Ordinary Chemistry Notes 2

CHEMISTRY
What is Chemistry?
Chemistry is a branch of science that deals with the study of the

composition and behaviour of matter.
Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight. It exists in

three different states namely:-
Gases
Liquids
Solids
The Laboratory: It is used to measure volumes of

liquids during experiments.
What is a Laboratory?
2. Pipette
A laboratory is a special building or place where scientific works,
such as testing and preparation of substances for scientific
knowledge are done. It is used to measure specific or
fixed volume of liquids.
Laboratory Rules:
1. Do not touch or taste anything in the laboratory without

instructions.
2. Don’t enter the laboratory without a teacher.
3. Never run or walk carelessly in the laboratory.
4. Don’t carry laboratory containers in your pockets.
5. Avoid being absent-minded in the laboratory.
Laboratory apparatus:
They include:
1. Burette 3. Volumetric flask
© Kirrigwajjo Nicholas , Chemistry Department 2010 1

6. Flat bottomed flask
It is used for mixing liquids up

to a required fixed volume.
4. Measuring cylinder
It is used for measuring volumes

of various substances. It is used for holding
substances in experiments that do not
require heating.
7. Round bottomed flask
5. Conical flask
It is for mixing
substances.
For holding liquids

It is for holding substances in
experiments that involve heating. For holding solids and liquids
8. Beaker
11. Delivery tube
For passing on gas.
12. Bee hive shelf
For holding jars when collecting

gases i.e.
It is used for 13. Thistle funnel

holding substances
9. Boiling tube
For heating solids and boiling

liquids.
10. Test tube:

For adding a liquid to a flask
14. Separating funnel
Separating Immiscible liquids e.g.

water and oil
THE BUNSEN BURNER How to light a Bunsen burner

Structure of a Bunsen Burner  Step one – Close the air hole, if already connected to the
gas.
 Step two – light the match stick and put it close to the barrel
and then turn off the gas fully.
 Turn down the gas until the flame is 7cm tall.
 Open the air holes.
Burning back (striking back) of a flame is when the flame burns

inside the barrel at the jet.
It is caused by insufficient supply of gas.

Bunsen Flames:
A flame is a mass of burning gases that produces heat and light.

There are two types of Bunsen flames that is Luminous and Non-
luminous flames.
LUMINOUS FLAME:
This is the flame obtained when the air holes are closed.
Properties of Luminous Flame:
- It is yellow and unsteady.

- It has four zones It is called Luminous because it gives off a lot of light.
- The flame is not very hot.
- It is sooty. NON-LUMINOUS FLAME
- It burns quietly.
- It doesn’t burn back. This is the flame obtained when the air holes are open.
Diagram Properties of non-luminous flame:
- It is blue and steady.

- Has three zones.
- It is non-sooty
- produces a lot of heat
- It is noisy
- It some times burn back.
Diagram:

In daily life, non-luminous flame is produced by pressure stores and
gas cookers while the luminous flame is produced by a candle.
Question:
Outline the differences between luminous and non-luminous flame.
Luminous Flame Non-luminous flame

1. It is obtained when the air holes It is obtained when the air
are closed holes are open
2. It has four zones It has three zones
3. It burns quietly It is noisy
4. It is sooty It is non sooty
5. It is yellow and unsteady It is blue and steady
6. The flame is not very hot It produces a lot of heat
MATTER
1. What is matter?
Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight.
2. Outline the three states of matter.
Liquids
Gases
Solids
NB: Opening the air holes allows more oxygen to enable the gas 3. Which state is represented by each of the diagrams below
burn completely while with closed air holes there is insufficient
oxygen. (a) (b)
(c)

Solids Liquids
Gases

Properties of the states of matter.
1. Gas (vapour) State:
- particles are distant and weakly attracted to each other

- they move randomly.
- Gases have no definite size and shape, therefore they take up
the shape of a container.
- They can be compressed.
2. Liquid State:
- The particles are relatively close and have relatively high

attraction between them.
- Liquids can move in all directions.
- Liquids have a fixed volume but no fixed shape. They take
up the shape of the container.
4. What do we call the following processes? - Liquids can’t be compressed.
(a) Conversion of solid to liquid 3. Solid State:
Melting - Particles are very close and strongly attracted to each other.
- The particles are static (i.e. not free to move)
(b) Conversion of liquid to gas - Solids have a definite volume and shape.
Evaporation CHANGE OF STATE:
(c) Conversion of gas to liquid
A change of state is a physical change in which the substance turns
Condensation from one form to another, without change with its chemical nature.
(d) Conversion of liquid to solid
Examples of change of state:
Freezing
1. Melting (or fusing):
All materials that make up our environment and substances are
This refers to a change of a solid into a liquid.
described as matter.
2. Freezing (or solidifying):
This is a change of a liquid into a solid. Examples:
3. Evaporation - Changes of state (i.e. melting, evaporation)

- Magnetism of iron.
This is a change of a liquid into gas or vapour. - Change of colour by zinc oxide when heated.
4. Condensation (or liquidifying): Characteristics/properties of a physical change:
This is a change of a gas or vapour into a liquid. - The change is reversible

- No energy is given off or absorbed during the process.
- There is no change in mass or weight.
5. Sublimation: - The substance remains the same (i.e. no new substance is formed)
This is a change of a solid directly into a gas or the change of a gas Chemical change:
directly into a solid. The solid formed after sublimation is called a
sublimate. This is one in which a new substance is formed. When a substance
undergoes change to form a different substance with different
Examples of solids that sublime when heated. properties from the original substance, then a chemical change has
taken place.
- Iodine
- Ammonium chloride Examples of chemical changes:
- Aluminium chloride
- Iron (III) chloride - Burning of charcoal
- Carbondioxide (dry ice) - Heating of lead(II) nitrate
- Sulphur - Rusting of iron.
- Respiration
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES: - Photosynthesis
Matter can undergo two types of changes and that include; Characteristics of chemical change or properties:
Physical change - The change is not reversible.

Chemical change
- Energy may be given off or absorbed
Physical Change: - There is a change in mass or weight
- A new substance is formed.
This is a change in which no new substance is formed.
State the differences between a physical and chemical changes:
Examples of elements and their symbols:
Chemical change Physical change
There is a change in mass or There is no change in mass or Element Chemical Symbol
weight weight Hydrogen H
New substance is formed No new substance is formed Helium He
Energy may be given off or No energy is given off or Lithium Li
absorbed absorbed during the process. Beryllium Be
Boron B
ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES: Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Matter can be found to exist in form of: Oxygen O
Cobalt Co
Elements Fluorine F
Compounds Neon Ne
Sodium Na
Mixtures Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al
An element is a substance which can not be broken any further into Silicon Si
simpler substances by chemical means. Phosphorous P
Sulphur S
A compound is a substance made up of two or more substances Chlorine Cl
chemically combined together. Argon Ar
Potassium K
ELEMENTS: Calcium Ca
Zinc Zn
Elements are best represented by their atoms. Iron Fe
Lead Pb
An atom is the smallest electrically neutral particle of an element, Copper Cu
which can take part in the chemical reaction. Silver Ag
Gold Au
A chemical symbol is one or two letters representing one atom of an Tin Sn
element. Bromine Br
Iodine I

Mercury Hg - They have a high density.
Nickel Ni - They are good conductor of heat and electricity.
Managanese Mn - They are malleable (i.e. they can be made into sheets)
Chromium Cr - They are ductile (i.e. they can be drawn into wires)
Barium Ba - They have a high melting points.
Platinum Pt - They are strong and tough.
Vanadium V - They can be polished.
Non-Metals:
The first letter must be capital and second (small). The letters are
derived from the English or Latin name of the element. Examples:
Where the letters don’t appear in English name, then their origin is - Oxygen
the Latin names e.g. Sodium, Na from Natrium, if the symbol has - Nitrogen
one letter then it should be capital. - Carbon
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS: - Chlorine
- Sulphur
Elements are classified into two main groups, namely; - Phosphorous
- Bromine
(i) Metals - Iodine
(ii) Non-metals
Properties of non-metals:
Metals:
- They have a low density.
Examples: - They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
- They are not reliable.
- Sodium - They are not ductile.
- Potassium - they have a low melting points and a low boiling points.
- Aluminium - they have low tensile strength (i.e. weak)
- Magnesium - They can’t be polished.
- Zinc
- Iron COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES:
- Copper
Differences:
Properties of metals:
Compounds Mixtures
The components can’t be The components can be
separated by physical means separated by physical means. - A solution is a uniform mixture of two or more substances.
The properties of the compound The properties are the average - A solvent is a substance that dissolves a solute to form a
are different from those of the of the components present. solution.
elements that make it - A solute is a substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a
Energy is given out or absorbed Energy is not usually given out solution.
during formation of compound or absorbed when a mixture is
made. Based on these definitions, there nine types of other solution,
The components are present in The components may be in any namely;
definite proportions proportions. (i) A gas in a gas e.g. oxygen in Nitrogen
(ii) A gas in a liquid e.g. Oxygen in water
(iii) A gas in a solid e.g. tear gas absorbed on a gas mask
MIXTURES: (iv) A liquid in a liquid e.g. ethanol in water
(v) A liquid in a gas e.g. water drops in air
When two or more substances are combined, each of them is (vi) A liquid in a solid e.g. mercury in zinc
referred to as a component. (vii) A solid in a gas e.g. camphor in air
(viii) A solid in a liquid e.g. sugar in water
If the component retains their properties then the combination is (ix) A solid in a solid Brass (copper with zinc)
called a mixture e.g. A solution of salt and water.
ALLOYS:
TYPES OF MIXTXURES:
An alloy is a solution of two or more metals.
1. Solid – solid mixture
Examples:
e.g. Rice mixed with stones
(i) Brass – contains zinc and copper
2. Soluble solid – liquid mixture: (ii) Bronze – contains copper and tin
(iii) Solder - contains lead and tin
e.g. Salt and water (iv) Magnesium - contains Aluminium and magnesium
(v) Steel – contains iron and carbon (but carbon is non-metal)
The liquid is called solvent while the soluble solid is called the
solute and this type of mixture is called a solution. State one use of each of the alloys mentioned above.
Terminologies include solvent, solution, solute and suspension.
Definitions: Saturated solution: A saturated solution is one which cannot

dissolve any more solute at a given temperature in presence of
undissolved solute.
(b) Immiscible liquids: - There are liquids that form one than
Super saturated solution: one layer when mixed e.g. Oil and
water
Is one which contain more solute than it can hold at a given The less dense liquid floats on the denser liquid.
temperature.
Suspension:
This is a liquid which contains solid particles spread throughout it

and which settle on standing.
Differences between Suspension and a solution:
Suspension Solution Other general examples of mixtures:

Components can be separated Components can’t be separated
by filtration by filtration Air, Ink, Milk, Paint
Particles are visible Solute particles are not visible
SEPARATION OF MIXTURES:
Examples of suspension muddy water or mixture of mud and water.
The methods used are purely physical means. They include;
3. Insoluble solid – Liquid mixture e.g. sand and water. 1. Decanting:
The insoluble solid settles at the bottom forming a residue. This method is used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid by
allowing the solid particles to settle, the pouring of the liquid.
Illustration:
4. Liquid – liquid mixtures:
(a) Miscible liquids: - These are liquids which form one

uniform layer when mixed e.g. water
and ethanol

2. Filtration: The insoluble solid that remains on the filter paper is called the
Residue.
It is also used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid with the While the liquid which collects in the receiver is called the filtrate.
use of a filter paper e.g. a mixture of sand and water, a mixture of
copper (ii) carbonate with water Note: Filtrate is more efficient than decanting.
3. Evaporation to dryness:
This method is used to separate a soluble solid from a liquid e.g. a

mixture of salt (sodium chloride) with water.

The solution is placed on an evaporating dish and the water allowed Place the mixture of sand and salt in a beaker and add water.
to evaporate. The solid will be left behind often all the water is Stir and warm to allow all the salt to dissolve.
evaporated.
Illustration:
After all the salt has dissolved in the water, filter off the sand and
evaporate the remaining filtrate to dryness.
Observation:
Solid crystal remain on the evaporating basin after evaporation of

In this method, the solvent is not recovered. the water.
Separation of Sand-Salt mixture: Conclusion:
Requirements: The solid crystals are salt crystals which had dissolved in water.
- Water 4. Distillation:
- Source of heat
- Beakers This is the process of boiling a liquid to form a vapour and
- Filter paper condensing the vapour to form the liquid again.
- funnel
- Evaporation dish The method is used to separate miscible liquids e.g. Ethanol and
- Tripod stand water, Crude oil.
- Stirring rod
Procedures: It is of two types namely;

- simple distillation The mixture is heated in the flask where ethanol boils off first. The
- Fractional distillation liquid that is more volatile distills off first. Avolatile liquids is one
which has a low boiling point. Ethanol has a lower boiling point
Simple distillation: (78oC) than water (100oC) and therefore when distilled, ethanol is
obtained first. Giving vapour which is condensed by cold water.
This is used to separate two miscible liquids e.g. ethanol and water.
The apparatus used include: Note: Other mixtures that can be separated by distillation:
- a distillation flask - A mixture of ethanol and propanol

- a thermometer
- Separating liquid air into oxygen and nitrogen.
- a lie-big condenser
- Separating crude oil into petrol, diesel, paraffin, grease etc
A thermometer is used in distillation to monitor the temperature of
the liquid that boils off (or distils off)
Questions:
Set up of apparatus:
1. A chromatogram of substances P, Q, R, S, T and a mixture M
was developed as shown in the figure below;
The figure below shows that the mixture M, consist of;

A. P, R and T C. P, W and R
B. R, S and T D. Q, R and S (a) Identify the substance in the mixture;
2. The results of the chromatogram of the dyes used in making (i) mixture A
three sweets X, y and z shown in the figure below. (ii) Mixture B
(b) Which substances are present in both?

(c) Which substances are present in mixture A only?
WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS:
Writing chemical formulae
Atom and Molecules:
This is the smallest unit of an atom element which can exist. Some
elements and many compounds exist as groups of atoms linked
together. The groups of atoms are called molecules.
Examples:
The number of dyes used in the making of sweets is:
Atoms:
A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 9
3. The result of chromatography experiment is shown in the

diagram below;
A and B are different mixtures of the pure substances P, Q, R, S and

T.
Hydrogen molecule Oxygen molecule a molecule of
carbondioxide
Hydrogen gas consists of a pair of hydrogen atoms, linked together

oxygen consists of pairs of oxygen atoms linked together.
Hydrogen and oxygen are thus diatomic cause their atoms are
linked together. Each pair of atoms is a molecule.
Examples of diatomic molecule:
Oxygen, O2 Iodine, I2
Hydrogen, H2 Fluorine, F2
Chlorine, Cl2
Atoms of Hydrogen Atoms of Oxygen Atoms of Bromine, Br2
carbon Nitrogen, N2
Chemical symbol:
Molecules:
A chemical symbol represents one atom of an element.
Example:
It means one atom of hydrogen
A chemical formulae represents one molecule of an element or

compound e.g. Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 calcium chloride CaCl2.

Chemical formula of an element: H2O – The “2” means two hydrogen atoms present in one molecule
of water. There is one oxygen atom present. The “1” is never
For elements which exist as molecules, the formula is the symbol of written.
the element with the number of atoms in one molecule of the
element written at the bottom right hand corner of the symbol. The figure below shows the formula of sulphuric acid.
Examples:
H2 means one molecule of hydrogen

2H means two atoms of hydrogen. H2SO4
O2 means one molecule of oxygen.
2O means two atoms of oxygen.
2 atoms One
of atom of 4 atoms of
Chemical formula of compounds.
Hydrogen sulphur Hydrogen
The formula of a compound which exists as molecule consists of
the symbol of the elements in the compound and shows the number
of atoms of each element in one molecule of the compound. Brackets:
Examples: These are used in chemical formulae to indicate multiple groups

(radicals) of atoms.
H2O means two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen in
water. Examples:
CO2 means one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen in The formula of calcium hydroxide
molecule of carbondioxide.
Ca (OH)2
NUMBERS:
In a chemical formula, the number at the bottom right hand corner One atom 2 atoms 2 atoms of
of a symbol indicates the numbers of atoms of that element in the of of oxygen Hydrogen
molecule. calcium
Examples:
Ammonium sulphate
(NH4)2 SO4
Formula C H O
Number 6 12 6
Two atoms 8 atoms of One atom = 6 + 12 + 6 = 24 atoms
of Nitrogen hydrogen of sulphur 4 atoms of
oxygen
(b) Three molecule of hydrogen sulphide H2S
Formula H S
Number 2 1
= 2 + 1 =3
= 3 x 3 = 9 atoms
Aluminium Sulphate:
(c) Five molecules of benzene, C6 H6
Al2 ( S O4)3
Formula C H
2 atoms of 3 atoms
aluminium of 12 atoms of Number 6 6
sulphur oxygen
= 6 + 6 = 12 x 5 = 60 atoms
Exercise:
How many atoms of hydrogen are in 3 molecules of ammonium

sulphate, (NH4)2 SO4
Formula: N H S O (d) Ten molecules of butane, C4 H10

Number: 2 8 1 4
Formula C H
3 (NH4)2 SO4 Number 4 10
:. The number of hydrogen in 3 molecules = 3 x 8 = 24 atoms. = 4 + 10 =14

= 14 x 10 = 140 atoms
2. Calculate the total number of atoms in each of the following;
3. How many atoms of oxygen are in 7 molecules of calcium
(a) One molecule of glucose, C6, H2, O6 hydroxide. Ca (OH)2
Permanganate MnO4
Formula Ca O H Carbonate CO3
Number 1 2 2
Valence:
= 2 x 7 = 14 atoms
Atoms are linked together in both molecules and giant structures by
RADICALS: Chemical bonds.
A radical is a group of atoms chemically combined together but The valency of an element in a compound is the number of
which doesn’t exist on its own. chemical bonds which one atom of the element can form in one
molecule of the compound.
For example:
Example:
Sulphate, SO4 in copper, vi, sulphate
The sulphur and oxygen are chemically combined into a unit called 1. The formula of sodium chloride is NACl, one atom of chloride.
Sulphate.
:. The valence of sodium Na = 1
A sulphate is usually combined with other elements or radicals e.g. Chlorine – Cl =1
ammonium sulphate, NH4 SO4
2. The formula of aluminium oxide is Al2 O2 two atoms of
Magnesium sulphate Mg SO4 aluminium combine with three atoms of oxygen.
Other radicals include: :. The valence of (a) aluminium, Al =3

(b) oxygenatom, O =2
Name Formula
3. The formula of magnesium chloride is Mg Cl2
Nitrate NO3
Nitrite NO2 One atom of magnesium combines with 2 atoms of chloride.
Hydroxide OH
Chloride Cl :. The valency of Mg =1
Chlorate ClO3 Chlorine = Cl = 2
Ammonium NH4
Hydrogen sulphate HSO4 The formula of some compounds are as follows;
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3
Sulphate SO4 H2, SO4, Al Cl3, HNO3, PH3, C4 Cl, Ag Cl, CaCl2, H2S and CH4
Sulphite SO3
Phosphate PO4 State the valency of;
Hydrogen sulphate, Sulphite, SO3 Nitrogen, N
(a) Aluminium - HSO4
(b) Nitrate - Bromine, Br Carbonate, CO3
Iodine, I Peroxide, O2
(c) Sulphate - Chlorate, ClO3 Oxygen, O
(d) Phosphorous - Permanganate, MnO Barryllium
Hydroxide, (OH) Sulphur, S
(e) Copper - Nitrate, NO3
(f) Silver - Nitrite, NO2
Hydride, H
(g) Calcium - Hydrogen, H
(h) Sulphur -
Variable valencies:
(i) Carbon -
(j) Hydrogen - Some elements such as copper and iron have more than one
valency. These elements are said to have variable valencies. The
Valencies of common elements and radicals: names of compounds of these elements show the valencies by
(a) Metals roman numerals. Hence iron has a valency of 2 in Iron (ii) chloride
and a valency of 3 in iron (iii) chloride. Similarly copper has a
Valency I Valency II Valency III valency of 1 in copper (I) oxide and a valency of 2 in copper (ii)
Sodium, Na Calcium, Ca Aluminium, Al oxide.
Potassium, K Barium, Ba Iron, Fe
Silver, Ag Copper, Cu Using valencies to write chemical formulae:
Copper, Cu Magnesium, Mg
Ammonium, NH4 Zinc, Zn The valencies of elements and radicals enable us to write correct
Lithium, Li Lead, Pb formulae of compounds.
Fluorine, F Iron, Fe
Mercury, Hg The following steps are followed:
1. Write the symbols of elements.

(b) Non-metals and radicals
2. Write the valency of each element above and to the right-hand
side corner of the symbols.
Valency I Valency II Valency III
3. Reverse the valencies and write below and to the right.
Chloride, Cl Oxide, O Nitride, N
Fluoride, F Sulphide, S Phosphide, P Examples:
Hydrogen carbonate, Sulphate, SO4 Phosphate, PO4
HCO3
Write the chemical formulae of the following compounds.
(g) Aluminium sulphate
(a) Potassium chloride
Al SO4
K Cl Al SO42
K Cl AlSO
KCl Al2 (SO4)3
(b) Magnessium chloride

(h) Manganese (iv) oxide
Mg2 Cl
Mg Cl Mg O
MgCl2 Mn4 O2
MnO2
(c) Sodium sulphate
Write the formula of each of the following compounds:
Na1 SO4
Na SO (a) Potassium carbonate
NaSO4 (b) Magnessium oxide
(c) Sodium hydrogen carbonate
(d) Iron (III) chloride (d) Calcium hydrogen sulphate
(e) Calcium hydroxide
Fe Cl (f) Iron (III) oxide
Fe3 Cl (g) Potassium permanangate
FeCl3 (h) Sodium peroxide
(i) Potassium permanante
(e) Zinc sulphate (j) Sodium peroxide
(k) Sodium nitrite
Zn SO (l) Copper (II) nitrate
2
Zn SO2 (m) Ammonium carbonate
ZnSO4 (n) Iron (III) sulphide
(o) Aluminium hydroxide
(f) Ammonium sulphate (p) Barium sulphate
(q) Lead carbonate
NH4 SO4 (r) Magnessium nitride
NH4 SO42 (s) Aluminium nitrite
(NH4)2 SO4
Naming chemical compounds: (c) KClO3
(d) KMnO4
In naming of chemical compounds tha name of the metal comes (e) FeSO4
before that of the non-metals or radicals. (f) FeCO3
(g) CuCl
Examples: (h) AlN
(i) Fe2(SO4)3
(a) NaO – Sodium oxide
The formula of a sulphate of metal M is MSO4. What is the
(b) Na2O2 – Sodium peroxide
formula of;
(c) Ca (HCO3)2 – Calcium hydrogen carbonate
(a) chloride of M
(d) MgCl2 – Magnessium chloride
(b) Carbonate of M
(e) NH4Cl – Ammonium chloride (c) Hydrogen carbonate of M
(d) Nitride of M
(e) Nitrate of M
However, for metallic elements with more than one valency that is (f) Oxide of M
(g) Hydrogen sulphate of M
copper and iron, their valency is put after the formula of the element
when naming their compounds. 3. X reacts with chloride to form a compound with formula
XCl4. The formula of the oxide of X is:
Examples: A. X2O B. XO C. XO4 D. XO2

Name the following compounds;
ALLOYS:
(a) FeCl2 – Iron (II) chloride
(b) FeCl3 – Iron (III) chloride
An alloy is a uniform mixture of a metal with another metal. Steel
(c) Cu2O – Copper (I) oxide
is a special alloy as it contains the non-metal carbon. A metal is
(d) Cucl2 – Copper (II) chloride
alloyed with another in order to achieve desired properties such as
good appearance, strength, durability and toughness
Exercise:
Examples of alloys:
Write the chemical name of the following;
(a) Ba (NO3)2
(b) (NH4)2 SO4
Alloy composition
Steel Iron, carbon and other metals
Brass Copper, zinc
Bronze Copper and tin
Solder Lead and tin
Duralumin Aluminium, copper and magnesium Air is passed over heated copper from one syringe to the other
Michome Nickel and chromium several times until there is no change in volume.
AIR AND THE ATMOSPHERE The apparatus is allowed to cool and the remaining volume of air is
recorded.
Air is a mixture of gases, mainly nitrogen and oxygen.
The composition of air is approximately constant throughout the
world. The chief variable is water vapour.
The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is called humidity.
Air doesn’t normally contain hydrogen gas but contains small Treatment of the results:
amounts of carbondioxide and other gases.
Let the initial volume of air be 100cm3
Composition of Air: Let the volume of air after heating be v cm3
Volume of oxygen in a = (100 – v) cm3
Gas Percentage composition by Percentage = (100 – v) x 100%
volume Oxygen 100
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21% = (100 – v) %
Argon 0.9%
Carbondioxide 0.03%
Other gases 0.003%
RUSTING
Water vapour Variable
Noble gases 1%
This is the corrosion of iron. The brown rust which is formed is
hydrated iron (III) oxide.
Experiment to determine the percentage of oxygen in air:
Fe2O3 x H2O (x is variable)
The following set up is used;
Rusting is a complex process which involves oxidation of iron.
Rusting is a serious problem because it breaks up surfaces of

metals.

Conditions for rusting: This is used in making roofs (iron sheets).
Iron requires both air and moisture for rusting. Tin plating:
In absence of air or moisture iron doesn’t rust. It is the iron coated with tin which is used for making tins that
contain food, paint and petrol. Other forms of plating include
Experiment to investigate the conditions for rusting. chromium plating which shines silver.
This is used in making motorcars, bicycles and other things where

In every experiment, a clean nail is used. an attractive appearance is required.
In experiment B, the water is boiled to drive out dissolved air. The
anhydrous calcium chloride in experiment C is for absorbing any OXGYEN
moisture.
Oxygen is in period two and group ix of the periodic table. It is the
The nail in experiment B and C doesn’t rust because of the absence most abundant element on earth.
of air and moisture respectively. Hoever, the nail in experiment. A
rusted because of presence of air and moisture. It exists as diatomic molecules, O2, in air and makes up 21% of air
Thus, air and moisture are necessary for rusting. by volume.
Methods of preventing rusting Write the formulae of
1. Painting (i) Hydrogen peroxide

2. Oiling or greasing (ii) Manganese (IV) oxide
3. Galvanising (iii) Water
4. Tin plating (iv) Oxygen
5. Enameling
6. Cathodic protection Laboratory preparation of oxygen:
Note: Hydrogen peroxide solution is added to manganese (IV) oxide.

Oxygen is given off. It is then collected over water
A dissolved salt such as sodium chloride increases the rate of
rusting.
Hydrogenperoxide Oxygen + water
Galvanising:
H2 O2(aq) O2(aq) + H2O
This is the coating of iron metal with a layer of zinc. Galvanised
iron is iron coated with zinc. Alternative method of preparing oxygen:
By heating potassium chlorate Examples:
1. Hydrogen gas burn in oxygen to form water
Hydrogen + Oxygen Water

H2 + O2 H2O
2H2 + O2 2H2O
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
b
2. Magnessium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form
hydrogen gas and aqueous solution of magnesium chloride
KClO3(s) KCl(s) + O2(g)
Magnessium + Hydrochloric acid Hydrogen + Magnessium
Test for oxygen:
chloride
Mg + HCl H2 + MgCl2
We use a glowing splint, which is relit.
Mg + 2HCl H2 + MgCl2
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) H2(g) + MgCl2(aq)
WRITING AND BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS:
Exercise:
A chemical equation represents a chemical reaction.
(a) Mg(s) + O2(g) MgO(s)
It consists of the formulae of reactants and products.
(b) CH4(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(l)
There are four steps involved in writing a chemical equation
namely;
(c) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
1. The reactants and products are written as a word equation.
(d) Fe(s) + Cl2(g) FeCl3(s)
2. The formula of each reactant and each product is written.
3. The equation is balanced using the simplest multiples of the
(e) H2SO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
formula.
4. The physical stater for each reactant and product is put after the
(f) Zn(s) + HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
formula each reactant or product.]
(g) KClO3(s) KCl(s) + O2(g)
The four physical states are; gas (g), solid (S), Liquid (L),
aqueous (aq)
(h) H2O2(l) H2O(l) + O2(g)
(d) Cu(s) + O2(g)
(i) Fe(s) + O2(g) Fe2O3(s)
(e) Al(s) + N2(g)
(j) Ca(s) + O2(g) CaO(s)
Chemical properties of Oxygen:
(k) SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
(l) CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) 1. Reaction with metals:
(m) MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg (OH)2(s) (i) Sodium burns in oxygen with a yellow flame forming a
white solid of sodium peroxide.
(n) CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s) (ii) Potassium burns in oxygen a lilac flame forming a white
solid of potassium oxide.
(o) Mg(s) + N2(g) Mg3N2(g) (iii) Magnesium burns with a brilliant flame forming a white
solid of magnesium oxide.
(p) Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2(s)
2. Reaction with non-metals:
(q) Fe(s) + O2(g) Fe3O4(s)
(i) sulphur burns in oxygen, with a blue flame forming a
Exercise: colourless gas with a chocking smell of sulphur dioxide.
Write and complete balanced equations for the following: (ii) Phosphorous burns in oxygen forming dense white fumes of
phosphorous penta oxide.
(a) Calcium(s) + water (L) Calcium hydroxide (aq) + (iii) Sodium oxide and sodium peroxide dissolve in water
Hydrogen(g) forming sodium hydroxide.
(b) Sodium(s) + Chlorine(g) Sodium chloride(s)
(c) Magnessium(s) + zinc oxide(s) Magnessium oxide (s) Uses of oxygen:
+ zinc (s)
(d) Sulphur dioxide(g) + Oxygen(g) sulphur oxide(g) 1. Use in breathing apparatus for diving and hospitals.
2. It is used as a rocket fuel.
2. Complete and balance the following; 3. Used in welding in oxyaatelyne welding.
4. Used in the manufacture of steel.
(a) Zn(s) + O2(g)
Types of Oxide:
(b) Pb(s) + O2(g)
(c) Fe(s) + S(s) There are five types of Oxides.

