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How Our Homes Impact Our Health: Using a COVID-19 Informed Approach to
Examine Urban Apartment Housing

Article  in  International Journal of Architectural Research Archnet-IJAR · December 2020

DOI: 10.1108/ARCH-08-2020-0159

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How our homes impact our health: How our homes

impact our
using a COVID-19 informed health

approach to examine urban

apartment housing
Terri Peters Received 13 August 2020
Revised 29 November 2020
Architectural Science, 30 November 2020
Faculty of Engineering Architecture and Science, Ryerson University, Accepted 30 November 2020
Toronto, Canada, and
Anna Halleran
Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada

Abstract
Purpose – The COVID-19 global health crisis is undeniably a global housing crisis. Our study focuses on
quality of life in urban mid- and high-rise apartment housing, the fastest growing housing types in many cities
around the world. This housing typology presents unique challenges relating to connection to nature, daylight
and fresh air.
Design/methodology/approach – This multi-disciplinary literature review analyzes more than 100
published papers from peer-reviewed sources from environmental psychology, building science and
architecture relevant to quality of life in high-rise housing, as well as more than 40 recent newspaper and
magazine articles about the possible impacts of COVID-19 on housing. We identify synergies between passive
design strategies and health-promoting architecture or “restorative environmental design” principles.
Findings – Post-pandemic, health-promoting apartment housing design must prioritize (1) window placement
and views that support stress recovery and restoration; (2) lighting levels based on spaces that can satisfy
multiple uses and users; (3) bedrooms designed for restful sleep that contribute to circadian regulation; (4) living
rooms with better indoor air quality, with a focus on natural ventilation; (5) access to nature, through the
purposeful design of balconies and (6) unit sizes and layouts that enable physical distancing and prevent
crowding.
Originality/value – We identify new social and environmental design priorities in the form of evidence-based
design principles to inform and promote healthy and restorative living environments for residents in apartment
housing.
Keywords Apartment housing, COVID-19, Daylight, Wellbeing, Health, Restorative environmental design,
Social sustainability, Views, Physical distancing, Circadian lighting, Thermal comfort, Balcony design
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
As cities around the world continue to densify, high-rise apartment housing will remain a
dominant residential housing typology in urban environments. Due to COVID-19 city
shutdowns and quarantines which began in many countries in early 2020, people have been
spending far more time than usual in their homes; thus it is paramount that occupant well-
being and health become a priority in residential design. Restorative environmental design
(RED) is a theory from environmental psychology that the built environment around us can
help us recover from stressors and replenish our resources depleted by concentration and
distractions using nature (Kaplan, 1995). As currently designed, high-density urban housing
does not offer restorative experiences for residents, but by critically rethinking some
Archnet-IJAR: International
Journal of Architectural Research
This research received funding from Ryerson University’s Dean’s Research Fund Undergraduate © Emerald Publishing Limited
2631-6862
Research Experience Award Summer 2020. DOI 10.1108/ARCH-08-2020-0159
ARCH parameters, there could be great improvements in quality of life in this housing typology. Our
homes could become environments that improve our well-being, comfort, quality of life and
mental and physical health. Studies show that people spend more time at home than we
perhaps realize. For example, even pre-COVID-19, before working from home was the norm,
and when schools and workplace were open, urban dwellers in Toronto Canada spent a
surprising amount of time at home. The Canadian Human Activity Pattern Survey
(administered from 1996 to 1997), conducted 2,381 resident interviews in four major Canadian
cities; it found that Toronto residents spend on average 16.1 h/day indoors at home (Leech
et al., 2002). Examining apartment housing through a post-COVID-19 lens, it is alarming to
consider how the number of hours residents spend indoors at home must have grown due to
pandemic related city shutdowns. The pandemic has acted as a catalyst for discussions
concerning the health-promoting qualities of our homes, shining light on a topic of great
importance that must be addressed.
This paper addresses both the primary and secondary impact of the “stay at home”
protocols. i.e. social distancing and social isolation as it impacts on the psychological and
physical health of residents and the changing and multiple use and time of homes under such
provisions. The lens restorative design provides strategies for improving quality of life in
apartment housing, by reconsidering the design of windows, views and access to nature
within the home. This multi-disciplinary literature review resulted in findings relating to the
importance of window views, the need for variability and variety in lighting levels based on
new uses, daylight for circadian regulation and environmental design that promotes well-
being and comfort. Inspired by the potentials for improving apartment housing during and
after the COVID-19 crisis, we have determined architecturally relevant strategies for
integrating restorative environmental design into mid- and high-rise apartment housing to
improve resident quality of life in the city during and following a pandemic.

