WELDING TECHNIQUES

D.JOYSON DEROSE
Centre for Design and Manufacture
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
Trombay , Mumbai
Welding
American welding Society defines “welding is a
process of making weld; wherein WELD is a localized
coalescence of metals or non-metals produced either
by heating the materials to suitable temperatures ,
with or without the application of pressure or by the
application of pressure alone and with or without the
use of filler material”.

Coalescence : grown together in one body.

 Inside Solid
1. Below melting points all metals are crystalline
solids.
2. The individual atoms are bonded
together by inter-atomic
forces.
3. The potential energy of a typical
pair of atoms varies with their
inter-atomic spacing.
4. There is always a force which tends to restore the
lowest energy configuration of the atoms.
 Equilibrium
distance

Equilibrium Force

Force of attraction

Force of repulsion

Extremely low force of attraction

 Practically Difficult to join two solids.

 Surfaces are not smooth on atomic

level.
 Surfaces have oxides.
 Surfaces have moisture on it.
 Surfaces have dust on it.
There are two ways to overcome these problems.
1. By using very high force ( Solid state Welding )
 All oxide, dirt, adsorbed moisture etc. are removed out
from the mating surfaces.
 Atoms are brought very near so that inter-atomic forces
come into play and bonding is achieved.
2. By Melting and Epitaxial Solidification ( Fusion Welding)
Volatile material from the surfaces are vaporized
Oxides , dirt etc float out over the melted surface
Both the metal surfaces solidify together
 Welding can be defined as metallurgical
process of joining, applied to general
problem of construction and fabrication
 It consists of joining two or more pieces of
material by establishing a metallurgical
atom to atom bond by application of heat
and some time pressure
 Two parts of the same chemical
composition may be welded together using
no added metal to accomplish the joint, it is
called autogenously welding.
 A metal which is of same composition as of
parts being joined may be added, it is called
homogenous welding
 Inputs during Fusion welding
Basic inputs to weld, other than the parent materials
to be joined are:
1. Heat,
2. Filler Metal and
3. Weld Pool Shielding Material

Cooling Rate of the weld is important

Welding Metallurgy
How these inputs and their interaction with parent
metal and among them affect the
welds and how to get quality weld by controlling
these inputs.
An alloy of quite different composition,
can be added in the joint, this process is
called heterogeneous welding
Almost every imaginable high energy
density heat source has been used at
one time or another in welding
Welding heat source Power density ( W/cm2)
Gas Flame 102 -103

Argon Arc 5 X102 -104

Plasma Arc 103 -106

Electron Beam 104-107

Laser Beam 103 -107

 Welding processes

Fusion welding Solid state Brazing Braze welding

Arc Gas EBW LASER

Electric res.
Forging
Diffusion
Metal arc Carbon arc TIG Plasma Explosive Spot
Cold Butt
SMAW SAW MIG MAG Friction Seam
Ultrasonic Projection
 Weld design and Positions
 Loads in the welded structure are
transferred from one member to the
another member through welds placed in
the joints
 Classification of welds
 Groove and fillet
 Plate to Plate, Groove
 Pipe to Pipe, Groove
 Plate to Plate, Fillet
 Plate to Pipe, Fillet
 Pipe to pipe, Fillet
 Type of welding joint
 Butt joints.
 Lap joints
 Tee joints
 Corner joints
 Edge joints
 Weld design and Positions
 Loads in the welded structure are
transferred from one member to the
another member through welds placed in
the joints
 Joint design should be selected primarily
on the basis of load requirement
 Generally the joint design that requires
the least amount of weld metal
 Where possible use square groove
 Use the smaller root opening and groove
angle to minimize the filler material
 Weld design and Positions
 On thick plate use double instead of single
V or U groove to reduce amount of weld
metal and to control
 Design the assembly and joint for
accessibility for welding
 Arc characteristics
 An arc is an electrical current flowing between
two electrodes through an ionized column of gas
called a plasma.
 The welding arc is characterized as a high
current low voltage arc that require a high
concentration of electron are emitted from the
cathode and flow along the negative ions of
plasma to positive anode
 Positive ion flow in the reverse direction
 Heat is generated in cathode area by positive ion
striking the cathode, vise versa
Shielded Metal Arc
Welding (SMAW)
 Electrode acts as filler
wire
 Shielding is provided by
burning of coating on
electrode which
produces gases and slag
 Electrode sizes:1.6-8mm
diameter
 AWS: E6010
 Power source: AC or DC
(Choice of polarity)
 Current 30-400A
 Stick Electrode

Flux coating Solid core wire

consists of Ferro- (carbon steel or
alloys, gas stainless steel or
formers, slag Nickel or copper)
formers and
binders
Resultant weld
Slag – metal contains
consists of transferred metal,
silicates and alloying elements
oxides