1. Acidic Oxides: These are oxides of non-metals e.g. 1. The reactants and products are written as a word equation.
carbondioxide (CO2) 2. The formulae for each reactant and product is then given
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) sulphur fioxide (SO3), Nitrogen dioxide 3. The equation is balanced by using the simplest multiples of the
(NO2) formulae
4. The physical states of each reactant and product are put in after
2. Basic Oxides: These are oxides of metals e.g. copper (II) oxide, the formulae.
Potassium Oxide.
The four physical states are;
3. Amphoteric oxides: These are oxides which react with both
acids and alkalis e.g. (ZAP) zinc oxide, Aluminium oxide and Lead Solid (S)
(II) oxide. Liquid (L)
Gas (g)
4. Neutral oxides: These are oxides which don’t react with acids Aqueous (aq)
or bases e.g. Carbon monoxide CO.
Example:
5. Mixed oxides: These are oxides containing metals in more than
one oxidation state (valency) (a) Hydrogen burns in oxygen gas to form water
Examples: 1. Hydrogen + Oxygen Water

2. H2 + O2 H2O
(i) Red lead oxide Pb3O4 which is lead (II) lead (IV) oxide. 3. 2H2 + O2 2H2O
4. 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
(ii) Fe3O4 which is iron (II) iron (III) oxide.
The name of the formula is trileadtetraoxide. (b) Magnesium reacts with aqueous hydrochloric acid forming
hydrogen gas and an aqueous solution of magnesium chloride.
What is the rate of formation of oxygen?
(1) Magnesium + hydrochloric acid Hydrogen +
magnesium chloride
Writing balanced equations (2) Mg  HCl H 2  MgCl
(3) Mg  2 HCl H 2  MgCl 2
(4) Mg ( s )  2 HCl ( aq ) H 2 ( g )  MgCl ( aq )
A chemical equation represents a chemical reaction. It consists of
formulae of reactants and products.
HYDROGEN
There are four steps in writing chemical equations;

Hydrogen is lightest gas. It is evolved when reactive metals react
with water. examples potassium and sodium Test for hydrogen:
Reagent: A burning splint

Observation: A pop sound
Occurrence:
Manufacture of hydrogen:
Hydrogen occurs in water, oil and natural gas and all living things.
Hydrogen is manufactured by steam reforming of natural gas. In
Laboratory preparation this process natural gas (methane) and steam are passed over nickel
catalyst at a temperature of 1000oC and pressure of 50 atmospheres
Dilute sulphuric acid is added to zinc granules with solution copper
(II) sulphate (catalyst) which speed up the reaction. Hydrogen is CH4(g) + H2O2(g) CO(g) + H2(g)
given off. It is passed through concentrated sulphuric acid when
dries the gas. The gas is when by upward delivery. More steam is then added and the gases are passed over iron (II)
oxide catalyst.
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4 + H2(g)
Caution
Since the mixture of hydrogen and oxygen is explosive, there

should be no flames near the apparatus.

Observation: The solid dissolves with effervescence of a 3. Hydrogen is a reducing agent. It reduces the oxides of metals
colourless gas. below lead in the reactivity series.
Example 1:
Physical properties of hydrogen:
Hydrogen reduces lead (II) oxide to lead.
1. It is a colourless and odourless gas
2. it is the lightest of all gases and this diffuses more rapidly. PbO(s) + H2(g) Pb(s) + H2O
3. It is not very soluble in water.
4. There are three isotope of hydrogen. Example 2:
1
1 H - Hydrogen When hydrogen is passed over heated copper (II) oxide the oxide is
reduced to reddish-brown powder of copper.
2
1 H - Deuterium
CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H2O
3
1 H - Tritium Observation: the black solid turns reddish-brown
A colourless liquid
Chemical properties
Hydrogen combines with same reactive metals to form hydrides.
1. Hydrogen always has a valency of one. It forms both ionic and
cavalent compounds. e.g. 2Na(s) + H2(g) 2NaH(s)
2. Hydrogen is neither acidic nor basic.
3. It burns with a blue flame in air or oxygen forming water. Sodium hydride is an ionic salt I.e. it is a salt of a metal and a non
metal  Na  H  
Hydrogen + Oxygen Water
H + O2 H2O Hydrogen burns in chlorine with a white flame form Hydrogen
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l) chloride.
The presence of water can be determined in two ways Hydrogen + Chlorine Hydrogen chloride
1. Water turns anhydrous copper (II) sulphate from white to blue. H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)
Reagent: An hydrous copper (II) sulphate A mixture of Hydrogen and chlorine is explosive in sunlight.
Observation: It turns from white to blue
Uses of Hydrogen (gas)
2. Water turns anhydrous cobalt(II) sulphate from blue to pink.
1. Hydrogen is used in the manufacture of ammonia Water of crystallization is a fixed amount of water chemically
2. it is used to harden oils examples, Kimbo, Margarine combine in a salt crystal such salts are used to be hydrated.
3. It is used as a rocket fuel.
4. It is used in welding as (oxyhydrogen flame) Example:
5. It is used in the manufacture of methanol.
Name: Formulae:
WATER (H2O) Copper (II) sulphate – S – water CuSO4 . 5H2O

Cobalt(II) chloride – 7 – water CoCl2 . 7H2O
Water constitutes 67% of the earth’s surface. It is the most Magnesium sulphate – 7 – water MgSO4 . 7H2O
common solvent used in industries and for domestic use. Sodium carbonate – 10 – water Na2CO3 . 10H2O
Iron(II) sulphate – 7 – water FeSO4 . 7H2O
Sources of water:
When the salt crystals are heated this water is lost and the salt is
Rain water, spring water, sea water said to be anhydrous.
Test for water: CuSO4 – Anhydrous copper (II) sulphate
There are two tests used to identify water CuSO4 . 5H2O – hydrated copper (II) sulphate.
(a) Anhydrous copper (II) sulphate CuSO4 . 5H2O(s) CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(s)
Reagent: anhydrous copper (II) sulphate.

Observation: it turns from blue to pink.
(b) Anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride Chemical properties of water:
Reagent: anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride Potassium K

Observation: it turns from blue to pink Sodium Na
Calcium Ca
Test for purity of water: Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al
The purity of water is tested by determining it’s boiling point which Zinc Zn
100oC at sea level. Iron Fe
Lead Pb
Water of crystallization: Copper Cu
Mercury Hg (f) Zinc reacts only when heated strongly with steam to form zinc
Silver Ag oxide and hydrogen.
Gold Au
Iron reacts when heated in steam
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(l) Fe3O4 + 4H2(g)
Action of metals with water Methods of drying gases:
Metal high in the activity series that is potassium, sodium and Dried gases must not be collected over water.
calcium react readily with cold water. They are dried using Hygroscopic substance.
(a) Potassium burns violently with a purple flame as it darts on the (a)
surface of water.
2K(s) + 2H2O 2KOH(aq) + 2H2(g)
(b) Sodium burns violently with a yellow flame as it darts on the

surface of water.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
(c) Calcium reacts slowly with cold water forming a coldy solution.
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH(aq))2 + H2
Observation: The solid dissolves with effervescence of a

colourless gas to form a milky solution. (b)
(d) Magnesium reacts very slowly with cold water. Heated

magnesium react with steam to form magnesium oxide and
hydrogen.
Mg(s) + H2O(l) MgO(s) + H2(g)
(e) Aluminium does not react with cold water or steam.

(c)
(iii) Downward delivery (upward displacement of air)
A gas which is denser than air is collected by downward delivery or

upward displacement of air.
Methods of collecting the gas:
The method of collection depends on the properties of each gas for

example density of the gas in comparison to air and solubility of the PERIODIC TABLE:
gas in water.
(i) Over water:
This method is used only if the gas is soluble in water and if its
not required dry.
(ii) Upward delivery: (downward displacement of air)
A gas which is less dense than air is collected by upward delivery or

downward displacement of air.

Electrons -1 1
1840
Proton +1 1
Neutron 0 1
Nucleus: The nucleus is centre of the atom. It is very small

compared to the size of the atom.
The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. Electrons occupy

energy levels outside the nucleus.
Mass No.
Atomic number and Mass number X
Atomic No.
Atomic Number: Is the number of protons contained in one atom

of an element.
The three fundamental particles of an atom; The number of protons in any atom is always equal to the number
of electrons in that atom. This is because the overall charge of an
All atoms consists of three fundamental particles that is electrons, atom is always 0
protons and neutrons.
Mass Number: This is the number of protons plus the number of
The electrons have a negative charge protons have a positive charge neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of an element. The atomic
and neutrons have no charge. number and mass number of an element are often indicated with a
symbol.
Both the proton and neutron have a charge of one while electrons
1 Mass number
have a mass of of the mass of proton. Symbol
1840
Atomic number
Example:
12
C This means that Carbon atom has a mass number of 12 and
Particle Charge Mass
atomic number of 6.

6
ISOTOPES: these are elements with the same atomic number but
different mass numbers.
1
3. Hydrogen - 1 H - Hydrogen
NB: Mass number = number of proton and number of neutrons
Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons 2
H - Deuterium
1
Isotopes of an element differ in the number of neutrons in
there nucleus. 3
1 H - Tritium
electronic structure of an element (electronic configuration)
Example of Isotopes Electron move in orbits or shells called energy levels.
1. Chlorine Chlorine – 35, 35

Cl The first shell take a maximum of two electrons while the second
17 and third shell each take a maximum of eight electrons.
Chlorine – 37, 37
Cl Electron Atomic No. Electronic configuration
17
H 1 1
C 6 2:4
12
2. Carbon Carbon – 12, C N 7 2:5
6
Ne 10 2:8
Al 13 2:8:3
Carbon – 14, 14C Ca 20 2:8:8:2
6
F 9 2:7
The periodic table of the first 20 elements is as follows.
Isotope Electrons Protons Mass Neutron Group I II III IV V VI VII VIII
number Period
12
C 6 6 12 6 Period I H(1) He2
6
1 2
24
C 6 6 14 8 Period 2 Li (3) Be(4) B(5) C(6) N(7) O(8) F(9) Ne(1
6 0)
2:1 2:2 2:3 2:4 2:5 2:6 2:7
37
Cl 17 17 37 (37 – 17) 2:8
14
20 Period 3 Na (11)
Mg (12
Al Si P(15)
S(16)
Ci Ar
35
Cl 17 17 35 (35 – 17) 2:8:1 ) (13) (14)
2:8: 2:8: (17) (18)
14
18 2:8:2 2:8: 2:8: 5 6 2:8: 2:8:

3 4 7 8
Period 4 K(19) Ca
(20)
2:8:8
:1 2:8:8
:2
The electronic structures:
The electronic structures of Nitrogen, sodium and calcium are:
Nitrogen (7) 2:5
Calcium Ca (20) 2:8:8:2
Sodium /Na (II) 2:8:1

Example:
Name Atomic No. Electron

structure
Sodium 11 2:8:1
Magnesium 12 2:8:2
Aluminium 13 2:8:3
Potassium 19 2:8:8:1
Calcium 20 2:8:8:2
They lose the outer most electrons (valency electronic to form

positive ions e.g.)
-
Na lose one electron to form Na+
-
Mg loses two electrons to form Mg2+.
-
Aluminium loses three electrons to form Al3+
-
Potassium loses one electron to form K+
-
Calcium loses two electrons to form Ca2+
An element Z has atomic number of 19.
Positively charged ions are called cations.
(a) Write the electronic configuration of Z.
(b) To which group and period of the periodic table does Z belong? Note: X (13), it ion is X3+
(i) Write the formula of the oxide, carbonate, sulphate, nitrate
formed by Z. (b) Non-metals always have 4 to 7 electrons in their on far most
(ii) Write the equation of the reaction of the oxide of Z with shells and gain electrons to acquire the electronic structure of noble
water gases.
(iii) What would be the effect of the solution of Z in water to
litmus paper?
Formation of Ions:
An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms.
(a) Metals always have 1 – 3 electrons in their on for most shells Example:
and lose these electrons to form ions.

Name Atomic No. Electron
structure
Carbon 6 2:4 (ii) An anion?
Nitrogen 7 2:5
Oxygen 8 2:6 (b) (i) Write the electronic configuration of Z.
Sulphur 16 2:8:6 (ii) State the valency of Z. Give a reason.
Chloride 17 2:8:7 (iii) Write the formula of the ion of Z
(iv) Write the formula of the sulphate of Z.
Non-atoms gain electrons the number of electrons (negative charge)
become more than the number of protons (positive charge) and then (c) Noble gases have always 2 or 8 electrons in the outer most
they would be negatively charged. shell and do not lose or gain electrons. They hence have no charge.
Name Atomic No. e Ion Examples:

p.e
Carbon 6 C 4 Helium (2) = 2
Neon (atomic number, 10) = 2:8
Nitrogen 7 N 3
Agon (atomic no.18) = 2:8:8
Oxygen 8 O 2
Sulphur 16 S 2 These electronic structures noble gases are regarded as stable.
Chloride 17 Cl 
The number of electrons, protons and neutrons in atoms A, B, C, D
Negatively charged ions are called Cation. and E are shown in the table below.
The number of protons, neutrons and electrons in particles W, X, Y Atom Electrons Protons Neutrons
and Z are shown in the table below. A 8 8 8 2:6
B 16 16 16 2:8:6
Particle No. of No. of Neutron No. of electrons C 13 13 14 2:8:3
protons D X 3 4 2:1
W 6 6 6 E 16 16 18 2:8:6
X 9 10 10
Y 12 12 10 2. (a) Determine;
Z 18 10 18
(i) The value of x.
(a) Which of the particles is (ii) The approximate relative atomic mass of c
(i) a cation? (b) Which of the atoms are likely to be isotopes.

(c) Write the electronic configuration of; Sodium atom has an electronic structure of 2:8:1 which is one
electron more than that of a noble gas with a three electronic
(i) A structure 2:8
(ii) A2+
(iii) C Chlorine atom with electronic structure 2:8:7 has one electron less
(iv) C3+ than that of the nearest noble gas 2:8:8. therefore to acquire the
(v) B2 electronic structure of 2:8, sodium loses on electron while chlorine
gains the electron lost by sodium to acquire the electronic structure
(d) Which atom of the elements above are in the same period in 2:8:8.
the periodic table
Nacl
BONDING AND STRUCTURES
Atoms combine so as to acquire stable electronic structures of noble

gases. They do this by either transfer of electrons or by changing
electrons.
Note: in all cases it is only the electrons in the outer most shell of
atoms which participate in bonding the bonding aboptedare
-
Electrovalent or ionic bonding
-
Covalent bonding
-
Metallic bonding
-
Pative bonding
Electrovalent bonding: is one way where there is transfer of one

or more electrons from one atom to another atom. This bonding
occurs between metal and non metal. The metal loses it’s outmost (b) Formation of calcium oxide
electrons which are gained by the non metal.
CaO
Example 1:
(a) Formation of sodium chloride

Formation of sodium oxide
Na(II) = 2:8:1
O (8) = 2:16
(c) Formation of Magnesium chloride
MgCl2
Mg (12) = 2:8:2
Chloride (17) = 2:8:7
Properties of ionic or electrovalent compound:
1. They are made up of ions.

2. They are soluble in water
3. They have high melting and boiling points
4. They conduct electricity in molten or solution form.
Covalent Bonding:
This is a type of bonding formed between atoms by sharing

electrons. This bonding occurs between non metals.
Examples:
(a) Formation of chlorine; (c) Formation of Nitrogen, N2
N (7) 2:5
Cl2
Cl Cl
Each chlorine atom with electronic structure 2:8:7 has one electron
less than the nearest noble gas therefore to acquire a noble gas
structure. Each chlorine atom contributes an electron.
NΞN
(d) Formation of Methane, CH4

(b) Formation of oxygen, O2 C – 2 .4
H-1

O=C=O
Properties of covalent compounds:
1. They have low melting and boiling points.

2. They do not conduct electricity in molten form.
3. They are insoluble in water.
4. they consist of molecules.
Metallic bonding:
The outer most electrons in metallic atoms are free to move that is
they move from one atom to the other. This implies that the
positively charged nuclei are held by the mobile electrons in
between them as shown below.
e  e  e 
(e) Formation of CO2  e  e  e
e  e  e 
C–2.4  e  e  e
O – 2.6
The attraction between negatively charged electrons and positively
charged nuclei is what is referred to as metallic bonding.
Properties of Metallic compounds:
1. They conduct electricity.

2. they are good conductors of heat.
3. They are hard and ductile (they can be bent)
STRUCTURE:
There are for important types of structures;
1. Simple molecular structure.

2. Giant ionic structure.
3. Giant molecular structure The ions are kept in position by strong ionic bonds. Millions of
4. Giant metallic structure. these ions make the structure giant. Ionic compounds are all solids
of high melting and boiling points.
1. Simple molecular structures:
In solid state they do not conduct electricity as the ions are fixed
Simple molecular structure consists of simple molecules each when in aqueous solution or molten state they conduct electricity.
molecule containing a few atoms the bonding between the atoms is This is because of formation of ions which are free to move.
covalent while the molecules are led together by weak forces called Examples of compounds with giant ionic structure. Sodium
Van der Waal’s forces of attraction. Simple molecules are gases or chloride, Magnesium chloride, Aluminium oxide.
liquids and solids of low melting and boiling points.
3. Giant molecular structure:
Example:
These consist of millions of atoms bonded covalently e.g. Diamond,
graphite and silicon(IV) oxide.
Question:
Part of the periodic table indicating the position of electriment W, X

and Z is shown below;
I II III IV V VI VII
1
2 W X Z
3
(a) (i) Write the formula of the oxide of W

(ii) The oxide of W was dissolved in water. State whether the
resultant solution is acidic
neutral or alkaline. Explain your answer.
(b) (i) Write the formula of the compound formed between X and
Giant ionic structure: Z.
(ii) State the type of bonding formed between X and Z.
These consists of millions of oppositely charged ions.

(iii) Give four properties of the compound formed between X 2. The electronic configuration of an atom of an element X is 2:8:6.
and Z. The number of electrons in the ion commonly formed by X is:
(iv) Using electronic structure diagrams show how the
compound in (i) is formed. A. 14 B. 15 C. 17 D. 18
(b) Which one of the atoms W, X and Z has the largest atomic 3. The atomic number of elements W, X, Y and Z are 8, 11, 12 and
radius? 16 respectively. Which one of the following pairs of elements will
form a covalent compound.
2. Part of the periodic table showing position of some elements is A. W and Y B. W and X C. W and Z d. Y
shown below. The letters do not represent the usual symbols of the and X
elements.
4. The atom which is isotopic with the element whose full symbol
is 30Y is
I II III IV V VI VII
15
A B
30 31 33 16
C D A. R B. T C. T D. Z
14 15 17 34
E F
(a) State the type of bond in the compound between E and F. 5. The electron configurations of element T and Q are 2:6 and 2:8:5
(b) Write the formula of the compound formed between B and respectively. The formula of the compound formed between T and
D. Q is:
(c) Which of the compounds reacts more vigorously with;
(i) cold water A. Q2 T3 B. Q3T2 C. Q5T2
(ii) Acated zinc D. Q2T5
(d) Write the formula of the ion formed by C 6. The number of protons, electron and neutrons in aluminium iron
is Al3+:
Revision Questions:
Protons Electrons Neutrons
40
1. The full symbol of an atom os an element X is X. The charge A 27 24 14
on an ion X is: B 13 14 14
20
C 13 10 14
A. +1 B. +2 C. -1 D. -2 D 10 14 17

The atomic number of elements W, X, Y and Z are 12, 14, 16 and B. Hydrogen chloride
18 respectively which on of the elements is likely to show C. Carbondioxide
properties similar to those of an element with atomic number 10. D. Monoclinic sulphur
A. W B. X C. Y 5. Sodium burns in excess air forming:

D. Z
A. Sodium oxide
B. Sodium peroxide
REACTIVITY SERIES C. Sodium hydroxide
D. Sodium hydride
1. Metal P displaces hydrogen term a dilute but metal Q does not.
Metal R displaces P from it’s chloride. The order at reactivity of 6. When hydrogen is passed over heated copper (II) oxide a brown
the metal beginning with the most reactive is: solid is formed. This shows that;
A. P, Q, R B. Q, R, P C. R, Q, P A. copper is over hydrogen in the reactivity series

D. R, P, Q B. copper is an oxidizing agent
C. hydrogen is a reducing agent
2. Beginning with the most reactive the order of reactivity of the D. hydrogen is inert towards metal.
following metal with water is:
7. An oxide of metal Q can be reduced by metal K not by Z. The
A. Sodium Magnesium Lead Copper order of reactivity of these metals is:
B. Magnesium Sodium Copper Lead
C. copper lead Magnesium Sodium A. Z, K, Q B. K, Z, Q C. Q, K, Z
D. Lead Copper Sodium Magnesium. D. K, Q, Z
3. Which one of the following reactions proceeds fast under 8. Which one of the following oxides is soluble in water?
ordinary conditions?
A. Lithium oxide C. Aluminium oxide
A. Iron and water B. Iron(III) oxide D. Copper (II) oxide
B. Copper (II) oxide and hydrogen
C. Magnesium and Chlorine 9. Which one of the substances has a giant ionic structure?
D. Zinc carbonate and nitric acid.
A. sodium chloride C. Graphite
4. Which one of the following structures has a giant ionic B. hydrogen chloride D. Diamond
structure?
10. A reaction does not take place when one of these mixtures is:
A. sodium chloride
A. zinc and Aluminium oxide C. Magnesium and
zinc oxide 17. The formular of is:
B. Zinc and copper (II) oxide D. Zinc and lead (II)
oxide. A. FeO.(OH) B. FeO.nH2O C. Fe2O3.nH2O
D. Fe2O3 (OH)
11. Which of the following metals react with cold dilute nitric
oxide? 18. Figure 2 shows a set up apparatus to investigate the reaction
between metal and steam.
A. Calcium B. Copper C. Silver
D. Lead
12. Which one of the following metals does not displaces iron from
a solution of iron (II) nitrates?
A. Zinc B. Copper C. Magnesium

D. Aluminium
13. Which one of the following substances conduct electricity?
A. Iodine B. Graphite C. Methy benzene

D. Tetra chloromethane
14. Which one of the following pairs of elements can form an ionic
bond?
A. Hydrogen and oxygen C. Copper and zinc

B. Potassium and bromine D. Hydrogen and
chlorine
15. Which one of the following oxides has the most ionic structure?
A. P2O3 B. SiO2 C. Al2O3 D.

No2O
16. In which group of the periodic table is the element 24M found?
12
A. i B. ii C. iii D. iv
B. Iron (II) oxide D. Zinc and lead (II)
oxide
(a) Suggest a suitable metal that could be used in the
experiment.
(b) (i) What would be observed in the glass tube. REACTIVITY SERIES:
(ii) Write equation for the reaction in the glass tube.
(c) (i) suggest the gas that is being burnt at the end of the glass Same metals are very reactive chemically examples sodium and
tube. potassium. Other metals are unreactive for example silver and
(ii) Write the equation for the combustion of the gas in mercury. Metals can be arranged in order of their reactivity.
19. Which one of the following substances is used as a catalyst in

the reaction between zinc and dilute sulphuric acid? The reactivity series of metals is a list of metals arranged in order of
their reactivity.
A. Copper (II) sulphate C. Vandium (V) oxide
B. Manganese (IV) oxide D. iron powder The reactivity series is also known as activity series.
20. Which one of the following substances does not sublime when Potassium K - Most reactive
heated? Sodium Na - Increasing
Calcium Ca - ease of loss of electrons
A. Ammonium oxide C. Iodine Magnesium Mg - reactivity with oxygen and water
B. Iron (II) chloride D. zinc and Lead (II) Aluminium Al - stability of metal ions, oxides and ionic
oxide. compounds
Zinc Zn - power of displacement
21. The following are some of the properties P, Q, R. Iron Fe - power as a reducing agent
Lead Pb
(i) P reacts with only steam to form hydrogen Copper Cu
(ii) Q reacts with cold water to produce hydrogen. Mercury Hg
(iii) R displaces Q from solution of it’s ions. Silver Ag
(iv) The order of the reactivity of metals beginning with the Gold Au - least reactive
most reactive is: (a) Reactivity with oxygen:
A. P, Q, R B. Q, R, P C. P, R, Q Sodium and potassium are the most reactive metals. They react
D. R, Q, P with air, so they are stored under oil.
22. Which one of the following substances is soluble in water? 2Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2(s)
A. Lithium oxide C. Aluminium oxide 4K(s) + O2(g) 2K2O(s)

Metals at the bottom of the series do not react with water for
Metals from Mg + Fe in the series readily form an oxide layer in air example copper, silver and gold.
for example magnesium reacts with oxygen in air to form
magnesium oxide. (c) Stability:
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) Ions sodium and potassium ions are very stable and not easily
(b) Reactivity with water: discharged.
Metals at the top of the series react vigorously with water for The ions of metals at the bottom of the series such as copper (II)
example when a small piece of potassium is dropped into a beaker ions are easily discharged to form copper atom.
of water it reacts violently. (i) Metal oxides:
K(s) + H2O(l) KOH(aq) + H2(g) Calcium and magnesium oxides are stable. They cannot be
reduced with carbon. The oxide of metals between zinc and copper
Observation: in the series can be reduced by carbon. Example;
The solid melts to a sliver ball then darts on the surfaces water, then 2 CuO(s) + C(s) 2Cu(s) + CO2
catches fire and lastly dissolve.
Observation:
Metals lower down the series react very slowly water. For example
Magnesium and zinc all react with steam. The black solid will turn reddish brown.
Mercury oxide and silver oxide are the least stable of the oxides.
The decompose on heating. Example;
2Ag2O(s) 4Ag(s) + O2(g)
(ii) Displacement:
Metals from solution
A metal high in the series displaces a metal lower in the series from
a solution of its salt.
Mg(s) + H2O(l) MgO(s) + H2(g)
Example 1:
When Iron filling are added to a solution of copper (II) sulphate a 2AgNO3(aq) + Cu(s) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
brown precipitate is observed. The solution changes colour from
blue to green as copper (II) ion ore used up and iron (II) ion are
formed. Example 4:
Fe(s) + CuSO4(g) FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s) When zinc is placed in magnesium sulphate solution there is no
Blue green reddish brown solid reaction zinc is below magnesium in the series, and thus cannot
displace magnesium from its solution.
Question:
(iii) Metals from metal oxides:
When iron fillings are added to copper (II) sulphate a pink
precipitate is formed and the blue solution turns green. Explain the Metals high in the series combine with oxygen present in oxides of
statement. metals lower in the series. This is often referred to as oxygen
competition.
The pink precipitate is due to the formation of copper according to
the equation. Example 1:
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4(l) + Cu(s) Magnesium displaces lead from lead (II) oxide.
The solution turns from blue to green due to displacement copper PbO(s) + Mg(s) Pb(s) + MgO(s)
(II) ions by iron to form iron (II) ions which are green this is
because iron is higher than copper in the reactivity series. The brown solid turns white.
Example 2: Example 2:
When a piece of zinc granule is put in lead (II) nitrate solution it Aluminium powder reacts with iron (iii) oxide producing
becomes coated with crystals of lead. aluminium oxide molten iron and a great deal of heat.
Zn(s) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) Zn(NO3)2(aq) + Pb(s)
2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) 3Al2(s)O3 + 2Fe(s)
Example 3: Observation:
When copper turning are added to silver nitrate solution. The The brown solid turns white
solution turns from colourless to blue. The copper turnings will be
covered with silver crystals. (iv) Hydrogen from acids:
There are three special groups of the periodic table, these are group
Metals above copper in the series react with dilute acid to form one (alkali metals), group two (alkali earth metals and group seven
hydrogen. (Halogens).
Example:
Alkali metals (Lithium Li, sodium Na and Potassium, K,)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Observation: - The elements in group I of the periodic table react with water to
form alkalis.
The solid dissolves with effervescence of a colourless gas that burns - They are known as alkali metals.
with a pop sound. - the alkali metal came at the top of the reactivity series.
- Each alkali metal has one electron in its outer most shell.
The three most electro positive metals.
Detect:
- Potassium sodium and calcium react violently with acids.
The alkali metals and their compounds give characteristic colours in
Hydrogen is often inserted above copper in the reactivity series. flame.
Except for lead all metals above hydrogen displace hydrogen from Element Characteristic colour of flame
dilute acids. Metals below hydrogen do so. Lithium Red
Sodium Yellow
The three most electropositive metals that is potassium sodium and Potassium Lilas
calcium react violently, with acids.
Copper and metals below it in the series do not displace hydrogen Physical properties:
from dilute acids.
- they are soft silver metals.
Hydrogen is often inserted above copper in the series. - they are good conductors of heat and electricity.
- they have low densities.
Except for lead all metals above hydrogen displace hydrogen from - they have low melting points compared with other metals.
acids – metals below hydrogen do not do. - All alkali metals compounds are soluble in water.
- some physical properties of alkali metals are related to their
PERIODICITY: position in the group.
Special groups of the periodic table:

Ci Lithium reacts less vigorously with water producing Lithium
hydroxide and hydrogen, potassium busts into flames when in
Na contact with water forming potassium hydroxide and hydrogen.
K ZK(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(g) + H2(g)
Increasing increasing increasing Some important compounds of alkali metals.

increasing Sodium hydroxide NaOH
melting softness density
reactivity This compound is commonly known as caustic soda.
point.
- Sodium hydroxide is a white deliquescent solid.
- It is stable to heat.
Chemical properties: - it is very soluble in water and forms strongly alkaline solutions.
1. Alkali metals harnish rapidly in air. They are stored under oil. Question:
4 Li(s) + O2(g) 2Li2O(s) (Lithium oxide) Stoppered bottles of sodium hydroxide are hard to open while
bottles of potassium hydroxide are easy to open. Explain this
K(s) + O2(g) KO2(s) (Potassium superoxide) observation.
2Na(s) + O2(s) Na2O2(s) (Sodium peroxide)

Sodium hydroxide forms getatinous precipitates with many metals.
2. Alkali metals react with water to produce hydroxides and
hydrogen. (a) ZAP (Zinc, Aluminium, lead)
Example: 2ZnSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) 2Zn(OH)2 + SO4Na2
2 Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Pb(OH)2 + 2NO3Na
Observation: AlCl3(aq) + NaOH(aq) Al(OH)3 + ClNa.
The solid into a silver ball which darts on the surface of water, Observation
catches fire and thendissolves.
A white precipitate soluble in excess
CuSO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4

A. Lead (II) ion C. Zinc ions
Observation: B. Magnesium ions D. Aluminium ions
A blue precipitate insoluble in excess. 4. Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
FeSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(g) Fe(OH)2 + 1Na2SO4 Sodium carbonate -10-water is efflorescent it loses its water of
crystallization to air.
Observation:
Na2CO3. 10H2O(l) Na2CO3. H2O(s) + 9H2O(s)
A green precipitate insoluble in excess
-
All forms of sodium carbonate are alkaline in water.
-
FeCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) Fe(OH)3 + 3ClNa Sodium carbonate is table to heat.
-
Sodium carbonate reacts with acids to form carbondioxide.
A brown precipitate insoluble in excess.
Na2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CO2(g) + Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
ZnCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Zn(NO3)(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Observation
Observation:
The solid dissolves with effervescence of a colourless gas that turns
The solid dissolves with effervescence of a colour less gas that turns lime water milky forming a colourless solution.
lime water milky forming a colourless solution.
Sodium carbonate is manufactured by solvay process. The raw
materials are sodium chloride solution, ammonia and lime stone
1. The hydroxide which turns brown when exposed to air from the (calcium carbonate)
least below is
Sodium carbonate is used as a water softener and in the
A. copper (II) hydroxide C. Iron (III) hydroxide manufacture of glass.
B. Iron (II) hydroxide D. Lead (II) hydroxide
Sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO3. It is also known as sodium
2. The cation that forms a green precipitate with sodium hydroxide. bicarbonate. It is formed as a white precipitate when carbondioxide
is passed through a saturated solution of sodium carbonate.
A. Cu2+(aq) B. Fe2+(aq) C. Fe3+(aq) D. Al3+(aq)
Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2NaHCO3(s)
3. When sodium hydroxide was added to an aqueous solution of a
salt X a white precipitate insoluble in excess alkali was Question
formed. x containe;