2. Background: apartment housing and the city

As a housing typology, mid-rise and high-rise urban apartment housing have certain inherent
challenges, and many of these are worsened by the impacts of COVID-19 on apartment living.
Unlike in single-family detached homes or low-rise townhouses, apartment housing design
must consider additional programmatic elements that seem at odds with the heightened
awareness of hygiene and physical distancing such as elevators and elevator waiting areas,
shared staircases, garbage and recycling rooms, underground parking areas, shared lobbies,
shared laundry rooms, balcony access and proximity to other balconies and often exercise
rooms and common roof decks. Within dwellings, compared to other urban housing forms,
small unit sizes, daylight from a single facade, poor quality and resident control over indoor
air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort are the norm and potentially pose serious concerns for
occupant health and well-being (Andargie et al., 2019). As residents are increasingly spending
the majority of their time at home, the ability of their apartments to support resident mental
health and well-being also becomes critical. To create a sense of restoration in apartment
housing, the focus should be on the quality of dwellings, with more attention to placement of
windows, qualities of views and access to nature. Numerous studies demonstrate that
daylight and access to nature have positive impacts on health and well-being at home (Veitch
and Galasiu, 2012). While these are challenging to retrofit into an existing design, they should
certainly be prioritized in new housing. Post-pandemic, daylight quantity and quality in
apartment housing could prove to be a great starting point for design innovation and act as a
preventative therapy in restorative design for future pandemics (see Plate 1).
Urban densification is occurring globally, creating a concentration of apartment housing
in urban centers. For example in Toronto, Canada, 29.4% of the city’s population live in
apartment buildings with five or more storeys (Government of Canada, 2017). Restorative
 How our homes
impact our
health

Plate 1.
Urban apartment
housing in downtown
Toronto, Canada
(Authors, 2020)

environmental design could serve a dual function, both replenishing people’s stress and
promoting well-being and also helping to address climate change and the need to meet
ambitious new energy efficiency goals. Many of the strategies for human health and well-
being utilize passive design strategies like operable windows for natural ventilation that
result in low-environmental impact thereby also promoting environmental sustainability
(Peters, 2017). The application of biophilic design principles that connect people with nature
also play a role in restorative environments (Kellert et al., 2008).

2.1 Healthy housing

The current pandemic is not the first time that architecture has had to respond to disease
through design innovations, and it will not be the last. In 1800’s New York, the Tenement
House Acts were created as a solution to squalid conditions in tenement housing. The Acts
upgraded standards of safety, ventilation and health in dwellings and resulted in the
implementation of the “dumbbell” housing design, which featured a central light well to
increase ventilation and daylighting throughout the home (Arbuckle, 2016; Giacobbe, 2020).
The 1918 “Spanish Flu” pandemic following the first World War led to the formation of public
health regulations and in countries like Canada the establishment of a federal Department of
Health. Furthermore, until antibiotics were widely available, visiting a sanatorium was a
common treatment to combat tuberculosis. For instance, the Paimio Sanatorium (1933) by
Alvar Aalto was integrated into a forested landscape in Finland, providing ample natural
views, open daylight balconies and nearby walking paths to patients. At this time, daylight
and exercise were prescribed as state-of-the-art treatment to patients. In future, perhaps some
of the design principles of sanatoriums will become the new basis of design for all buildings,
where light and air are at the center of health-promoting architecture. It may be that
postCOVID-19 housing will share similar goals and place health and wellness at the forefront,
building on the rising acceptance of the WELL building rating system and other advances in
this direction (International WELL Building Institute, 2018).

3. Methods, literature review

This paper analyzes results of a literature review that identified and evaluated relevant peer-
reviewed studies relating to COVID-19 and apartment housing from multiple disciplines
including architectural design, environmental psychology, building science, engineering,
ARCH urban planning and health. The study included relevant government publications, news
articles and magazine articles to gain an up-to-date understanding of COVID-19 and its
implications on architectural design. The findings are architecturally relevant design
recommendations for restorative apartment housing in the context of COVID-19. Several
challenges were encountered throughout this literature review. In selecting papers for
analysis, we found it challenging to use key word searches as terminology varied between
disciplines. We noticed that often in building science or engineering journals multi-unit
residential buildings (MURB) were used to describe this housing type, while often in social
sciences and humanities journals, apartment housing, multi-storey apartment buildings or
high-rise residential towers were terms used. Occasionally relevant papers were also
categorized as multiple-unit housing, rental housing, social housing or condominium
housing. Another challenge was that the articles that we included varied in their study
location, and therefore their culture and political climate. For example, results from
residential daylighting studies in Hong Kong that examine occupant preferences may not be
applicable to its Canadian residential counterparts due to specific societal norms and cultural
preferences. Furthermore, as there is limited published research on COVID-19 and housing,
there was a general uncertainty in applying recommendations, as we, like the rest of the
world, do not know how COVID-19 will continue to evolve. It should also be noted that
because COVID-19 has progressed differently from country to country, our interpretation of
how the results from studies completed in other countries relation to Canada and may not
always be relevant in all contexts. Additionally, this study did not focus on housing for
accessibility, for affordability or for people recovering from illness. Future studies could
examine these issues and how they relate to apartment housing through a postCOVID-19 lens
as they are highly relevant.