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 Type of covered electrodes
 Carbon steel: The 60 series and 70 series.
Example AWS E6010 and E7018 etc
 Low alloy steel: E70 XX to E120XX
 Stainless Steel: E308,E308L,E309 and E316
 Nickel and Nickel based alloys:ENiCrFe-1
 Copper and copper alloy: CuSi,CuNi,CuAl
 Aluminum & Al alloy E1100,E3003,E4043
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
(GTAW)
 Employs inert gas for
shielding
 Non consumable
Tungsten electrode is
used
 Electrode is of heavy
metal,
Thoriated,Zirconiated,
Rare earth Tungsten
 High frequency unit
 Filler wire separately
TIG welding external
filler metal may or
may not be added

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TIG filler wire / rod
ER70S2
E- Electrode
R-Rod
70-UTS of Weld metal, 70,000 PSI
S-Solid bare solid rod
2-Specific chemical composition,
giving impact value of 27J of weld
metal at different temperature,
shielding gas to be used for MAG
Welding
ER308L, ER308Mo, ER309L
 Effect of polarity
 In DC welding straight polarity
(electrode negative)
 Reverse polarity (electrode positive)
 AC welding is having effect of
between DC positive and negative
 Most of covered electrode better an
reverse polarity
 Advantages of GTAW
1. No flux (No entrapment)
2. Clear visibility – better control.
3. All positions with high quality.
4. Thin materials (0.125 mm).
5. SS, Non ferrous and number of
alloys can be welded precisely.
 Disadvantages of GTAW
 Costlier process.
 High heat input and slow
process.
 Improper shielding results to
contamination.
 Improper current results to
tungsten inclusion.
Shielding gases
 Ar 99.95 % pure  Almost all metals
 Ar + 5% H2  Stainless steels
 Ar + 25% He  Aluminium
 He 99.9 % pure  Copper and alloys
 N2 99.9 %  Copper and alloys
 Pulse TIG uses and advantages
 Uses :
 Position welding
 Pipe welding
 Welding with or with out filler material
 Advantages
 Welding is quick
 Deeper penetration
 Easier welding
 Stabile arc
Pulsed TIG welding Tube sheet

Peak Back ground current

current

Current

Tube

Up slop Down slop

Background Peak time

time Time duration
 Gas Metal Arc Welding
(MIG)
 MIG/MAG welding
 Continuous consumable
wire acts as electrode.
 A shielding gas flows
through the torch and forms
a blanket over the weld
puddle.
 Power source, 60-500A,
DC,16-40V arc voltage
 The wire is fed at constant
speed to give the desired
weld current.
 Voltage control arc length
The electrode is an
external filler metal

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Three mode of metal transfer:

Short circuit (Dip transfer),Globular &

spray transfer mode
Mode of Short circuit Globular Spray
transfer
Current range 50-225 140-250 250 above

Voltage range 16-22 22-28 28-45

Lower welding current which allow dip

transfer used for thin sheets.
Shielding gases
 Different composition of
shielding gases are used for
welding, depending upon base
metal and welding position.
 CO2-Carbon steels, all position
 Argon- Non ferrous metals
 Argon+1-5% Oxygen-Stainless
Steel
 Advantages of MIG Welding
 Good visibility of weld during welding.
 Continuous welding with coiled filler wire
 No slag removable difficulties
 High metal deposition rate.
 No welding fumes.
 High quality of weld
 High welding speed
 Less distortion
 Welding in all position
 Disadvantages