When a bottle contain sodium carbonate solution is left open for
sometime a white precipitate or crust will be formed within the - They are silvery white metals.
solution. - They have greater tensile strength than alkali metals
- They have higher densities than alkali metals.
(i) Name the white crust.
Chemical properties:
Sodium hydrogen carbonate
They tarnish in air forming a layer of oxide which protects them
Write the equation for the reaction from further attack. They burn readily in powder or ribbon form.
Na2CO3(aq) + H2O2 + CO2(g) 2NaHCO3(s) Example:
Explain the observation Mg(s) + O2(g) MgO(s)
The solution will absorb carbondioxide from the atmosphere. Observation:
Sodium hydrogen carbonate decomposes when heated to sodium The solid burns with a bright flame forming a white solid.
carbonate, carbondioxide and water.
Alkali earth metals react with acid to form a salt and water only.
2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
- Sodium hydrogen carbonate is weakly alkaline in water. Example:

- Sodium hydrogen carbonate is used in baking powder and healthy
salts. Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Alkali earth metals (Beryllium) Observation:
Magnesium and calcium The solid dissolves with effervescence of a colourless gas that
burns with a pop sound forming a colourless solution.
- Elements in group two of the periodic table are known as alkali
earth metals. Magnesium and calcium react with water to form a hydroxide and
- they came high in the reactivity series of metals but not as hydrogen gas.
reactive as alkali metals.
- Each alkali earth metal has two electrons in its outermost energy Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
level.
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Physical properties: Calcium hydroxide (lime water)
Magnesium reacts rapidly with steam producing magnesium oxide
and hydrogen gas. Explanation:
This is because magnesium flame produces a lot of heat which

decomposes carbnondioxide to carbon and oxygen and then burns
in the oxygen.
Question:
When burning Magnesium was placed (plunged) in a gas jar of

carbondioxide a mixture of white and black specks was formed.
Explain the observation.
Note: State what is? When explaining in chemistry you have to

state what is;
-
write the equation
-
state why?
The white/solid is magnesium oxide and the black pecks are carbon.
Mg(s) + H2O(s) MgO(s) + H2(g) These are due to the reaction.
ALKALI EARTH METALS: 2Mg(s) + CO2(g) 2MgO(s) + C(s)
White black
Alkali earth metals are good reducing agents. Reduction is the
removal of oxygen from a compound. The black and white specks are due to the decomposition of
carbondioxide to carbon and oxygen and the burning of magnesium
Example 1: in the oxide formed.
Magnesium burns in carbondioxide reducing it to carbon. Example 2:
2Mg(s) + CO(s) 2MgO(s) + C(s) Magnesium power reacts vigorously with lead (II) oxide reading it
White black to lead.
Observation:
PbO(s) + Mg(s) MgO(s) + Pb
Magnesium continue to burn forming white and black se\pecks
(particles)
Alklai earth metals will displaces metals lowest in the reactivity Ca(s) + Cl2(g) CaCl2(s)
series of metals from solution of their salts.
Both magnesium and calcium form nitrides on burning in air.
Example: Magnesium displaces copper from a solution of copper
(II) sulphate. 3Mg(s) + N2(g) Mg3N2(s)
White solid
CuSO4(aq) + Mg(s) MgSO4 + Cu(s)
The nitride releases ammonia on warming with water.
Observation:
2Mg(s) + N2(g) + 16H2O(l) 3Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2NH3(g)
The blue solution turns colourless.
Question:
A brown solid covers magnesium granules.
When magnesium was burnt in air a white ash was formed. On
Explanation: dissolving the white ash in warm water, a colourless gas with a
chocking smell, which tunred moist red litmus paper blue was
Magnesium is higher than copper in the reactivity series. As such evolved. Explain the observation.
magnesium displaces copper from its solution.
The white ash is magnesium nitride and the colourless gas with a
Question: chocking smell which turned moist red litmus paper blue is
ammonia. These are due to the reactions.
A pinkish precipitate is observed when a magnesium ribbon is
added to a copper (II) sulphate solution. (Explain the observation) 3Mg(s) + N2(g) Mg3N2(s)
Mg3N2(s) + 6H2O(l) 3Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2NH3(g)

A pinkish precipitate is due to formation of copper.
Question:
CuSO4(aq) + Mg(s) MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
black Magnesium can react with oxygen and nitrogen,
The formation of the pinkish precipitate. This is because (i) State the conditions for the reaction
magnesium is higher than copper in the reactivity series. (ii) Write the formula of the products formed during the reaction.
Alkali earth metal burn in chlorine forming white solids. Example:
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) MgCl2(s) Magnesium displaces copper from a solution of copper (II)
sulphate.
- A clean piece of magnesium was placed in a solution of copper
CuSO4(aq) + Mg(s) MgSO4 + Cu(s) (II) sulphate;
Observation: (i) State what was observed.

(ii) Write the equation for the reaction.
The blue solution turns colourless.
Important compounds of alkali earth metals.
A brown solid covers magnesium granules.
1. Calcium oxide
Explanation:
This is made by heating calcium carbonate (limestone) in a kiln at
Magnesium is higher than copper in the reactivity series. As such 1000oC.
magnesium displaces copper from its solution.
Ca2CO3 CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Question: White white
A pinkish precipitate is observed when a magnesium ribbon is Colourless gas that turns lime water milky.
added to a copper (II) sulphate solution. (Explain the observation) Calcium oxide is commonly known as quick lime.
Calcium oxide expands and crumbles when water is added to it.
A pinkish precipitate is due to formation of copper.
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2
CuSO4(aq) + Mg(s) MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
blue black Observation:
The formation of the pinkish precipitate. This is because The solid expands and crumbles to a white powder.
magnesium is higher than copper in the reactivity series.
This process is known as slaking lime and calcium hydroxide is
Alkali earth metal burn in chlorine forming white solids. known as lime water.
Identify one of the products in (a) that dissolves in water to form a When carbondioxide is bubbled through lime water (calcium
solution and a gas. Both solutions and gas turns litmus blue. hydroxide) the lime water turns milky and the colourless.
(i) Identify the product. The milky solution a white precipitate is due to formation of
(ii) Write the equation for the reaction between the product and insoluble calcium carbonate.
water.
Ca (OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

The colourless solution is due to formation of soluble calcium
hydrogen carbonate. Magnesium hydroxide is precipitated when sodium hydroxide
solution is added to magnesium sulphate solution.
CaCO3(s) + H2O + CO2(g) Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
colourless 2NaOH(aq) + MgSO4(aq) Mg(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
When carbondioxide was bubbled through calcium hydroxide
solution. The solution turned milky and then colourless. Explain Observation:
the observation.
A white precipitate in soluble in excess.
The milkness is due to formation of insoluble calcium carbonate
accord to the equation. Halogens (GROUP VII ELEMENTS)
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(g) + H2O(l) Element in group VII of the periodic table are called halogens.
They include fluorine, chlorine, bromines and iodine.
Then the colourless solution is due to excess carbondioxide reacting
with calcium carbonate and water to form soluble calcium hydrogen Physical properties:
carbonate.
All halogens can exist as coloured diatomic gases.
Carious forms of calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide and calcium
carbonate are used by farmers to reduce the acidity of soils.
Property Chlorine Bromine
Calcium hydroxide is used to make Mortar. Lo
A tomicnumbe r 
A tomicmass
A tomicradi us




Increasisng
Note: Cement is made by strongly heating calcium carbonate (lime
stone) and clay together. Colour of gases - green brown purple
State at room - gas Liquid solid
2. Calcium chloride:
Chemical properties
It is a white solid and very soluble in water lumps of calcium
chloride are use in U-tubes as drying agents of gases. The readiness of halogens to accept electrons make them the most
reactive non-metals and strong oxidizing agents (oxidation is the
Both calcium chloride and magnesium chloride are deliquescent. removal of electrons from an atom.
3. Magnesium hydroxide, (Mg(OH)2 Cl2(g)+2e 2Cl (g )


Br2(g)+2e 2 Br( g )
A suspension of this compound is used as milk of magnenia to

neutralize excess acid in the stomach. I2(g)+2e 2I ( g )
The readiness to accept electrons decreases down the group. Bromine reacts with zinc to form zinc bromide.
Fluorine is the most reactive and most oxidizing agent. (That is
why it’s hard to prepare) Zn(s) + Br2(l) Zn Br2(s)
Zinc bromide
Chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent whereas Iodine is only mildly
oxidizing.
ACIDS BASES AND SALTS
1. Halogens elements are poisonous for example chlorine should be
prepared in a fume cupboard. ACIDS:
Bromine should be handled carefully and preferably in dilute An acid is a substance which dissolves in water to produce
solution Iodine solution is applied on fresh woulds as it kills hydrogen ions as the only positively charged ions.
bacteria and prevents infections.
Example:
2. Halogen elements kare acidic and bleaching agents. Chlorine
and bromine turn moist blue litmus paper read and then bleach it. H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO2-4
The acidic and bleaching nature are due to the reaction with water
in which a mixture of acids is formed according to the equation. HCl(aq)

H+(aq) + Cl (aq )
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(g) + HOCl(aq)

Hydrochloric Hypobromous
Acid acid
The bleaching action is due to hypochlorous and hypobromous acid.
Reaction with metals MINERAL ACIDS

Halogens react with metals to form salts called halides. The salts NAME FORMULAR
are Ionic in nature. The ionic character decreases as the group is Sulphuric acid H2SO4
descended. That is fluorides are the most Ionic while Iodides are
Hydrochloric acid HCl
the least Ionic.
Sulphurous acid H2SO3
Nitric acid HNO3
Chlorine reacts with iron to form iron (III) chloride.
Nitrus acid HNO2
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2 FeCl3(s) Phosphoric acid H3PO4
Iron (III) chloride
General properties of acids: Hydrogen chloride gas consisting of covalent molecules is a non-
electrolyte however when dissolved in water, the solution conducts
1. They change litmus paper from blue to red electricity.
2. They are soluble in water.
3. They are electrolytes. Electrolytes are substance which conduct Question:
electricity in molten or solution form and are decomposed by it.
4. Some acid have a sour or sharp taste. When hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water the resultant
solution conducts electricity however when hydrogen chloride gas
Strong and weak acids: in dissolved in methylbenzene the resultant solution does not
conduct electricity. Explain the observation.
Strong acids:
BASICITY OF AN ACID:
These are acids which completely ionize in water and are strong
electrolytes. For example all mineral acid, that sulphuric acid, nitric Basicity of an acid is the number of hydrogen atoms in the acid
acid etc which can be replaced by a metal or ammonium ion.
H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO2-4(aq) Example:
HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3+(aq) Sulphuric acid:
H3PO4(aq) 3H+(aq) + PO3-4(aq) HSO4 NaSO4
Weak acids: Bases and Alkalis
These are acids which partially ionize in water and are weak A base is a substance which reacts with an acid to form a salt and
electrolytes e.g. ethnic acid and carbonic acid. water only. these are oxides of or hydroxides of metals or
ammonium group e.g. Zinc oxide and sodium hydroxide are both
CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq) bases.
H2CO3(aq) 2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq) ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Note: In complete absence of water acids are not ionized at all. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
They thus do not exhibit all the general properties listed above.
Note: The above reactions are referred to as neutralization
Example: reactions.

A neutralization reaction is reaction in which an acid reacts with a These are alkalis which partially ionize in water and are weak
base to form a salt and water only. electrolytes.
Alkalis: Example: Ammonia solution (Ammonium hydroxide)
An alkali is a soluble base. NH4OH NH4(aq) + OH-(aq)
Examples: ammonia solution, sodium hydroxide and potassium INDICATORS:

hydroxide.
Activity Observation
Examples of bases: Indicator Hydrochloric acid sodium hydroxide
NAME FORMULA Litmus Red red blue

Copper (II) hydroxide Cu(OH)2 paper Blue red blue
Iron (III) hydroxide Fe (OH)3(aq)
Zinc Oxide ZnO(s) Methlorodye The solution The solution turns yellow
Calcium hydroxide CaOH(aq) Turns red
Sodium hydroxide NaOH(aq)
Phenophtha The solution turns The solution turns purple
colourless
Strong and weak alkalis:
Universal Indicators:
Strong alkali:
The colour of the universal indicator solution or paper varies
A strong alkali is one which completely ionizes in water and is a through at the PH range.
strong electrolyte.
Note: The PH of acids is <7 (0 – 6)
Example: Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide.
The PH of water (neutral) = 7
KOH(aq) K +
(aq) + OH (aq)
- The PH of alkalis >7 (8 – 18)
NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) PH 1,2,3 4,5,7 8 9,10 11,12,13,14

Scales
Weak alkalis: Colours Red Orange Turquoise Blue purple
green

Alkalis Observation
Chemical properties of acids
Cation With sodium hydroxide With ammonia
Reaction with metal: solution
Zn2+(aq) A white precipitate A white precipitate
Example: Reaction between Magnesium and dilute hydrochloric soluble in excess soluble in excess
acid. Al3+(aq) A white precipitate A white precipitate
soluble in excess insoluble in excess
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2 + H2 Pb2+(aq) A white precipitate A white precipitate
soluble in excess insoluble in excess
Observation: Mg2+(aq) A white precipitate
insoluble in excess
The solid dissolves with effervescence of a colourless gas that burns Ca2+(aq) A white precipitate in
with a pop sound forming a colourless solution. soluble in excess.
2. Reaction with carbonates: Cu2+(aq) A blue precipitate A blue precipitate

insoluble in excess soluble in excess to
Examples: give a deep blue
solution
(i) Reaction with lead carbonate: Fe2+(aq) A green precipitate A green precipitate
insoluble in excess insoluble in excess
PbCO3(s) + HCl(aq) PbCl2 + HCO3 Fe3+(aq) A brown precipitate A brown precipitate
Observation:
Chemical properties of acids:
lime water milky. 1. Acids react with bases and alkali to form a salt and water only.
(ii) Reaction with copper (II) carbonate Example:
CuCO3(s) + HCl(aq) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(aq)
Observation: CuO + 2HCl CuCl2 + H2O(l)
The green solid dissolves with effervescence of a colourless gas that Observation:
turns lime water milky form a blue solution.
The green solid dissolves with effervescence of a colourless gas that
The black solid dissolves forming a blue solution. turns lime water milk.
A blue solution
2. Acids react with metals to form a salt and hydrogen gas only.
FeCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) FeCl2 + CO2 + H2O
Example: Green solution green solution
Mg(s) + H2SO4 MgSO4(aq) + H2(g) Observation:
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2 + H2(g) A green solid dissolves with efferverscence of a colourless gas that
turns lime water milky.
Observation:
A green solution
with a pop sound forming a colourless solution. Chemical properties of alkali:
3. Acid react with carbonate to form a salt. Carbondioxide and 1. Alkali react with acids to form a salt and water only.
water only.
Example:
Example:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
ZnCO3 + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2 + CO2 + H2O(l)
White solid colourless solution
2. Alkali precipitate insoluble hydroxides of metals from solution
Observation: of their salts.
The white solid dissolves with effervescence of a colourless gas that Observation
turns lime water milky. Cation With hydroxide solution With ammonia solution
Zn2+(aq) A white precipitate A white precipitate
A colourless solution Al3+(aq) soluble in excess soluble in excess
CuCO3(s) + HCl(aq) CuCl2 + CO2 + H2O Pb2(aq)
Green blue solution
Ca2+(aq) A white precipitate A white precipitate
Observation: Mg2+(aq) insoluble in excess insoluble in excess
A blue precipitate A blue precipitate

Cu3+(aq) insoluble in excess soluble in excess to give A. Zn2+(aq) B. Mg2+(aq) C. Cu2+(aq)
a deep blue solution D. Fe2+(aq)
Fe2+(aq) A green precipitate A green precipitate Ammonium salt solutions give ammonia gas a salt and water only
insoluble in excess insoluble in excess when heated with sodium hydroxide solution.
Fe3+(aq) A brown precipitate A brown precipitate (NH4)2 SO4(aq) + 2NaCH(aq) Na2SO4(aq), 2NH3 + 2H2O(l)
SALTS:
Questions: A salt is a substance formed when part or all the replaceable

hydrogen of an acid is replaced by a metal or ammonium ion.
1. The cation which when reacted with aqueous sodium hydroxide
will form a precipitate that is soluble in excess sodium hydroxide Types of salts:
solution is:
There are two types of salts. That is normal salts and acid salts.
3 3+ 2+
A. Fe (aq) B. Al (aq) C. Cu (aq)
D. Fe2+(aq) A normal salt is a salt formed when all the replaceable hydrogen of
an acid is replaced by a metal or ammounium ion.
2. The cation that form a green precipitate with sodium hydroxide
is: Examples:
A. Cu2+(aq) B. Fe2+(aq) C. Al3+(aq) Name of salt Formula

D. Fe3+(aq)
Sodium chloride NaCl
3. Which one of the following ions reacts with ammonia solution to Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4
form a precipitate that dissolves in excess ammonia solution?
Magnesium chloride MgCl2
2 2+ 2+
A. Pb (aq) B. Fe (aq) C. Ca (aq)
D. Cu3+(aq)
4. Which one of the following cations does not react with ammonia An acid salt is a salt formed when part of the replaceable hydrogen
to form a precipitate which dissolves in excess ammonia to form a of an acid is replaced by a metal or ammonium ion.
colourless solution?
Examples:

Name of salt Formula
1. Copper (II) oxide is added to warm dilute sulphuric acid until in
Sodium hydrogen sulphate NaHSO4 excess.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate NaHCO3 2. Filter off the excess copper (II) oxide.
Potassium hydrogen sulphate KHSO4 3. The resultant solution evapourated to saturation, on cooling
crystals of copper (II) sulphate are formed, they are filtered off,
Preparation of salts: washed with a little distilled water and dry on a filter paper.
The method of preparation of a salt depends on whether the salt is CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
soluble in water or not.
Preparation of sodium chloride crystal in the laboratory
Solubility of salts:
1. To a solution of sodium hydroxide, methyl orange indicator is
1. All nitrates are soluble in water. added.
2. All ammonium, potassium salts are soluble in water 2. Dilute hydrochloric acid added to the solution until the colour of
3. All chlorides are soluble in water except silver chloride and lead the indicator changes.
(II) chloride. However lead (II) chloride is soluble in warm water. 3. To the resultant solution animal charcoal is added and then the
solution is boiled so that the animal charcoal absorbs the colour of
4. All sulphates are soluble in water except Barium sulphate, lead the indicator. Filter off the animal charcoal evapourate the resultant
(II) sulphate and calcium sulphate. solution to saturation.
On cooling crystals of sodium chloride are formed, they are filtered
5. All carbonates are insoluble in water except carbonates of off, washed with a little distilled water and dried on a filter paper.
ammonium, potassium and sodium
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(g)
Methods of preparing salts:
Direct replacement:
1. Neutralisation method.
Metal + acid Salt + hydrogen
Acid + a base Salt water
Example:
Examples:
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Laboratory preparation of iron (II) sulphate crystals
Preparation of copper (II) sulphate crystal in the laboratory
1. Iron fillings are added to warm dilute sulphuric acid until in
excess. This method is used to prepare in soluble salts.
2. Filter off the excess iron.
3. Evapourate the solution to saturation. Example: BaSO4, PbSO4, CaCO4, PbCl2, AgCl
4. On cooling crystals of iron(II) sulphate are formed, they are
filtered off, washed with a little distilled water and dried on a filter All carbonates except Na2CO3, K2CO3 and (NH4)2CO3, Lead Iodide
paper. (PbI2)
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g) Pb (NO3)2(aq)
Question: Example 1:
Describe how you can prepare dry crystal of zinc chloride in the Preparation of lead (II) chloride
laboratory.
Add dilute hydrochloric acid to lead (II) nitrate solution. A white
An acid and a Carbonate: precipitate of lead (II) chloride are formed (crystals) filtered off,
washed with a little distilled water and dried on a filter paper.
Acid + carbonate Salt + carbondioxide + water
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
2HNO3(aq) + CuCO3(s) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Preparation of Lead (II) iodide:
Question:
Add potassium iodide solution to lead (II) nitrate solution.
Describe how you can prepare dry crystals of iron (II) sulphate from
iron (III) carbonate. A yellow precipitate is formed OR Lead (II) iodide crystals are
formed. They are filtered off, washed with a little water and dried
Iron (II) carbonate is added to dilute sulphuric acid until in excess. on a filter paper.
-
The excess iron (II) carbonate is filtered off. KI(aq) + Pb (NO3)2(aq) PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
-
The solution is evapourated to saturation.
-
On cooling crystals of iron (II) sulphate are formed. Question:
-
They are filtered off, washed with a litte distilled water and
dried on a filter paper. 1. Which one of the following methods is suitable for preparing a
pure dry sample of silver chloride.
FeCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
A. Direct synthesis C. Precipitation
Precipitation (Double decomposition) B. Neutralisation D. Reacting silver with acid
Observation:
2. Which of the following salts cannot be prepared by precipitation
method: A black sublimate is formed.
A. Lead (II) nitrate C. Lead (II) sulphate Note: When hydrogen chloride gas is passed over heated iron (II)
B. Lead (II) chloride D. Lead (II) carbonate chloride is formed.
Fe(s) + 2HCl(g) FeCl2(s) + H2(g)

3. Which of the following salts can be prepared by precipitation
method? Questions:
A. Zinc nitrate C. Barium sulphate 1. Which of the following salts cannot be prepared by precipitation
B. Copper (II) sulphate D. Iron (II) chloride method?
A. Lead (II) nitrate c. Lead (II) carbonate

Direct synthesis B. Lead (II) chloride D. Lead (II) sulphate
Iron (III) chloride 2. Briefly describe how a pure dry sample of calcium carbonate can
Magnesium chloride be prepared in the laboratory.
Iron (II) chloride
3. Aqueous sodium carbonate was added to magnesium sulphate
Example: Iron (III) chloride is prepared by passing chlorine gas solution add dilute sulphuric acid.
over heated iron.
(i) State what was observed.
(ii) Write equations for the reaction.
4. State what would be observed and write an equation for the

reaction that would take place when aqueous ammonium chloride
was;
(a) heated with sodium hydroxide solution.

(b) Added to silver nitrate solution
Hydrolysis of salt:
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)
A black sublimate This is a reaction between a salt and water

Example: (i) State was observed
Nature (ii) Write an equation for the reaction
Salt Acidic alkali neutral species formed
in water Effect of Heat on Salts:
Sodium sulphate X X NaOH + H2SO4 1. Ammonium chloride

Sodium chloride X X NaOH + HCl
Ammonium chloride sublimes. On heating it sublimes to give a
Ammonium sulphate X X NH4OH + white sublimate of ammonium chloride and ammonia gas.
H2SO4
Na2CO3 + H2O 2NaOH + 2H2CO3
Ammonium carbonate X X NH4OH +
To form sodium hydroxide a strong base and carbonic acid a weak
H2CO3
acid.
Sodium carbonate X X NaOH +
Sodium hydroxide completely ionizes white carbonic acid partially
H2CO3
ionizes. While a solution of ammonium chloride is acidic this is
Ammonium chloride X X NH4OH + because ammonium chloride hydrolyses in water according to this
equation.
HCl
NH4Cl + H2O NH4OH + HCl
Question:
To form ammonia solutional weak base and hydrochloric acid a
(a) Na2CO3(s) + H2O 2NaOH(aq) + H2CO3(aq) strong acid ammonia solution partially ionizes while hydrochloric
acid completely ionizes.
The solution was tested with red litmus paper.
(i) State what was observed. 2. Which one of the following substance will dissolve in water to
give a solution that would turn red litmus paper blue?
(ii) Give a reason for your answer in (a) (i).
A. Sodium chloride C. Sodium sulphate
B. Sodium hydroxide D. Sodium nitrate
(b) Magnesium sulphate was added to an aqueous solution of
sodium carbonate; 3. The following acids are completely ionized in water except ;
MgSO4(aq) + Na2CO3(s) MgCO3 + Na2SO4 A. hydrochloric acid C. sulphuric acid

B. nitric acid D. carbonic acid
Nitrates of metals lower in the series up to copper decomposes to
4. Which one of the following is an acid salt? form an oxide, nitrogendioxide and oxygen.
A. CaSO4 B. NH4Cl C. KNO3 D. 2Zn(NO3)2(s) 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(s)

NaHCO3 Yellow(hot) brown fumes
White (cold
5. (a) Sodium carbonate was dissolved in water to form sodium
hydroxide and carbonic acid as shown in the equation below. Observation:
NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g) A yellow solid when hot and white when cold
Observation: Brown fumes

-
a white sublimate 2Pb(NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
-
a colourless gas with a chocking smell Brown (hot) brown fumes
Yellow (cold)
2. NITRATES Observation:
K 
2 KNO3 ( s )
Na  2KNO2(s) + O2(g) A brown solid when hot and yellow when cold
Brown fume
Ca 
Mg 

Al 

Z n  2 Z n( NO 3 ) 2 ( s )
Fe 
2Cu(NO3)2(s) 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)


Pb 
Cu 

2ZnO(s) + HNO2(g) + O2(g)

Black brown fumes
Hg 

Ag 2 AgNO 3 (
Au 

s )
2Ag(s) + 2NO2(g) + Observation:
O2(g)
A black solid/ A black residue
Brown fumes
The decomposition of metal nitrates depends upon the position of
the metal in the reactivity series of metals. Nitrates of metals below copper decomposes to form a metal,
nitrogen dioxide and oxygen
Nitrates of metals high up in the reactivity series (potassium and
sodium) decomposes to nitrites and oxygen. 2AgNO3(s) 2Ag(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
2NaNO3(s) 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g) Observation:

- A shinny solid (i) Copper (II) sulphate looses its water of crystallization on gentle
- Brown fumes heating turning from blue to white stronger heating gives white
fumes of sulphur trioxide and a black residue of copper (II) oxide.
Ammonium nitrate decomposes explosively when heated to form CuSO4.5H2O(l) CuO(s) + SO3(g) + 5H2O(l)
dinitrogen oxide and water. Blue black white fumes droplets of a colourless
liquid
2NH4NO3(s) 2N2O + 4H2O

Observation:
Question: - The blue crystals decomposse to give a black residue (cold)

- White fumes
1. Which of the following nitrates decomposes on heating to form a - Droplets of a colourless liquid
metal?
(ii) Iron (II) sulphate (hydrated) FeSO4. 7H2O iron (II) sulphate
A. copper (II) nitrate C. Sodium nitrate looses its water of crystallization.
B. lead (II) nitrate D. silver nitrate
On gentle heating stronger heating gives white fumes of
2. Which of the following nitrates will produce nitrogen dioxide sulphurtrioxide together sulphur dioxide and a brown residue of
when heated strongly? iron (II) oxide.
A. Potassium nitrate C. Zinc nitrate FeSO4.7H2O(l) Fe2O3(g) + SO3(g) + SO2(g) + 14H2O

B. Sodium nitrate D. Ammonium nitrate green brown white fume
3. Which one of the following nitrate does not produce oxygen Observation:
when heated strongly?
- The green solid turns brown.
A. KNO3 C. Cu(NO3)2 - White fumes.
B. Ca(NO3)2 D. NH4NO3 - Droplets of a colourless liquid
Question:
Describe how you can prepare a dry sample of copper (II) sulphate
3. SULPHATES in the laboratory .
To a copper (II) oxide solution add warm dilute sulphuric acid until
in excess. Filter off the excess copper (II) oxide. The resultant
solution is evapourated to saturation. On cooling crystal of copper
(II) sulphate are formed filtered off washed with a little distilled Sodium hydroxide solution was added to an aqueous solution of
water and dried on a filter paper. iron (II) sulphate until in excess.
Crystals of copper (II) sulphate where heated gently and then (i) State what was observed.
strongly until there was no further change. (ii) Write an equation for the reaction.