4. Findings and discussion

The current pandemic poses opportunities for change in the design world as existing social
and political issues in contemporary architecture and housing have been brought to attention.
It is crucial that resident quality of life be a focus in housing design. We identified seven areas
of intersection between state-of-the-art housing research, restorative environmental design
and studies relevant to COVID-19 for mid- and high-rise apartment housing (see Figure 1).

Figure 1.
Area of intersection
between research
(Authors, 2020)
4.1 Window views, spatial variety and privacy How our homes
Windows in dwellings are necessary for inhabitant comfort and health, perhaps even more so impact our
during a pandemic. The quality of the view to the exterior is of great importance when
activities outside are limited and is fundamental to a dwelling’s ability to provide a sense of
health
restoration to inhabitants. Attention restoration theory (ART) explores how fatigue caused
by “directed attention” or concentration on tasks using emotional energy can be mitigated or
replenished through an environment’s ability to support recovery by creating spaces that do
not require great amounts of directed attention (Kaplan, 1995, 2001). Environments which
support “soft fascination”, enabling the mind to reflect on unresolved thoughts that have the
ability to deprive more critical attentional resources, offer a source of relief and restoration
(Basu et al., 2019; Kaplan, 1995). For example, studies have found that looking outside
throughout a day provides micro-restorative experiences, which have the capability to
provide restorative qualities of nature to occupants within their home (Kaplan, 2001). In a
time where individuals are not able to leave their dwellings as freely as they have become
accustomed, the value of a view to the outdoors is essential to residents’ wellness. Natural
window views and nature experiences are shown to enhance well-being through
physiological calming and improved focus, mood and resident satisfaction (Kaplan, 2001;
Talbot and Kaplan, 1991; Ulrich et al., 1991; Veitch and Galasiu, 2012). Nature is being capable
of holding one’s interest and attention, proving to reduce fatigue and stress while restoring
the mind and body (Kaplan, 1995). In a time where anxiety and loneliness are on the rise, the
benefits of the natural environment become central to the well-being of residents in apartment
housing.
In urban apartment buildings, direct views to green landscapes may not be possible, but
research has shown that a clear view of the sky can also be restorative. In a study exploring
people’s perceptions of apartment window views, views with maximum amounts of sky are
perceived as most restorative (Masoudinejad and Hartig, 2020). Furthermore, in an
investigation of the relationship between neighborhood satisfaction and perceptions of
naturalness and openness, findings indicate that openness, which is understood as
unobstructed, open spaces is the most important factor in overall neighborhood
satisfaction (Hur et al., 2010). In apartment housing, city views into other buildings are
often the norm, whereas we must consider that having all available views blocked by adjacent
buildings make views less capable of restoration, satisfaction, well-being, comfort and soft
fascination to residents. With this knowledge, urban densification must be managed, and
apartment housing views and surroundings must be considered in the design process.
As a result of COVID-19, privacy, individual space and the relationship between the
individual and the family and the family and the neighborhood have changed (Nielsen, 2020).
The theory of prospect–refuge (Appleton, 1975) purports that people naturally prefer varied
environments that include places where they can see activities but cannot be easily
overlooked by others. Windows that provide residents with a “lookout” view of the city street
or greenspace, act as a source of prospect (Hwang and Lee, 2018). The feeling of refuge can be
achieved in spaces where the resident feels a sense of retreat and security within their home. It
can be expected that privacy within the home will become more crucial as people spend more
time at home. Windows that supply both prospect and refuge conditions through balcony
spaces, shading devices, operable louvers, automatic blinds and vertical screens will become
valuable as a determinant of residents’ perceptions of liveability within the city. For many
reasons, designers must prioritize window views and spatial variety throughout the design
process as it is proven to support occupant health, wellness, stress reduction and restoration.

