets are formed rapidly and
pinched off quickly by high pinch
force
 Droplets are of very small in size
 High welding current increases
temperature that lowers the surface
tension force Required especially in
 Decreases the resistance to difficult to access areas
62
detachment of drops

31
 Modes of metal transfer – Dip transfer

Dip Transfer: Welding current is very low and feed rate is

high

 Electrode is short-circuited with weld pool that leads to

the melting of electrode and transfer of molten drop
 Dip transfer differs from short-circuiting – in terms of arc
gap
 Low welding current and narrow arc gap (at normal feed
rate) results in short circuit mode of metal transfer
 Dip transfer is primarily caused by abnormally high feed
rate

63

Examples:

1. In an arc welding process, the arc voltage and current are

measured as 12 V and 150 A, respectively. If total amount of heat
required to melt the welded sample is 800 W and the weld
thermal efficiency is 0.7, what is the melting efficiency of this
process?

2. Assume the following data for mild steel: freezing temperature,

latent heat, specific heat and density are 15400C, 300 kJ/kg, 500
J/kg K and 7800 kg/m3, respectively. The initial temperature of
mild steel was 400C. During welding of mild steel, what is the
amount of heat required (in J) to melt 1 mm3 weld?

64

32
 Summary
 Brazing and soldering can used for joining dissimilar
materials, however, joint strength may not be high like
fusion welding
 In automatic welding process field start is used for
initiation of arc
 DCEN polarity creates maximum heat at the workpiece
 Consumable arc welding processes offer higher arc
efficiency than non-consumable arc welding process
 When welding current density is high, the metal transfer
mode is spray transfer

65

Laser and Electron Beam Welding

66

33
 Introduction

Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

At the surface the concentration of light energy converts into thermal
energy (heat)
The heat causes the surface of the material to heating or melting or
vaporization

Manufacturing industry – Machining, welding, cutting, surface

modification, additive manufacturing, heat treatment
Measurement
Medical applications
Laser nuclear fusion
Communication, laser printing
CDs and optical discs
Barcode scanners 67

Facts about Laser

Laser Components
Lasing Medium:
Provides appropriate transition and
determines the wavelength (it must be
in a metastable state)
Pump:
Provides energy necessary for population
inversion
Optical Cavity:
Provides opportunity for amplification
and provides a directional beam (with
defined length and transparency).
Properties of Laser
Properties of Laser
Coherent (synchronized phase
Monochromatic (single wavelength)
of light)
High intensity (~1014 W/m2)
Collimated (parallel nature of the 68
beam)

34
 Facts about Laser
Nd:YAG (Rod Laser) λ = 1064 nm
CO2 (Gas Laser) λ = 10600 nm
Neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet;Nd:Y3Al5O12)
is a crystal that is used as a lasing medium for solid-state
lasers.
Characteristics of laser light
Many colors
Many directions
Many phases
One color: select laser for application
One direction: can capture all the beam energy
One phase: maximum energy at workpiece 69

Principle of Laser
Energy transfer mechanism is different from
arc welding process
Absorption of energy – laser-mater
interaction
Laser output - not electrical in nature -
Eliminates any effect of magnetism
Not require a flow of electrical current - not
limited to electrically conductive materials
doesn't require a vacuum and does not
produce x-rays
70

35
 Types of laser
Numerous types and designs of lasers are steadily
increasing
Solid-state lasers: use a crystalline or glass rod which is
"doped" with ions that provide the required energy
states. Neodymium is a common "dopant" in various
solid-state laser crystals, including yttrium aluminium
garnet (YAG)

Solid-state lasers or laser amplifiers where the light is

guided due to the total internal reflection in a single
mode optical fiber are instead called fiber lasers

Gas lasers: Helium-Neon laser (HeNe), CO2 71

Types of laser – Fiber laser

In fiber lasers, a rare-earth element such as ytterbium
is doped into the core of an optical fiber

Laser emission is created within the fibers using a

semiconductor diode as the light source and delivered
through a flexible optical fiber cable.

Fiber lasers have a monolithic, entirely solid-state

design that does not require mirrors or optics

72

36
 Types of laser – disk laser
 Thin-disk laser: diode-pumped, solid-state lasers where the
gain medium is a laser crystal
 Typically Yb:YAG (Ytterbium Yttrium Aluminum Garnet)
formed not as a rod but as a very thin disk
 Nd:YAG is also used but has a shorter emission
wavelength
 The thickness of the disk is usually much smaller than the
laser beam’s diameter
Advantages: ability to cool very efficiently
Power and pulse energy can be scaled to much higher values
than rods, fibers or slabs
Easy to scale power (increasing the diameter of the pump area
of the disk) - trade-off is decreasing beam quality

Types of laser – diode laser

 The diode laser is rapidly becoming an indispensable
device in modern life

 It is present in the domestic CD player, in optical

communications, laser printers, laser pointers etc.