(ii) Write equation(s) for the reactions that took place. CARBONATES
CuSO4.5H2O(l) CuO(s) + SO3(g) + 5H2O(l) (i) Ammonium carbonate:
Sodium hydroxide solution was added to an aqueous solution of Ammonium carbonate decomposes readily to realize ammonia gas.
copper (II) sulphate until in excess.
(i) State what was observed. (NH4)2CO3 2NH3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(ii) Write an equation for the reaction.
Observation:
CuSO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4
A colourless gas with a chocking smell red to blue
Question: Droplets of a colourless liquid.
Describe how you can prepare a dry sample of Iron (II) sulphate in (ii) Sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate do not decompose
the laboratory. on heating.
To a solution of Iron (II) oxide add warm dilute sulphuric acid until
in excess. Filter off the excess Iron (II) oxide. The resultant Na2CO3.10H2O(l) Na2CO3(s) + 10H2O(l)
solution is evapourated to saturation on cooling crystals of copper
(II) sulphate are formed, washed with a little distilled water filtered (iii) Heavier metal carbonates decompose to give carbondioxide
of and dried on a filter paper. and the metal oxide.
Crystals of Iron (II) sulphate where heat gentle and then strongly ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
until there was no further change.
Observation:
(ii) Write the equation(s) for the reaction that took place. The white solid turns yellow when hot and white when cold.
FeSO4.7H2O(s) Fe2O3(g) + SO2(g) + 4H2O(l) PbO3(s) PbO(s) + CO2(g)
Observation:
C. Potassium hydrogen carbonate
A white solid turns brown when hot and yellow when cold. D. Sodium hydrogen carbonate
CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g) 2. Which one of the following substances is formed when
magnesium burns in carbondioxide?
Observation: A. Magnesium carbonate C. Carbonmonoxide

B. Magnesium nitride D. Carbon
The green solid turns black. 3. The substance that decomposes when heated strongly is:
FeCO(s) FeO(s) + CO2(g) A. Potassium carbonate C. Potassium chloride

B. Potassium hydroxide D. Potassium nitrate.
Observation:
4. (a) (i) Describe how a pure sample of Iron (II) sulphate – 7
The green solid turns brown. water can be prepared in the laboratory.
(iv) Hydrogen carbonates: (ii) Write an equation for the reaction.
Hydrogen carbonates decompose on heating to give a carbonate, (b) (i) State what would be observed when iron (II) sulphate – 7
carbondioxide and water. – water was heated strongly.
(ii) Write an equation for the reaction in (b) (i).
2NaHCO3(S) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(c) Sodium hydroxide solution was added drop wise to a
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) solution of iron (II) sulphate until there was no further
change.
Observation: (i) State what was observed.
(ii) Give a reason for your observation in (c) (i).
- Bubbles/effervescence of a colourless gas (iii) Write an equation for the reaction.
- A white precipitate.
Questions: SOLUBILITY OF SALTS:
1. The substance that does not produce carbondioxide when heated A saturated solution: a saturated solution is one which cannot
strongly is: dissolve any more soluble in presence of undissolved solute at a
given temperature.
A. Calcium carbonate
B. Sodium carbonate
A super saturated solution: A super saturated solution is one which (b – c)
dissolved more solute than dissolved in a saturated solution at the
same temperature. :- Solubility = (c – a) x 100g/100g of water
(b – c)
SOLUBILITY:
Example:
Solubility of a salt is the maximum mass of the solute in grams of 12.0g of potassium chlorate solution saturated at room temperature
the solute required to saturate 100 grams of the solvent at a given was carefully evapourated to dryness. 2.4g of potassium chlorate
temperature. was left calculate the solubility of potassium chlorate at room
temperature.
Experiment for determine the solubility of a salt (e.g. sodium
chloride) Mass of solution = 12.0g
Mass of salt = 2.4g
-
Weigh an empty beaker Mass of water = 12.0 – 2.4 = 9.6g
-
Add the solute (sodium chloride) tow ater in the beaker with 9.6g of water dissolves 2.4g of salt
stiring until no more dissolves 1g of water dissolves 2.4g of salt
-
Filter the salt solution into the empty beaker 9.6
-
Weigh the beaker with its solution 100g of water dissolves 2.4 x 100
-
Evapourate the solution to dryness on a water bath. 9.6
-
Allow it to cool, weigh the beaker with the dry salt. = 25g of salt
Treatment of results: 25g/100g of water.
Let; Exercise:
The mass of empty beaker = ag 45g of a sample of an aqueous solution was found to contain 20g
Mass of beaker solution = bg solute of 25oC. What was the solubility of the solute in water at that
Mass of beaker + dry salt = cg temperature.
Mass of salt = (c – a )g
Mass of solution = (b – a )g Mass of solution = 45g
Mass of water = (b – a) – (c – a) = ( b – c)g Mass of salt = 20g
(b – c)g of water dissolves (c – a)g of salt Mass of water = 45 – 20g = 25g
25g of water dissolves 20g of salt
/g of water dissolves (c – a)g of salt /g of water dissolves 20g of salt
(b – c) 25
100g of water dissolves 20 x 100g
25
100g of water dissolve (c – a) x 100g of salt 800g of salt.
80g/100g of water.
NB:
- Solubility of solids increase with increase in temperature.

- Solubility of gases decreases with increase temperature.
Experiment to show that solubility of potassium nitrate

increases with temperature:
- Potassium nitrate is added to water in a beaker with stiring until

no more dissolves.
- Heat the mixture while stiring. The salt dissolves on cooling
crystals reappear.
SOLUBILITY CURVES:
This is a plot of solubility against temperature.
NB:
The solubility of potassium nitrate and potassium chlorate increases

with temperature.

(i) The solubility of sodium chloride is not affected by temperature.
(ii) The solubility of calcium sulphate decreases with increase in CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
temperature.
(iii) Potassium nitrate is more soluble than potassium chlorate. Carbon is in period 2 and group A of the periodic table. (It is an
(iv) Solubility is applied in fractional crystallization. atomic number of 6)
Its electronic structure is 2:4
Questions: Occurrence:
(a) Define the terms; Carbon occurs as an element in both natural and synthetic forms
(i) solute Natural Forms Synthetic Forms

(ii) saturated solution Diamond Coke
Graphite Charcoal
(b) The solubilities of potassium chloride and potassium nitrate at Coal Carbon fibre
certain temperatures are shown in the table below.
Allotropy of carbon
Allotropy is the existence of an element in two or more forms
Temp/oC 0 11 15 30 40 50 57 without change of state. Allotropes are substances which exist in
Solubility of 27.9 31.0 32.0 36.5 40.0 43.0 45.0 two or more forms without change of state.
potassium Different allotropes of the same element have different crystalline
chloride per 100g structures and different physical properties but the same chemical
of water properties.
Solubility of 14.0 21.5 25.0 43.0 63.0 84.0 102.0 Carbon has 3 allotropes i.e.
potassium nitrate Graphite, diamond and amorphous carbon
per 100g of water
Diamond:
It has a tetrahedral structure in which carbon is joined by (ovalent
(i) Plot on the same axes graph of solubility against temperature for bond to four other carbon atoms.)
the solubilities of potassium chloride and potassium nitrate.
(ii) State which one of the two salts has a solubility which increases
less rapidly with increase in temperature.
(iii) A saturated solution of potassium nitrate at 30oC was cooled to

5oC calculate the mass of potassium nitrate crystal formed.

The valency electrons are all used up in forming covalent bonds.
This structure is extended throughout the substance in three Question: Describe the structure of:-
dimensions.
(a) Graphite
Graphite:
(b) Diamond – tetrahedral
Graphite is a two-dimensional layered structure. The carbon atoms
with in the layers are arranged in hexagonal rings and each carbon Amorphous carbon
is covalently bonded to three other carbon atoms.
Therefore, three out of the four valency electrons are used in It is black and has the lowest density of all allotropes of carbon. It
forming covalent bonds. The remaining electron is delocalize or exists informs including wood charcoal, animal charcoal and
free or mobile over the whole layer. (This is why graphite conducts lampblack.
electricity and heat). The layers lie on top of one another and are
joined by weak van der waal’s forces of attraction. Physical properties of diamond and graphite
Property Diamond Graphite

1. Appearance Colorless and Dark grey and
transparent opaque
2. Hardness Very hard Soft and flaky
3. Thermal and electrical Low High
conductivity
4. Density 3520g cm-3 2260g cm-3 Water gas, which is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is
industrially produced by the reaction between steam and red hot
Chemical properties coke.
1. Combustion: Carbon burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide. H2O(g) + C(s) CO(g) + H2(g)
Carbon + Oxygen carbon dioxide
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) Observation:
In limited supply of air, carbon monoxide is formed.
2C(s) + O2(g) 2CO(g) - A colourless gas that burns with a pop sound.
2. Reaction with acids: Carbon does not normally react with - The solid dissolves.
acids. It however, reacts with /is oxidized by hot concentrated
sulphuric acid and nitric acids. Uses of Carbon:
(i) 2H2SO4(l) + C(s) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 2SO2(g) 1. Diamond:

(ii) 4HNO3(l) + C(s) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4NO2(g) - It is used as drill tip and glass cutter because of it’s hardness.
3. Carbon is a reducing agent. It reduces the oxides of metals - It is used for making jewellery because of its sparkling
below zinc in the reactivity series of metals. appearance.
Example I: Carbon burns with copper oxide forming a reddish 2. Graphite:

brown solid of copper - It is used as a lubricant.
C(s) + 2CuO(s) CO2(g) + 2Cu(s) - it is used to make lids of pencils.
Black solid reddish-brown solid - used as electrodes because it has mobile electrons.
A black solid turns reddish-brown.

A colorless gas that turns lime water milky. CARBON DIOXIDE:
Exp: Laboratory Preparation:

Dilute hydrochloric acid is added to calcium carbonate.
2PbO(s) + C(s) 2Pb(s) + CO2(g) Carbondioxide is given off. It is passed through concentrated
White when hot grey beads and yellow when cold sulphuric acid which dries it and then collected by downward
delivery.
Observation: CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
- The yellow solid turns to grey beads.

- A colourless gas that turns lime water milky.

2Mg(s) + CO2(g) 2MgO(s) + C(s)
White ash black specks
Observation:
A white ash and black specks. It continues burning forming a white

ash and black specks.
3. Carbondioxide is absorbed by sodium hydroxide solution
NOTE: 1. Sulphuric acid is not suitable for preparation of forming sodium carbonate solution. This reaction is sometimes
carbondioxide since an insoluble layer of calcium sulphate is used to absorb carbondioxide from a mixture of gases.
formed on the marble chips (calcium carbonate) preventing further
reaction. CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
2. Carbondioxide is also produced in a number of other reactions When excess carbondioxide is bubbled through sodium carbonate
for example, combustion of hydrocarbons, the action of heat on solution sodium hydrogen carbonate is formed.
carbonates, fermentation and respiration. It is quite insoluble, thus cloudiness is observed.
Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2NaHCO3(aq)

Test for carbondioxide 4. Carbon dioxide turns calcium hydroxide solution (lime water)
milky. This is due to formation of calcium carbonate which is a
If carbondioxide is bubbled through lime water (calcium hydroxide) white insoluble solid.
the lime water turns milky and then clear. Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
White ppt
Physical Properties: (milkness)
1. Carbondioxide is a colourless odourless gas.
2. It is denser than air. 5. When excess carbon dioxide is bubbled through the solution,
3. under pressure, carbondioxide is quite soluble in water calcium hydrogen carbonate is formed. This is soluble in water and
4. solid carbondioxide is white and known as “dry ice”. Dry ice is therefore the precipitate dissolves.
used for cooling. When heated it does not melt but sublime forming
the gas. CaCO3(g) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
Note: Property 3 and 4 shows that carbon dioxide is acidic. An
Chemical properties. acid reacts with alkali to form a salt and water.
Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
1. It does not support combustion. It extinguishes a burning splint. H2O(l) + CO2(g) H2CO3(aq)
2. Magnesium burns in carbondioxide forming a white ash of Question:
magnesium oxide and black specks of carbon.
When carbondioxide was bubbled through a solution of calcium Chemical properties:
hydroxide (lime water) a white precipitate was formed which then
dissolved to give a clear solution. Explain the statement. 1. Carbonmonoxide is very poisonous and particularly dangerous
because it has non smell.
Uses of Carbondioxide: 2. Carbonmonoxide burns with a pale blue flame forming
1. It is used as a preservative in drinks e.g. sodas carbondioxide.
2. It is used as a refrigerative agent for perishable goods. 2CO(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g)
3. It is used in five extinguishers.
Observation:
Carbon monoxide CO. A colourless gas that turns lime water milky.
3. Carbon monoxide can act as reducing agent. At high
Carbon monoxide is formed when carbon or carbon substances or temperature it reduces the oxides of copper, lead and iron to metals.
compounds are heated in limited supply of air.
CuO(s) + CO(g) Cu(s) + CO2(g)
For Example: Black reddish
brown
C(s) + CO2(g) 2CO(g)
Laboratory preparation of carbon monoxide: Observation:
Carbon dioxide is passed over heated carbon. Carbon monoxide is - The black solid turns reddish brown.
formed. It is then passed through potassium hydroxide solution - A colourless gas that turns lime water milky.
which absorbs excess carbondioxide.
PbO(s) + CO(g) Pb(s) + CO2(g)
Yellow grey beads
Observation:
- The yellow solid turns to grey beads.
- A colourless gas turns lime water milky.
HARD WATER
Hard water is water that does not lather easily.

Soft water is water that lather easily.
Hardness in water is due to presence of magnesium and calcium
ions of salts such as chlorides, sulphates and hydrogen carbonates.
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g) Measurement of hardness of water:

KOH(aq) + CO2(g) K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) Soap solution is added to water samples from a burette.
The harder water will require a greater volume of soap solution, 1. It wastes soap by forming scum.
while the soft water will require a small volume of soap solution. 2. It leaves dirty marks on clothes.
3. it forms fur in kettles and pans in which it is boiled.
There are two types of hard water: 4. It forms boiler scale inside the boiler tube which may block the
tube.
- Temporary and permanent hardness Removal of temporary Hardness:
Temporary hardness is hardness which can be removed by boiling. Water with temporary hardness can be softened by the following
Temporary hardness is due to the presence of calcium hydrogen methods.
carbonate and magnesium hydrogen carbonate.
This occurs in limestone areas when rain water containing small (i) Boiling
amounts of dissolved carbondioxide from air passes over limestone. Boiling decomposes the hydrogen carbonate into insoluble
carbonate.
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Ca(HCO3)2(aq) Ca(HCO3)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Question: Why is water hard in limestone areas. Calcium
carbonate (limestone) reacts with water containing dissolved After boiling water is filtered to remove the insoluble calcium
carbondioxide forming calcium hydrogen carbonate which causes carbonate.
the hardness.
Observation:
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Ca(HCO3)2(aq) - A colourless gas that turns lime water milky
The white deposit which is produced by boiling hard water - A white precipitate is formed.
(temporary) is called calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate.
(ii) Addition of lime water (Calcium hydroxide)
Permanent Hardness Calcium hydroxide precipitates all the calcium ions as calcium
carbonate from the solution.
It is hardness which cannot be removed by boiling. Water is then filtered to remove calcium carbonate.
Permanent hardness is caused by small amounts of dissolved Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) 2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O(l)
calcium and magnesium sulphates or chlorides. Observation:
Advantages and Disadvantages of hard water: - A white precipitate is formed
Advantages: (iii) Addition of sodium carbonate solution (washing soda)

1. It contains calcium which is used for formation of animal shells, Washing soda precipitates the calcium ions as calcium carbonate
teeth and bones. which can be filtered sodium carbonate + calcium hydrogen
2. It can be conveyed in lead pipes. carbonate
3. Hard water is better for brewing beer. Ca(HCO3)2 + Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3 + 2NaHCO3(aq)
Observation:
Disadvantages: - A white precipitate.
Calcium ions + sodium stearate Sodium ions + calcium state
Removal of permanent hardness: (scum)
(i) Addition of sodium carbonate (washing soda) sodium carbonate Synthetic detergents are made from petrochemicals. They do not
precipitates the insoluble carbonate which is filtered off. react with calcium and magnesium ions in hard water.
CaSO4(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq) Effects of heat on salts:

Observation:
White precipitate. 1. Ammonium chloride:
(ii) Distillation: this process removes all dissolved substances. It Ammonium chloride sublimes, when it is heated, it sublimes to give
is expensive to use the distillation method to soften large amounts ammonium chloride. On further heating, the gas sublimes to give
of water. ammonia and hydrogen chloride gas.
(iii) Ion exchange: This method is used for softening water on a
large scale. In this method the hard water containing calcium ions NH4Cl(s) NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
is run over the permutit, Na2Y. As it does so, ion exchange occurs
that is calcium ions are exchanged for sodium ions.
CaSO4(aq) + Na2Y(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + CaY(s0 2. Nitrates:

Or Ca2+(aq) + Y2-(aq) CaY(s) The decomposition of metal nitrates depends upon the position of
Calcium permutit (CaY) obtained is insoluble and can be removed the metal in the reactivity series of metals e.g.
by filtration.
1. Sodium and potassium are at the top of the reactivity series of
Question: Describe the various methods of removing both types of metals. Their nitrates decompose to give a nitrate and oxygen.
hardness. 2NaNO3(s) 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
NH4Cl(g) NH3(g) + NCl(g)
Detergents and Soaps: (on further heat)
Detergents are used to remove grease and dirt. NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
2. Nitrates of metals between calcium and copper in the reactivity
They are of two types series of metals decompose to metal oxide, Nitrogen dioxide and
Soap and synthetic detergents oxygen.
Soap are made from animal and vegetable fats and oils, and
concentrated sodium hydroxide. Example:
1. 2(Cu(NO3)2(s) CuO(s) + 2NO2(g) + ½ O2(g)
A typical soap is sodium stearate. 2Cu(NO3)2(s) 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Calcium and magnesium ions in hard water react with soap to form
an insoluble precipitate (mangnesium stearate and calcium stearate)
known as scum. Observation:

- A black solid
- Brown fumes Question: When hydrated copper (II) sulphate crystals were
2. Pb(NO3)2 PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g) strongly heated, the crystals turned from blue to white and then to
Observation: black. White fumes were also formed. Explain the statement.
- White solid when hot and yellow when cold
- Brown fumes (ii) Iron (II) sulphate:
Iron (II) sulphate loses its water of crystallization on gentle heating.
3. Zn(NO3)2(s) ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g) Stronger heating gives white fumes of sulphur trioxide and sulphur
dioxide.
Observation: A reddish brown residue of iron (III) oxide remains.
- A yellow solid when hot and white when cold. FeSO4.7H2O(s) FeSO4(s) + 7H2O(l)
- Brown fumes 2FeSO4 Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g) + SO2(g)
3. Nitrates of metals lower than copper in reactivity series reddish white
decompose to metal, Nitrogen dioxide and oxygen brown fumes
Ag NO3(s) 2Ag(s) + 2NO2(s) + O2(s)
Observation: Observation:
- Brown fumes Reddish brown residue and white fumes.
Hg(NO3)2(s) Hg(l) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
Observation: (iii) Carbonates:
- Brown fumes (i) Ammonium carbonate is unstable decomposing readily to
release ammonia.
(NH4)2 CO3(s) NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Observation:
4. Sulphates - A colourless gas which turns moist red litmus paper blue.
(i) Copper sulphate: - A colourless condensate which turns white anhydrous copper (II)
Copper sulphate loses its water of crystallization on gental heating sulphate blue.
turning from blue to white. Stronger heating gives white fumes and
a black residue. CuSO4.5H2O(s) CuO(s) + SO3(g) + 5H2O(l) (ii) Sodium and potassium carbonates do not decompose on
CuSO4.5H2O(s) CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) heating.
Blue solid White solid (iii) Heavier metal carbonates decompose to carbondioxide and
CuSO4(s) CuO(s) + SO3(g) the metal oxide e.g. zinc carbonate
Black white fumes gives zinc oxide which is yellow when hot and white when
solid cold.
Observation: ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
The blue solid turns white and then black white fumes are also Observation:
observed.
A colourless gas that turns lime water milky. A yellow solid when 2:5
hot and white when cold. Copper (II) carbonate turns from green to
black.
CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g)
green solid Black solid
Observation:
- The green solid turns black
Lead carbonate decomposes to lead oxide which is white when hot
and yellow when cold.
Pb CO3(s) PbO(s) + CO2(g)
Observation:
- A white solid when hot and yellow when cold. Occurance: Nitrogen exists as a diatomic molecule N2, in air and
- A colourless gas that turns lime water milky. up to 80% of air by volume.
Laboratory preparation:
5. Hydrogen carbonate
Potassium and sodium hydrogen carbonate decompose to Nitrogen can be made from air in the laboratory. The
carbonates e.g. Sodium hydrogen carbonates. carbondioxide in air is removed by passing the gas through sodium
Na HCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) hydroxide solution and then over heated copper turnings.
Observation: - A colourless gas that turns lime water milky. Nitrogen is then collected over water.
- A colourless liquid that turns white anhydrous CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2 CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
copper (II) sulphate blue. 2 Cu (s) + O2(g) 2 CuO (s)
Note: That the slats of reactive metals do not decompose readily on Observation:
heating. The reddish brown solid turns black.
This reflects the strength of bonding in these salts.
Question: Which of the following salts will not decompose on
heating.
(a) ammonium carbonate
(b) Copper carbonate
(c) Potassium carbonate
(d) Sodium hydrogen carbonate
NITROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Nitrogen:
Nitrogen is in period 2 and group V of the periodic table. It has an
atomic structure shown.
3Ca(s) + N2(g) Ca3N2(s)
The Nitrides dissolve in water to form corresponding hydroxide and
ammonia gas
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
Magnesium nitride + water
Mg3N2(s) + 6H2O(l) 3Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2NH3(g)
Ca3N2(s) + 6H2O(l) 33Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH3(g)
Question: When magnesium is burnt in air, and the residue
dissolved in water, a gas that turns moist red litmus paper blue is
involved. Explain the statement.
Magnesium is heated and burns in nitrogen to form magnesium
nitride. It dissolves in water to form a hydroxide and ammonia
which turns moist red to blue.
NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO2)
Nitrogen dioxide is a poisonous brown gas.
Concentrated nitric acid is added to copper turnings. Nitrogen
dioxide gas is evolved and is then collected by down ward delivery.
Cu(s) + 4HNO3(l) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Identification/test
Does not support burning and does not turn lime water milky.
NOTE: Nitrogen is an inert gas. This is because of the strong
triple bond between the nitrogen atoms in nitrogen i.e. N ≡ N.
PROPERTIES OF NITROGEN:
1. Nitrogen is colourless and tasteless gas.
2. It is slightly soluble in water under ordinary conditions. Alternative method:
3. It is slightly less dense than air.
4. Nitrogen and hydrogen combine at high temperatures and It can be made in the laboratory by heating lead (II) nitrate crystals.
pressure in presence of a catalyst to form ammonia. Pb(NO3)2(s) PbO(s) + 2NO2(g) + ½ O2(g)
N2(g) + 3H2(g) NH3(g) 2 Pb(NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
5. Nitrogen reacts only with only the reactive metals (magnesium, Observation:
calcium and lithium) - White solid when hot and yellow when cold.
When these metals are heated strongly they burn in Nitrogen - Brown fumes.
forming their corresponding nitrides which are white in colour. 2 NO2(g) N2O4(l)
3Mg(s) + N2(g) Mg3N2(s) Properties of Nitrogen dioxide:

1. Nitrogen dioxide supports combustion
2NO2(g) + 4Mg(s) 4MgO(s) + N2(g)
Observation:
- A white solid.
- Brown fumes turn to colourless fumes.
Properties:
2. Nitrogen dioxide is an acidic gas, it dissolves in water to form a
mixture of acids that is nitric acid and nitrous acid. 1. Nitrogen monoxide is a colourless gas which is immediately
2NO2(g) + H2O(l) HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq) oxidized upon exposure to air forming brown fumes of nitrogen
Nitric nitrous acid dioxide.
acid 2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
Observation:
NITROGEN MONOXIDE: - Brown fumes
2. Nitrogen monoxide supports combustion of substances which
This gas is also called nitrogen oxide. burn strongly e.g. magnesium.
2Mg(s) + 2NO(g) 2MgO(s) + N2(g)
Laboratory Preparation: 3. Nitrogen monoxide is a neutral oxide.
50% nitric acid is added to copper turnings, nitrogen monoxide is 4. It reacts with Iron(II) sulphate solution to form a dark brown
evolved. solution.
It is then collected over water.
Cu(s) + 4 HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O(l) + 2NO(g) AMMONIA
3Cu + 8 HNO3(aq) 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l) Ammonia is a covalent compound with a formula NH 3. The
electronic diagram of an ammonia molecule is as shown

Ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide are heated. Ammonia It turns from red to blue.
gas is given off. It is then passed through lumps of calcium oxide 2. Use: hydrogen chloride gas.
which dries it. the gas is then collected by upward delivery.
Observation:
Dense white fumes
NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s)
1. With heated copper (II) oxide when ammonia gas is passed over
heated copper (II) oxide, the black copper (II) oxide is reduced to
reddish brown copper metal, water and nitrogen gas.
Ammonium chloride + calcium hydroxide

2NH4 Cl(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) CaCl2(aq) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(l)
Industrial preparation of ammonia (Haber process)
Dry hydrogen and nitrogen are passed over a catalyst of iron at a
temperature of 45oC – 500oC and a pressure of 250 to 500
atmospheres (atm). The ammonia formed is liquefied or dissolved
in water.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
NB: The conditions for the reaction above are;
1. Iron catalyst
2. A temperature of between 450oC – 500oC.
3. A pressure of 250 – 500 atm.
Physical properties:
1. It is a colourless gas with a characteristic choking / pungent
smell. 3Cuo(s) + 2NH3(g) 3Cu(s) + 3H2O(l) + N2(g)
2. It is very soluble in water Observation:
3. It is less dense than air.
Test for ammonia: - A black solid turns reddish brown.
1. Use: moist red litmus paper
Questions: (a) (i) Draw a labeled diagram to show how a dry
Observation: sample of ammonia can be prepared
from ammonium chloride in the lab.
(ii) Write an equation for the reaction leading to When writing ionic equations, the following steps are followed;
the formation of ammonia.
(b) Dry ammonia gas was passed over heated lead (II) 1. Write the molecular equation.
oxide. 2. Write down all the ions in the equation for only aqueous
(i) State what was observed. solutions i.e. solids, liquids and gases don’t form ions.
(ii) Write equation for the reaction that takes 3. Write the ionic equation by omitting the identical ions which
place. appear on both sides of the equation.
(c) Describe how ammonia can be converted to nitric Example:

acid. Use equations to illustrate
your answer. Write ionic equations for the following reactions.
With Oxygen: (a) Reaction between sodium chloride and silver nitrate solution.
(a) Ammonia burns in air to produce nitrogen gas and water.

1. NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)
3 2. Ag+(aq) + NO-3(aq) + Na+ + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) +
2NH3 + O2(g) N2(g) + 3H2O(l)
2 NO-3(aq)
4NH3 + 3O2(g) 2N2(g) + 6H2O(l) 3. Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)
Observation:
- A white precipitate.
Note: Solubility of salts
1. All salts of potassium, sodium and ammonium are soluble.

2. All nitrates are soluble
3. All sulphate are soluble except Barium sulphate and lead
(b) Air oxidizes ammonia in the presence of platinum catalyst sulphate and calcium sulphate.
forming nitrogen monoxide and water. 4. All chlorides are soluble except silver chloride and lead
chloride however lead chloride is soluble on heating.
5 5. All carbonates are insoluble except carbonates of potassium,
2[2NH3(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g) + 3H2O(l)] sodium and ammonium.
2
4nH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l)
Writing ionic equations (b) Barium nitrate and sodium carbonate
insoluble excess
1. Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) BaCO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) in excess
ii) CuSO4 Pale blue Blue ppt Pale blue ppt No observab
2. Ba2+(aq) + NO-3(aq) + Na(aq) + CO32-(aq) BaCO 3(s) + Na+(aq) insoluble soluble in excess change
+ NO-3(aq) in excess to give a deep
3. Ba2+(aq) + CO2-3(aq) BaCO3(s) blue solution
Observation:
4. Ammonia dissolves in water to form ammonium hydroxide.
- A white precipitate. This ammonium hydroxide forms precipitates of insoluble metal
hydroxides from solutions of metal salts. The metal hydroxides are
Activity I: usually gelatinous. (Jelly like ppt)
When ammonia solution is added to a solution of copper (II) salt, a

Salts Colour of NaOH NH3(aq) or NH4OH AgNO blue ppt soluble in excess to give a deep blue solution is observed.
solutions Solution solution solution solution
(a) AlCl3 Colourless White ppt A white ppt A white
Cu2+ppt
(aq) + OH(aq) Cu(OH)2(s0
soluble in insoluble in Pale blue ppt
excess excess
(i) Pb(NO3)2 Colourless White ppt A white ppt No observable
Cu(OH)2(s) + 4NH3(aq) [Cu(NH3)4](aq) + 2OH(aq)
solution soluble in insoluble in change +2 + 0 = +2
excess excess Deep blue solution
(ii) ZnCl Colourless White ppt White ppt A white ppt
solution soluble in soluble in excess Question: When ammonia solution is added to a solution of copper
excess (II) sulphate until in excess, a pale blue ppt soluble in excess to give
(b) i) CaCl2 Colourless White ppt No change a deep
White ppt blue solution is observed. Explain the statement.
Ammonium solution first reacts with copper to form a pale blue ppt
ii) MgCl2 Colourless White ppt A white ppt White and thepptppt reacts with excess ammonia to give a deep blue
insoluble insoluble solution.in
in insoluble
in excess excess excess
(c) FeCl2 Pale green Dirty Dirty green WhiteWhen
ppt ammonia solution is added until in excess to:
solution green insoluble in
solution excess (a) Zinc salt solution
i) FeCl3 Pale yellow Rusted Rusted brown White ppt
brown ppt ppt insoluble in Observation:

- A white ppt soluble in excess
PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA SALTS
2+ -
Zn (aq) + 2OH (aq) Zn (OH)2(s)
White ppt 1. All ammonium salts when heated with alkalis will give off
Zn (OH)2(s) + NH3(aq) [Zn(NH3)4]2+ + 2OH(aq) ammonia gas which turns moist red litmus paper blue.
Colourless solution
NH4+(aq) + OH ( aq ) NH3(g) + H2O(l)
Question: When ammonia solution was added to a solution of zinc
salt. A white ppt soluble in excess was observed. Explain the NH4Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NH3(g) + H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
statement.
NH4+(aq) + OH(aq) NH3(g) + H2O(l)
To a solution of a salt x was added to ammonia solution till excess, Note: This is the confirmation test for ammonium
a white ppt was observed which dissolved in excess to form a
colourless solution B. When silver nitrate solution was added to 2. All ammonium salts on heating decompose with sublimation i.e.
another portion of x, a white ppt C was observed. when an ammonium salt is heated a white sublimate is observed.
(a) Identify compounds: USES OF AMMONIA:
A. zinc hydroxide 1. Used in the manufacture of nitric acid.