 Equipment for GMAW is sophisticated and

therefore is costly
 Because of the higher spatter ,deposition efficiency
is less compared to TIG welding
 The absence of slag in solid wire allow a higher
cooling rate
Flux Cored Arc Welding
(FCAW)
 Similar to MIG/MAG welding, except
that the consumable is a tubular
wire with flux or metal powder filled
inside.
 DC only
 Welding current range:100-450A,
16-40V,2-20kW
 Long length of continuous weld
possible
 Additional gas can be used.
 Filler wire for flux cored arc welding
 E71T-1
 E- Electrode
 7-UTS of Weld metal, 70,000 PSI
 1-Position, all position
 T-Flux cored wire
 1-Impact value of 27J of different
type of wire at different
temperature
 Submerged Arc Welding
(SAW)
 The arc is fully submerged
inside the flux covering the
weld joint area.
 Filler wire is fed separately
by wire feeder.
 The weld pool and weld
metal is protected by molten
thick slag by melting the
flux supplied by a hopper.
 Power source 200 –1500A,
AC or DC
 Power consumption 6-80 kW.
 Bare wire electrode diameter 1.6 to
6.4mm
 Flux type, fused or agglomerated.
 Speed at which wire is fed is
controlled to keep the arc length
same.
 Flux which is not melted is
recovered and reused.
 Multiple wires or multiple arcs
spaced along the joint may be used.
Filler wires & Fluxes
 Mechanical properties of weld
metal is derived from the
combination of Wire and Flux used
for welding
 AWS: F6A2-EL8K, F7P6-EM12K,
 F:Submerged arc welding flux
 A: Mechanical properties in as
welded condition, P-After PWHT
 2-Impact strength at –20 deg. C
 E-Electrode
 L-Low Manganese, M-Medium
Manganese
 8-Nominal % of Carbon in weld
metal, 0,08%
 K-Killed steel, the quality of wire
steel
 Plasma Arc welding
 A gas shielded arc welding
process.
 Arc created between a tungsten
electrode and a work piece.
 Arc is constricted to form a
highly collimated column.
 Plasma is formed through the
ionisation of the gas.
 Plasma Arc welding
PAW
 High power density
 Deep penetration
 Fast process
 High velocity
 No inclusions
 Also suitable for cutting
and thin section welding
TIG plasma
 Diffused over large area
 Less power density
 Less penetration
 Less deposition
 Application of PAW
 PAW can be used in two modes.
 Melt-in-mode and
 Key hole mode
 In the key hole mode, the arc
fully penetrates the work piece
 Three current modes of PAW in use are

1. Micro plasma (0.1 – 15A)

2. Medium current plasma (15-
100A)
3. Key hole plasma ( >100A)
 Application of PAW
 Key hole plasma is used for
greater thickness and higher
travel speed.
 PAW can be done using DCEN
pulsed current as well as
variable polarity mode (VPPA).
 Advantages of PAW
 Primarily key hole mode of
operation is most advantageous
as it is
1. Number of passes are less and
hence
2. Less welding time
3. Less labour cost.
 Disadvantages of PAW
 Greater capital cost.
 Reduced tolerance of the process
to joint gaps and misalignment
Electro-slag welding
(ESW)
 Specialized adoption of
submerged arc welding
process
 Used for thick material,
high deposition rate
 The flux melts because of
electrical resistance in the
circuit.
 The molten flux slag
conducts electricity and
the filler wire is melted
and welding is progressed
Stud arc welding
 The welding arc is
generated between a
metal stud and similar
part to which it is
ultimately fused by
welding heat so
generated
 The stud is hold in the
gun and positioned over
the spot, where it is to be
attached, and arc is
struck.
 A modified version of
SMAW process
 Resistance welding
 The heat of welding to fuse
the two pieces is generated by
the resistance of the portion
of the pieces being joined
 After bringing the point to
melting stage squeeze is
applied and thus welding is
completed
 Used for thin sheets
 Process variables, Welding
current, Welding time,
Electrode force,
 Major processes
 Spot, Projection,Flash, Seam
Oxy fuel gas welding
(OFW)
 Heat produced for
welding is obtained from
chemical reaction
between oxygen and fuel
gas, generally acetylene
 Gases are mixed in
proportion to get correct
flame of neutral,
oxidising or reducing
nature
 Limited to thin section
welding
 Friction welding
 Heat for welding
obtained from frictional
force between the two
surfaces to be joined
 One piece is hold
stationary and other
rotated at high speed
and brought in contact
to the stationary piece
 Used also for dissimilar
metals welding
Electron beam welding
(EBW)
 Heat for welding obtained
from high velocity
concentrated beam of
electrons
 Electrons are produced
by heating heavy metal
cathode
 Electrons are accelerated
by anode and focused by
magnetic coils
 Vacuum is required for
deep penetration
Electron Beam Welding System
 Different modes of EBW
 High Vacuum
 Medium Vacuum
 Non Vacuum
 Advantages of EBW
 Deep / narrow welds (High
depth to width ratio)
 Lower heat input results narrow
HAZ.
 Minimum distortion
(shrinkage).
 Increased productivity.
 Limitations of EBW
 Equipment costs are higher.
 Work piece size is limited to the
size of the chamber.
 Electron beam is deflected by
magnetic fields.
LASER beam welding
(LBW)
 Highly concentrated and
amplified energy light
beam is generated and
brought on to the joint for
welding
 It is limited for thin sheet
welding for high quality
 Inert gas surrounding is
required for good quality
weld
 Can be brought to any
corner of joints by Fiber
Optic cable
Brazing, braze welding & Soldering
• Brazing
• Similar or dissimilar metals can be
joined by maintaining narrow gap
between parts, heating them and feeding
filler metal having melting temperature
below that of base metal, metal flow by
capillary action in gap
• If heating is above 450 deg. C, it is
known as brazing
• If heating is below 450 deg. C, it is
known as soldering
•The filler metal completely wets the
butting surfaces and form
metallurgical joint
• Joint strength better than parent
metals and filler metal
• Flux helps in brazing and soldering