 Diode laser is a semiconductor device similar to a

light-emitting diode in which the laser beam is created
at the diode's junction

 The attraction of diode lasers over all other types of

laser - extreme compactness, and ease of operation
74

37
 Types of laser – diode laser

DPSS: Diode pumped solid state laser

75

Laser sources in welding

CO2 Laser: Characteristics

Wavelength 10.6 µm; far-infrared ray
Laser Media CO2–N2–He mixed gas (gas)
Average 45 kW (maximum)
Power (CW) (Normal) 500 W – 10 kW
Merits Easier high power (efficiency: 10 –
20%)

LD: Laser Diode i.e. electrically pumped semiconductor laser 76

38
 Laser Beam Optics
Application: focus, modify and shape the laser beam
Laser beam has ideal Gaussian intensity profile (TEM00 mode)

Short focal length: Faster weld

speed, Less heat input
Long focal length: Longer
depth of focus, Further from
weld spatter & smoke

Core diameter of fiber = 𝐷𝑐

Focal length of collimator = 𝑓𝑐
Focal length of focusing optics = 𝑓𝑜
𝑓
Final spot size 𝐹𝑠 = 𝐷𝑐 × 𝑐
𝑓𝑜
77

Laser Beam Optics

M2 – deviation of laser beam from theoretical Gaussian
M2 = 1 for theoretical Gaussian (TEM00 mode)
M2 – between 1.1 to 1.7 for diode laser
High energy multi-mode laser: M2 can be as high as 25 or 30
Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) modes
Irradiance

Where wave front is flat –

beam waist radius 𝑤0

Laser Modes
Distance

TEM01 TEM10 TEM11 TEM02

TEM00 78

39
 Laser Beam Optics
Where wave front is flat – beam waist radius 𝑤0

Raleigh range: where the beam radius spreads by a factor 2 and wave
front curvature is maximum

Maximum Planar wave

w curvature Front
Planar wave 𝑧= ∞
Front z = zR 2
z=0
𝜋𝑤0
𝑧𝑅 =
θ Beam divergence half-angle 𝜆
Laser z
𝜆
2𝑤0 𝜃=
𝜋𝑤0

79

Laser Beam Optics

Beam parameter product (BPP) - of a laser beam is defined as the
product of beam radius and the beam divergence half-angle
The usual units are mm mrad (millimeters times milliradians)
The BPP is often used to specify the beam quality of a laser beam
The higher the beam parameter product, the lower is the beam quality.

Example: Determine the diameter of focal spot for 10 mm focal length

lens to focus the collimated output of a helium-neon laser (632.8 nm)
that has a 1 mm diameter beam.
Assume divergence angle is small and laser is a point source

𝐷
𝜃≈
2𝐹
D = diameter of the lens
F = focal length of the lens 80

40
 Laser Beam Optics
Depth of focus is estimated at the point of maximum curvature
i.e. at 𝑧𝑅
𝜆 2
𝜃= 𝜋𝑤0
𝜋𝑤0 𝑧𝑅 =
𝜆

𝐷 𝜆
=
2𝐹 𝜋𝑤0

4𝜆𝐹
2𝑤0 =
𝜋𝐷

The diameter of the focal spot will be 2𝑤0

81

Pulse characteristics
Parameters to be measured
Peak power
 Average power (𝑃𝑎𝑣 ) in ‘W’
Power

 Pulse repetition rate (R) in ‘Hz’ Half power

(pulse frequency)
 Pulse duration (𝑡𝑜𝑛 ) in ‘s’

Area = pulse energy (𝐸𝑝 ) Full-width- time

Half-max

Energy per pulse: 𝐸𝑝 ∗ 𝑅 = 𝑃𝑎𝑣

𝑡𝑜𝑛 - pulse duration at
full-width-half-maximum points
Peak power: 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝐸𝑝

82

41
 Example: Pulse characteristics
Q 2.1: In a Nd:YAG laser, the measured parameters are:
pulse frequency 10 kHz and average power 4 W. What is the
pulse energy?