B. [Zn (NH3)4]2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) 2. used in manufacture of fertilizers.
C. Silver chloride 3. used in softening of water.
4. used in the manufacture of plastics.
(b) Write ionic equations for the formation of A, B and C. 5. used in the manufacture of explosives.
A. Zn2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) Zn (OH)2(s) Note: (i) When silver nitrate solution is added to solution
B. Zn(OH)2(s) + 4NH3(aq) [Zn(NH3)4]2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) containing sulphate irons then
C. Ag+(aq) + Cl  (aq ) AgCl(s)
Observation.
(c) Identify the cation and anion
- A white ppt
Cation - Zinc
Anion - Chlorine e.g. AlCl3(aq) + 3 Ag NO3(aq) Al(NO3)3(aq) + 3AgCl(s)
Ag3+(aq) + Cl3-(aq) 3Ag Cl(s)
NOTE: Cations – Zn2+(aq), Al3+(aq), Pb2+(aq) [ZAP] form white ppt ii) When Barium nitrate solution is added to a solution containing
soluble in excess sodium hydroxide solution. sulphate ions.
Observation:
4 HNO3(l) 2H2O(l) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
- A white ppt The yellow colour may be removed by bubbling air or oxygen into
the acid.
e.g. CuSO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) Cu (NO3)2(aq) + BaSO4(s)
SO42-(aq) + Ba2+(aq) BaSO4(s)
Question: 1. Which of the following substances reacts with

ammonium sulphate to form a white
ppt?
A. silver nitrate
B. sodium hydroxide
C. hydrochloric acid
D. Barium chloride.
2. Which one of the following salts will dissolve in

water to form a basic solution?
A. NH4Cl
B. KHSO4
C. (NH4)2SO4 MANUFACTURE OF NITRIC ACID. (OSTWALD’S
D. Na2CO3 PROCESS)
NITRIC ACID There are three stages in this process.
Laboratory preparation 1. ammonia is oxidized by air over heated platinum catalyst at

800oC – 900oC.
Nitric acid can be prepared by heating a mixture of a metallic
nitrate and concentrated sulphuric acid. Nitric acid being more 5
volatile than sulphuric acid is formed as vapour. It is then cooled to 2NH3(g) + O2(g) 3H2O(g) + 2NO(g)
2
liquid e.g. with sodium nitrate the reaction is represented by; 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 6H2O(g) + 4NO(g)
2. The gases are cooled and the colourless nitrogen monoxide
NaNO3(s) + H2SO4(l) NaHSO4(s) + HNO3(g) combines with more oxygen to form brown fumes of
Nitric acid attacks cork and rubber hence the preparation apparatus Nitrogandioxide.
must only be glass. The acid prepared is yellow due to dissolved
nitrogen dioxide as the acid decomposes by heat. 2NO(g) + O2 2 NO2(g)

(b) Describe an experiment that can be carried out to show that
ammonia is a soluble alkalin-gas.
3. Finally the nitrogen dioxide is dissolved in water with excess
oxygen and the nitric acid produced is concentrated by evaporation. (c) A copper coil was heated strongly and held over
concentrated solution of ammonia in the beaker. Oxygen
4NO2(g) + 2O2(g) + 2H2O(l) 2HNO3(aq) was then bubbled into the ammonia solution.
4NO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) 4HNO3(aq) (i) State what was observed.
(ii) Explain the observation in i) above.
Activity II properties of Nitric acid:
(a) Nitric acid as an acid:

Test Observation
(i) Add dilute nitric acid to Effervescence of a colourless gas
magnesium that burns with a pop sound.
(ii) Add dilute Nitric acid to A black solid turned into a pale
copper (II) oxide blue solutionand a brown gas is
given off.
(iii) Add dilute Nitric acid to Effervescence of a colourless gas
sodium carbonate that turns lime water milky
Question: (b) Nitric acid as an oxidizing agent:
1. (a) Describe the industrial preparation of nitric acid from
Test Observation
ammonia (diagram of the plant is not required) your description
(i) Additionn of dilute nitric It turns from pale green to pale
should include equations that occur.
acid to iron (II) sulphate yellow
(b) Explain what happens when concentrated nitric acid is
solution
added to copper.
(ii) Addition of concentrated Brown fumes and a colourless
(c) Describe one chemical test that can be used to confirm the
HNO3 to carbon gas that turns lime water milky.
presence of a nitrate. Conditions of the manufacture of nitric acid
include platinum catalyst. (iii) Addition of concentrated Brown fumes
HNO3 to sulphur
- Temperature between 800oC – 900oC. (iv) Addition of concentrated The reddish brown solid
HNO3 to copper dissolves with effervescence of
2. (a) Draw a labeled diagram of the apparatus that can be used to reddish brown fumes to give a
prepare ammonia in the laboratory. pale blue

The salts of nitric acid are called nitrates. Nitric acid is a strong
electrolyte and thus is fully ionized in water. It is a proton donor.
(c) Confirmatory test for nitrogen HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+ + NO3-(aq)

3. Nitric acid reacts with bases to form salts.
Test Observation
(i) Add freshly prepared Iron A brown ring forms between the CuO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
(II) sulphate solution to a two layers in the test tube. Observation:
sample solution containing a
nitrate. Conc. Sulphuric acid is Black solid dissolves to give a pale blue solution.
slowly run down to the side of
the test tube. 4. With carbonates:
Chemical properties of nitric acid Here the reaction produces carbondioxide
As an acid: Na2CO3(s) + 2HNO3 2NaNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Observation:
1. Nitric acid behaves as an acid when dilute and a strong oxidizing
agent when concentrated The white salt dissolves with effervescence of a colourless gas that
turns lime water milky to from a colourless solution.
As an acide:
CuCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
1. Dilute Nitric acid does not release hydrogen when reacted with Observation:
metals instead Nitrogen oxide or ammonia are formed. The
exception is magnesium which reacts with cold dilute nitric acid to The green solid dissolves with effervescence to give a pale blue
form magnesium nitrate and hydrogen. solution.
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Mg (NO3)2 + H2(g) Properties of Nitric acid as an oxidizing agent:

Observation:
(a) With Iron (II) sulphate solution
The solid dissolved with effervescence of a colourless gas that
burns with a pop sound. Nitric acid oxidizes the green solution of iron (II) sulphate to a
yellow solution of iron (III) sulphate
2. Nitric acid is a strong mineral acid. It contains only one atom of
hydrogen inneplaceable by metal. (It has a bacicity of 1) e.g. 6FeSO4(aq) + 3H2SO4(aq) + 2HNO3(aq) 3Fe2(SO4)3 + 4H2O(l)
NHO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + 2 NO(g)
Or
3Fe 2+(aq) + 4H+(aq) + NO3-(aq) 3Fe 3+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2H2S(g) + 2HNO3(aq) 2S(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2NO2(g)
NO(g) Observation:
Observation:
A yellow precipitate
The pale green solution turns pale yellow.
(e) Warm concentrated Nitric acid oxidises lead and zinc forming
(b) With Carbon Nitrogen dioxide gas
Addition of concentrated nitric acid to carbon produces brown Pb(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Ob(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
fumes of Nitrogen dioxide and carbon dioxide gas is also produced.
Observation;
C(s) + 4HNO3(l) CO2(g) + 4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Observation: The grey beads dissolved with effervescence of reddish brown
fumes to form a colourless solution
Brown fumes and the black solid dissolves to give a colourless
solution. (f) With copper metal
(c) With sulphur Concentrated Nitric acid oxidizes copper metal to copper (II) ions.
Concentrated Nitric acid oxidizes sulphur to sulphuric acid and it is Cu(s) + 4HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
itself reduced to Nitrogen dioxide gas. Observation:
S(s) + 6HNO3 H2SO4(aq) + 6NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) A reddish brown solid dissolved with effervescence of brown fumes
forming a pale blue solution.
Observation: PREPARATION OF SALTS:
The yellow solid dissolves with effervescence of reddish brown There are four methods of preparing salts i.e.
fumes to form a colourless solution.
1. Neutralisation
(d) With hydrogen sulphide 2. Direct replacement
3. Synthesis
When hydrogen sulphide is bubbled through a fairly concentrated 4. Precipitation (double decomposition)
solution of Nitric acid, a pale yellow precipitate of sulphur is
formed. Here the nitric acid oxidizes the hydrogen sulphide to 1. Precipitation
sulphur and it is itself reduced to nitrogen dioxide.
Example:
Preparation of sodium sulphate crystals. To sodium hydroxide
Preparation of lead iodide solution containing methyl orange indicator, dilute sulphuric acid is
added until end point. Charcoal is added top the resultant solution
Potassium iodide solution is added to lead nitrate solution. A which is then heated. Charcoal filtered off and then the resultant
yellow precipitate of lead iodide is formed. It is filtered, washed solution is evapourated to a small volume. On cooling, crystals
with a little water and dried on a filter paper. form out. They are filtered, washed with a little water and dried on
a filter paper.
2KI(aq) + Pb (NO3)2(aq) PbI2(g) + 2KNO3(aq)
2Na.OH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2+ 2+
I (aq)+ Pb (aq) PbI2(s) Test for Nitrates
2. Direct Replacement
Freshly prepared iron (II) sulphate solution is added to the sample
Example: solution (solution containing Nitrate ions). Concentrated sulphuric
acid is slowly run down the side of the test tube, brown ring forms
(i) Preparation of zinc sulphate between the two layers in the test tube.
Zinc metal is added to dilute sulphuric acid until in excess. The Uses of nitric acid:
excess metal is filtered off. The filtrate is evaporated to a small
volume. On cooling, the resultant solution, crystals form out of the 1. It is used in the making of fertilizers.
solution. They are filtered washed with a little water and dried on a 2. it is used in the making of explosives.
filter paper. 3. used in the manufacture of drugs.
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g) ACIDS AND BASES – 2

(ii) Preparation of copper (II) sulphate crystals from copper oxide.
Chemical properties of acids:
Copper oxide is added to dilute sulphuric acid until in excess. Filter
off the excess copper oxide. Evapourate the resultant solution to a 1. They react with alkalis and bases to form salts and water only
small volume. e.g.
On cooling, crystals form out. They are filtered , washed with a 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
little and dried or a filter paper Colourless colourless
CuO(s) + HSO4(aq) CuSO4 + H2O
CuO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O
3. Neutralisation
Observation:
Example:
A black solid dissolves to form a pale blue solution.
2. They react with metals to form hydrogen and salts only. Coloured cations:
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g) Cu2+(aq)

Zn(s) + HNO3(aq) Cu (NO3)2(aq) + H2(g) Cu2+(ag) + 2OH(aq) Cu (OH)2(s)
(grey beads) Pale blue ppt
Observation: Fe2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) Fe (OH)2(s)

Dirty green ppt
The solid dissolves with effervescence of a colourless gas that burns
with a pop sound. Fe3+(aq) + 3OH(aq) Fe (OH)3(s)
Rusty brown ppt
2. They react with carbonates to form salts, carbondioxide and
water only e.g. THE MOLE CONCEPT
ZnCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Relative Atomic Mass (R.A.M)

Observation:
The relative
The green solid that dissolves with effervescence of a colourless gas Atomic mass = The average mass of one atom of the element
that turns lime water milky to form a pale blue solution. Of an element ½ of the mass of one atom of carbon – 12
Isotope. 126 C  12.00
NOTE: Salts of group I, group II and group III elements (metals)
are white in colour and they dissolve in water to form colourless All atomic masses are measured by comparing the mass of the atom
solutions. with that of carbon – 12 atom.
Salts of copper (II) are blue except (CO 3 which is green in colour Relative atomic mass has no units since it is a ratio.
and dissolves water to form pale blue solutions.
Relative atomic mass is also known as atomic weight.
Iron (II) alts are green in colour and dissolve in water to form pale
green solutions. R.A.M. of elements are usually not whole numbers since they are
obtained by taking the average of the atomic masses of the isotopes
Iron (III) salts are brown in colour and dissolve in water to form of an element.
pale yellow solutions.
Examples:
FeCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Fe (NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2. Alkalis precipitate insoluble hydroxides of metals from solutions
of their salts.
1. The relative RAM of hydrogen is equal to 1.0080 or (b) Magnesium carbonate
approximately 1. This is written as H = 1 (c) Magnesium nitrate
2. The RAM of oxygen atom is equal to 13.9994 or approximately (d) Calcium sulphate
to 16. This is written as O = 16. (e) Sodium carbonate
(f) Copper (I) oxide
Relative molecular mass (R.M.M.) (g) Iron (III) sulphate
Relative formular mass (RFM) (h) Sodium hydroxide
(i) Lead (II) chloride
RMM = The average mass of one molecule of an element or (j) Zinc hydroxide
compound (k) Nitric acid
1 12 (l) Lead (II) oxide
of the mass of one atom of carbon – 12 isotope C
12
6
(m) Calcium hydrogen carbonate
(n) Sodium carbonate decahydrate
The R.M.M. is sometimes known as molecular weight. It has no (o) Phosporous pentoxide
units. (p) Iron (II) sulphate septahydrate
The R.M.M. is equal to the sum of the atomic masses. [Na =23, O =16, C =12, H =1, S = 32, Cl = 35.5, K =39, pb =207,
Mg =24, Zn =65, Ca =40, Fe =56,
Examples: P =31, Cu =64, N =14]
1. What are the R.M.M. of ; Assignment I

(a) Water
(b) Sulphuric acid Write brief notes about particles. Make sure that your notes
(c) Carbondioxide include the following;
(d) Calcium carbonate
(i) Brownian motion
[H = 1, O =16, S = 32, C = 12, Ca =40] (ii) Diffusion
Ref: Essentials science chemistry Pg. 10.
2. Calculate the RMM of copper (II) sulphate pentahydrate.
Brownian motion:
CuSO4. 5 H2O (Cu =64, S =32, o =16, H = 1]
All matter consists of particles sometimes these can be seen e.g.
Exercise: many solids exist as powder. The evidence that gases and liquids
exists as particles is not so obvious when smoke particles are
Work out the R.M.M. of the following compounds or molecules viewed under a microscope. They are seen moving in a random
zigzag manner. This movement is called Brownian motion. It
(a) Sulphur dioxoide
provides evidence that air contains invisible particles which collide The relative atomic mass or R.M.M. expressed in grams is
with the smoke particles causing them to move in a random way. sometimes called the molar mass (g)
Diffusion in liquids: Examples:
Diffusion is a process of approaching a dynamic equilibrium by a [H =1, N =14, O = 16]

motion of particles from the region of high concentrated to a region
of low concentration. If a drop of a liquid bromine or copper (II)
SO4 is placed in one corner, of water through and the water left to Symbol or Formular Mass
stand after sometime it is seen that all the water changes the colour. 1 mol of hydrogen atom H 1g
1 mol of hydrogen molecules H2 2g
Diffusion in Gases: 1 mol of water molecules H2O 18g
1 mole of nitrogen atoms N 14g
If cotton wool is soaked in concentrated hydrochloric acid and 1 mole of Nitrogen molecules N2 28g
ammonia solution respectively is inserted in opposite ends of 1 mole of ammonia molecules NH3 17g
combustion tube, dense white fumes of ammonia chloride are seen.
This is because ammonia diffuses faster than hydrochloric acid CONVERSION OF MOLES TO GRAMMS:
because its density is very low or light compared to hydrochloric
acid. NOTE: Working from first principles.
NB: The bigger the molecular mass of the gas, the higher the Example:
density hence the lower its rate of diffusion i.e. Light gases diffuse
faster than heavier gases. A dozen of books costs 6,000/=
MOLES (a) What is the cost of;
One mole of atoms has a mass equal to the relative atomic mass (i) 4 books
expressed in grams. (ii) 7 books
Molecules: (b) If a person had 9,000/= how many books would he buy.
One mole of molecules has a mass equal to the relative molecular NB: When working from first principles, the known term is put to
mass expressed in grams. the left hand side while the unknown is put to the right hand side.
Always identify the standard statement e.g. 12 books costs 6,000/=
The observation for the moles is Mol. in the example above.
Example:
One mole of any substance will always consist of the same number
1. What is the mass of; of particles. This number is known as the Avogadro constant.
(a) 3 moles of nitrogen atoms? The Avogadro constant is 6.02 x 1023

(b) 0.2 moles of water molecules? (602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000)
(c) 0.1 moles of sodium carbonate
One mole of atoms contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms
[Na =23, C =12, O =16, H = 1, N =14] One mole of molecules contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules
One mole of ions contains 6.02 x 1023 ions.
Conversion of grammes to Moles:
Examples:
Example:
(i) One mole of hydrogen atoms contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms. Since
1. How many moles at in; 1 mole of hydrogen atoms has a
mass of 1g, 1g of hydrogen atoms contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms.
(a) 15g of hydrogen atoms.
(b) 34g of ammonia (ii) One mole of H2O molecules contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules,
(c) 303g of potassium nitrate since one mole of H2O molecules has
a mass of 18g, 18g of H 2O molecules contain 6.02 x 1023
[H =1, O =16, N =14, K =39] molecules.
H/W
Exercise:
1. What is the mass of one mole of;
1. How many atoms are
(a) ammonium nitrate
(b) Sodium hydroxide (i) in 2 moles of oxygen
(ii) 0.5 moles of carbondioxide molecules.
2. (a) Calculate the mass of 0.2 moles of ethane, C2H4?
(b) 0.01 mole of sodium hydrogen carbonate 2. Calculate the number of atoms in
3. How many moles are there in; (a) 27g of aluminium chloride molecules
(b) 48g of magnesium
(a) 9.8g of sulphuric acid
(b) 0.4g of sodium hydroxide. 3. How many grammes of zinc contains;
AVOGADRO’S CONSTANT (a) 6 x 1023 atoms

(b) 6 x 1020 atoms
(b) Sulphuric acid H2SO4
4. How many moles of aluminium contains; (c) Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
(d) Etyhanoic acid, CH3 CA2 H
(a) 2 x 1023 atoms
(b) 6 x 10 20 atoms [aluminium =27, carbon = 12, O =16, Mg = 3. Calculate the percentage of each element and also the percentage
24, Zn = 65] of water in;
(a) Epsom salts, MgSo4. 7H2O

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION AND EMPIRICAL (b) Cobalt chloride – 6 – water, COCl2. 6H2O
FORMULA.
[Ca =40, C =12, O = 16, H =1, S =32, Mg =24, Cl =35.5, CO
1. The percentage of an element in a compound is calculated from =59]
the relative atomic mass of the elements and the relative molecular
mass of the compound. EMPIRICAL FORMULA
Percentage of = No. of atoms of elements x relative atomic mass The empirical formula of a compound shows the simplest ratio of
of elements x 100 the number of atoms in a compound.
An element Relative molecular mass of compounds
The ratio of the atoms is the same as the ratio of moles for each
element in a compound e.g.
2. In some calculations the percentage of water in a compounds is
required. Name Structural formular Molecula Empirica
r l
Percentage of water = No. of molecules x relative atomic mass of formular formular
water x 100 Ethane
Relative molecular mass of the compound
C2H6 CH3
Exercise:
1. Calculate the percentage of water of crystallization in copper

sulphate pentahydrate, CuSO4.5H2O? [Cu =64, S =32, O =16, H
=1]
2. Calculate the percentage of each element in the following

compounds;
Benzen
(a) calcium carbonateCaCO3
e
C6H6 CH A compound contains 52.2% carbon, 13% hydrogen and 34.4%
oxygen, what is the empirical formula of the compound [C =12, H
=1, O =16]
Empirical = C2H6O
2. A compound contain 40% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen the rest being

oxygen.
(a) Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.

(b) If the formula mass of the compound is 60. What is its
molecular formular. [C =12,
The table above shows the empirical formula and structural formula O=16, H =1]
of ethane and benzene.
Empirical formula = CH2O
Molecular formula:
The molecular formula is C2H4O2
This shows the number of atoms of each element in one molecule of 3. What is the formula of a compound which contains 12.7g of
the compound. copper, 6.4g of sulphur, 12.8g of oxygen and 18g of water of
crystallization. [Cu =64, S =32, H = 1, O = 16]
Structural formula:
CuSO4. H2O
The structural formula shows the arrangement of atoms in one
molecule of the compounds. Formula = CuSO4. 5H2O
To calculate the empirical formula of a compound, the mass or 4. On heating 12.5g of hydrated CuSO4, 8.0g of anhydrous CuSO4
percentage of each element in the compound is divided by its remains. Determine the formula of the hydrous salt. [Cu =64, S =
relative atomic mass. 32, O =16, H =1]
This gives the number of moles of each element. Formula = CuSO4. 5H2O
The empirical formular is the simplest ratio of these numbers of 5. When 3.22g of hydrated sodium sulphate, Na2SO4.nH2O was
moles. heated until there was no further change, 1.42g of the residue
remained.
Examples:
(a) Write an equation for the reaction. combustion in excess pure oxygen. Calculate the empirical formula
(b) Determine the value of n. of A
6. 1.2g of magnesium were burnt in air and produced 2.0g of

magnesium oxide. What is the empirical formula of magnesium 12. The combustion of hydrocarbon X gave 8.8g of carbondioxide
oxide. [Mg =24, O =16] and 4.5g water. If the molecular mass of x is 58.
Formula = MgO (a) Calculate the empirical formula of X

(b) What is the molecular formula of X. Write the name and
7. When hydrogen was passed over 0.65g of heated copper oxide. structural formula.
The resultant residue weighed 0.52g. Calculate the empirical
formula of copper oxide. [Cu =64, H =1, O = 16] CALCULATIONS BASED ONE QUATIONS.
Formula = CuO A chemical equation gives simplest ratios of moles of reactants and
products involved in the reaction. It is thus possible to calculate the
8. An oxide of P contains 50% of P. Its RMM is 64. What is the amount of reactants and products from chemical equations.
formula of the oxide. [P = 32, O =16]
Examples:
Molecular formular is PO2
1. How much sulphur is required to convert 5.6g of iron fillings to
9. When excess carbon monoxide was passed over 4.0g of a heated iron (II) sulphite and how much iron sulphide is produced? [Fe
oxide of iron, Y, 2.8g of iron was formed; =56, S=32]
(a) Determine the molecular formula of y. [O =16, Fe =56, Y = 8.8g of FeS

=160]
(b) Write equation for the reaction between Y and 2. What mass of copper (II) oxide can be obtained from 32g of
carbonmonoxide. copper [Cu =64, O =16]
10. 3.10g of oxygen compound containing carbon, hydrogen and Mass = 40g
oxygen produced 4.4g of carbondioxide and 2.7g of water on
complete combustion. Calculate the empirical formula. 3. Calculate the mass of calcium oxide produced when 10g of
calcium carbonate are decomposed by heat. [Calcium = 40, O -16,
Empirical formula = CH3O C =12]
11. 1.5g of a compound containing carbon, hydrogen and Nitrogen 5.6g of CaO
gave 2.2grams of carbondioxide 1.8g of H 2O and complete

4. Find the mass of copper formed by passing excess hydrogen gas carbon electrons leaving one mobile and it is this mobile
over 20g of CuO. What mass of hydrogen is used up in the electron. That conducts electricity.
reaction. [Cu =64, O =16, H =1]
(ii) Diamond is used as a cutting tool whereas graphite is
Mass = 0.5g of H2 used in pencils.
Diamond is hard and brittle while graphite is soft and
5. 2.1g of NaHCO3 was heated to constant mass, calculate the mass sticky or opaque.
of the residue left. [Na =23, C = 12, H =1]
(b) Concentrated sulphuric acid reacts with graphite according
Mass = 1.325g of Na2CO3 to the following equation.
Exercise:
C(s) + 2H2SO4(l) CO2(g) + 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
1. Lead (II) nitrate solution was added to an aqueous solution of Calculate the mass of carbon that can react completely with
sodium iodide. a solution containing 19.6g of
sulphuric acid.
= 1.2g of Carbon.
A yellow precipitate
3. Calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid according to the
(ii) Write an equation for the reaction that took place. following equation:
Pb2+(g) + 2 I  ( aq ) PbI2(s) CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

The mass in grammes of carbondioxide formed when 20g of
calcium carbonate is completely reacted with hydrochloric acid is
(b) When Lead II nitrate is heated strongly, it decomposes
[Ca =40, C =12, O =16]
according to the following equation.
= 8.8g of CO2 (D)
2Pb (NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
If 3.31g of lead (II) nitrate was heated strongly, calculate the total
4. Lead (II) nitrate reacts with potassium iodine according to the
volume of the gaseous products at room temperature.
following equation.
= 1.328g of NO2 + O2
Pb (NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
The mass of lead (II) iodide formed when 33.2g of potassium
2. (a) Give a reason why;
iodide is heated inexcess lead (II) nitrate is [K =39, I = 127, Pb
=207]
(i) Graphite conducts electric current whereas diamond
doesn’t. Graphite is bounded to three
= 46.1g of PbI (B)
5. Copper reacts with oxygen according to the equation below: = 64%
heat
2Cu(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s) 3. 25cm3 of a solution containing 5.3g per litre of a metal carbonate
Calculate the mass of copper (II) oxide formed when 0.64g of of formular M2 CO3, neutralized 25cm3 of 0.1M hydrochloric acid
copper powder is completely reacted with oxygen [Cu =64, O =16] solution. Calculate;
= 0.8g (D) (i) molarity of the carbonate solution.
PERCENTAGE PURITY = 0.05 moles
3.2G of impure sodium carbonate was dissolved in water to make (ii) molecular mass of the metal carbonate
500cm3 of solution. 25cm3 of the solution require exactly 24cm 3 of
0.1M hydrochloric acid for complete reaction. Calculate; molecular mass = 106
(i) molarity of sodium carbonate solution. (iii) Relative atomic mass of the metal “M” in the metal
carbonate
= 4.0 x 10-3 moles
M = 23
Reaction ration = 1:2
Exercise:
Basicity is 2.
A compound A consists 52.2% carbon, 13.0% hydrogen and 34.8%
(ii) the percentage purity of the original sample of sodium oxygen.
carbonate.
(a) Calculate the empirical formula of A
Purity = 79.5%
Formula = C2H6O
2. 25cm3 of impure sodium hydroxide solution containing 5.0g of
impure sodium hydroxide a litre completely reacted with 20cm3 of (b) if the formula mass of the compound is 46. What is the
0.1M hydrochloric acid. Calculate; molecular formula?
(i) molarity of sodium hydroxide solution Formula = C2H6O
= 0.08M 2. In order to determine the formula of a copper oxide, dry

hydrogen gas was passed over the heated oxide.
(ii) % purity of sodium hydroxide.
(a) State the precautions you would take in carrying out the
experiment, mentioning why those (c) Calculate;
precautions are necessary? (i) mass of sodium carbonate in impure solid
(ii) the percentage of sodium carbonate in solid.
- Hydrogen must be dry
- Water must be condensed Super heated water at a temperature of 170 oC and pressure of 10
- Copper oxide must be heated atmospheres is than forced through out 15cm diameter pipe to the
sulphur deposits.
(b) 0.429g of the oxide were reduced to 0.381g of copper.
Determine the formula of the oxide. The sulphur is melted by the steam.
[Cu =63.5, O =16] - Then hot compressed air at a pressure of 15 atmospheres is forced
down through the inner pipe, this forces the molten sulphur up the
Formula = Cu2O middle pipe, it is cooled and then stored.
(c) Using your answer in (b) write the equation for the reaction Allotropes:
between the oxide and hydrogen.
Sulphur like carbon is allotropic that is, it exists in more than one
3. Calculate the volume of carbondioxide that would be obtained at physical form without change of state. The allotropes of sulphur
s.t.p by dissolving 15g of calcium carbonate in hydrochloric. What ate;
mass of pure hydrochloric acid would react with the carbonate?
(a) Rhombic sulphur:
3
= 3.36dm of CO2
Rhombic sulphur is of a ledral in structure and melts at 114 oC when
4. 15.0g of impure sodium carbonate was dissolved in water to Rhombic sulphur is heated slowly, it is converted to monoclinic
make 250cm3 of solution 25.0cm3 of this solution required 24.0cm3 sulphur at 96oC.
of 1M hydrochloric acid for complete neutralization.
This is the transition temperature for Rhombic sulphur to
(a) Write the equation monoclinic sulphur.
Na2 CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) 96oC

(b) Determine the number of moles of; Rhombic sulphur monoclinic sulphur
(i) hydrochloric acid in 24.0cm3 Stable below 96oC stable above 96oC
(ii) Sodium carbonate in 25.0cm3
Rhombic Monoclinic
= 0.024moles
flow. On further heating, near its boiling point, the liquid becomes
mobile again and almost black in colour. Finally, at 444oC, it boils
off to give a brown vapour of sulphur.
(b) Monoclinic sulphur

Chemical properties of sulphur
This has a needle like or pencil like shape. It is stable above
temperature of 96oC. 1. Sulphur burns with a blue flame in air producing a chocking
poisonous fumes of sulphurdioxide.
Effects of heat on sulphur S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)

2. Sulphur combines directly with many metals to form sulphides.
When powdered sulphur is heated in a test tube, it melts to form a When a mixture of iron fillings and sulphur is heated, a red flow
mobile coloured liquid which flows easily. With further heating, spreads through the mixture because the reaction is exothermic (it
the liquid becomes viscous and reddish brown and does not easily

gives out heat). The black solid produced by this reaction is Iron 2. Sulphur is used to harden rubber in vulcanization process. [Qn.
(II) sulphide. Describe the vulcanization process.]
3. Sulphur is also used as a fungicide.
Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s) 4. sulphur is used in the manufacture of explosives.
Observation: 5. It is used in the manufacture of drugs.
The mixture glows red forming a black solid. SULPHURDIOXIDE
3. With hydrogen Sulphurdioxide can be prepared in three ways;
When hydrogen is bubbled through molten sulphur, hydrogen 1. By burning sulphur in oxygen
sulphide gas is obtained.
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
H2(g) + S(s) H2S(g) Observation:
4. Reaction with acids
The solid burns with a blue flame forming a colourless gas with a
(a) Hot conc. Sulphuric acid oxidizes sulphur to sulphurdioxide. chocking smell.
S(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) 3SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) 2. By action of hot concentrated sulphuric acid on copper.
Observation:
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(l) CuSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
The solid dissolved with effervescence of a colourless gas which Observation:
has a chocking smell.
The solid dissolves with effervescence of a colourless gas with a
(b) Conc. Nitric acid also oxidizes sulphur to sulphuric acid. pungent smell forming a pale blue solution.
S(s) + 6HNO3(aq) H2SO4(aq) + 6NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) 3. The most convenient method is as follows.
Observation:
Dilute hydrochloric acid is added to sodium sulphite.
The solid dissolves with effervescence of brown fumes.
Sulphur dioxide is given off. It is passed through concentrated
sulphuric acid which dries it and it is then collected by down ward
Uses of sulphur: delivery.
1. Sulphur is used in the manufacture of sulphiric acid in contact 2HCl(aq) + Na2SO3(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
process.


mnO

 Mn 2  ( aq ) 
Reduced oxidising agent 
4 ( aq )

 Purple 
Reducing oxidised agent (SO2 SO4)
Potassium permanganate is oxidising agent. Sulphurdioxide is a

reducing agent.
(b) Bubbling sulphurdioxide through acidified potassium

dichromate solution.
Observation:
The orange solution turns green.
Oxidising agent ( Cr2O2-7(aq) Cr3+(aq))

Orange green
Reducing agent (SO2 SO2-4(aq))

Physical properties Oxidised
- A colourless gas with an irritating chocking smell. Explanation:
- It is denser than air.
- It’s very soluble in water forming an acidic solution. The dichromate oxidizes sulphurdioxide and also sulphurdioxide
reduces the dichromate.
Test for SO2
Chemical properties of SO2
The presence of sulphurdioxide is confirmed by;
1. The bleaching action of sulphurdioxide.
(a) Bubbling sulphurdioxide through acidified potassium
permanganate solution. When moist blue or red flowers or litmus paper are added to a jar
full of sulphurdioxide, the blue or red colour of the flowers or
Observation: litmus paper, turn colourless (they are bleached).
The purple solution turns colourless.
Explanation:
The bleaching actionis due to sulphurous acid due to the reaction
between water present on the flowers and sulphur dioxide. (i) Cl2(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
Observation: The green solution turns colourless
H2O(l) + SO2(g) H2SO3(aq)
(ii) Br2(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) + 2HBr(aq)
The sulphurous acid formed then removes oxygen from the dye
forming sulphuric acid and it is hence bleached. Observation: the brown solution turns colourless
H2SO3(aq) + (O + dye) H2SO4(aq) + dye. (iii) I2(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) + 2HI(aq)
Coloured colourless
Observation: The dark brown solution turns colourless.
2. Reaction of sulphurdioxide as a reducing agent. (c) With concentrated Nitric acid
The following reactions show that sulphurdioxide is a reducing When sulphurdioxide is bubbled through concentrated Nitric acid
agent. In all the reducing reactions in aqueous form, the the observation is;
sulphurdioxide donates electrons to the other substance and forms
sulphate ions. i.e. Observation:
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
2HNO3(aq) + SO2(g) H2SO4(aq) + 2NO2(g)
(a) With Iron (III) sulphate solution Observation:
When sulphur dioxide is bubbled through iron (III) sulphate Brown fumes of Nitrogen dioxide
solution the observation is;
3. Reaction of sulphurdioxide as an oxidizing agent.
Observation:
(a) Reaction with Magnesium
The brown/yellow solution turns green.
When a burning piece of magnesium ribbon is placed or plunged in
Explanation: a gas jar of sulphurdioxide.
Sulphurdioxide reduces iron (III) ions to Iron (II) ions Observation:
SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + Fe2(SO4)3(aq) 2FeSO4(aq) + 2H2SO4(aq) SO2(g) + 2Mg(s) 2MgO(s) + S(s)

yellow green Observation:
(b) Sulphurdioxide reduces solutions of chlorine, Iodine, bromine White and yellow specks. Magnesium continues burning forming
forming sulphuric acid and corresponding halogen acid. white and yellow specks.
Explanation: 5. Sulphurdioxide reacts violently with oxygen in presence of
vanadium (V) oxide or hot platinised asbestos forming sulphur
The burning magnesium decomposes sulphurdioxide into sulphur trioxide.
(the yellow solid) and oxygen and conditues to burn in the oxygen
giving the white solid of magnesium oxide. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
Sulphur (VI) oxide/sulphurtrioxide
2Mg(s) + SO2(g) 2MgO(s) + S(s)
(b) With hydrogen sulphide Sulphur (VI) oxide reacts violently with water. The reaction is very
exothermic. Because of this, sulphur (VI) oxide is stored in an air
Sulphurdioxide oxidizes hydrogen and sulphide to form yellow tight container.
sulphur
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(l)
2H2S(g) + SO2(g) 3S(s) + 2H2O(l)
Observation:
A yellow solid
Droplets of a colourless liquid.
(c) With sodium hydroxide solution
Sulphurdioxide reacts with sodium hydroxide solution to form

sodium sulphite.
2NaOH(aq) + SO2(g) Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)
When excess gas is bubbled into the alkaline the sulphite is
converted to a hydrogen sulphite.
Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g) 2NaHSO3(aq)

Sodium hydrogen sulphite
Uses of sulphurdioxide
4. Sulphurdioxide gives a white precipitate when it reacts with
Barium chloride solution 1. uses of a bleaching agent in paper making.
2. used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid.
2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) 2H2SO4(aq) 3. used as a food preservative.
SO2-4(aq) + Ba2+(aq) BaSO4(s) 4. used as a cooling agent in refrigerators.
Observation: A white precipitate
5. used to sterilize wine making apparatus.
(b) SULPHURIC ACID
Sulphuric acid has the formula of H 2SO4 concentrated sulphuric

acid is a covalent compound. Its an acid from sulphur trioxide thus
sulphur trioxide is an acid anhydride of sulphuric acid.
An acid an hydride is an oxide which dissolves in water to form an

acidic solution.
Manufacture of sulphuric acid by contact process. Sulphuric acid is

prepared on an industrial scale by contact process.
1. Step I:
Sulphur is burnt in air to form sulphurdioxide.