4.2 Designing variety in visual and thermal comfort and adaptable floor plans
As the home becomes a more multi-functional space that is required to facilitate working and
schooling environments, as successfully as it enables entertainment, cooking and rest,
ARCH a variety of lighting and thermal comfort levels throughout the home which support these
new functions must be considered. A review of studies investigating occupant comfort in
apartment housing found that poor thermal conditions and IAQ greatly affect occupant
health and productivity (Andargie et al., 2019). Our homes are likely to remain spaces for
learning and working in the near future, so we must start acknowledging that these spaces
will need to support productivity and health.
There are few design guidelines and no standardized metrics for daylighting levels
developed specifically for apartment housing (Kesik et al., 2019). However, there are some
recent studies that examine occupant preferences. A recent study in Singapore found that the
threshold of resident daylight satisfaction varies depending on room use (Jakubiec et al.,
2019). Lighting levels deemed satisfactory were measured at 175 lux in kitchens, 150 lux in
living rooms and 200 lux in bedrooms. Far more research needs to be carried out in this area,
to find out what light levels are desirable in each room and how location, climate and culture
impact preferences. As people are spending more time within their homes than ever before, it
follows that daylighting in the home will become a fundamental parameter in resident
satisfaction. In a recent study in Hong Kong, 55% of participants reported feeling satisfied
with the daylighting conditions in their kitchens and considered unit size as a more important
design parameter (Siu-Yu Lau et al., 2010). Yet, it should be noted that 47% of those
participants spent less than 15 min in their kitchens daily. This has likely changed drastically
since that study. As our kitchens and dinner tables have replaced restaurants, bars and coffee
shops, people will inevitably be spending more time cooking and dining at home. While
daylight quality may not have been a priority preCOVID-19, it can be expected that in
postCOVID-19 times, people will desire optimal light conditions not just in their kitchen but
throughout their entire home.
Apartment layouts that can be adapted to be used in many ways will become essential to
the perceived liveability of apartment housing in postCOVID-19 design. More research in
flexible design systems with enough flexibility and convince is necessary. Australian design
office Woods Bagot have developed a modular system, AD-APT, that includes a series of
adjustable walls and screens to divide an open-plan apartment unit to accommodate many
activities (Bahadursingh, 2020). Due to mandatory quarantine, American architectural office
SO-IL have worked to update current apartment designs to reflect pandemic anxiety. The
office proposed changes to the designs of the the kitchen, dining room and living room as
separated rooms; bedrooms that are spaced out throughout the apartment supporting
acoustic buffering and the creation of larger home office spaces and larger exterior
greenspaces (Chayka, 2020). Residential design has already begun adapting to COVID-19,
and it is predicted that these changes will continue to increasingly impact our homes and the
way we live.

4.3 Circadian regulation: bedrooms designed for sleep

As people may be confined to small apartment units for much of the day, due to shelter-in-
place orders, it is important that window design supports the regulation of occupants’
circadian rhythms. Routines have shifted and ongoing stresses and anxieties heightened by
the COVID-19 crisis, and so many peoples’ ability to sleep well at night has been affected
(Weikle, 2020). Studies of the nonvisual impacts of lighting in residential settings prove that a
higher daily light dose contributes to better sleep quality and circadian regulation
(Torrington and Tregenza, 2007; Veitch and Galasiu, 2012). Designing apartment units to
have ample daylight exposure on at least two facades will help allow for the regulation of
circadian rhythm as well as potentially offering opportunity for cross ventilation (Kesik et al.,
2019). There is no need for bedrooms to have floor to ceiling glazing. Instead, bedrooms
should provide lower window to wall ratios and feature operable windows for regulation of
thermal comfort and natural ventilation that support restful sleep (Kesik et al., 2019).
Additionally, it is important that nonbedroom spaces promote alertness and resident physical How our homes
activity which support restoration and result in better resident mental health and sleeping impact our
patterns. In a recent study on youth mental health, findings suggest that higher restorative
qualities and improved mental health are associated with more physical activity and social
health
cohesion (Dzhambov et al., 2018). It could be that reports of poor mental health, reduction in
social interactions and the lack of physical activity created by city shutdowns due to
COVID-19 are contributing to peoples’ poor sleeping patterns during the pandemic. Recent
studies of sleep and cognition have shown that disrupted sleep in times of crisis is an
evolutionary effect; where fear keeps us on high alert of possible threats (Weikle, 2020). Sleep
is important as a way of regulating our emotions and strengthening our immune systems, so
it is critical in these times of crisis that healthy sleeping habits are maintained. Improved
residential lighting can enhance the physical well-being and quality of life of residents by
supporting the sleep-wake diurnal cycle (Torrington and Tregenza, 2007). Exposure to
gradual dawning through window daylighting can improve quality of sleep and morning
alertness (Veitch and Galasiu, 2012). Bedrooms must be designed so that windows can be
closed off for darkness throughout the nighttime hours and allow adequate daylight
throughout the day.
Another consideration for bedroom design is that in small apartment units there is often
not enough space for rooms that allow for a variety of activities to occur. This is especially
true in shared units, where residents likely are spending more time in their bedrooms during
the pandemic. Increased time spent in the bedroom not sleeping, but perhaps watching
movies on laptops or scrolling through social media on cell phones, can be problematic for
resident well-being. Residential sleep studies prove that disruptive exposure to prebedtime
fluorescent light within the bedroom can disrupt sleep, increase nighttime alertness, decrease
melatonin and shift circadian rhythms (Rahman et al., 2017). While residents spend more time
in their apartments throughout the day due to city pandemic–related shutdowns, it is
important that the bedroom remain a place for rest. Spatial variety is important. Just as the
bedroom should be designed for sleep, shared spaces like living rooms should support
alertness and other experiences to allow environments for entertainment, socializing and
other leisure pursuits.
There are several environmental design parameters that can be optimized for sleep. Noise
can be an annoyance that prevents restful sleep. Some studies suggest that implementing
redundant air-sealed triple glazed windows in apartment housing could be an approach to
mitigate exterior city noise pollution, improve thermal comfort and increase security, which
may result in restful sleep (Race, 2019). In a residential daylighting study, small adaptations
including painting walls white, moving occupant activities into spaces closer to windows and
deterring spaces without windows from being used as dwellings are suggested to support the
regulation of the human circadian clock (Gochenour and Andersen, 2009). Post- pandemic
architecture that integrates sustainable, lasting solutions that promote resident health and
well-being through restorative bedroom design and spaces for restful sleep must be
prioritized.

