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Radiation Safety: Hapter
Radiation Safety: Hapter
C
6H A P T E R
Radiation Safety1
practices than can be obtained by overall conditions at the work site affect
spending eight hours sitting on a job and the operations. Distances to radiation area
interviewing radiographers. During that boundaries need to be calculated and
amount of time when the auditor’s posted as required to prevent
presence is not known, work ethics are unauthorized entry into the radiography
demonstrated and the real story is told. area. Conditions may require that
Followup interviews should be conducted nonradiography personnel must work in
to verify the details that must be noted: close proximity to the radiography
serial numbers, calibration dates and boundaries. Surveillance is required to
items that need to be checked and maintain control of the established area.
validated. Specific transportation requirements and
This is not to suggest in any way that regulations mandate how the radiographic
observations should be conducted, as exposure device and equipment are
some audits are conducted, from a long transported to the work location.
distance by hidden auditors with Radiation surveys must be performed to
binoculars. Audits should be open ensure compliance with established
exchanges of information. All parties procedural requirements. Peak readings
involved should be treated with the need to be documented. Emergency
dignity and respect expected in any procedures and points of contact should
business encounter. All involved should be reviewed to afford timely response in
participate in a professional manner. the event of an accident or emergency. By
The radiographers should be aware that the nature of the operation, an
the sole purpose of the radiation safety overexposure or other accident is more
officer, observer or auditor at the job site likely during a temporary field operation.
is to validate that the radiography team is Permanent facilities are constructed
operating to the established procedures and evaluated to determine restrictions
and within the restraints of governing for use. These restrictions allow some
regulations, not to try to catch the relaxation of the requirements associated
participants committing infractions. with temporary field site operations. If
Systematic or generic deficiencies should permanent cells are used within the
be addressed to appropriate management parameters established, radiation levels
for long term corrective actions. The audit outside the facility will always be at
process should be a positive experience acceptable limits. The safety inspector
rather than a traumatic one. A more must confirm that activities are within the
casual, relaxed, audit allows an established parameters. Exposure cells
opportunity to experience the way things must be outfitted with alarms and
are done. warning devices and these devices now
Careful observation of details, such as require a daily operability check. Accesses
radiation levels at the posted boundaries, to the facility must be locked or guarded
can be conspicuously determined while while exposures are being completed.
approaching the job site. Proper In industrial radiography operations,
surveillance techniques, area control high radiation exists in permanent
procedures and adherence to proper exposure cells — for example, facilities
operating procedures should become equipped with cobalt-60 exposure devices
obvious as the auditor approach the of 14 TBq (385 Ci). Some permanent
radiography operation. facilities also serve as long term storage
The better the auditor understands areas for radiography exposure devices.
operations, the better the ability to When established as a storage area,
identify existing or potential problems. additional radiation surveys and postings
Experience provides a higher potential to are required and should be checked.
ensure the safety of personnel involved as When it is necessary to operate an
well as the general public. Large scale exposure cell outside of the established
operations with many radiographers or parameters for use, the cell can be
multiple locations may require assistant established as a temporary field site.
radiation safety officers or radiation safety Additional considerations needed for a
officer delegates to be assigned to provide temporary site will then apply. If an alarm
the support and coverage needed to or warning device malfunctions, a
ensure compliance. permanent facility may be used as a
temporary field site but current
Temporary Field Sites versus regulations must be checked to find out
how long.
Permanent Facilities for Isotopic
Sources7
Semiannual Isotopic Source
At temporary field sites specific restraints Audits7
apply. Generally each field site operation
offers a new challenge. The site should be Field audits of radiography are required to
examined and assessed to determine be conducted semiannually, quarterly in
problems that might arise. Location and some locations. Every person,
Exposure of Minors19
TABLE 2. Maximum permissable dose per quarter of An individual under 18 years of age must
calendar year (3 mo) for whole body irradiation.19 not be exposed to greater than 10 percent
of the limits for occupationally exposed
Dose per Quartera
______________________ workers, that is, 10 percent of 12 mSv
Radiation Workers mSv (rem) (1.25 rem) per quarter to the whole body
and similarly for the hands, forearms,
Whole body; head and 12 (1.25)
feet, ankles and skin of the whole body.