A. Combustion chamber
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(aq) B. Drying chamber
2. The sulphur dioxide is mixed with excess air. The mixture is C. Catalytic chamber
dried and passed over vanadium (V) oxide catalyst at 450 oC and 1 D. Absorption chamber
atmosphere pressure. Sulphur trioxide is formed. E. Dilution chamber
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(aq) (i) Vanadium (V) oxide is preferred to platinum as catalyst
3. The sulphurdioxide formed is absorbed into concentrated in the contact process because it is cheaper and not
sulphuric acid forming oleum. easily poisoned by impurities.
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l) (ii) Sulphur trioxide is not dissolved in water but
oleum concentrated sulphuric acid because the reaction is
violent with the water resulting into sulphur acid sprays.
4. The oleum is diluted with water to give sulphuric acid.
Physical properties of sulphuric acid:
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(l)
The acid formed is 98% concentrated. These stages are showed in a (i) Concentrated sulphuric acid is a corrosive colourless
flow diagram oily liquid.

(ii) Concentrated sulphuric acid gets hot when diluted with
water. thus, dilution must be carried out carefully by Observation:
adding the acid to water so that the heat is more easily
absorbed. The green solid dissolves with efferverscence of a colourless to give
a pale blue solution.
(iii) The concentrated sulphuric acid is hygroscopic. It
gradually absorbs water from the atmosphere. ZnCO3, MgCO3
ZnCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Chemical properties of Sulphuric acid: white colourless
These are in 3 categories i.e. Observation:
1. Acidic properties. The white solid dissolves with efferscence of a colourless gas to
2. As an oxidising agent give a colourless solution.
3. As a dehydrative agent
Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with reactive metals giving hydrogen
 As an acid: and a salt only e.g.
Dilute sulphuric acid like all mineral acids reacts with metals, metal Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
oxides, carbonates and alkali. Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Observation:
 With alkalis and bases: The solid dissolves with efferverscence of a colourless gas that
burns with a pop sound forming a colourless solution.
Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with alkalis to form a salt and water As an oxidizing agent:
only e.g. In this case the acid must be hot and concentrated (sulphuric acid)
(a) Reaction with copper:
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) NaSO4(aq) + H2O(l) Hot concentrated sulphuric acid oxidizes copper to copper (II)
It reacts with bases to form salts and water only sulphate and is itself reduced to sulphurdioxide.
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) Observation:
Observation:
The brown solid dissolves with efferverscence of a colourless gas
The black solid dissolves to give a pale solution. that tunrs acidified potassium dichromate from orange to green
It reacts with carbonates to give carbondioxide, a salt and water e.g. forming a pale blue solution.
copper carbonate.
CuCo3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) (b) With carbon:
green Pale blue
Hot concentrated sulphuric acid oxidizes carbon to carbondioxide
and is itself reduced to sulphurdioxide. When conc. Sulphuric acid is added to blue copper (II) sulphate
crystals, the copper (II) sulphate crystals gradually becomes white
C(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) 2SO2(g) + CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) as the water of crystallisationis removed.
Observation:
CuSO4.5H2O(s) CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)
The black solid dissolves with efferverscence of a colourless gas. Blue crystals white crystals
(c) With sulphur: Observation:
Hot concentrated sulphuric acid oxidizes sulphur to sulphurdioxide. The blue crystals turn white.
S(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) 3SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Observation:
(b) With Sugar (Glucose or sucrose):
The yellow solid dissolves with efferverscence of a colourless gas
that turns acidified potassium dichromate from organge to gree. When conc. Sulphuric acid is added to crystals of sugar, the mixture
becomes hot and black due to formation of sugar charcoal.
(d) With hydrogen sulphide:
C12H22O11(s) 12C(s) + 11H2O(l)
When hydrogen sulphide gas is bubbled through hot concentrated Observation:
sulphuric acid, the gas is oxidized to sulphur and sulphuric acid is
itself reduced to sulphurdioxide gas. The mixture becomes hot with steam being given off and a black
spongy swelling which fills the beaker.
H2S(g) + H2SO4(aq) S(s) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Observation: (c) With ethanedioc acid (oxalic acid):
A white precipitate Conc. Sulphuric acid removes water from oxalic acid forming
carbonmonoxide and carbondioxide.
3. As a dehydrating agent:
HOOCCOOH
In this case, the sulphuric acid must be cold and concentrated.
Concentrated sulphuric readily removes water from other COOH
substances i.e. it is hygroscopic (absorbs water vapour from the CO2(g) + CO(g) + H2O(l)
atmosphere) COOH(aq)
Observation:
(a) With copper (II) sulphate crystals:
Effervescence of a colourless gas. 1. Used in the manufacture of fertilizers e.g. ammonium sulphate.
2. It is used in the manufacture of detergents.
(d) With methanoic acid 3. used in the manufacture of paints and chemicals.
4. used in the manufacture of drugs.
HCOOH(aq) CO(g) + H2O(l) 5. used in the manufacture in car batteries.
6. used in the manufacture in petrol refining.
Observation: 7. used in cleaning of metals.
Effervescence of a colourless gas. Test for sulphates:
(e) With ethanol Reagents:
When conc. Sulphuric acid is heated with ethanol, to a temperature To the suspected solution, dilute nitric acid followed by barium
of between 170oC – 180oC, ethanol is dehydrated to form ethane gas. nitrate solution are added.
CH3CH2OH(aq) H2O(l) + CH2 = CH2(g) Observation:

Observation:
A white precipitate.
Effervescence of a colourless gas that turns acidified potassium
permanganate solution from purple to colourless. Na2SO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) NaNO3(aq) + BaSO4(s)
2- 2+
SO4 (aq) + Ba (aq) BaSO4(s)
Effect of heat on sulphates.
(f) With Iron (II) sulphate solution:
(a) CuSO4. 5H2O(s) CuO(s) + SO3(g) + 5H2O(l)
Hot conc. Sulphuric acid oxidizes iron (II) sulphate solution to iron CuSO4. 5H2O(s) CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)
(III) sulphate solution. CuSO4(s) CuO(s) + SO3(g)
Observation:
2FeSO4(aq) + 2H2SO4(aq) Fe2(SO4)3(aq) + 2H2O(l) + SO2(g)
Pale green yellow Blue solid turns black ad white fumes and droplets of a colourless
liquid.
Observation:
(b) Iron (II) sulphate:
The pale green solution turns yellow with efferverscence of a
colourless gas. FeSO4. 7H2O(s) FeSO4(s) + 7H2O(l)
2FeSO4 Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g) + SO2(g)
Uses of Sulphuric acid: Observation:

The green solid turns brown, white fumes and droplets of a The paper turns black.
colourless liquid. Chemical properties:
(c) Hydrogen Sulphide 1. With Oxygen:
Hydrogen sulphide is a poisonous gas with a smell of a rotten egg. (a) In sufficient supply of oxygen, hydrogen and sulphide burns
with a blue flame to produce sulphur dioxide gas.
2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Dilute hydroxhloric acid is added to iron (II) sulphide. (b) In a limited supply of oxygen, it burns to form yellow deposits
Hydrogen sulphide gas is evolved, it is passed through water of sulphur.
which absorbs hydrochloric acid fumes. It is than passed 2H2S(g) + O2(g) 2S(s) + 2H2O(l)
through anhydrous calcium chloride which dries the gas and 2. Reaction in which hydrogen sulphide acts as a reducing
the gas is then collected by downward delivery. agent.
Hydrogen sulphide is a very strong reducing agent in all its

reactions, a white precipitate of sulphur is formed.
(a) With conc. Nitric acid
H2S(g) + 2HNO3(aq) S(s) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Observation:
- Brown fumes
- A white precipitate
(b) With conc. Sulphuric acid
FeS(s) + 2HCl(aq) FeCl2(aq) + H2S(g) H2S(g) + H2SO4(aq) S(s) + 2H2O(l) + SO2(g)

Test for hydrogen sulphide Observation:
Reagent A white precipitate
Moist lead (II) ethanoate paper (c) With acidified potassium permanganate solution
Observation: Observation:

- The purple solution turns colourless When hydrogen sulphide is bubbled through a boiling of copper (II)
- A white precipitate sulphates.
Explanation: Observation:
Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces the permanganate ions (purple) to A black precipitate.
managanese (II) ions (colourless) and hydrogen sulphide gas is
oxidized to sulphur. ( a white precipitate) CuSO4(aq) + H2S(g) CuS(s) + H2SO4(aq)
black ppt
(g) lead (II) nitrate solution
(d) With acidified potassium dichromate solution.
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2S(g) PbS(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
Observation: black ppt
The orange solution turns green with yellow deposits. Observation:
Explanation: A black ppt
Hydrogen sulphide gas reduces the dichromate ions (orange) to Explanation:

chromium (III) ions. (green) and the hydrogen sulphide is oxidized
to sulphur (yellow deposits) The black ppt is due to formation of lead (II) sulphide.
(e) With iron (III) chloride solution

(h) With hydrogen peroxide
H2S(g) + 2FeCl3(aq) 2FeCl2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) + S(s)
Observation: H2O2(aq) + H2S(g) S(s) + 2 H2O(l)
Observation:
The brown solution turns green with yellow deposits.
A yellow /white ppt
Explanation:
Explanation:
Hydrogen sulphide reduces iron (III) ions to iron (II) ions and the
hydrogen sulphide gas is oxidized to sulphur (yellow deposits) Hydrogen sulphide reduces hydrogen peroxide to water and it is
oxidized by hydrogen peroxide to
(f) With copper (II) sulphate solution water and it is oxidized by hydrogen peroxide to sulphur. (yellow
ppt).

CHLORINE AND ITS COMPOUND
Chlorine is one of the halogen elements. It is in period three and

group VII of the periodic table of elements. It has the electronic
structure shown below.
Occurance:
Concentrated hydrochloric acid is added to potassium permanganate
Chlorine does not occur naturally as a free element. It occurs in a flask.
abundantly as chloride ions in sea, salt, lakes and in under ground Chlorine gas is given off and it is then passed through water which
salt deposits. removes/absorbs hydrogen chloride gas and then through
concentrated sulphuric acid which dries the gas.
Lab preparation of chlorine
The gas is then collected by down ward delivery.
Equation:

2 KMn O4(s) + 16HCl(aq) 2 KCl(aq) + 2 MnCl2(aq) + 5 Cl2(aq) + 8
H2O(l) 2 Na/Hg(l) + 2H2O(l) 2 NaOH(aq) + 2Hg(l) + H2(g)
At the anode:
Note: Chlorine can also be prepared using manganese (IV)
oxide and concentrated hydrochloric acid. Here heating must The chloride ions from the brine are discharged as chlorine gas
be done. which is led away.
MnO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) MnCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) + 2 H2O(l)
Test for chlorine: 2Cl  ( aq )  2e  Cl 2 ( g )
Reagent: Moist blue litmus paper
Observation: The litmus paper is turned red and then bleached.
MANUFACTURE OF CHLORINE:
Chlorine is obtained from sodium chloride solution (brine) by

electrolysis using graphite anodes and flowing mercury cathode.
In the electrolysis both chlorine and sodium hydroxide are formed.

Since these two substances react with each other it is necessary to
Physical properties of chlorine:
keep the two products separate from each other. In the mercury
cathode cell (diagram below), a set of graphite rods dipping into the
1. Chlorine is a colourless gas with a pungent chocking smell
brine serves as the anode. The base of the tank is filled with
2. It’s denser than air.
mercury which serves as the cathode.
3. it is fairly soluble in water.
The mercury is made to generate slowly through the electrolytic
Chemical properties of chlorine:
cell.
1. Reaction of chlorine with water.
At the cathode:
- It is an acidic gas which turns moist blue litmus paper red
Sodium is discharged preferentially to hydrogen and dissolves in
and then bleaches it.
the mercury to form a sodium amalgam (Na/Hg). Sodium amalgam
- When dissolved in water, it reacts with it forming
is passed through a trough below the cell which contains water.
hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous acid.
Here it reacts to form a solution of sodium hydroxide and hydrogen
is liberated. The mercury is regenerated and is used again
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)
The bleaching action of chlorine is due to the chlorous ions.
HOCl(aq) + Dye HCl(aq) + (Dye + 0)

coloured colourless
Note: When chlorine water is exposed to sunlight, oxygen is

evolved as shown below.
sunlight
2 HOCl(aq) 2HCl(aq) + O2(g)
Note: The equation below can be written when chlorine reacts with
water.
H2O(l) + Cl2(g) HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)

Chloric (I) acid
2. Reaction with metals;
(i) Sodium and magnesium burn in chlorine forming white

clouds or fumes which settle to white solids.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

Mg(s) + Cl2(g) MgCl2(s)
(ii) With Iron:
When dry chlorine is passed over heated Iron wool, a red

glow spreads through the wool resulting into formation of a brown
vapour and then a black solid of Iron (III) chloride.
2 Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)

N.B.: This is done in fume cupboard
Note:

Sodium chloride can be prepared in a similar way. Chlorine reacts with hot concentrated sodium hydroxide forming
sodium chloride and sodium chlorate (V).
Iron (II) chloride a white solid is made in the same way using dry
hydrogen chloride gas instead of chlorine. 6NaOH(aq) + 3Cl2(g) 5 NaCl (aq) + NaClO3(aq) +
3H2O(l)
Fe(s) + 2HCl(g) FeCl2(s) + H2(g) Sodoium
3. Reaction with non metals; chlorate (V)
5. Reaction with Iron (II) solution;
(i) Hydrogen burns in chlorine with a white flame forming
white fumes. Chlorine oxidizes green Iron (II) chloride solution to yellow Iron
(III) chloride solution.
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)
(white fumes) Cl2(g) + 2FeCl2(g) 2FeCl3(aq)
Observation: The green solution turns yellow.
(ii) White phosphorous combines with chlorine forming white
fumes. 6. Reaction hydrocarbons;
P4(s) + 6 Cl2(g) 4PCl3(l) in limited chlorine. Burning hydro carbons continue to burn in chlorine forming
PCl3(l) + Cl2(g) PCl5(s) carbon and hydrogen chloride e.g. turpentine C10H16 burns in
(iii) With sulphur; chlorine with red flame forming clouds of soot.
Chlorine reacts with sulphur giving a red liquid, disulphur C10H16(l) + 8Cl2(g) 10C(s) + 16HCl(g)
dichloride. 7. Reaction with Bromides and Iodides
2 S(s) + Cl2(g) S2Cl2(l) Note:

4. Reaction with alkalis;
The order of reactivity of halogens is as follows;
Chlorine reacts with alkalis forming a chloride, a chlorate and
water. F - 2:7 - most reactive for metals
Cl - 2:8:7 Li - 2:1 - Least
(i) Chlorine reacts with cold dilute sodium hydroxide forming reactive
sodium chloride and sodium chlorate (I). Br - 2:8:8:7 Na - 2:8:1
I - 2:8:8:8:7 - least reactive K - 2:8:8:1 -
2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) NaCl(aq) + NaClO(aq) + H2O(l) most reactive
Sodium chlorate
(I) (i) When chlorine is bubbled into sodium Bromide solution, the
solution turns from colourless to orange.
NaBr(aq) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq) Conc. Sulphuric acid is added to sodium chloride, hydrogen
(Orange) chloride gas is evolved and is passed through concentrated
sulphuric acid which dries the gas and it is then collected by
Observation; the solution turns from colourless to orange downward delivery.
Explanation: Chlorine displaces bromide from sodium bromide a NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)
colourless solution forming bromide (Orange precipitate)
(ii) With potassium iodide solution;
When chlorine is bubbled through potassium iodide solution,

the solution turns from colourless to brown.
KI(aq) + Cl2(aq) 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)

Colourless brown
Observation: The solution turns from colourless to brown.
Explanation: Chlorine displaces iodine from its solution (salts)

became it is below it in group (VII) of the periodic table.
Tests for hydrogen chlorine gas:
- Hydrogen chlorine is an acidic gas.

Uses of chlorine gas
Reagent: Moist blue litmus paper.
1. Used in the manufacture of plastics
2. Used in the treatment of water. Observation: The blue litmus paper turns red.
3. making of insecticides e.g. DDT
4. used in the bleaching of textiles and paper. Reagent: silver nitrate solution
5. used in the making of hydrochloric acid
6. used in the manufacture of antiseptics. Observation: A white precipitate.
HYDROGEN CHLORIDE Ag NO3(aq) + HCl(g) AgCl(s) + HNO3(aq)

+
Ionic equation: Ag (aq) + HCl(g) Agcl(s) + H+(aq)
Lab. Preparation:
- Hydrogen chloride gas forms dense white fumes with ammonia
gas.
Reagent: ammonia gas

Observation: Dense white fumes.
NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s)
Physical properties of hydrogen chloride:
1. It is a colourless gas with a pungent shell

2. It is denser than air
3. It is very soluble in water – it is 2nd to ammonia.
Description:
The apparatus is assembled as below (To show that HCl(g) is very

soluble in H2O).
- A thick walled round bottomed flask is filled with hydrogen

chloride gas and inverted over water.
- Clip D is opened for a short time so as to allow some little
water in the flask which absorbs hydrogen chloride gas.
- Clip C is then opened and water rises up the tube by
capillarity and comes out inform of a jet called a fountain.
Chemical properties of hydrogen chloride gas.
1. It forms dense white fumes with ammonia.
HCl(g) + NH3(g) NH4Cl(s)

2. It forms a white precipitate with silver nitrate solution.
AgNO3(aq) + HCl(g) AgCl(s) + HNO3(aq)

The precipitate dissolves in ammonia solution forming a colourless
solution.
AgCl(s) + 2NH3(aq) [Ag (NH3)2]+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

3. Dry hydrogen chloride gas reacts with heated iron to form a
white solid of Iron (II) chloride and hydrogen gas.
Fe(s) + 2HCl(g) FeCl2(s) + H2(g)
HYDROCHLORIC ACID
Hydrogen chloride dissolves in water to form an aqueous solution

called hydrochloric acid. This is done by using the set-up shown
below;
Chemical properties of HCl(aq)

1. Reaction with reactive metals.
Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with metals producing hydrogen and

a salt only.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Observation: The blue-grey metal dissolves forming a colourless
solution and effervense of a colourless gas.
2. Alkalis react with hydrochloric acid producing a salt and water

only e.g.
KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) KCl(aq) + H2O(l)

3. Bases also react with hydrochloric acid to form a salt and water
only. Pb(NO3)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
Ionic equation:
CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq) CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Observation: The black solid dissolves forming pale blue
solution. AgNO3(aq) + HCl(aq) AgCl(s) + HNO3(aq)
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)
Cu(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) CuCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
Observation: Pale blue precipitate dissolves to form a pale blue
solution. Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) PbCl2(s)
4. Carbonates react with hydrochloric acid forming a salt, In both reactions

carbondioxide and water.
A white precipitate is formed.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
White solid colourless solution Uses of Hydrochloric acid:
CuCO3(s) + HCl(aq) CuCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(g) 1. Used to clean metal surfaces, prior to electroplating.
Green solid Pale blue solution 2. used in making drugs, dyes, photographic films and plastics.
FeCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) FeCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Green solid green solution Qn 2009 UNEB
Note: Hydrogen carbonates react with hydrochloric acid to give a 11. (a) Hydrogen chloride can be prepared from sodium chloride
salt, carbondioxide and water. e.g. according to the following ionic equation.
NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) Cl-(s) + H+(aq) HCl(g)

Calculate the mass of sodium chloride that would be required to
5. Lead and silver salts solutions react with hydrochloric acid produce 3.60dm3 of hydrogen chloride measured at room
producing salts of the chloride i.e. lead chloride and silver chloride. temperature.
AgNO3(s) + HCl(aq) AgCl(s) + HNO3(aq) (H =1, Na =23, Cl = 35.5, 1 mole of a gas of room temperature
Ionic equation: occupies 24.0dm3). (2½mrks)
Ag+(s) + Cl-(aq) AgCI(S)

Observation:
(b) State what would be observed and write an equation for
the reaction that would take place.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
(i) An aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride is
added to a solution containing lead (II) ions. Organic chemistry is the study of compounds which contain carbon.
(2mrks) Most of these compounds also contain hydrogen and oxygen.
(ii) Excess dry hydrogen chloride is passed over Hydro Carbons:

strongly heated iron wire (2½mrks)
Alkanes - CnH2n + 2
(c) Briefly explain the following observations and in each Alkenes - Cn H2n
case, illustrate your answer with equation(s) Alkynes - CnH2n – 2
Alcohol - CnH2n + 1 OH
(i) Anhydrous Iron (II) chloride cannot be prepared
by direct synthesis using chlorine and iron.
(2½mrks) ALKANES:
(ii) An aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride gives These hydro carbons with a general formulae CnH2n + 2
a white precipitate with silver nitrate solution Nomenclature (Naming)
whereas a solution of hydrogen chloride in tetra
chloromethane shows no observable change n Formula Name
when treated with silver nitrate solution.
(4mrks) 1 CH4 Methane
2 C2H6 Ethane
(d) Write an ionic equation for the reaction between an
aqueous solution of iron (II) chloride with excess 3 C3H8 Propane
ammonium solution.
4 C4H10 Butane
Structural formula
This is a formula which shows how different atoms in a compound

are bonded /arranged;
Formula Structure
H
CH4 H–C–H
H (a) Alkares burn in air to produce a great amount of heat,
carbondioxide and water eg.
H H CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

C2 H 6 H–C–C–H OR 2 C2H6(g) + 7 O2(g) 4 CO2(g) + H2O(l)
CH3CH3
H H
(b) Alkanes undergo substitution reactions with halogens is
presence of sunlight.
u.v.
H H H CH3CH3(g) + Cl2(g) CH3CH2Cl(g) + HCl(g)
C3H8 H–C–C–C–H OR
CH3CH2CH3 H H u.v H H
H H H H–C–C–H + Cl2(g) H – C – C – Cl + HCl(aq)
H H H H
Method of preparation:
By addition of hydrogen to Alkenes. When hydrogen gas is reacted ALKENES

with an alkene in presence of a Nickel catalyst at 170 oC, an alkane
is formed; These have a general CnH2n. They are unsaturated or very reactive.
Ni Nomenclature (Naming):
CH2 = CH2(g) + H2(g) CH3CH3(g)
170oC n Formula Name
2 C2H4 Ethene
H H Ni H H 3 C3H6 Propene
C = C + H2 H– C– C–H
H H 170oC H H Structural formula of;
Ethene
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANES.
H H
Alkanes are not very reactive however they react under drastic C2H4 C = C
conditions. H H
4. Ethane is reduced by hydrogen gas at 200 oC in presence of
Nickel catalyst forming Ethane.
Method of preparation: Ni
CH2 = CH2(g) + H2(g) CH3CH3(g)
Ethene is prepared from ethanol by heating ethanol with 200oC
concentrated sulphuric acid at 170oC. The concentrated sulphuric
acid dehydrates the ethanol forming Ethene. H H Ni H H
C = C + H2(g) H–C–C–H
Conc. H2SO4 H H H H 200oC H H
CH3CH2OH C = C
170oC H H
Uses of Alkenes
Conc. H2SO4
CH3CH2OH CH2 = CH2(g) + H2O(l) 1. Used in the manufacture of alcohols e.g. ethanol
170oC 2. Used in the manufacture of plastics e.g. polyethene
3. They are also used to harden animal and vegetable oils.
H H OH
Conc. H2SO4 H H ALKYNES
H–C–C–C–H C= C + H2O(l)
170oC H H These are unsaturated hydrogen carbons which contain atleast a
H H H triple bond and have a general formula CnHn-2
They are named by replacing “ane” in corresponding alkanes with

Chemical Properties; “yne” from alkyne. E.g.
1. Alkenes are generally more reactive than Alkanes n Formula Structure Name
2. Ethane burns with a smoky flame. This is because it contains a
relatively high percentage of carbon. 2. C2H2 H–C≡C–H Ethyne
CH2 = CH2(g) + 3O2(g) 2 CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) C3H4 H

3. Alkenes undergo addition reactions e.g. Bromide water, the 3. H – C ≡ C – C Propyne
brown solution turns colorless (This tests alkenes) –H
H H H
CH2 = CH2(g) + Br2(aq) Br - C – C - Br HC ≡ CCH3
H H Uses of Alkyne (Ethyre)

1. Used in making plastic e.g. polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
2. They are used in welding equipments. H OH Conc. H2SO4 H H
H – C – C – H(l) C = C + H2O(l)
H H 170oC H H
Conc. H2SO4
ALCOHOLS: CH3CH CH2OH CH3CH = CH2 + H2O
170oC
These are organic compounds which contain – OH as the functional
group. H H OH Conc. H2SO4 H H H
H–C–C–C–H H–C–C= C + H2O(l)
They are named by replacing “e” of corresponding alkanes with “ H H H 170oC H H
ol ” from alcohols.
3. When acidified potassium dichromate is warmed with ethanol, it
CH3OH Methanol turns from orange to green. Acidified potassium permanganate
turns from purple to colourless. This is because ethanol is oxidized
CH3CH2OH Ethanol to ethanoic acid.
CH3CH2CH2OH propanol
Uses of alcohols:
1. It is used as fuels
1. Combustion 2. They are used in thermometers.
3. They are used a solvent
Alcohols burn in air to give carbon dioxide and water 4. They are used as beverages.
CH3CH2OH(l) + 3 O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) Manufacture of Alcohols Ethanol
2. Dehydration of alcohols; Fermentation:
When excess concentrated sulphuric acid is added to an alcohol and This is the process by which starch and sugar are broken down to an
the mixture heated, to 170oC, an alkene is formed. alcohol and carbondioxide.
Conc. H2SO4 Ethanol can be obtained by fermentation process from starch and
CH3CH2OH(l) CH2 = CH2(g) + H2O(l) sugar. (sucrose).
170oC
From Starch (millet sorghum)
1. Soap:
To the source of starch is added malt which provides an enzyme
called diastase which converts starch to maltose. Soap is sodium or potassium salt of a long chain carboxylic acid
e.g. sodium stearate, CH3 (CH2)16 COONa, (Nast).
C6H11O5 + H2O C12H22O11
How Ethanol is prepared in Uganda “Tonto” Manufacture of Soap:
- Juice is extracted from ripe bananas by squeezing them using - Cotton seed oils or coconut fats are boiled with concentrated
spear grass or banana leaves. sodium hydroxide solution.
- The juice is filtered to remove impurities - Sodium chloride is then added to the hot soap (to precipitate out
- the filtrate is then poured into a locally made container where it is soap)
mixed with ground roasted sorghum. - Soap forms at the surface, it is filtered off and processed into
- The container is covered and the mixture is allowed to ferment for bars.
two days. The resulting solution is crude ethanol.
Action of Soap:
Qn: 2001 P2 No. 13 UNEB
- The active part of soap consists of a non-polar (“tail”) and a polar
(a) Name the raw materials in your locality to make a alcoholic (“head”) part.
drink. - The non-polar part dissolves in the oily dirt whereas the polar part
dissolves in the water.
(b) Briefly describe how ethanol can be obtained from the materials
you have named in (a) above.
(c) State how ethanol prepared in (b) can be concentrated and

suggest one way of determining whether the ethanol is pure or not.
(d) Ethene can be formed from ethanol. Write the equation and
state the conditions for the reaction leading to the formation of
ethane.
(e) Name two uses of ethanol apart from the preparation of ethane.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
A detergent is a sodium salt of sulphuric acid or hydrogen sulphate.
Manufacture of detergents:
- A vegetable oil (castor oil) is boiled with concentrated sulphuric

acid.
- The product, a hydrogen sulphate is then neutralized by adding
sodium hydroxide solution.
- A precipitate forms. The mixture is evaporated on a water bath to
leave a white solid detergent.
Advantages of synthetic detergents. (Disadvantages of soap)
1. They readily form lather