•Braze welding refers to joining metals

by heating the joint up to melting
temperature of filler metal
Types of welding
discontinuities
 Four categories of welding discontinuities
 Planer discontinuities
 Volumetric discontinuities
 Geometrical discontinuities
 Metallurgical inhomogeneties
Lack of Penetration
 Failure of weld metal to come
down the root surface.
 This is caused from too much
speed during the welding
process
 Low welding current,
 Too short root gap
 Some properties of base metal
and weld metal.
 It is found in the root of the
weld
Lack of Fusion

 It can be that the weld and

base metal did not fuse or it
might be that the weld passes
themselves failed to fuse.
 It occurs with high welding
speed
 Low welding current.
 Presence of refractory slag.
 High thermal conductivity of
material
Offset or mismatch

 Two pieces to be welded,

the edge may not match.
 Happens due to ovality in
pipe or thickness variation
in plate.
Inadequate weld
reinforcement &
Excess weld reinforcement
Cracter / Weld Cracks
 Crater solidify from all
sides towards the centre, it
appears like star (*),
longitudinal or transverse.
 When the welder starts the
weld and takes up his torch
or arc to complete the
welds, he must take care to
fuse the discontinuity
together.
 Stress crack
 Stress cracks in welds are
the result of stresses
created during the cooling
of a restrained (rigid)
structure.
 Stress cracks might occur
anywhere along the weld
bead, or into the heat
affected zone (HAZ) of the
base metal.
Cold cracks
 Appear in HAZ after the weld metal has
cooled to ambient temperature.
 It may appear even after the lapse of hrs
after welding is completed. Delayed
crack.
 It is the result of formation of hard and
brittle zone due to rapid cooling of weld
metal and HAZ.
 Presence of diffusible Hydrogen in weld
metal (HIC).
 These hydrogen diffuse to
high tensile stress area in
weld metal and HAZ and
causes metal rupture.
 This may be longitudinal or
transverse and open to
surface or sub surface.
 Cold cracks are also formed
when the joint is too much
restrained.
 These cracks usually occur transverse to
the weld in a single pass weld and
longitudinal in a multiple pass weld.
 It can be prevented by:
 Use of steel of lower carbon equivalent.
 Higher heat input during welding.
 Pre heating
 Use of low hydrogen welding consumable.
Hot cracks

 Appear in metals having impurities like

Sulphur, Phosphorus which has low
melting points, and solidify last.
 Solidified weld metal imposes shrinkage
stresses on this solidifying elements and
cause hot cracks
 It appears immediately after
solidification.
Slag inclusion

 Slag is produced by melting

of fluxes in the welding
process.
 Before subsequent passes,
the slag produced must be
cleaned properly, before
next pass.
 If not cleaned properly, slag
inclusion will occur
Porosity
 During welding gases are generated
by burning of fluxes or are supplied
separately for shielding.
 If the shielding gas contains
moisture, the decompose in
hydrogen and oxygen.
 Porosity may be open to the surface
or subsurface, depending on
whether the gas was trapped by the
solidifying metal.
 Tungsten inclusion

 Excessive current during

Tungsten-arc welding
can cause the tungsten
electrode to melt.
 Although some Tungsten
inclusions might occur at
the surface of a weld,
most often they are
subsurface
discontinuities and are
not open to the surface.
Undercuts
 It occurs where the
welder has melted and
flushed out some of the
parent metal in the line
of fusion.
 This occurs with high
welding speed and high
welding current.
 This is a discontinuity
which would be most
readily seen by visual
inspection
 Burn through
 A burn through area is that portion of the weld
bead where excessive penetration has caused
the weld pool to be blown into the pipe or
vessel. It is caused by factors that produce
excessive heat in one area such as high
current, slow rod speed, incorrect rod
manipulation etc. This type of defect shows as
a dark area on the radiograph where the weld
metal is thin. It is often accompanied by
excessive drop through of the metal on the
inside of the vessel.
 Too thin wall joint
 Too small root face
 Excessive weld current
 Suckback / Root concavity
 Root concavity or suck-up is
commonly produced for the GTAW
process. The molten weld metal
can sink under the force of
gravity, particularly in the
overhead position, or in the flat
position be pulled up by surface
tension into the weld preparation,
to create a groove in the root of a
butt weld made from only one
side. This defect occurs on the
radiographic image as a dark
band in the centre of the weld.
 Concave shape of root weld
metal, for high purging pressure.
Metallurgical
inhomogeneities
 Altered microstructure in HAZ resulting in
 Sensitizing in SS giving rise to IGC and
IGSCC
 Recrystallization and grain growth in
strain hardened material resulting in loss
of strength
Thank you all