Active blood forming organs 12 (1.25)
Lens of eyes 12 (1.25)
Gonads 12 (1.25)
Exposure of Females
Hands and forearms b 188 (18.75) During the entire nine months of
Feet and ankles 188 (18.75) gestation the maximum permissible dose
Skin of whole body 75 (7.5) equivalent to the fetus from occupational
exposure of the declared pregnant woman
a. These numbers are obtained by dividing annual doses of 5, 75 and 30, should not exceed 5 mSv (0.5 rem) evenly
respectively, by 4.
distributed over the entire pregnancy.15-21
b. All reasonable efforts should be made to keep exposure of hands and
forearms within the general limit for skin.2,15-18
Choice of Instruments22
FIGURE 3. Boron trifluoride neutron radiation The following general properties should
detector tube provides high gamma be considered.
rejection up to about 5 Sv ·h–1 (500 R·h–1) Energy Response. If the energy spectrum
and detects neutrons with energies from of the radiation field differs significantly
thermal to about 10 MeV. from that of the calibration field, a
correction may be necessary.
Directional Response. If the directions
from which the radiations arrive at the
instrument differ significantly from those
in the calibration field, correction may be
necessary. If the dose equivalents being
determined are small in comparison to
permissible doses, large errors are
acceptable and correction may not be
necessary.
Rate Response. Instruments that measure
dose or exposure are called integrating
instruments; those that measure dose rate
or exposure rate are called rate instruments
or rate meters. If the dose rate or exposure
rate differs significantly from that in the
calibration field, correction may be
necessary. Ordinarily, an integrating
instrument should be used only within
the rate ranges for which the reading is
independent of the rate. Rate instruments,
similarly, should be used only within the
rate ranges in which the reading is
proportional to the rate. A few
instruments will become saturated at very
high rates; that is, they will cease to need only to indicate the average rate for
function and the reading will drop to zero radiation protection purposes.
or close to zero. It is particularly necessary Mixed Field Response. Because some
to know the rate response of instruments radiations (such as neutrons) have higher
to be used near machines that produce quality factors than others, mixed field
radiation in short pulses. Rate instruments monitoring is necessary. This can be done
used near repetitively pulsed machines either by using two instruments that are
MOVIE.
Personnel
monitoring
devices.
(d)
(b)
(e)
each sensitive to only one radiation or by Ionization Chambers. Many gamma ray
using two instruments that are sensitive and X-ray exposure rate measurements are
to both but to a different extent. made with portable ionization chambers
Unwanted Response. Interference by (Fig. 1). Ionization chambers with separate
energy forms that an instrument is not readers are useful for measuring either
supposed to measure can be a problem. very high or very low exposure rates. Ion
Response to heat, light, radiofrequency chambers made of plastic or other low
radiations and mechanical shock are atomic number materials usually give
examples. exposure readings independent of photon
energy down to 50 keV. Ionization
Fail Safe Provision. To avoid unknowingly chambers are available for exposure rates
exposing personnel to radiation, to over 20 Sv·h–1 (3 or 4 kR·h–1).
malfunctions of an instrument should be
readily recognizable or should always Geiger-Müller Counters. The dead time in
result in readings that are too high. geiger-müller counters (Fig. 4) sets a limit
to their count rate that, in turn, limits
Precision and Accuracy. Typically, precision their use to exposure rates up to about
of a few percent should be obtained on 0.03 nSv (a few µR·h–1). The counters
successive readings with the same survey respond to the number of ionizing events
instrument. At the level of a maximum within them independent of energy and
permissible dose a measurement accuracy thus do not yield equal count rates for
specified by regulations should be equal exposure rates of different energies.
achieved. At levels less than 0.25 the Geiger-müller counters are better suited
maximum permissible dose a lower level for radiation detection than for
of accuracy (say, a factor of 2) is measurement.
acceptable.
Scintillation Instruments. Scintillation
Calibration. Instruments used for devices (Fig. 5) also have count rate
radiation protection are not absolute limitations because of the duration of the
instruments; that is, they require light flashes but can count much faster
calibration in a known radiation field or than geiger-müller counters. In the same
comparison with instruments whose exposure field, scintillation count rates are
response is known. Many users of higher than geiger-müller count rates, so
radiation protection instruments must scintillation counters are useful for
rely on the manufacturer to calibrate their locating weak X-ray and gamma ray fields.
instruments properly. Users should
arrange a reproducible field in which the
instruments are placed and read
frequently at least semianually. The FIGURE 5. Radiation detector with scintillation
possibility of reading error due to counter measurement of low energy gamma
imprecision is minimized by computing radiation.
the mean of several readings. If changes
in the mean reading are detected, the
instruments should be recalibrated
promptly.