2. They don’t leave dirty stains on cloth.
Disadvantages of detergents (Advantages of soap)
1. They are not bio degradable and as such they cause pollution.
2. Detergents encourage the growth of algae which deprives water
bodies of air.
3. They are expensive.
3. SUGAR:
Manufacture of Sugar:
Agitation causes the dirt to dislodge from the cloth and dispose into
tiny droplets are then rinsed away with clean water. - The canes are cut, crushed and squeezed to force out juice.
- The juice obtained is treated with lime to prevent hydrolysis and
Note: Scum is sodium or magnesium stearate. out impurities.
- The resultant filtrate is concentrated by evaporation and on
cooling, brown sugar crystals form.
2. Detergents:

- The crystals are purified by dissolving them in water and boiling The small molecules that come together are called monomers and
the solution with animal charcoal to absorb the brown substance in the larger ones are called polymers.
the solution.
- The charcoal is filtered off for the solution is then concentrated There are two types of polymerization;
and crystallized.
- The white sugar is filtered out, dried and packed. (i) Addition polymerization
(ii) Condensation polymerization
Uses of Sugar:
1. For sweeting foods. (i) Addition polymerization:

2. It is a source of glucose.
3. To prepare ethanol by fermentation method. This is the combination of two or more small molecules to form
a large molecule without loss or gain of molecules e.g. when
4. VULCANISATION: alkenes are heated to high temperatures and pressure in presence of
a catalyst, polymers are formed.
The Vulcanization Process:
High temperature
- Rubber is boiled with sulphur at a temperature of about 140oC. 1. n CH2 = CH2 (CH2 – CH2 )N
- The sulphur atoms are added across the carbon bonds to form High pressure/catalyst Polyethene
cross linkages between the polymeric chairs of rubber.
OR H H
Properties of raw and vulcanized rubber: High temperature
N CH2 = CH2 –C –C–
Raw Rubber Vulcanised Rubber High pressure/catalyst
H H n
- It is soft and sticky it is hard and non- polyethene
sticky
- soluble in organic solvents insoluble in organic High temperature
solvents 2. CH2 = CHCl – CH2 – CH –
- Easily melt resistant to heat High pressure/catalyst
- Thermoplastic thermosetting. Cl n
Polyvinyl chloride (PUC)
POLYMERISATION:
These products are useful plastics used to make pipes, films and
This is the combination of two or more small molecules of the same covers for electrical wires.
kind to form a large molecule.
(ii) Condensation polymerization:
Plastics: A plastic is a substance which when soft can be made into
This is the combination of two or more small molecules of the same different shapes. All synthetic polymers are plastics in nature.
kind to form a large molecule with loss of smaller molecules e.g. Plastic are classified into two classes according to the effect of heat
water. on them.
Examples of condensation polymers: (i) Thermo softening Plastics: These are plastics which when
heated decompose and can’t be reshaped into new shapes e.g.
- Nylon Bakelite.
- Terylene
Note: One disadvantage of plastics is that they are non-
Question: Under suitable conditions (Lab), ethane can be biodegradable and this is because they can’t be destroyed by
converted to a compound with the general bacteria.
formula ( H2C – CH2 ) n.
FIBRES: These are polymers which can be drawn out into threads
(a) (i) What is the change from ethane to ( H 2C – CH2 ) fibres can be natural or synthetic.
n called;
(ii) What name is given to the compound ( H 2C – (a) Natural fibres:
CH2 ) n?
(iii) Write an equation for the reaction leading to the Examples are; (i) animal fibres such as silk and wool.
formation of ( H2C – CH2 ) n. (ii) vegetable or plant fibres e.g. cotton and sisal
(iv) State one possible use of ( H2C – CH2 ) n
(b) Name one other compound of the category of ( H 2C (b) Synthetic Fibres:
– CH2 ) n which is not man made.
e.g. Nylon and Terylene
Natural and synthetic polymers:

Question: UNEB 2000 P2 NO. 12.
(i) Natural Polymers;
(a) (i) What is a polymer?
These are polymers whose formation is not controlled by man (ii) Distinguish between a natural and artificial polymer. In
e.g. starch, natural rubber, wool, cellulose and silk. each case give two examples.
(ii) Synthetic Polymers: Describe the process of vulcanization of rubber. In your description
include;
These are man-made polymers e.g. polyethene, Perspex, nylon,
bakelite, polychloroethene, polypropene, terylene. (i) The importance of vulcanization in rubber industry.
(ii) Two useful items of vulcanized rubber.
(b) Barium Nitrate solution is added to sodium carbonate solution.
UNEB 1999 No. 12.
A white solid is formed.
(a) (i) State the difference between fats and oils
(ii) Give one example of each. Ba2+(aq) + CO3(aq) BaCO3(s)
(c) Potassium iodide solution is added to Lead II nitrate solution.
(b) Briefly describe how soap can be prepared.
(c) State what would be observed if soap solution was shaken with A yellow precipitate is formed.
a solution containing magnesium hydrogen carbonate.
(d) Explain your answer in (c). Pb2+(aq) + 2 I-(aq) Pb I2(s)
(e) State what would be observed if a solution of soapless detergent (d) Sodium hydroxide solution is added to copper II sulphate
was used in (c) instead of soap solution. solution.
(f) Give one disadvantage of soapless detergents.
The solution turns from blue to colourless and a white
UNEB 1997 precipitate is formed.
(a) Explain what is meant by polymerization. Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Cu (OH)2(s)

(b) Name one natural polymer and one synthetic polymer and state (e) Dilute sulphuric acid is added to magnesium fumings.
one use of each of the polymer named.
A colourless gas that produces a pop sound in air is formed.
ION CHEMISTRY
Mg2+(s) + 2 H+2(aq) Mg(aq) + H2(g)
Ion chemistry emphasizes that in certain reactions ions interact with
each other. The equations for such reactions are best written (f) Diluted sulphuric acid is added to copper II oxide. The black
ionically. solid dissolved to form a pale blue solution and a colourless liquid
that turns white hydrous copper (II) sulphate powder blue.
ASSIGNMENT:
2 H+(aq) + CuO(s) Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l)
For each of the following reactions, state what is observed and write (g) Dilute nitric acid is added to calcium carbonate.
an tonic equation for the reaction.
Effervescence of a colourless gas that turns lime water milky and
(a) When a solution of silver nitrate is added to a solution of moist blue litmus paper red.
sodium chloride.
CO32-(aq) + 2 H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)
A white precipitate is formed. (h) Zinc powder is added to copper II sulphate solution.
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)

The grey metal dissolves and a brown solid is formed. The solution Deduction: NH3 gas given off
turns from blue to colourless.
:. NH4+ confirmed.
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) NH3(g) + H2O(l)
(i) Chlorine gas is bubbled through Iron (II)chloride solution.
(ii) When sodium hydroxide is added to a colourless solution
The solution turns from dirty green to brown. and white precipitate soluble in excess is observed.
Fe2+(aq) + Cl2(g) Fe3+(aq) Observation: A white precipitate soluble in excess.

(j) Chlorine gas is bubbled through potassium iodide solution.
Deduction: Zn2+(aq) , Al3+(aq), Pb2+(aq)
The solution turns from colourless and a brown solid is deposited. Zn2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) Zn (OH)2(s)
2 I+(aq) + Cl2(g) I2(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) Zn (OH)2(s) + 2 OH-(aq) [Zn (OH)4]2-(aq)

CATIONS:
Pb2+(aq) + OH-(aq) Pb (OH)2(s)
Non-coloured Cations Pb (OH)2(s) + 2OH-(aq) [Pb (OH)4]2-
Al3+(aq) + 3 OH-(aq) Al (OH)3(s)
(a) ZAP (Zinc, Aluminium, Lead) Al (OH)3(s) + OH-(aq) [Al (OH)4]-(aq)
(b) NH4+ (iii) If the observation is a white precipitate insoluble in excess then
(c) Mg2+, Ca2+ Ca2+(aq), Mg2+(aq) should be suspended i.e.
(a) When distilled water is added to a substance and it dissolves to Observation: A white precipitate insoluble in excess.
give a colourless solution.
Deduction: Ca2+(aq), Mg2+(aq)
Observation: X dissolves to give a colourless solution. Ca2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) Ca (OH)2(s)
Deduction: Non-coloured cations suspected.
Mg2+(aq) + 2 OH- Mg (OH)2(s)
(b) With sodium hydroxide; (ii) With ammonia solution (NH3(aq), NH4OH)
(i) When sodium hydroxide solution is added and the resultant ZAP (Zn2+(aq), Al3+(aq), Pb2+(aq))
solution is heated. (a) Observation: A white precipitate soluble in excess.
Observation: A colourless gas with a bungent smell which turns Deduction: Zn2+(aq) confirmed.
moist red litmus paper blue.
Zn2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) Zn (OH)2(s)
Zn (OH)2(s) + 4 NH3(aq) [Zn (NH3)4]2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) COLOURED CATIONS:
(b) Observation: A white precipitate insoluble in excess.
(a) With water
Deduction: Pb2+(aq), Al3+(aq)
Observation: it dissolves to give a blue solution
Pb2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) Pb (OH)2(s)
Deduction: Cu2+(aq)
3+ -
Al (aq) + 3 OH (aq) Al (OH)3(s) Observation: x dissolves to give a green solution.
Pb2+(aq) are distinguished from Al3+(aq) by any of the following; Deduction: Fe2+(aq)
Observation: x dissolves to give a brown/yellow solution.
(i) Potassium iodide:
Deduction: Fe3+(aq)
Observation: A yellow precipitate (b) With sodium hydroxide solution;
Deduction: Pb2+(aq) confirmed. Observation: A blue ppt insoluble in excess
Pb2+(aq) + 2 I-(aq) PbI2(s) Deduction: Cu2+(aq)

(ii) Potassium chromate solution: Cu2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) Cu (OH)2(s)
Observation: A yellow precipitate Observation: A green ppt insoluble in excess which slowly turns
brown
Deduction: Pb2+(aq) confirmed
Deduction: Fe2+(aq)
Pb2+(aq) + CrO42-(aq) Pb CrO4(s) Fe2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) Fe (OH)2(s)
(iii) Dilute hydrochloric acid: Observation: A brown/yellow ppt insoluble in excess.
Observation: A white precipitate Deduction: Fe3+(aq)
Deduction: Pb2+(aq) confirmed Fe3+(aq) + 3 OH-(aq) Fe (OH)3(s)

(c) With ammonia solution (NH3(aq))
Pb2+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq) PbCl2(s)
Note: Lead (II) chloride dissolves on heating and reappears on Observation: A blue ppt soluble in excess to give a deep blue
cooling. solution.
Deduction: Cu2+(aq) confirmed.

A sulphate is confirmed by;
Cu2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) Cu (OH)2(s)
Cu (OH)2(s) + 4 NH3(aq) [Cu (NH3)4]2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) Test: to the portion was added dilute nitric acid followed by
barium nitrate solution.
Qn.1. When ammonia solution is added drop wise until in excess Observation: A white ppt.
to copper (II) sulphate solution, a blue ppt is formed. The ppt
dissolves in excess ammonia solution to form a deep blue solution. Deduction: SO42-(aq) confirmed
Explain the observation.
A chloride is confirmed by
Qn.2. When aqueous ammonia was added drop wise to a solution
containing zinc sulphate, a white ppt Q was formed. Q dissolved in Test: To the portion was added dilute nitric acid followed by silver
excess ammonia solution to form a colourless solution. nitrate solution.
Observation: A white ppt

(a) (i) Write an ionic equation leading to the formation of Q.
(ii) The formula of the cation present in the colourless solution. Deduction: Cl-(aq) confirmed.
(b) (i) Name a reagent that can be used to identify the sulphate Note: When Lead II nitrate is added to the suspected solution and
ions in solution. the observation is a white ppt.
(ii) State what would be observed when the reagent you have
named in b (i) is used. Deduction: SO42-(aq), Cl-(aq)
However if on heating, the white ppt dissolves then
Note: Fe2+(aq) and Fe3+(aq) give similar observation as with both
ammonia solution and sodium hydroxide solution. Observation: A white ppt soluble on heating
ANIONS: (SO42-(aq), Cl-(aq) and CO32-(aq)) Deduction: Cl-(aq)

If the ppt persists on heating, then it’s a SO42-(aq)
If to the suspected solution, lead (II) nitrate solution is added and CO32-(aq)
the observation is; Test: To the residue, add dilute HCl(aq) acid
A white ppt Observation: The solid dissolves with effervesce of a colourless

gas that turns lime water milky.
Deduction: SO42-(aq) and Cl-(aq)
Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) PbSO4(s) A colourless solution/green solution.
Pb2+(aq) + 2 Cl-2(aq) PbCl2(s)
Deduction: CO2 gas thus a carbonate is formed.
that forms a white ppt
Note: with silver nitrate
solution
Confirmatory test for;
A colourless gas that - SO3 gas
Fe2+(aq) forms a white ppt
Test: To the portion was added potassium hexacyanoferrate (III) with Barium nitrate :. A sulphate
solution. solution
A colourless gas that - CO2 gas
Observation: A dark blue ppt. turns lime water
milky :. A CO32-(aq)
2+
Deduction: Fe (aq) confirmed A colourless gas that - NH3 gas
turns moist red litmus :.NH4+(aq)
Fe3+(aq) paper blue
Test: To the portion was added potassium hexacyanoferrate (II) A white sublimate - ammonium salt
solution - AlCl3, FeCl3
Residue - CuO(s)
Observation: A dark blue ppt - Black residue - ZnO(s)
- A yellow solid
Deduction: Fe3+(aq) confirmed when hot & white - PbO(s)
when cold
- A brown solid
when hot & yellow
when cold
ELECTROLYSIS
EFFECT ON HEAT ON SUBSTANCES The reactivity series of Metals

Test Observation Deduction
(a) Heat the solid - A colourless liquid H2O given off The rate at which metals react with water, air or dilute acids are not
strongly in a dry which turns :. A hydrated salt the same. These metals are arranged in an order such that the most
test tube anhydrous copper (II) reactive ones are at the top while the least reactive ones are at the
sulphate blue. bottom of the series i.e.
- HCl gas
- A colourless gas :. A chloride
Potassium K (b) All non-metals are non-conductors of electricity except
Sodium Na graphite. The conduction of electricity by graphite is due to mobile
Calcium Ca electrons in it’s layers.
Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al (c) The solution of a compound conducts electricity because of ions
Zinc Zn formed which are free to move and hence carry a charge e.g.
Iron
Lead Fe KCl(aq) K+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Hydrogen Pb Here, the K (aq) and Cl-(aq) formed are the ones responsible for
+
Cooper H carrying the charges.

Cu
Mercury Hg An ionic compound in its molten state also conducts electricity
Silver Ag because of formation of ions e.g.
Gold Au heat
NaCl(s) Na+(l) + Cl-(l)
NB: (a) Potassium is the most reactive while gold is the least heat
reactive. PbBr2(s) Pb2+(l) + 2 Br-(l)
(b) Metals high in the series willdisplace those low in the Questions:
series from their own solutions. e.g. If zinc powder is
added to copper (II) sulphate solution, the blue solution Explain each of the following observation;
turns colourless with brown deposits.
(a) Solid Lead (II) Bromide does not conduct electricity while
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s) molten Lead (II) bromide conducts electricity.
OR Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Conductors of Electricity: (b) Hydrogen chloride gas doesn’t conduct electricity when
dissolved in carbontetrachloride, however it conducts electricity
(a) The conduction of electricity by all metals is due to the when dissolve in water.
presence of mobile (delocalized) valency electrons e.g.
Equation: HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
eee
eee Electrolyte:
eee
An electrolyte is a solution of a compound or a molten compound
Sodium, 2:8:1 has one valency electron while magnesium 2:8:2 which conducts electricity and is decomposed by it.
has two valency electrons.
1. A strong Electrolyte: These are substances which completely
ionize in solution. e.g.
Towards the cathode where they are rendered chargeless
HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) (discharged) by accepting electrodes. E.g.
NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
2 H+(aq) + 2e H2(g)
2. Weak Electrolyte: These are substances which partially ionize Na=(aq) + e Na(s)
in solution. Pb2+(aq) + 2e Pb(s)
- Anions go to the anode, all negatively charged ions (anions) are
CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq) attracted towards the anode where they are discharged by giving
NH4OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) away these excess ions to the anode e.g.
2Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e
Electrolysis:
2 Br-(aq) Br2(l) + 2 e
Electrolysis is defined as the decomposition of a compound in
solution form or it’s molten state by passage of an electric current.
The following conditions must be satisfied before electrolysis can

take place;
(a) A source of electric current and the current must be direct

current (D.C.)
(b) The electrolyte in molten or solution state must be present.
(c) Electrodes must also be present. Electrodes are two poles of
which electricity enters and leaves an electrolyte.
The positive electrode is called anode.

The negative electrode is called cathode.
Ionic theory of Electrolysis:
An electric current is carried through an electrolyte by ions.
- Cations go to the cathode.
During the process of electrolysis, all positive ions (cations) e.g. H +

+ 2+
(aq), Na (aq), Pb (aq) are attracted

Electrons flow from the negative terminal of the battery to the
cathode and from the anode to the positive terminal of the battery.
Factors that determine the discharge of a particular ion of the

electrode;
- Two or more ions of similar charge may be present at an

electrode. The one which is discharged in preference to the other
will depend on the following factors;
1. Position of the ion in the electro chemical series;
Cations Anions
K+ (highest) SO42- (highest)

Ca2+ NO-3
Na+ Cl-
Mg2+ Br-
Zn2+ I-
Fe2+ OH- (Lowest)
Pb2+
H+
Cu2+
Ag+ (Lowest)
Note: An ion lower in the series will be discharged in preference to

the one higher in the series e.g.
Electrolysis of sodium hydroxide solution NAOH(aq) Na+(aq) + O H  (aq )

H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
At the cathode (Na+(aq), H+(aq))
2 H+(aq) + 2e H2(g)
-
At the anode (OH (aq))
4OH  ( aq ) 2 H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e 4 OH  (aq ) 2 H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e
Observation of the;
2. Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solution using graphite or
platinum electrodes. Cathode; bubbles of a colourless gas that produces a pop sound
when mixed with air.
CuSO4(aq) Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
Anode; Bubbles of a colourless gas that relights a glowing splint.
 
H2O(l) H (aq ) + OH (aq )
At the cathode (Cu2+(aq), H+(aq))
Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s)
At the anode (SO42-(aq), OH  (aq ) )
4 OH  (aq ) 2 H 2 O ( l ) + O 2 ( g )  4e
Observation of the;
Cathode, A brown solid
Anode; Bubbles of a colourless gas

4. Electrolysis of acidified water. (dilute sulphuric acid)
3. Electrolysis of sodium chloride solution.
NaCl(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl  (aq )
H2O(l) 2 H+(aq) + OH  (aq )
At the cathode (H+(aq), Na+(aq))
H+(aq) + 2e H2(g)
At the anode, ( Cl  (aq ) , OH  (aq ) )

H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO2-4(aq)
H2O(l) H+(aq) + O H  (aq )
PbBr2(s) Pb2+(l) + 2Br-(l)
At the anode;

At the anode (SO42-(aq), OH ( aq )
)
2Br-(l) Br2(g) + 2e
4 OH  (aq ) 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e At the cathode
At the cathode (H+(aq), H+(aq)) Pb2+(l) + 2e Pb(s)

Observation of the;
2H+(aq) + 2e H2(g)
5. Electrolysis of molten Lead (II) Bromide Anode; A brown vapour
Cathode; A grey solid
2. Concentration of the ions. The greater the concentration an ion

in solution, the greater the chances for it to be discharged in
preference to the other with low concentration.

Example: Using copper electrodes
(i) Electrolysis of a concentrated solution of sodium chloride.
At the cathode (Na+(aq))
Na+(aq) + e Na(s)
At the anode ( Cl  (aq ) )
2Cl  ( aq ) Cl2(g) + 2e
Observation at the;
Anode; Bubbles of a yellow greenish gas.
CuSO4(aq) Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
H2O(l) OH  (aq ) + H+(aq)

2
At the anode ( OH  , SO4 )
4 OH  (aq ) 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e
At the cathode (Cu2+(aq), H+(aq))
3. Nature of the electron. At times electrons interfere with the Cu2+ + 2e Cu(s)
reactions that take place at certain electrodes by themselves also Observation of the;
reacting e.g.
Cathode; electrode increases in size
(i) Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solutions;
Explanation: Copper metal is formed on the cathode hence
increasing the mass of the electrons. First Law;
At the anode; The mass of a substance liberated at an electrode is directly

proportional to the quantity of electricity (charge) passed and the
Both sulphate and hydroxide ions are present but more of them time for which electrolysis took place.
is discharged instead copper anode dissolves and goes in solution
and goes in solution as copper ions. Quantity of = (Current amperes X Time in seconds)C in coulombs
electricity)
Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e
Observation; Second Law;
The electrode decreases in size The quantity of electricity required to deposit or liberate one mole
of a substance is directly proportional to the charge on the ion.
Explanation: The copper electrodes (anode) dissolves in solution
to form copper (II) ions. The quantity of electricity required to deposit or liberate one mole
of univalent ion is called Faraday’s constant and it is denoted by F
(ii) Using platinum or graphite electrodes. and has a value of 96500 coulombs.
At the cathode (Cu2+, H+(aq)) Examples:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s) (i) Ag+(s) + e Ag(s)

At the anode (SO4 (aq), OH  (aq ) )
2- 1F 108g
96500C 108g
(ii) Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s)
4 OH  (aq ) 2 H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e 2F 64g
(2 x 96500)C 64g
Observation of the; 193000C 64g
Cathode; A brown deposits. (iii) Al3+(aq) + 3e Al(s)

3F 27g
Anode; Bubbles of a colourless gas. (3 x 96500) 27g
ELECTROLYSIS CALCULATIONS. e.g. (1) What mass of copper is produced at the cathode by a
current of 2 amps flowing for 10 minutes.
Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
Q = It
Q = 2 x 10 x 60 3. When a current of 0.45 amps was passed through a solution of
Q = 1200c copper (II) sulphate for 25 minutes. 0.222g of copper were
deposited. Calculate the relative atomic mass of copper.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s)
2F 64g Q = IF
(2x96500)c 64g Q = 0.45 x 25 x 60
Q = 675C
(2x96500) coulombs liberate 64g of copper 1200c liberate
 1200 x 64  Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s)
 2 x96500  (2x96500) xg
:. 0.398g of copper is produced. 675c 0.222g
(2 x 96500) C form xg of copper
(2) What quantity of electricity; 675c form 0.222g
(a) In Faraday’s 0.222 x 2 x96500
:. (2 x 96500) c form  63.48 g but 1 mole is
(b) In coulombs is required to produce 3.2g of copper from 675
copper (II) ions. formed
Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s) :. R.A.M of copper is 63.48g

2F 64g
xF 3.2g 4. A current of 10 amps is passed through molten magnesium
chloride for 4 hours. How many moles of magnesium metal are
2F form 64g produced by this electrolysis?
3 .2 x 2
forms 3.2g = 0.1F
64 Mg Cl2(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2 Cl  (aq )
Mg2+(aq) + 2e Mg(s)
:. Quantity of electricity = 0.1F Q = 1F = 10 x 4 x 60 x 60 = 144000C.
(2 x 96500) C form 1 mole of magnesium
(b) 2f = 2 x 96500C 1F = 96500C 144000
0.1F = 0.1 x 2 x 9 0.1F = (0.1 x 96500)C 144000 C form  0.746mole
2 x96500
= 9650C. :. 0.746 moles of magnesium metal are produced.
64g produced by (2 x 96500)C 5. A current of 5 amps is passed for 32 minutes and 10 seconds
3.2g produced by 3.2 x 2 x 96500 = 9650 C between graphite electrodes through copper (II) sulphate solution.
64 Calculate;
:. = 9650C

(i) the mass of copper deposited at the cathode
(ii) the volume of oxygen gas liberated at the anode (Cu=64, The industrial applications of electrolysis fall into five important
molar gas volume at room temperature = 24 litres, IF categories;
=96500C)
1. Electroplating
2+
Solution: Cu + 2e
(aq) Cu(s) 2. Anodizing
2F 64g 3. Purification of metals
(2x96500)C 64g 4. Extraction of metals
5. manufacture of chemicals
Q = It
Q = 5 x  32 x 60  10 (a) Electroplating: (The electrical precipitation of a metal
Q = 9650g resistance to corrosion)
Q = 9650C.
(2x96500)C form 64g of copper This is the depositing of a thin layer of a metal on the surface of a
64 x9650 cathode. The process can be shown in the laboratory by coating a
9650 C form  32 g nail with copper as illustrated below.
2 x96500
:. 3.2g of copper is deposited at the cathode.
(ii) CuSO4(aq) Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

H2O(l) OH  (aq ) + H+(aq)
At anode;
4OH  ( aq ) O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e

24L (4x96500)C
(4x96500) C of charge liberate 24 litres
9650 x 24
9650C of charge liberates  0.6 L
4 x96500
:. 0.6 litres of oxygen gas is liberated.
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROLYSIS

The impure copper anode loses mass and copper (II) ions are
formed. The copper (II) ions move to the pure cathode where they
are deposited as pure copper.
Extraction of metals Method of Extraction

K 
Very reactive by electrolysis

N a 


Ca 
Mg 

Al 

Zn 
Fe
Pb




Moderately reactive By reduction
with carbon and carbon monoxide
Cu 
Not very reactive By

Hg 


Ag 
Au 

heating
Extraction of reactive metals
Metals such as magnesium, calcium, sodium, potassium and

aluminium are extracted by electrolysis e.g.
(a) Extraction of sodium/potassium
Sodium can be extracted by electrolysis of brine (molten sodium

(b) Purification of metals: Metals such as copper and zinc may be chloride).
refined i.e. purified by electrolysis. The impure metal is the anode
and the pure metal is the cathode. Pure calcium chloride is added to the electrolyte to lower the
melting point.
The electrolyte is a solution containing the metal ion.
Chlorine gas is produced at the graphite anode and liquid.
Cathode (Cu2+(aq), H+(aq))
Sodium at the cylindrical steel cathode.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s)
Anode: The electrode reactions are;
Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e
NaCl(aq) Na+(l) + Cl  (l ) (b) Extraction of Aluminium;
There are 3 stages in the extraction of aluminium from bauxite.

At the anode ( Cl  (aq ) )
Bauxite is impure aluminium oxide.

2 Cl (l ) Cl2(g) + 2e
(i) Bauxite is purified
(ii) Pure aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite
At the Cathode (Na+(l)).
which lowers the melting point of aluminium oxide.
Na+(l) + e Na(l)

1. Electrolysis
Sodium chloride solution (Brine) is electrolysed using graphite

anode and a flowing mercury cathode. The mercury cathode
enables sodium ions to discharge in preference to hydrogen ions.
Sodium is formed at the cathode and chlorine the anode.
Electrode reactions are;

At the Cathode (Al3+(l)
H 2 O( l ) OH  (aq ) + H+(aq)
Al3+(l) + 3e Al(l) At the anode ( OH  (aq )
At the anode
At the anode ( OH  (aq ) , Cl  (aq ) )
2O2-(l) O2(g) + 4e
2Cl  Cl2(g) + 2e
5. Manufacture of chemicals (Sodium hydroxide and chlorine)
At the cathode (Na+(aq), H+(aq))
The most important example in this category is the manufacture of
sodium hydroxide, chlorine and hydrogen using the flowing cathode Na+(aq) + e Na(s)
of mercury. 2. Amalgam (Hg/Na)

The sodium formed dissolves in the liquid mercury cathode to form
a solution called an amalgam.
3. Reaction with water
The amalgam is mixed with water producing sodium hydroxide,

hydrogen and pure mercury.
2 Na/Hg(l) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + 2Hg(l)
EXTRACTION OF IRON
The ores from which iron is extracted are;
- Haematite, Fe2O3
- Magnetite, Fe3O4
- Iron pyrite, FeS
- Siderite, FeCO3
Iron is extracted by reduction process from its ores. The raw

materials used in the extraction of Iron are;
- Haematite
- Coke
- Limestone
The extraction is carried out in a blast furnace.
The raw materials are fed into the blast furnace from the top
- The coke burns in hot compressed air to form carbondioxide.

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
- As the carbon dioxide formed rises up, it is reduced by unburnt (i) the formation of cast iron
coke to form carbon monoxide. (ii) the removal of the major impurity you have named
in (a) above.
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)
- The carbon monoxide formed then reduces Iron (III) oxide, (e) State the major components of steel.
(haematite) to Iron.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(l) + 2CO2(g)

- The Iron formed then sinks to the bottom of the furnace.
- The limestone is removed of impurities.
- The limestone (calcium carbonate) decomposer to quick lime ELECTRO CHEMICAL CELLS
(calcium oxide).
Chemical reactions can generate electricity.
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
- The quick lime then combines with silica present as an impurity A simple electrochemical cell consists of a zinc rod dipped in a
to form calcium silicate known as slag. solution of zinc sulphate connected to a copper rod dipped in a
solution of copper (II) sulphate.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(l)
The 2 solutions of zinc sulphate and copper (II) sulphate are then
Question: In the extraction of cast Iron using a blast furnance, joined by a salt bridge or porous or porous partition which
spathic Iron ore which contains some impurities is first roasted in completed the circuit.
air, it is then mixed with other substances and finally introduced
into the blast furnance. Cast iron can be obtained from Iron (II) A cell formed is called Daniell cell.
carbonate are;
(a) Name the major impurity.