4.4 Restorative spaces to support positive social interactions

A recent review concluded that social interaction and mental health are among the primary
topics of concern in high-rise residential buildings (Kalantari and Shepley, 2020). Now more
than ever as many people are spending the majority of their time indoors at home, it is critical
to keep these concerns in mind when thinking of ways to improve the liveability of apartment
housing. Some effects of COVID-19 on the noninfected population include loneliness, reduced
productivity, unhealthy sleeping and eating habits, obesity and loss of human to human
interactions (Salama, 2020). Figure 2 illustrates how design can respond to the effects of
COVID-19 on the noninfected population or those self-isolating. By improving the quality of
ARCH

Figure 2.
Restorative
environmental design
responses to the effects
of COVID-19
(Authors, 2020)

the spaces in which we live, we have the opportunity to tackle many of these issues.
For example, by providing outdoor and indoor communal living spaces that support physical
distancing, we can provide safe spaces for passive and active social interactions. Increasing
thermal comfort and IAQ will result in improvements in occupant health and productivity
(Andargie et al., 2019). Providing indoor and outdoor space for comfortable, physically distant
exercise, in combination with desirable apartment lighting designs that support sleep, can
help regulate resident circadian rhythms.
In a study investigating benefits of natural and urban environments, physiological
measurements and reports from participants found that recovery from stress is faster and
more complete when subjects are exposed to natural environments (Ulrich et al., 1991).
Results indicated that natural environments established a positive emotional state, positive
changes in physiological activity levels and sustained attention. It is imperative that
architects and designers prioritize natural views, so that optimal recovery environments can
be established at a time where stress and anxiety are prevalent. Daylighting can provide a
multitude of benefits to individuals well-being, comfort and mental and physical health,
whether you are fighting an illness or during everyday living.