Time Constant. An important
characteristic of a rate instrument is the
time constant, an indication of the time
necessary for the instrument to attain a
constant reading when suddenly placed in
a constant radiation field. Time constants
are generally given as the time required to
arrive at 1 – e–1 (that is, 0.63) of the final
reading. Typical time constants of good
rate meters are 1 s or less. The response
time of a rate instrument is defined as the
time necessary for it to reach 90 percent
of full response. It is equal to 2.3 time
constants.
similar to the protective installation. The 6. Service doors to areas where exposure
requirements for an enclosed installation can exceed the measurements in items
include items 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6, above, plus 3 and 4 above must be locked or
a different item 4. secured with fasteners requiring
4. The exposure at any accessible and special tools available only to qualified
occupied area 0.3 m (1 ft) from the service personnel.
outside surface of the enclosure does
not exceed 100 µSv (10 mR) in any Open Installation
1 h. The exposure at any accessible
and normally unoccupied area 0.3 m This class can only be used when MOVIE.
(1 ft) from the outside surface of the operational requirements prevent other Warning tape
enclosure does not exceed 1 mSv classes, such as in mobile and portable and sign.
(100 mR) in any 1 h. This class of equipment where fixed shielding cannot
installation requires administrative be used. Mobile or portable equipment
procedures to avoid exceeding the used routinely in one location should be
permissible doses. The tradeoff made to meet the requirements of one of
between (1) the intrinsic but initially the fixed installation classes. Adherence to
expensive safety of a protective safe operating procedures is the main
installation and (2) the required safeguard to overexposure. The
continuing supervision and requirements include the following.
consequences of an overexposure in 1. The perimeter of any area in which
an enclosed installation should be the exposure can exceed 1 mSv
carefully considered in the planning (100 mR) in any 1 h must be posted as
stages of a new facility.22 a very high radiation area.
2. No unauthorized or unmonitored
Unattended Installation person may be permitted in the high
radiation area during irradiation. In
This class consists of automatic cases of unattended operation, positive
equipment designed and manufactured by means, such as a locked enclosure,
a supplier for a specific purpose that does shall be used to prevent access.
not require personnel in attendance for 3. The perimeter of any area in which
operation. The requirements for this class the radiation level exceeds 50 µSv
include the following. (5 mR) in any 1 h must be posted as a
1. The source is installed in a single radiation area.
purpose device. 4. The equipment essential to the use of
2. The source is enclosed in a shield, the source must be inaccessible to
where the closed and open positions unauthorized use, tampering or
are identified and a visual warning removal. This shall be accomplished
signal indicates when the source is on. by the attendance of a knowledgeable
3. The exposure at any accessible person or other means such as a
location 0.3 m (1 ft) from the outside locked enclosure.
surface of the device cannot exceed 5. No person can be exposed to more
20 µSv (2 mR) in any 1 h. than the permissible doses.
4. The occupancy in the vicinity of the 6. For reasons of safety and security,
device is limited so that the exposure restricted areas must be clearly defined
to any individual cannot exceed and marked. Means of surveillance to
5 mSv (0.5 R) in a year. enforce the restrictions are needed.
5. Warning signs are used.
Permissable occupational
Working dose per week Exposure 0.5 R ⋅Ci –1 ⋅h –1
(3) = (5) =
time Exposure dose rate rate
at 1 m
1000 µSv ⋅ wk –1 × 0.1 Ci
=
100 µSv ⋅ h –1 = 0.05 R ⋅h –1
100 mR ⋅ wk –1
=
10 mR ⋅ h –1 Because 3.0 m is obviously more than
10 times 0.13 m (5.0 in.), the inverse
= 10 h ⋅ wk –1 square law applies. Also, scattering is not
a problem. Using the inverse square law
gives the exposure rate at 3 m:
PART 5. Shielding
Skyshine28
Concrete Secured
entrance
In the design of facilities, there is often a
question concerning the magnitude of
(b) shielding required for the roof over the
building. As an ordinary weather roof
Solid angle
Skyshine
Alternative Ω
shielding
positions
d1
Observation
point
provides little if any attenuation for as the half value layer (HVL). Similarly, the
radiation directed up, there is a significant thickness that will reduce the radiation to
probability that radiation reflected back one tenth is referred to as the tenth value
from the atmosphere will be unacceptable layer (TVL). (See Tables 5 and 6 and see
in the immediate area of the facility. See Figs. 9 and 10.1,3)
Fig. 7 for X-rays and gamma rays this
radiation (1) increases roughly as Ω1.3,
where Ω is the solid angle subtended by FIGURE 9. Transmission through lead of gamma rays from
the source and shielding walls, selected radionuclides.3
(2) decreases with (ds)2, where ds is the
1
horizontal distance from the source to the
observation point and (3) decreases with
(di)2, where di is the vertical distance from
the source to about 2 m (6.5 ft) above the
roof. 10–1
The shield thickness necessary to
reduce the radiation to an acceptable level
may be calculated according to published
techniques28 and may alternatively be
Transmission (ratio)
10–2
designed into the roof structure or
mounted over the source with a lateral
area sufficient to cover the solid angle Ω.