𝑃𝑎𝑣 4
𝐸𝑝 ∗ 𝑅 = 𝑃𝑎𝑣 𝐸𝑝 = = = 0.4 mJ
𝑅 10𝑥103

Q. 2.2: In a Nd:YAG laser, the measured parameters are:

pulse energy 5 mJ and pulse duration 10 μs. What will be the
peak power?
𝐸𝑝 5𝑥10−3
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝐸𝑝 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 500 𝑊
𝑡𝑜𝑛 10𝑥10−6
83

Electron beam welding

• High energy density (up to 108
W/m2) fusion welding process

• Bombardment of intense beam of

electrons on the target materials

• Instantaneous conversion of the

kinetic energy into thermal
energy

• Impingement of electrons causes

weldment interface to melt and
produces the weld-joint
coalescence
84

42
 Electron beam welding
• The electron beam gun has a tungsten filament which is heated,
freeing electrons

• The electrons are accelerated from the source with high voltage
potential between a cathode and anode

• The stream of electrons then pass through a hole in the anode. The
beam is directed by magnetic forces of focusing and deflecting
coils.

• This beam is directed out and strikes the workpiece

• The kinetic energy of the electrons is transferred to heat upon

impact of the workpiece and cuts a perfect hole at the weld joint

• Molten metal fills in behind the beam, creating a deep finished

weld 85

Electron beam welding

Principle
• The heart of the EBW process is the
electron beam generation from the
electron gun/column
• Electron are generated by heating a
negatively-charged filament (cathode)
to its thermionic emission temperature
range, upon which electron are emitted
• Electrons are accelerated by electric
field by negatively-charged bias
electrode located between cathode and
anode

86

43
 Electron beam welding
Principle
• The electron beam can be focused under
vacuum, and strikes the metal surface at
velocities of up to 70% of the speed of light.
• About 95% of the electrons kinetic energy is
converted into heat.
• The electron beam can be focused on
diameter in the range of 0.3 - 0.8 mm
• One key feature is its ability to perform deep
penetration welding with Keyhole mode

87

Electron beam welding

Advantages of Electron beam welding
 Maximum amount of weld penetration with the least amount of heat
input reduces distortion
 Electron beam welding often reduces the need for secondary
operations
 A cleaner, stronger and homogeneous weld is produced in a vacuum
 The electron beam machine's vacuum environment eliminates
atmospheric contaminates in the weld
 Exotic alloys (high alloying elements i.e. superalloy) and dissimilar
materials involving high thermal conductivity metals such as copper
can be welded
 Extreme precision due to CNC reduces the scrap rate
Typical applications of electron beam welding
 Bi-metal saw blades
 Transmission assemblies
 Aerospace components 88

44
 Control parameters for EBW
• There is inter-relationship between power-travel speed and
thickness
• Welding performance may be significantly changed by means of
secondary controls
• Depth-to-width ratio can be controlled by beam focus and
deflection

Primary Variables
 Filament current voltage
 Travel speed
Secondary Variables
 Beam focus
 Beam deflection
 Power supply
 Vacuum
89

Effect of EBM variable on bead geometry

Accelerating voltage: accelerating voltage is increased, the depth of
penetration will also increase

Beam current: for any given accelerating voltage, the penetration

will increase with beam current

Travel speed: the weld bead will become narrow and penetration
will decrease as the travel speed is increased

Beam spot size: sharp focus of the beam will produce a narrow,
parallel-sided weld geometry because the effective beam power
density will be the maximum

90

45
 Disadvantages of EBW
• Rapid solidification may result in brittleness of the weld and defects,
e.g. porosity, crack etc.
• Use of vacuum chamber may reduce product size and limit the
product design
• Possible beam deflection by electrostatic and magnetic fields due to
dissimilar metal
• Electrical conductivity of materials is required
• High precision of seam preparation
• X-ray formation due to emission of secondary electrons from the
workpiece
• Very high equipment cost

91

Comparison between laser and electron beam welding

Perspective Electron beam welding Laser welding

Weld zone and HAZ Narrow/smaller Narrow/smaller

Penetration Deep penetration Lack penetration
Welding speed Very high high

Shielding gas Not required Nitrogen or argon shielding

Vacuum chamber Required Not required

Cost Very high Comparatively low

Generation of X-ray Possible Not-possible
Power efficiency 80-90% 10-20%
Size of work piece Limited due to vacuum Not limited
chamber

46
 Solid State Welding Processes

93

Introduction

 Need of Solid State Welding

1. Joining of dissimilar metals and alloys

2. Joining of difficult to weld metals like Aluminum and super

alloys.