4.5 Natural ventilation and thermal comfort at home

There is evidence that the spread of COVID-19 accelerated in areas where high temperature
and humidity levels were ideal for airborne transfer (Bate, 2020). Knowing this, poor thermal
comfort in housing that places individuals at high risk must be addressed for health and also
for comfort and well-being. In a study of social housing buildings in Toronto, results
indicated that residents who live in buildings with the highest amount of exterior glazing
report higher thermal discomfort (Vakalis et al., 2019). It was also found that residents who
reported thermal discomfort experienced a higher frequency of health issues. In a recent
thermal dynamic simulation study, it was proven that apartments exposed to higher amounts
of solar radiation due to floor level, orientation and high glazing ratios exceed daylighting How our homes
requirements and are at higher risk for overheating during the summer months (Nebia and impact our
Tabet Aoul, 2017). Further, a review of studies which investigated occupant comfort in
apartment housing, thermal conditions and IAQ are reported to be the most important factors
health
to maintain occupant comfort within MURBs (Andargie et al., 2019). To ensure year-round
thermal comfort, apartment design must consider the implications of facade design and high
window-to-wall ratios.
Another dimension to consider is that in the context of COVID-19, access to daylight,
nature and thermal comfort have become privileges linked to status. Socioeconomic status is
a powerful predictor of disease, disorder, injury and mortality (Goodman and Conway, 2016),
and COVID-19 has forced people to acknowledge issues of systemic inequality, due to the
highly contagious form of the virus. There is a new realization that strangers’ health is
affecting people’s own health, and it is time to re-evaluate all living environments to ensure
that all individuals have homes that support healthy living. An Australian study examining
energy use, indoor thermal comfort and health in social housing found that many dwellings
exceeded healthy CO2 levels; 42% of dwellings reported mold, 32% of participants suffered
from allergies and 54% reported health problems (Haddad et al., 2019). The COVID-19 crisis
could be an opportunity to make significant changes to apartment housing standards so that
healthy living conditions are available to all individuals, decreasing the likelihood that people
of low socioeconomic status will develop chronic diseases.
The availability of natural ventilation and operable windows could be simple passive
strategies to make indoor spaces more comfortable and healthier. COVID-19 has created a
sense of mistrust in building ventilation and mechanical systems. For example, it was
reported in the news that 45 residents of a high-rise apartment building in Calgary, Canada
contracted COVID-19; however, the cause of the outbreak remains unknown (Pike, 2020). In
early April, 2020, an outbreak of COVID-19 occurred in a small restaurant in Guangzhou,
China. Scientists concluded that the virus-containing particles were spread throughout the
restaurant through the air-conditioning system (Blackwell, 2020). Overreliance on active
heating and cooling systems, in buildings with minimal operable windows, has caused a great
dependence on active building systems. In a residential window study, findings suggest that
the concentration of CO2 is the best predictor of window opening behavior (Jian et al., 2011).
Operable windows are critical to gaining residents’ trust in their homes by maintaining ideal
IAQ, thermal comfort and ventilation.

4.6 Connection to nature

As residents spend more time at home, balconies have become an unexpected new venue for
socialization, protest and celebration (Maiztegui, 2020). Balconies that may have gone unused
in the past have become important spaces of community, offering a semi-public place to look
out, communicate with neighbors and engage with nature. In a post-occupancy evaluation of
balconies, findings indicated that residents prefer balconies with parapets and glass wall
enclosures as they afford better views, improve resident mood and provide a perception of
greater spaciousness (Xue et al., 2016). Further, a recent comprehensive literature review
found links between balcony types and indoor environmental quality and energy
consumption. The study found that open balconies led to improved thermal comfort, IAQ,
visual comfort and acoustic comfort (Ribeiro et al., 2020). Conversely, glazed balconies often
resulted in overheating problems contributing to decreased air infiltration rates and reduced
daylighting conditions of adjoining living spaces. Thus, it is necessary to consider the
implications of climate when determining the ideal balcony design. In an occupant survey
and interview study of thermal comfort in multi-storey apartment buildings in the subtropics,
it was found that natural ventilation and outdoor private living spaces such as balconies
determine residents’ perceptions of liveability (Kennedy et al., 2015). It can be assumed that
ARCH these factors will become more critical to resident satisfaction in postCOVID-19 housing.
Access to private balconies in housing for the elderly, especially within high-rise residential
buildings, has been shown to significantly improve resident morale (Lawton and Nahemow,
1979). For balconies to be successful outdoor spaces, they should be large enough that people
can comfortably fit a table and chairs, to sit and enjoy the view. Another issue to consider is
that typically balconies protrude from building façades and shade units below (Peters et al.,
2020). However, depending on climate, the level of enclosure and shading should vary. A new
consideration with COVID-19 physical distancing regulations in place is that balcony designs
must support physical distancing between apartment units.
As a response to the pandemic, biophilic design is likely to increase in popularity as visual
engagement with nature reduces anxiety and improves mental health (Crosbie, 2020). As
exposure to nature is recognized as being capable of providing restorative experiences
(Kaplan, 2001), small scale urban farming may become more popular since gardening has
proven to improve mental health (Makhno, 2020). While most urban apartment buildings
have a lack of outdoor green spaces; sunrooms and balcony spaces for urban farming may be
used to facilitate nature experiences (Nielsen, 2020). Thus, urban residents’ connection to
nature must be stronger to support resident wellness and health (see Figure 3).