(b) (i) Give the chemical name of spathic iron ore.
(ii) Write an equation for the reaction which takes place
when Iron (II) carbonate is roasted
in air.
(c) Name the substances that are fed into the blast furnance.
(i) from the top

(ii) from the bottom
(d) Outline the reaction leading to;

Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s) (At the cathode)
That is copper (II) ions (Cu2+(aq)) are reduced to copper.
The zinc rod becomes that negative electrode (anode) while the
copper rod becomes the positive electrode (cathode).
Therefore electrons flow from the zinc rod (anode) to the copper
rod (cathode) while current flows in the opposite direction that is
from copper rod (cathode) to the zinc rod (anode).
Note: In all electro chemical cells, by convention, all the more

reactive elements constitute the anode and is always to the left
while the less reactive one constitute the cathode and is always to
the right.
Each
Zn(s)/ Zn2+(aq) // Cu2+(aq) / Cu(s) Cu(s) / Cu2+(aq) and Zn(s)/ Zn2+(aq) is called a half cell.
At anode [let hand side]

Zinc higher in the series (more reactive) than copper loses 2
electrons to form zinc ions (Zn2+(aq)). Zn(s) Zn2-(aq) + 2e
Reaction at the anode. At cathode [Right hand side]
Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s)

The overall cell reaction is:
That is zinc is oxidized to Zn2+(aq).
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) + 2e Zn2+(aq) + 3e + Cu(s)
2+ 2+
Oxidation is the removal of electrons from an element. The Zn(s) + Cu (aq) Zn (aq) + Cu(s)
electrons then flow through the wire to the copper rod. NB: When writing written diagram
The copper (II) ions of copper (II) sulphate accept the 2 electrons to Zn(s)/ Zn2+(aq) // Cu2+(aq) / Cu(s)
form copper. NB: Other types of cells used to provide electrical energy include:

(a) Accmulators used in vehicles (II) sulphate solution. The solution is separated by a porous wall
(b) Leclanche dry cells used in radios and the rods connected by a wire.
Questions: (b) Indicate;
1. (a) (i) Using examples state the difference between an (i) the charges on each electrode
electrolyte and an electrode. (ii) the direction of electrone movement in the wire.
(ii) Explain why aqueous solutions of sodium chloride
conducts electricity whereas solid (c) Write;
sodium chloride does not
(b) The diagram below shows a set up of an electro chemical (i) Equation for reactions at each electrodes
cell which can be used to compare the reactivities of zinc and (ii) An equation for the overall reaction.
copper.
HEATS OF REACTION
Fuels are substances which liberate energy when they are burnt.
They are utilised in various ways e.g. they drive motors in engines,
they are used to cook food etc.
A good fuel should be;
- cheap
- burn easily
(i) Identify the rod that is positively charged.
(ii) Identify R and state its purpose - produce a lot of heat
(iii) Write equations for the reactions taking place at the
- Easily transported
copper and zinc rods.
(iv) Write the equation for the overall reaction in the cell. - It should be easily and safely stored
(v) State what would happen if zinc metal is droped in a
- Burn without too much smoke.
solution containing copper (II) ions.
2. (a) Draw a diagram kof a Daniel cell consisting of zinc rod Heat of Reaction:
dipped in zinc sulphate solution and a copper rod dipped in copper

Interaction of a substance with another may result in energy charge. Ea
Chemical reactions usually result in temperature charge. – Activation energy.
There are two types of chemical reactions in terms of heat charges.
1. Exothermic reactions:
These are reactions which occur with heat energy being given out to
the surroundings. In all exothermic reactions, the temperature of
the products raises above that of the surrounding. Reaction
Examples of exothermic reactions; Heat content of the system = Heat content of products – Heat
content of reactants.
(a) All combustion reactions;
H2 – H1 =
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + heat
The heat content of a substance (system) is called enthalpy. It is
7
2CO2 ( g )  3H 2 O( l )  heat usually denoted by H. The difference between the heat of products
C 2 H 6( g )  O2 ( g )
2 and that of reactants is called heat change or enthalpy change. It is
denoted by ΔH.
(b) All neutralization reactions.
For all exothermic reactions, ΔH, is negative e.g. C(s) + O2(g)
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + heat CO2(g) ΔH = -390K J mol- thus when 1 mole of carbon burns
completely in oxygen, 390KJ of heat is given out to the
In exothermic reactions, the products are found to be afa lower surrounding.
energy than the reactants as shown by the energy profile below ( A
plot of energy against reaction progress). CH3CH2OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO 2(g) + 3H2O(l) ΔH = 1230
KJ mol-1
1 mole (46g) of ethanol burns completely in oxygen, 1230KJ of

heat is given out to the surrounding.
H
Heat content of reactants.
Energy H2
– Heat content of products
2. Endothermic reactions:
ΔH – (H2 – H1)
These are reactions in which heat is absorbed from the - Ethanol is put in a spirit lamp – The lamp and it’s contents
surroundings. In these reactions, heat is required for the reaction to are weighed and the mass recorded, M1g.
occur and the temperature of the product falls below the initial - The fuel is then burnt and it’s flame used to heat a known
temperature. Here the products are at a higher energy than the mass of water, Mwg as shown in the diagram below.
reactants.
Energy
Ea = Activation energy
H2 – H1 = H
- after sometime, the flame is put off and the lamp and it’s
content are reweighed, M2g
Reaction progress - The temperature before and after reweighing is recorded let
the temperature of H2O before weighing be T1oC and after
The units of enthalpy charge are J (1KJ = 1000J) weighing be T2oc.
TYPES OF HEATS OF REACTION Heat given out = Heat absorbed by water.

(m1 – m2)g of ethanol gives mw C Δ T Joles
(a) Heat of combustion;  mwCT 
1g of ethanol gives  J
 m 
This is the heat charge that occurs when 1 mole of a substance is
completely burnt in air/oxygen.  mwCT 
46g of ethanol gives  x 46  J
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ΔH = -390KJ mol-1  m1  m2 
 mwCTx 46 
:. Heat of combustion of ethanol =  
Experiment to determine the heat of combustion of Ethanol  m1  m2 
Where ΔT = T2 – T1

1
C = specific heat capacity of water. K-1). Calculate the experimental value of the enthalpy of
Examples: combustion of propane.
Calculate the heats of combustion of methanol if 0.5g of methanol Heat absorbed by water = MCθ =
on burning raises the temperature of 200cm3 of water by 8oC. Mass of water = Vd = 150 x 1
(specific heat capacity of water = 4.2JgK-1) = 150g
=150 x 4.2 x 21.5
RFM CH3 – OH = 12 + 4 x 1 + 16 = 32 = 13545J
Heat produce = Heat absorbed 0.54g gives out 13545J

= MCQ = 200 x 4.2 x 8 = 6720J 60g of propanol gives out 60 x 13545 = 1505,000J
0.54
0.5g of methanol produces 6720J =1505KJ.
32g of methanol produces 32 x 6720 = 430 080 = 430.08Kg
0.5 1000 :. Experimental value of the enthalpy of combustion of propanol =
-1505 KJmol-1
:. Heat of combustion = -430.08 KJ mol-1 3. When 0.4g of ethanol was burnt, it raised the temperature of
0.1Kg of water by 20oC. The heat of combustion of ethanol is
1. Carbon burns in oxygen according to the following equation: [specific heat capacity of water = 4.2KJ/Kg/oC, C2H5OH = 46]
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) Heat absorbed by water = MCθ

The amount of heat evolved when 480g of carbon is burnt = 0.1 x 4.2 x 20
completely in oxygen is [1 molar heat of combustion of carbon is = 8.4KJ
2.2 x 10-7 KJ mol-1, C = 12] 0.4g of ethanol liberates 8.4KJ
4g of ethanol liberates 4 x 8.4 = 84 KJ mol-1
12g of carbon gives out 2.2 x 10-7 KJ 0.4
:. Heat of combustion of ethanol = -84 KJ mol-1
2.2 x10 7 x 480
480g of carbon gives out 4. Glucose burns in oxygen at 25oC according to the equation
12
below, giving out 2802 KJ mol-1 og heat energy.
:. Heat evolved is -8.8 x 10-6 KJ.
C6H12O6(s) + 602(g) 6CO2(g) + 6 H2O(g)
2. In an experiment to determine the enthalpy of propanol, 0-54g of Calculate the amount of heat produced when 18.0g of glucose is
propanol was burnt and the heat evolved caused the temperature of burnt in oxygen at the same temperature (H =1, C=12, O=16)
150cm3 of water to rise by 21 – 5 oC. (Molar mass of propanol =60,
density of water = 1g cm-3, specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 Jg- Heat produced = MCθ
RFM of C6H12O6 = (6 x 12) + (12 x 1) + (6 x 16)
= 180 The heat of neutralization of a strong acid and a strong alkali are
180g of glucose gives out 2802 constant and higher for example
18.0g of glucose gives out 18.0 x 2802 = 280.2KJ HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaNO 3(aq) + H2O(l) ΔH= -57.1KJ
180 mol-1
:. Heat produced = 280.2KJ.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ΔH = -571KJ mol-1
5. Methanol burns in excess air according to the equation.
The heat of neutralization involving a weak acid or weak alkali, is
-1
CH3OH(l) + 3 O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 4 H2O(l) ΔH = -730KJ mol not constant and is lower in value as compared to those of strong
bases or alkalis. This is because some heat energy is used up for the
Calculate the amount of heat liberated when 3.2g of ethanol (Mr ionization process e.g. HCl(aq) + NH4OH(aq) NH 4Cl(aq) +
=32) is completely burnt. H2O(l) ΔH = -51.1 KJ mol-1
32g of methanol liberates 730KJ of heat CH3COOH(aq) + KOH(aq) CH3COOK(aq) + H2O(l) ΔH =

3.2g of methanol liberates 730 x 3.2 = 73KJ -56.1 KJ mol-1
32
Note: the heat of reaction between a weak acid and a weak base is
:. Heat liberated = 73KJ lower.
Note: Consider; A = 200cm3 of 2M sodium hydroxide and 200cm 3 of 2M

Heat of combustion as determined by the experiment above HCl
is lower than expected because;
B = 200cm3 of 2M NaOH and 200cm3 of CH3COOH
- Heat is lost to the surrounding C = 200cm3 of NH4OH and 200cm3 of 2M CH3COOH
- Uncomplete combustion of the fuel
- Some fuel escape unburnt The pair which will register the highest temperature is A (strong
- Some heat is absorbed by the container acid + strong alkali) followed by B (strong alkali + weak acid)
HEAT OF NEUTRALISATION Note:
This is the heat charge that occurs when 1 mole of hydrogen ions (a) The heat of neutralization of strong acids and
reacts with one mole of hydroxide ions to form 1 mole of water. strong alkalis are constant and higher. This is
because they are fully ionized in solution to
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) produce hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions.
ΔH = -ve

(b) The heat of neutralization of weak acid + weak n
alkalis are not constant and are lower. This is
because they are not fully ionized in solution. where cw = specific heat capacity of water and
n = number of moles of water formed.
CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)
Examples:
NH4 OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Therefore, 2M solution of HCl will have more hydrogen ions than a 1. 100cm3 of 2M hydrochloric acid react with 100cm3 of 2M
2M solution of CH3COOH. sodium hydroxide to give 14.05oC rise in temperature, calculate the
Similarily, a 2M solution of NaOH will have more hydroxide ions molar heat of neutralization.
than that of a 2M solution of NH4OH.
Heat produced = MC Δt
EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE HEAT OF = (100 + 100) x 4.2 x 14.05
NEUTRALISATION BETWEEN SODIUM HYDROXIDE = 11802J
AND HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
100cm3 of hydrochloric acid contains 2 moles
3
A fixed volume of hydrochloric acid, v 1 cm is measured into a 2
100cm3 of acid contain x100 = 0.2 moles
plastic beaker and it’s initial temperature T1 is noted. 1000
1000cm3 of NaOH contains 2 moles
Then also a fixed volume of sodium hydroxide, V 2 cm3 is measured 2
100cm3 of NaOH contains x100  0.2moles
into a plastic beaker and it’s initial temperature T2oC is noted. 1000
The sodium hydroxide solution is quickly added to the hydrochloric NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
acid solution and the maximum temperature T3oC is recorded.
0.2 moles of water give 11802J
Heat produced = MCw ΔT 1 mole of water gives 11802 = 59010J = 59.01KJ
 T1  T2  0.2
 
 2  :. Molar heat of neutralization is -59.01KJ mol-1
ΔT = T3 -
2. When 50cm3 of 1M sodium hydroxide reacts with 50cm3 of 1M
Heat produced = (V1 + V2) cw ΔT ethanoic acid. The temperature rise is 8 oC. Calculate the heat
Moles of H2O produce = (V1 + V2) cw ΔT change when 1 mole of sodium hydroxide is neutralized by 1 mole
1 mole of water produce = (V1 + V2) cw ΔT of ethanoic acid. (specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 Jg-1K-1)
n
Heat produced = mc Δt
:. Heat of neutralization = - (V1 + V2) cw ΔT = 100 x 4.2 x 8
= 3360J 200cm3 of hydrochloric acid contain 2 x 200 = 0.4 moles
1000
1000cm3 of sodium hydroxide contains 1 mole 0.4 moles of hydrogen gives 163.296J
50cm3 of sodium hydroxide 50 x 1 = 0.05 moles 1 mole of hydrogen gives 163.296 = 408.24J
1000 0.4
:. Heat of reaction is -408.24J mol-1
1000cm3 of ethanoic acid contains 1 mole
50cm3 of ethanoic acid contains 50 x 1 = 0.05 moles 4. The graph below shows change in temperature when 0.5m
1000 sodium hydroxide solution was added to 200cm3 of hydrochloric
acid.
NaOH(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO Na(aq) + H2O(l)
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
0.05 moles 0.05 moles 0.05 moles
0.05 moles of water give 3360J

1 mole of water gives 3360 = 67200 = 67.2KJ 45
0.05 1000 Temp/oC
Heat charge = -67.2Kj mol-1.
:. Heat of neutralization is -67.2KJ mol-1.
3. When 2.4g of magnesium was added to 200 cm3 of 2m

hydrochloric acid, the temperature rise produced was 16.2oC.
Calculate the heat of reaction when one mole of magnesium is
added to 200cm3 of 2M hydrochloric acid. (Mg =24, S.H.C of water
is 4.2Jg-1C-1) Volume of sodium hydroxide/ cm3
(a) (i) What does point S represent?
1000cm3 of magnesium contains 2 moles
S is the neutralization point S is the End point.
200cm3 of magnesium contains 2 x 200 = 0.4 moles
1000 (ii) Calculate the morality of hydrochloric acid.
Mg(s) + 2 HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Heat produced = MC Δt NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
= 2.4 x 4.2 x 16.2 1000cm3 of sodium hydroxide contain 0.5 moles
= 163.296J 20cm3 of sodium hydroxide contain 0.5 x 20 = 0.01 moles
1000cm3 of hydrochloric acid contain 2 moles 1000
1 mole of sodium hydroxide react with 1 mole of
hydrochloric acid. 0.1 moles of water give 7560J
1 mole of water give 7560 x 1 = 756000J
:. Moles of HCl that reacted = 0.01 moles 1000
20cm3 of HCl contains 0.01 moles NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
1000cm3 of HCl contains 1000 x 0.01 = 0.5 moles 0.01 moles 0.01 moles 0.01 moles
20
:. Molarity of HCl is 0.5M. 0.1 moles of water give 7560J
1 mole of water give 7560 x 1 = 756000J
(b) The experiment was repeated using 0.5M ammonia solution 0.01
instead of sodium hydroxide :. Heat of reaction
would the maximum temperature be less or greater or equal
to that in (a)! Heat of reaction is -336KJ mol-1
5. When methane burns completely in oxygen 890 KJ is produced

It would be less. calculate the volume of methane at s.t.p that would be produced
when burn in excess oxygen would rise the temperature of 160g of
(c) Calculate the heat of reaction between one mole of water by 15oC ( 1mole of gas of s.t.p occupies 22.4cm 3 and specific
hydrochloric acid and one mole of sodium heat capacity of water = 4.2JgK-1) (253.69cm3)
hydroxide.
:. Volume at s.t.p = 253.699cm3
Heat produced = MC Δt
= (20 + 20) x 4.2 x 45 RATES OF REACTION
= 7560J.
The rate at which chemical reactions occur depends on the
3
1000cm of hydrochloric acid contain 0.5 moles frequency of collision between the reacting molecules. The greater
20cm3 of hydrochloric acid contain 0.01 moles the frequency of collisions, the faster the reaction and the higher the
rate.
1000cm3 of sodium hydroxide contain 0.5 moles
20cm3 of sodium hydroxide contain 0.5 x 20 = 0.01 moles The rate of a chemical reaction is the amount of products formed
1000 per unit time or the amount of reactants used per unit time.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) RATE CURVES:

1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
0.01 moles 0.01 moles 0.01 moles
For reactions in solution, the rate of a reaction is after expressed as
the rate of change of concentration of a reactant on product per unit Vol. of
time. carbondioxide
(cm3)
Concentration is measured in moles per litre (mol L-1)
Time/S
2. By measuring the mass of the reaction mixture with time as
carbon dioxide escapes.
Mass of the
Mixture / g
Time/S
The rate and a reaction of any time can be found from the rate curve
by calculating the gradient slope of the curve at that time. The
steeper the gradient, the faster the reaction and the higher the rate.
C
Rate of reaction = mol L-1S-1.
t Time/S
DETERMINATION OF RATES OF REACTION. Description of method;
This can be illustrated by considering the reaction between calcium 1. A known mass of calcium carbonate is put in a test tube which is
carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid. put in a conical flask containing unknown vol. of dilute
hydrochloric acid. The flask is connected to a gas syringe as shown
The equation for the reaction is; in the diagram below;
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

The determination can be done in two ways;
1. By measuring the volume of carbon dioxide evolved with time.

The thread is relaxed so that the calcium carbonate is in contact
with the acid. At the same time, the stop clock is stated and the
volume of carbondioxide formed is recorded at regular intervals of
time until there is no more reactions.
A graph of mass of flask and it’s contents against time is plotted.
The volume of carbondioxide is plotted against time
Mass of flask
Volume of and its contents/g
carbondioxide
Time/S
Note: It is necessary to add a little carbonate to the acid before Time/s
adding the weighed mass. This is because some carbondioxide Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction:
dissolves in the solution. Therefore it is necessary to circulate the
solution with carbondioxide so that all the carbondioxide produced The rates of reaction are affected the following factors;
from the weighed mass of the strips is measured.
1. Concentration of the reactants
2. The temperature of the reaction
2. A flask containing a known volume of dilute hydrochloric acid 3. Surface area of the reactants
and a test tube containing a known mass of calcium carbonate is 4. Catalyst
weighed. The thread is relaxed and the stop clock is started at the
same time. The mass of the flask and it is contents is recorded at a
given time interval.

A known volume of 2M hydrochloric acid and a known mass of
Effect of concentration on Reaction Rates: magnesium in a test tube are placed in a conical flask which is
connected to a gas syringe as shown in the diagram below.
The rate of reaction is proportional to the concentration of the
reactants. The higher the concentration of the reactants, the greater
rate of reaction. The lower the concentration of the reactants, the
lower the rate of reaction.
The effect of concentration on the reaction rate can be demonstrated

by the reaction between magnesium + dilute hydrochloric acid.
A known volume of dilute hydrochloric acid and a test tube

containing a known mass of magnesium are placed in a conical
flask as shown below The thread is relaxed to allow the acid to react with the magnesium.
At the same time, the stop clock is started.
The volume of hydrogen evolved is recorded at equal time intervals.
The experiment is repeated with the same mass of magnesium and

same volume of 1M of hydrochloric acid.
A graph of volume against fine are plotted on the same axis.
Volume of
Hydrogen /cm3 I – curve for 2M
hydrochloric acid
The conical flask is fitted with a gas syringe. The thread is relaxed II – curve f or
so that the magnesium + oil HCl are in contact. At the same time, a 1M hydrochloric acid
stop clock is started. The volume of hydrogen evolved is recorded
at regular time intervals until it remains constant.
Experiment to show how concentration affects the rate of

reaction.

The experiment is repeated using the same volume of hydrogen
peroxide while the temperature of the water bath is increased to
Time/S 45oC. Graphs of volume of oxygen against time are plotted on the
same axes.
From the graph, it can be seen that slope I is stepper than slope II. I–
o
This show that the reaction of 2M hydrochloric acid with curve for reaction at 45 C
magnesium is faster than that of 1M hydrochloric acid with Volume of
magnesium. Therefore the higher the concentration, the faster the oxygen/cm3 II –
reaction. curve for reaction at 35oC.
2. Effect of temperature on reaction rate.
The rate of a chemical reaction increases with increase in

temperature. The higher the temperature , the higher the rate of
reaction.
The effect of temperature on reaction rate can be demonstrated by

measuring the volume of oxygen produced by decomposition of Time/S
hydrogen peroxide at different temperatures. From the graphs, it can be seen that slope I is steeper than slope II.
2H2O2(aq) O2(g) + 2H2O(l) This shows that the rate of reaction at 45oc is higher than that at
Experiment to show the effect of temperature on rate of 35oC thus the higher the temperature, the higher the reaction rate.
reaction.
3. The effect of Surface Area on reaction rate
A known volume of hydrogen peroxide is placed in a conical flask
connected to a gas syringe as shown in the diagram. The rates of reaction increases with increase in surface area. This is
due to increase of the available area for contact which increases the
number of colliding particles e.g. the effect of surface area can be
demonstrated by measuring the volume of carbon dioxide gas
evolved by the reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium
carbonate.
Experiment to show the affect of surface area on the rate of

reaction.
The whole set-up in a water bath maintained at 35 oC. The volume
of oxygen formed is recorded at equal time intervals.

A known mass of lumps of calcium carbonate placed in a test tube From the graph, it can be seen that slope I is steeper than slope II.
and a known volume of 2M hydrochloric acid are placed in a This shows that the reaction of powder calcium carbonate with the
conical flask connected to a gas syringe as shown below; acid is faster than of lamps of calcium carbonate with the acid.
Therefore, the higher the surface area, the faster the reaction rate.
4. Effect of a catalyst on a reaction rate
The rate of a chemical reaction increases when a catalyst is used

and decreases in absence of a catalyst.
Experiment to show the effect of a catalyst on the rate of

reaction.
The thread is relaxed to allow the acid to react with the calcium
carbonate. At the same time, the stop clock is started.
The experiment is repeated with a same of powder calcium

carbonate and the same volume of 2M hydrochloric acid.
Graphs of volume of carbondioxide evolved against time are

plotted.
Plotted
volume
Of oxygen/cm3 I – curve for Other factors which affect rate of reaction:
calcium carbonate powder
II – curve for lumps 1. Effect of Pressure:
of calcium carbonate
Pressure affects only gaseous reactions. This is because unlike
solids and liquids, gases are compressible. Increasing pressure on
gases brings the particles closer together which increases the
frequency of collisions.
2. Light
Time/S

Some reactions are affected by light. Such reactions are said to be (iii) Using the graph, determine the rate of the
photosensitive e.g. The reaction between silver nitrate and sodium reaction if 4.0cm of magnesium ribbon was used.
chloride.
Solution:
Question:
(ii) As the length of magnesium ribbon increases, the
1. (a) (i) Write an equation for the reaction between dilute volume of hydrogen increase because of increase in number of
nitric acid and calcium carbonate. collisions between the reactions.
Volume = 7.2cm3
(ii) State how temperature the rate of reaction in a (i)
above increase in temperature
increases the kinetic energy of the reactants. REVERSIBLE REACTIONS:
(iii) Give a reason why a large surface area of calcium Factors that affect reversible reactions.
carbonate can speed up the rate of
Reaction in a (i) above. 1. Pressure
2. temperature
(b) Magnesium can react with hydrochloric acid to form 3. Concentration
hydrogen, state the conditions and 4. Catalyst
write an ionic equation for the reaction.
(c) The table below shows the volume of hydrogen eroheed Question:
when various length of
magnesium ribbon were reacted with fixed volume of Sulphurdioxide reacts with oxygen to form sulphurtrioxide
hydrochloric acid. according to the equation
Length of ribbon (cm) 1.0 2.0 3.0 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) + heat
5.0 6.0
Volume of hydrogen (cm3/min) 2.2 3.6 5.2 Which one of the following conditions favours the formation of
9.2 10.8 sulphurtrioxide;
(i) Plot a graph of volume of hydrogen
(vertical axis) against length of magnesium - Low temperatures
ribbon (horizontal axes). - High pressure
(ii) Explain the shape of the graph you have - Catalyst of vanadium (V) oxide
drawn.

2. Sulphur dioxide combines with air to form sulphurtrioxide 1. (a) Explain what is meant by the term saturated solution.
according to the equation. (b) Describe how the solubility of potassium chloride can be
determined in the laboratory.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) ΔH = -200 KJ mol-1 (c) The table below shows the solubilities of potassium chloride
and potassium nitrate at various temperatures.
State three conditions for maximum yield of sulphur trioxide. Temp/oC 0 20 40 60
Solubility of KCl(g) 28.2 33.5 38.8 44.7
- Low temperatures Solubility of KNO3(g) 12.9 31.8 61.2 108.2
- High temperatures
- Catalyst of vanadium (V) oxide (i) On the same axes, plot graph of solubilities of
potassium chloride and potassium nitrate against
temperature.
APPLIED CHEMISTRY (ii) Determine the temperature at which the solubility of the
two salts are equal.
PURIFICATION OF WATER (iii) Which one of the two salts dissolves more rapidly with
increase in temperature?
Water obtained from lakes, rivers or dams before being supplied for (iv) State what would happen if a saturated solution of
domestic uses in homes has to undergo the following processes potassium chloride at 40oC heat cooled to 30oC.
during purification;
(d) Of what industrial application is the study of solubility of
(a) Filtration: this is the removal of big objects present to leave salts?
clear water.
(b) Sedimentation: In this process, to clear water is added EFFECT OF HEAT ON SALTS
powdered potassium aluminium sulphate. This allows five
particles present as impurities which can’t be removed by 1. Ammonium chloride
filtration to settle at the bottom of the vessel.
NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
(c) Chlorination process: A controlled amount of chlorine is Observation
added to kill any harmful bacteria present in the
water. - White fumes
- A colourless gas that turns moist red litmus paper blue
REDOX REACTIONS:
2. Nitrates
These are reactions in which oxidation and reduction occur
simultaneously. K 
2 NaNO 3 ( s )
Na  2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

Ca 
Mg 

Al 

Zn  2 Zn  NO3  2 ( s ) 2
Fe 

Pb 
(NH4)2 CO3(s) 2NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Cu 

2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

Hg 
Observation:

Ag 2 AgNO3 (
Au 

s )
2 Ag(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
2 Pb(NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4 NO2(g) + O2(g) - colourless gas that turns water milky.
- A colourless gas with a chocking smell which fume moist red
litmus paper blue.
- droplets of a colourless liquid
3. Sulphates
2. ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
CuSO4.5H2O(s) CuO(s) + SO3(g) + 5H2O(l) Yellow when
Blue solid black white droplets of a colourless Hot + white on cooling
liquid
Solid fumes Pb CO3(s) PbO(s) + CO2(g)
Observation; Brown when hot
And yellow when cold
- the blue solid turns black
- White fumes CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g)
- droplets of a colourless liquid Black solid
2FeSO4.7H2O(s) Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g) + 14H2O(l) 1. (a) What is meant by enthalpy of neutralization?
White droplet of a (b) When 50.0cm 3 of a 1M sulphuric acid was added to 50.0cm 3
colourless liquid of 2M sodium hydroxide solution,
Fumes the temperature of the mixture by 13.6oC.
OR:
(i) Write an ionic equation for the reaction that took
FeSO4.7H2O(s) FeSO4(s) + 7H2O(l) place.
2FeSO4(s) Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g) (ii) Calculate the enthalpy of neutralization of sodium
Green solid brown hydroxide [specific heat capacity of water = 4.2Jg-1
solid o -1
C , of water = 1g cm-3)
- The green solid turns brown
- White fumes :. [Enthalpy of neutralization = -57.12KJ mol-1]
- Droplets of a colourless liquid
2. (a) Define heat (Enthalpy) of neutralization.
4. Carbonates;
(b) When 500m3 of a 0.5M hydrochloric acid was added to
1. Ammonium carbonate 50cm3 of a 0.5M potassium hydroxide in a calorimeter. There was
an increase from 27.5oC to 30.8oC. Calculate the enthalpy of the
reaction.
(heat capacity of water = 4.2Jg-1, of water = 1 g cm-3)
:. [Enthalpy of neutralization is -55.44KJ mol-1]
ORDINARY LEVEL CHEMISTRY

NOTES

BY; KIRRIGWAJJO NICHOLAS BSC .Educ.
(HONS)
(CHEMISTRY/MATHEMATICS)

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CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is a branch of science that deals with the study of the

Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight. It exists in

The Laboratory: It is used to measure volumes of

1. Do not touch or taste anything in the laboratory without

1. Burette 3. Volumetric flask

© Kirrigwajjo Nicholas , Chemistry Department 2010 1

It is used for mixing liquids up

It is used for measuring volumes

© Kirrigwajjo Nicholas , Chemistry Department 2010 2

11. Delivery tube

For passing on gas.

12. Bee hive shelf

For holding jars when collecting

It is used for 13. Thistle funnel

For heating solids and boiling

10. Test tube:

© Kirrigwajjo Nicholas , Chemistry Department 2010 3

Separating Immiscible liquids e.g.

THE BUNSEN BURNER How to light a Bunsen burner

Burning back (striking back) of a flame is when the flame burns

It is caused by insufficient supply of gas.

A flame is a mass of burning gases that produces heat and light.

Properties of Luminous Flame:

- It is yellow and unsteady.

Diagram Properties of non-luminous flame:

- It is blue and steady.

© Kirrigwajjo Nicholas , Chemistry Department 2010 5

Outline the differences between luminous and non-luminous flame.

Luminous Flame Non-luminous flame

Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight.

2. Outline the three states of matter.

© Kirrigwajjo Nicholas , Chemistry Department 2010 6

© Kirrigwajjo Nicholas , Chemistry Department 2010 7

1. Gas (vapour) State:

- particles are distant and weakly attracted to each other

- The particles are relatively close and have relatively high

(a) Conversion of solid to liquid 3. Solid State:

3. Evaporation - Changes of state (i.e. melting, evaporation)

4. Condensation (or liquidifying): Characteristics/properties of a physical change:

This is a change of a gas or vapour into a liquid. - The change is reversible

Physical change - The change is not reversible.

© Kirrigwajjo Nicholas , Chemistry Department 2010 10

Terminologies include solvent, solution, solute and suspension.

Definitions: Saturated solution: A saturated solution is one which cannot

This is a liquid which contains solid particles spread throughout it

Differences between Suspension and a solution:

Suspension Solution Other general examples of mixtures:

3. Insoluble solid – Liquid mixture e.g. sand and water. 1. Decanting:

4. Liquid – liquid mixtures:

(a) Miscible liquids: - These are liquids which form one

© Kirrigwajjo Nicholas , Chemistry Department 2010 13

This method is used to separate a soluble solid from a liquid e.g. a

© Kirrigwajjo Nicholas , Chemistry Department 2010 14

Solid crystal remain on the evaporating basin after evaporation of

Separation of Sand-Salt mixture: Conclusion:

Procedures: It is of two types namely;

© Kirrigwajjo Nicholas , Chemistry Department 2010 15

- a distillation flask - A mixture of ethanol and propanol

The figure below shows that the mixture M, consist of;

© Kirrigwajjo Nicholas , Chemistry Department 2010 16

(b) Which substances are present in both?

WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS:

Writing chemical formulae