3. Stronger & Intermetallic free welds

 Solid State Welding Techniques

1. Pressure Welding 2. Ultrasonic Welding

3. Diffusion Welding 4. Friction Welding
94

47
 Introduction

Understanding about microstructural and surface conditions

of work piece
- Under microscopic scale
- Surfaces are irregular
- Covered with oxide and contaminant films
- May be microstructural/compositional irregularities
- Number of mechanisms to form bond between surfaces
- Asperities of the surfaces must be collapsed
Contaminant layer
Oxidized layer
mechanically and/or chemically affected metal

Base metal

95

Introduction

 Intimate contact mechanically

1. Contaminant films can be broken up by mechanical action
2. Break down the metal oxides by dissolution into the matrix
3. Local yield stress exceeded on the contact surface and
4. Surface deformation is used to create contact

96

48
 Introduction

 Bonding Mechanism of Solid State Welding

1. Localized Melting

2. Diffusion

3. Recrystallization

4. Adhesion

5. Interfacial Reaction

6. Interfacial Morphology
97

Introduction
 Localized Melting
 It is observed in
• Explosive Welding
• Friction Welding
• Ultrasonic Welding
 Frictional heating during welding causes localized melting
 Melting may lead to inter-metallic compounds which may lower
the bonding strength
 Diffusion
 It is thermally activated process related to the material properties
and applied temperature-time.
 Recrystallization
 Intimate contact between two mating surfaces can be achieved
by means of recrystallization process by means of migration of
grain boundaries
98

49
 Introduction

 Adhesion

 Resulting from atomic attraction has been widely accepted as

the bonding mechanism for all kinds of solid state bonding
techniques

 Atomic attraction between two atoms reaches a maximum at an

inter-atomic distance of several angstroms (10-10 m) and it is
proportional to the inverse of the square of atomic distance

 Two clean surfaces to be welded must be brought to within a

distance of 10x10-10 m

99

Introduction
 Interfacial reaction

 Reaction of oxide films with weld metals

 Solubility of oxide at interface is important
 Reaction between two weld metals
 Formation of intermetallic is harmful to the joint strength
 Phase transformation during welding process

 Interfacial Morphology

 It is a unique characteristic in explosive welding in the form of

planner, wavy or molten layer interface
 It depends upon the velocity of the flyer plate relative to
collision point and angle
100

50
 Cold Welding

 Cold welding is a solid-state

process in which pressure is
used at room temperature to
produce coalescence of metals
with substantial deformation at
the weld

 Both butt and lap joints can be Die

cold welded

Flash

101

Cold Welding

Process of Cold Welding

 The parts to be welded are first
Dies
cleaned

 A short section of the part is sheared

Workpiece Workpiece

 The parts are clamped in a die with

some initial extension Before welding

 A forging force is applied to

complete welding After welding
102

51
 Cold Welding

Characteristics
 At least one of the metals must be ductile without excessive work-
hardening
 Total absence of applied heating
 Dissimilar metals can be joined
 Surface preparation is important

Applications
 Cold welded butt joints are used in the manufacturing of
aluminum, copper, gold, silver, and platinum wire
 Most commonly, successive reels of wire are joined for
continuous drawing to a smaller diameter
103

Ultrasonic welding

Where does the ultrasonic welding falls

Electrical

Solid
State Chemical
Welding
Friction

Ultrosonic
Mechanical Pressure
Weld

104

52
 Ultrasonic welding
 Coalescence is produced at the faying surfaces by the application
of high frequency vibratory energy
- while the workpieces are held together under moderately
low static pressure
 Produces a weld by oscillating shear forces at the interface between
the two metals being joined
- while they are held together under pressure

 Types of Ultrasonic Welding

 Wedge Reed System
 Lateral Drive System
105

Ultrasonic welding
Wedge Reed System

 Accurate control on the Clamping

force
parameter is not possible due to
Mass
its bending mode through
which mechanical vibrations
transfer to the work piece. wedge Transducer

 The anvil sometimes act as a

Sonotrode
vibrating part and resonates out tip
of phase to the reed.
Vibration
Weldment
 That is why the wedge reed
system is more useful for the Anvil
joining of sheets with large Force
thickness. 106

53
 Ultrasonic welding
Lateral Drive System

 Lateral drive system is simple and allows the welding parameters to

be measured via transducer

 It gives good results for thin specimens due to its lower rigidity

 Different types of welds like line, seam ring could be obtained 107

Ultrasonic welding
Interfacial Interaction

 Localized temperature rises resulting from interfacial slip

and plastic deformation.
 Temperature is also influenced by power, clamping force,
and thermal properties of the material.
 Localized Plastic Deformation
 Metallurgical phenomena such as recrystallizing, phase
transformation, etc..... can occur.