4.7 Appropriate unit sizes and layouts that support physical distancing
Around the world, national health guidelines have advocated minimum distances for
physical distancing based on the estimated spread of COVID-19, but surprisingly countries
have imposed different regulations. These guidelines are a result of both cultural differences
and scientific research, Figure 4 illustrates these discrepancies. The United Kingdom’s Sage
research committee suggests that when people are one meter apart from carriers of
COVID-19, they are between two and ten times more likely to contract the virus, compared to
a two meter distance (Shukman, 2020). Research shows that the greater the distance between
individuals the lesser the likelihood of disease transmission.
It must be a priority to consider how to support physical distancing of at least
two meters between residents to establish comfort and safety within shared dwellings.
YouGov, a British online survey, found that 31% of adults have experienced mental or
physical health issues due to the quality of living conditions within their homes during
lockdown (Sansom, 2020). Furthermore, the survey indicated that 30,000 Britons have
spent city lockdowns in one-room dwellings. There is considerably more research required
as to how apartment housing can be designed to create more generous spaces that allow
physical distancing in units.

Figure 3.
Physical distancing
guidelines based on
country
(Authors, 2020)
How our homes
impact our
health

Figure 4.
Physical distancing
between partners and
roommates living in
one- and two-bedroom
apartments at The
Yards proves to be
challenging (Redrawn
and analyzed by
Authors, 2020)
ARCH The new normal created by COVID-19 involves physical distancing, working from home
and engagement with the virtual world (Salama, 2020). Residents who live in apartment
housing have many concerns as they adapt the way they live in their apartment buildings
during the pandemic. An issue with living in apartment housing during COVID-19 is “trying
to adopt all of those kinds of protective measures that you can, in a situation that you may not
have full autonomy and control over” (Bergen, 2020). In future, apartment residents will likely
remain cautious when touching surfaces including handrails, elevator buttons, door handles
and laundry machines and when interacting with neighbors. Landlords across Canada have
announced similar strategies for how they will be dealing with containing the spread of
COVID-19 in their buildings. Common tactics include increasing the cleaning of frequently
used spaces, closing communal spaces, decreased occupancy of elevators and laundry rooms
and fewer building visitors (Bruce, 2020). However, there has been much less conversation
surrounding how roommates in shared apartments will self-isolate in such small units as
spacious hallways, multiple washrooms in units and multiple communal living spaces are
luxuries only provided in expensive apartment buildings. Designing flexible housing that can
support self-isolation within shared units will become critical in containing the spread of
COVID-19 or future pandemics.
Similar to restaurants, which have adapted to allow for larger circulation spaces and
seating arrangements that support physical distancing, consideration for shared and
congregate housing must become more flexible, so that distancing between roommates can
safely occur. The Canadian Federal Health guidelines require people that test positive for
COVID-19 to self-isolate, maintain a two-meter distance from others, stay in separate
bedrooms from partners or children and use a separate bathroom, if possible (Stueck, 2020).
While these guidelines may be attainable in single family homes, in shared apartment
housing, these health and safety protocols may prove to be challenging. The Yards is a
typical 28-storey apartment building, completed in 2013 by Wallman Architects, in
downtown Toronto. Through the analysis of a one-bedroom and two-bedroom unit floor
plans, it is clear that physical distancing between partners, families or roommates is
impractical. As one-bedroom apartments are commonly occupied by two people, both one-
and two-bedroom unit types will be impacted. Typically a one-bedroom unit has one
bathroom, the hallway is too narrow for two people to use at once, and the kitchen and living
room can only be comfortably occupied by one person at a time. These issues make both
units inadequate for physical distancing between roommates, partners or families. It should
be noted that these are quite expensive units and would not be considered affordable
housing.
COVID-19 notwithstanding, providing daylit living spaces is crucial to resident quality of
life in apartment housing. Even if single units are much smaller, it can be expected that
having one’s own space will be in high demand during post-COVID-19 times. This may result
in minimum size requirements for apartment units and required physical distancing
capabilities within apartment building communal spaces. Furthermore, COVID-19 may cause
an increase in mid-rise apartment development as people may prefer living in buildings that
do not require elevator use.
As currently designed, most urban apartment housing is not very resilient. Passive
survivability is defined by a building’s ability to maintain critical life-supporting conditions
for occupants in times where power, heating fuel or water are unavailable for an extended
period (Wilson, 2005). Specifically, this concept can be applied to apartment housing when
considering how high-rise residential buildings may maintain thermal comfort throughout a
power outage or for example, how residents get to their unit on the 26th floor when the
elevators are not working. Apartment design must support passive survivability as climate
change continues to cause more frequent and severe weather events. Considering the
COVID-19 pandemic, providing at least two bathrooms in shared apartments and designing
apartments that support physical distancing from others should become an additional How our homes
principle in passive survivability. COVID-19 will not be the last pandemic to disrupt the way impact our
we live, so apartment housing must be designed to be more resilient.
health