Similar statements apply to neutron 10–3
skyshine, except that the functional
dependences of the radiation at ds are
slightly different for Ω and ds.
10–4
Iridium-192 Cesium-137
Materials Radium
Common materials such as concrete and Gold-198 Cobalt-60
lead can be used as absorbers or shields to 10–5
0 125 250
reduce personnel exposures.29 Beta or (5) (10)
electron radiation is completely stopped by
the thicknesses of material shown in Thickness of lead, mm (in.)
Fig. 8.30 The thickness of any material
that will halve the amount of radiation
passing through the material is referred to
FIGURE 10. Transmission through concrete (density of
2.35 g·cm–3 [147 lbm·ft –3]) of gamma rays from radium,
FIGURE 8. Maximum range of beta particles as function of cobalt–60, gold-198 and iridium-192.3
energy in various materials indicated.30
1
25 000 (103)
Maximum range of beta particles, mm (in.)
Air
10–1
2500 (102)
Transmission (ratio)
Aluminum
25 (100)
Concrete
Water 10–3 Cesium-137
Acrylic
Iron Lead
10–5
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75
0.025 (10–3) (10) (20) (30) (40) (50) (60) (70)
1 2 3 4
Concrete slab thickness, m (in.)
Energy (MeV)
Table 5. Shielding equivalents: approximate tenth (TVL) and half value (HVL) layer
thicknesses in lead and concrete for several gamma ray sources.3,27
Lead
_____________________________________ Concrete
_____________________________________
Half Value Layers
_______________ Tenth Value Layers
_________________ Half Value Layers Tenth
_________________ Value Layers
_______________
Source mm (in.) mm (in.) mm (in.) mm (in.)
TABLE 6. Shielding equivalents: approximate half value layers (HVL) and tenth value layers (TVL) for lead
and concrete for various X-ray tube potentials.3,27
Peak Lead
___________________________________________ Concrete
___________________________________________
Voltage Half Value Layers
_________________ Tenth Value Layers
__________________ Half Value Layers
_________________ Tenth Value Layers
__________________
(kV) mm (in.) mm (in.) mm (in.) mm (in.)
Shielding
Neutron Sources24
Fast Neutrons
Adequate shielding against neutrons will
Radioactive Neutron Sources often attenuate gamma radiation to
Radiation measurement techniques acceptable levels at both reactors and
specific to neutron radiation are discussed accelerators. Water and other
elsewhere.23-25 hydrogenous shields may constitute an
important exception to this rule. Ordinary
Spontaneous Fission Neutron or heavy aggregate concrete or earth are
the recommended materials in most
Sources installations. Any economy achieved by
These sources are attractive because of water filled tanks is likely to be offset by
their fissionlike spectrum, relatively low maintenance difficulties. Both paraffin
gamma ray yield and their small mass. and oil, although good neutron absorbers,
Californium-252 has been used for are fire hazards and should not be used in
stationary and mobile systems. large stationary shields. Techniques of
shielding calculations are discussed in
Accelerator Sources detail elsewhere.24
The importance of concrete as a
Constant voltage accelerators such as van structural and shielding material merits
de graaff and cockcroft-walton special mention. Its use for gamma and
accelerators can produce energies up to X-ray shielding has been previously
about 20 MeV for protons and deuterons discussed. Because of its relatively high
and still higher energies for alpha particles hydrogen and oxygen content, it is also a
and heavy ions. Small accelerators using good neutron shield. The subject of
deuterons of 100 to 200 keV energy can shielding calculations for neutrons is
produce large numbers of 14 MeV complex and should be performed by
neutrons when using a tritiated target. specialists. Benchmarks include
High frequency positive ion accelerators approximate tenth value layers of
include the cyclotron, synchrocyclotron, 250 mm (10 in.) of concrete for 14 MeV
proton synchrotron and heavy ion linear neutrons and 150 mm (6 in.) for 0.7 MeV
accelerator. These are capable of neutrons.
producing a wide range of neutron
energies. Protons above 10 MeV will
produce neutrons when striking almost Thermal Neutrons
any material. Generally the energies associated with
High frequency electron accelerators thermal neutrons are less than 1 eV. For
such as the betatron produce X-rays radiation protection the most important
through the interaction of the accelerated interaction of thermal neutrons with
electrons with the target. The X-rays in matter is radioactive capture. In this
turn produce photoneutrons, most with process, the neutron is captured by the
energies of a few MeV but with some nucleus with the emission of gamma
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