108

54
 Ultrasonic welding : Power Generation
• Frequency is transformed to
vibration energy through the
Electrical Frequency
transducer converter
energy
• Energy requirement established

Transducer
through the following empirical
relationship
– E = k(HV t)3/2
– E = electrical energy Vibratory
transducer
– HV = Vickers hardness number
– t = thickness of the sheet
• The constant “k” is a complex function that appears to involve primarily the
electromechanical conversion efficiency of the transducer, the impedance
match into the weld, and other characteristics of the welding system.
Different types of transducer systems have substantially different k values

Ultrasonic welding
Advantages of Ultrasonic Welding
• No heat is applied and no melting occurs
• Permits welding of thin to thick sections
• Welding can be made through some surface coatings
• Pressures used are lower, welding times are shorter, and
the thickness of deformed regions are thinner than for cold
welding
Limitations
• The thickness of the component adjacent to the sonotrode tip
must not exceed relatively thin gauges because of power
limitations of the equipment.
• Process is limited to lap joints
• Butt welds can not be made because there is no means of
supporting the work pieces and applying clamping force 110

55
 Ultrasonic welding
Process Parameters

• Ultrasonic power
• Clamping force
• Welding time
• Frequency
• Linear Vibration Amplitude

111

Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

 Invented at the Welding Institute of UK in 1991, initially for welding

of aluminum alloys

 Most Significant development in welding technology in a decade

 It is a “Green” technology due to its energy efficiency and

environment friendliness

 A specially designed non consumable rotating tool (Pin & Shoulder) is

used.

 The rotating tool is inserted into the abutting edges of rigidly clamped
plates/sheets and traversed along the line of joint
112

56
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

113

Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

 The objectives of the FSW tool is to

 Generate heat at the work piece
 Move the material to form weld joint

 Frictional and deformational effects results in plasticizing of the

materials

 Advancing Side : The side which has similar sense of tool rotation
and traverse/translation direction is termed as advancing side

 Retreating Side : The side which has opposite sense of tool rotation
and traverse/translation direction is termed as retreating side

114

57
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

115

Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

Process Parameters
 Tool Rotation Rate (rpm)
 Clockwise or counter clockwise direction
 Tool rotation results in stirring and mixing of material around the
pin.
 Higher tool rotation rate generates higher temperature due to
frictional heating resulting in intense mixing & stirring.
 Tool Traverse Speed (mm/min)
 Effects in flow of stirred material from the front to the back of the
pin.
 Tool Rotation Rate (degree)
 Suitable tilt angle ensures effective holding of material by the
shoulder while moving the material from the front to the back of
the pin.
116

58
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
Advantages
 Metallurgical Advantages

 Solid state process

 Fine micro structure
 Excellent properties in joint area
 Low distortion of work piece
 Good dimensional stability and repeatability
 No loss of alloying elements
 Absence of cracking
117

Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

Advantages
 Environmental Advantages

 No shielding gas
 No surface cleaning
 No grinding waste
 No solvent for degreasing
 No consumable materials like filler, flux, rods, gases etc.

118

59
.
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) Heat Generation
Heat generation due to sliding and sticking friction condition
Tool shoulder
Rs dQs = dQf + dQp

Rp Vmatrix
δ= Contact state variable
Vtool
Tool pin
dQf = (1 − δ)ωr𝜏𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 dA
dQp = δωrτcontact dA
 contact uniform contact shear stress
 contact   friction   p (sliding) dQ    r  dF    r 2  contact  d dr
σy 2 Rs
Q  0 R   r  contact  d dr
2
τcontact = τy = (sticking)
3 P
2

Q   contact Rs3  RP3
3 
2
QS = πω δτy + 1 − δ μp R3s − R3p
3 119

Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

Welding Defects

 Inappropriate material flow and heat generation

 Tool rotational rate
 Tool traverse speed
 Improper tool geometry selection
 Insufficient plunge depth
 Unequal thickness of joining materials
 Gap between plates

120

60
 Diffusion bonding

• A solid-state welding process that Force

Work pieces
produces coalescence of the faying
surfaces by the application of
A
pressure at elevated temperature.
B
• The process does not involve
macroscopic deformation, or
relative motion of the workpieces.
• A solid filler metal may or may not
be inserted between the faying Schematic representation of
diffusion welding using
surfaces.
electrical resistance for heating

121

Diffusion bonding
Stages of Bond Formation

1st stage deformation

• 1st stage Asperities come
into contact.
and interfacial boundary
formation
– deformation forming
interfacial boundary.
• 2nd stage
– Grain boundary migration
and pore elimination.
• 3rd stage 2nd stage grain
boundary migration
3rd stage volume
diffusion pore
– Volume diffusion and pore and pore elimination elimination

elimination.