5. Architectural design recommendations

Upgrading standards of apartment living conditions to support occupant health and wellness
will require social, economic and political changes. By utilizing restorative environmental
design principles to inform apartment housing design, apartment housing can provide better
living conditions that support inhabitant health and well-being.
The following design recommendations for restorative apartment housing in the context
of COVID-19 are based on the research findings. We have identified recommendations based
on new build and renovation projects. Architects and designers must prioritize the following
to enable living environments which support resident health and wellness:

5.1 Window views, spatial variety and privacy

(1) Window design in dwellings should provide unobstructed views of the sky and
nature. These views are proven to enhance well-being by promoting physiological
calming, improving focus, enhancing mood, increasing resident satisfaction and
aiding in recovery from illness.
(2) A variety of prospect–refuge conditions within apartment units are necessary.
Windows should allow residents an interesting “lookout” view; for example, a view
over a city street or greenspace. The concept of refuge can be achieved when people
have a space of sanctuary and retreat within their home.

5.2 Designing variety in visual and thermal comfort and adaptable floor plans
(1) The home has become a multi-functional space that must facilitate working,
schooling, exercising, cooking, socializing and screen-based entertainment.
Daylighting, indoor air quality and thermal comfort recommendations normally
reserved for learning and office environments that support productivity now become
relevant in apartment units.
(2) Apartment layouts that can be adapted to be used in a variety of ways is essential to
support the changing role of the home. New buildings should focus more attention on
acoustic separation between rooms and for home-office spaces.

5.3 Circadian regulation: bedrooms designed for sleep

(1) Small adaptations including moving occupant activities into spaces closer to
windows and designing all occupied areas to have glazing to outdoors can support
the regulation of the human circadian clock.
(2) Bedrooms should not have floor-to-ceiling glazing and should provide operable
windows for thermal comfort and natural ventilation which support restful sleep.
ARCH (3) Provide nonbedroom spaces that promote alertness and resident physical activity
support restoration resulting in improved resident mental health and sleeping
patterns.

5.4 Restorative spaces to support positive social interactions

(1) Shared common spaces within apartment buildings that support physical distancing
enhance social interactions among residents and support restoration. For example,
amenities could include shared roof terraces, exterior courtyards and communal
lounge rooms designed to support physical distancing.
(2) Daylight must be better considered in residential building design as resident mood
and social behavior is greatly influenced by daylight exposure within and outside of
the home.

5.5 Natural ventilation and thermal comfort at home

(1) Operable windows in living and cooking spaces are critical in maintaining
comfortable indoor air quality and thermal comfort. This promotes occupant
comfort, productivity and health within apartment housing.
(2) Retrofitting underperforming housing must be addressed. Poor thermal comfort
conditions can place vulnerable populations at high risk in apartment housing.
Undercooling in the summer, overheating in the winter and high window-to-wall
ratios are primary causes of thermal discomfort, resulting in reports of olfactory
discomfort and increased health issues (Vakalis et al., 2019).

5.6 Connection to nature

(1) Balconies have become even more popular amenities for socialization, protest and
celebration that offer a window into public life. Their role in postCOVID-19 apartment
housing is crucial, and thus people’s preferences for balconies and outdoor spaces
that can be used year-round should be considered as priorities. Balconies must be
designed to support daylighting within units and must enable physical distancing
between balcony neighbors.
(2) Exterior public spaces must be generously sized to accommodate buffer zones that
allow people to feel comfortable in social settings that enable physical distancing.
(3) The application of biophilic design should increase as nature restoration can produce
a multitude of benefits for residents through improvements in mental and physical
health.

5.7 Appropriate unit sizes and layouts that support physical distancing
(1) Provide spaces, especially within dwellings, that support physical distancing of at
least two meters between individuals. This will likely mean re-examining apartment
layouts by providing more than one bathroom in larger units and more generous
living room spaces. This applies to shared apartment units but also responds to the
need for physical distancing in family occupied units if one person in a family
becomes ill.
 (2) Apartment design must promote passive survivability by utilizing passive design How our homes
strategies to maintain life-supporting conditions. For example, providing operable impact our
windows for residents to maintain environmental indoor quality, limiting building
height to decrease reliance on elevators and providing multiple bathrooms in shared
health
apartments.

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Corresponding author
Terri Peters can be contacted at: terri.peters@ryerson.ca

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