122

61
 Diffusion bonding
Factors Influencing Diffusion Welding

(Relation between Temperature and Diffusion Coefficient)

Temperature
D = D0 e -Q/KT
– D = Diffusion coefficient
– D0 = Diffusion constant
– Q = Activation energy
– T = Absolute temperature
– K = Boltzman’s constant
Time
X = C (Dt)1/2 = Diffusion Length
X = Diffusion length
C = A constant
D = Diffusion coefficient
t = Time

123

Diffusion bonding
Applications
• Application in
titanium welding for
aerospace vehicles
• Diffusion welding of
nickel alloys - Inconel
600

• Dissimilar metal diffusion welding applications include Cu to Ti, Cu

to Al
• Brittle intermetallic compound formation must be controlled in these
applications 124

62
 Explosive Welding
 It is a solid state metal joining process that uses explosive force to
create metallurgical bond between two metal components.
 Due to short time duration of impact there is adiabatic heat rise
Explosion
Chemical explosives

Flyer (cladding)
Deformed
zone Substrate Extreme velocity

Common application: Cladding carbon steel plate with a thin layer of

corrosion resistant material
125

Explosive Welding - Jetting

 During explosion on the flyer plate, a high pressure
pulse is generated.
 This pulse propels the flyer plate at very high velocity.
 The jet is the product of the collision of two metals
surfaces.
 Jet formation allows two pure metallic surfaces to join
under extremely high pressure.
 Occurrence of welding depends on piece of metal plate
collides at what angle with the parent metal plate
 For welding to occur, a jetting action is required at the
collision interface
126

63
 127

Explosive Welding
 Process Geometry

 Parallel plate bonding is used for larger plates.

 Flyer plate velocity ranges from 250-500 m/s.

 Collision point velocity ranges from 1500-3000 m/s.

 Collision angle is 5-200 .

The impact must be sufficiently high to cause the colliding metal
surfaces to flow hydro dynamically when they intimately contact
each other.
128

64
 Explosive Welding
Steps in Wave Formation & Bond Morphology

1. Impact produces shear deformation in the stationary base plate

which results in depression.

2. Conservation of volume causes upheaval of metal ahead of the

impact apex leading to hump formation.

3. Hump interfaces with the jet flow and produces eddy in the jet

4. Allowing for collision point velocity causes a forward

deformation of the hump and further jet turbulence which
again causes jet entrapment in front vortex.

5. Process is then repeated starting with step 1.

129

Explosive Welding
Theoretical boundaries of Wave Formation for collision

a) Flat streams of Newtonian liquids

b) Flat Plates of elastic Plastic Solids
c) Typical Observed boundary of Wavy bond Zone
Minimum Dynamic Bend Angle:

Hv
βmin = k
ρvc 2

Hv : Flyer plate hardness

𝜌 : density
vc : Collision point velocity

130

65
 131

Explosive Welding
Velocity Calculations

• Shock wave propagation should exceed the sonic velocity.

• Most metals have sonic velocity from 2000 to 6000 m/s.

• Explosive velocity greater than 120% of sonic velocity of the

material should not be used because of deleterious effect of
shock rarefaction.
𝐸
• Sonic velocity of material: Vs = ρ
• Vs : Sonic Velocity; E: Elastic Modulus; ρ: Material Density

132

66
 Explosive Welding
Velocity Calculations

• Detonation Velocity: It is characteristic of type of explosive and

has been shown to be directly proportional to the explosive density.

• For nitroguanidine explosive it ranges from 2000 - 5000 m/s for

explosive densities 0.14 to 0.9 g/cm3.

• Detonation velocity: 𝑉𝑑 = 1440 + 4020 𝜌𝑒

β
• Flyer Plate Velocity: 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉𝑑 sin (𝛽) ≈ 2𝑉𝑑 sin 2

• Explosive Pressure: P ∝ 𝑉𝑑 2 𝜌𝑒

𝜌𝑒 ∶ Explosive Density; β: Dynamic Bend Angle

133

Electromagnetic Pulse welding

Principle of Operation
 Ampere’s Law :

 Current carrying conductors when placed nearby, they exert force

on each other (magnetic field created)

 The force between infinitely long parallel conductor is given by

F = (𝜇0 /2πd) 𝐼1 𝐼2 (N/m)
𝜇0 = permeability of free space
d = distance between conductors
𝐼1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 = current flow

 Lorentz Forces: F = J x B; J = Current density

B = Magnetic flux
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 Electromagnetic Pulse welding
Welding Process

• The energy stored in the capacitor bank, charged through a DC power

supply.

• Energy is discharged through the work coil by triggering the spark

gap.

• The damped sinusoidal current set up in the work coil produces a

transient magnetic field.

• In around 50 microseconds welding is completed.

• The work sheets in the vicinity of the work coil cut the transient
magnetic field.
135

Electromagnetic Pulse welding

Welding Process

• Hence, the induced electromotive force and the corresponding

eddy currents in the work sheets oppose their cause.

• The induced eddy currents depend upon the material properties

i.e. conductivity and permeability

• Finally the work sheets are repelled away from the coil (towards
each other) creating an impact, due to Lorentz force lasts for a
few microseconds - on account of the interaction between the
induced eddy currents and the magnetic field.

136

68
 Electromagnetic Pulse welding
Bonding Mechanism

• The “Jetting” due to high velocity impact, causes the expulsion

of the oxides on the surface and clears the colliding work sheets
surfaces.

• After the collision , the atomically clean work sheet surfaces are
brought in contact by pressing them together by electromagnetic
pressure.

• The weld is formed at the interface establishing the metallurgical

continuity.

137

Electromagnetic Pulse welding

Process Parameters

• Inductance of the circuit

• Frequency
• Capacitor bank energy
• Voltage
• Current
• Stand off distance between the sheets

Types of work coil

• Solenoid Coil
• Pan cake coil
• Bar coil 138

69
 Electromagnetic Pulse welding
Applications
• Magnetic pulse welding is more applicable to tubular structures
than to flat sheets.
• Mechanical joining of tubular cross sections (e.g. torque rods) is
already in use for high volume production.
• Joining structural parts for underwater applications and automotive
space frames.
• Joining of Al cans and cap wafers to avoid heat generated problems
encountered in TIG welding.
• Welding of dissimilar metal tubes .
• It is also applicable to create bi-metallic driver shafts for light
weight application.
• It has been used in nuclear projects to join a reactor tube to ceramic
plug.
139

Summary

 Solid state bonding mechanism

Localized Melting, Diffusion, Recrystallization, Adhesion,
Interfacial Reaction, Interfacial Morphology

 Cold welding and Ultrasonic welding

 Friction stir welding

 Diffusion bonding

 Explosive welding and Electromagnetic pulse welding

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 Weld distortion and defects

Introduction
• Effect of structural changes that might occur while joining
two similar or dissimilar materials
• Weld quality depends upon several parameters – welding
metallurgy
• Selection of proper shielding medium is necessary to
control various welding defects
• Suitable welding process - reduces residual stress
generation and distortion
• Distortion - dimensional accuracy
• Solidification mode - final microstructure of the welded
joint
• Microstructure - sound mechanical strength
• Microstructure - can be developed in the fusion zone by
various grain structure control mechanisms 142

71
 Chemical Reactions in Welding
 Gas–metal reactions
 Slag–metal reactions

 High temperature during the welding promotes chemical

reaction with environmental gases
 Gases get dissolved in weld pool and form pin hole or porosity
 Can combine with elements to form inclusions

Chemical reaction can be controlled by

 Using proper shielding gas
 By cleaning base metal and electrode before welding

 Chemical reactions finally affects the weld metal

composition and mechanical properties
143

Chemical Reactions in Welding

Protection medium in common welding processes
Weld protection medium Fusion welding process
Gas GTAW, GMAW, PAW
Slag Submerged arc, Electroslag
Gas and slag Shielded metal arc, Flux-cored arc
Vacuum Electron beam
Self-protection Self-shielded arc

• GTAW - Ar and He (Stable arc with less oxygen level)

• GMAW - CO2 (At high temperature it dissolves into CO
and O which increases the weld oxygen level)
• SAW - High oxygen level due to the presence of SiO2 in
the flux 144

72
 Chemical Reactions in Welding
Slag–metal reactions
Proper welding flux helps to control the weld composition and
protect it from atmosphere

Halide type fluxes such as CaF2–NaF, CaF2–BaCl2–NaF

Oxygen free - used for welding titanium and aluminum alloys

Halide oxide type fluxes: CaF2–CaO–Al2O3

Slightly oxidizing - used for welding high-alloy steels

Oxide type fluxes: MnO–SiO2

Welding low-carbon or low-alloy steels

145

Residual stress and distortion

 Change in solidified structure and mechanical constraints

 Non-uniform temperature changes - thermal strain and
stress
 Exists in the body
 Non uniform heating and cooling
 Difference in expansion coefficients
 Mechanical incompatibility of the different components
 Structural deformation from metal working
 Structural heterogeneity in micro-scale
 Various surface treatment
Residual stresses - cause serious problems like hydrogen cracking and
stress corrosion cracking
Various techniques like pre and post weld heat treatment, peening and
vibration are used for stress relief of the weldment 146

73
 Distortion in weldment

Solidification shrinkage
Thermal contraction
Metallurgical changes
Boundary constraints

Angular distortion –
during welding of thick
and thin plates

The welded component (a) Transverse shrinkage in a Butt-Joint

can shrink in the
transverse direction as
well as in longitudinal
direction
(b) Angular change in a butt-joint
(c) Angular Change in a T-Joint
(d) Longitudinal distortion in fillet joint
147

Distortion in weldment
Remedies
• By reducing the weld
metal volume
• Using electron or laser
beam welding, angular
distortion can minimized
• Placing welds about the
neutral axis also helps to
reduce distortion Distortion: (a) transverse and (b)
• Following multi-path welding direction
(c) estimating the deflection in the
butt joint

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 Distortion in weldment

Remedies
Welding alternately on
either side of the double-
V joint is preferred
By using elastic pre- Effect of double-V joint
springing angular changes and both side welding on
can reduced reduction of weld
Pre-heating, thermal distortion
management during
welding
Post weld heating reduce
angular distortion 149

Weld Cracks

Cracks occur during welding for the following reasons

 Temperature gradient causes thermal strain

 Compatibility of various phases due to variation in

composition

 Embrittlement of grain boundaries

 Volumetric contract during cooling

150

75
 Weld Cracks
Mainly two types of cracks
Hot crack – Occurs at elevated temperatures
(Solidification cracking)
Cold crack – Occurs after solidification (Hydrogen
cracking)

Cracks that form during the cooling process are

referred to as hot cracks and cracks whose formation
is delayed are called cold cracks

Cracks can also form in and near the weld during use
and can be caused due to fatigue or corrosion.
151

Weld Cracks

General measure to prevent cracking

 Minimize stresses from the shrinkage during

cooling – change the design
 Trials with parameters and sequence of welding
 Preheating of the components to be welded
 Following slow or moderate cooling rate by
avoiding rapid cooling rate

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76
 Solidification Cracking
Hot cracking (Solidification cracking)
 Low ductility material
 Wide range of solidification temperature
 Presence of impurity elements (low melting point)
like sulfur, phosphorus and boron
 Impurity segregation mainly at weld centerline –
creates shrinkage stress

Prevented by
 Low level of C, S, P, B
 High level of Mn
153

Cold Cracks

Cold cracks form in the weld at some point in

time after the weld has cooled (48 hours after
welding)
Cold cracks usually form either due to excessive
stress in the weld or due to hydrogen diffusion in
steels
Elemental hydrogen can diffuse and migrate to
dislocations and form pockets to create enough
pressure to expand the defect and form a crack.
Presence of hydrogen is not enough -
microstructure helps to develop crack growth
154

77
 Cold Cracks
In steels that undergo transformation from ferrite to
austenite during heating and subsequently can form
martensite during cooling
Martensite formation - high carbon content and
cooling rate
Hydrogen-assisted cracking can be reduced - by
preheating to reduce cooling rate after and post-
weld heating to encourage diffusion of hydrogen
out of the weld
Cracks can form in the weld zone but are typically
found in HAZ
155

Summary
Using of proper shielding gas is important for
fusion welding
Residual stress and distortion is mainly influenced
by solidification shrinkage, thermal contraction,
metallurgical changes and boundary constraints
Temperature gradient (G) and the growth rate (R)
affects the solidified microstructure
Postweld heat treatment is required often to temper
the martensitic structure
Presence of low melting point impurity enhances
the susceptibility of solidification cracking
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Thank you
for your kind attention

End of Module 4

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