Edu.

Research
Methods &
Methodology
Reviewing the Literature
Research Aims /Purposes
Research Objectives
Research Questions
Why Literature Review?

• Knowledge for individual who reads your paper

• Indicate the aspects of a research topic that have been studied

adequately and those that have not

• Warn you about some difficulties you might encounter when

doing the research
Literature review is not…

❌Mere reading

❌Discussion of methods

❌Summary of a few works

❌Introduction to the research question

Reading Journal Article
 Literature Review Matrix
Title/ Problem Theoretical Respondents/ Research design Results/ Notable My Critiques/ Link to my
Author statement/ Framework/ participants/ & instruments/ Findings Conclusion/Rec Analysis study
purpose and Conceptual texts/ materials analytical tool ommendation
Research Framework for future
Questions research
The title Central List down Who & no. of Quantitative/ What did the Notable Reflections: Usefulness
/year and issue(s)/ accordingly subjects qualitative/ mixed the Conclusion/ for your
author’s problems methods? researchers Recommendati Examples: research
date being Context(s): e.g. discover on for future What did you proposal
investigated Where did the Instruments: through their research learn from this - what can
study take place? survey/ interview, research? article? be used?
Theory(s)/ etc
concept(s)/ OR Use own
model(s) used adapted or words or add
to support/ What type of adopted or created quotes
explain/ materials/ texts/ by the
describe the other resources researcher(s)?
study being studied?
Data analysis
technique
Identify Themes for Literature Review
Identify Themes for Literature Review

one reoccurring theme is the negative relationship

between Facebook use and Grade Point Average.
 Synthesizing Literature

To synthesize is to combine two or more elements to form a new

whole. In the literature review, the “elements” are the various
components of the literature you gather and read; the “new
whole” is the conclusion you draw from those components
 Identify the trends discrepancies and
gaps to create synthesis statements

Title/ Problem statement/ Theoretical Respondents/ Research Results/ Notable Critique/ Link to my study
Author purpose and Framework/ participants/ design & Findings Conclusion/Recom My analysis
Research Questions Conceptual texts/ instruments/ mendation for future
Framework materials analytical tool research
Dolce The study was to Informed by 45 (13% Quantitative Help identify The readiness Many faculty did Attitudes are important
et al. assess the oral the HRSA response rate) research design barriers that assessment showed not report a and could inform the
(2016) health knowledge, Framework interdisciplin might present the need for targeted positive attitude experience of faculty
skills and attitudes (Conceptual ary 25 item, web- when oral professional about the
of interdisciplinary Framework) healthcare based, cross health Is development for curricular I can argue that we need
healthcare faculty faculty sectional integrated faculty integration this deep dive in order to
(nursing, survey into health better understand/ address
pharmacy, professions The HRSA Survey aren’t a the problem
physical Researcher curricula framework was a deep dive
therapy) develop the useful framework I can use this to shore up
survey for developing the argument in problem
Higher survey instrument statement
education Analyses: One-
institution in way ANOVA
the north-
eastern of US
Example synthesis of literature
Research Purposes /Aims
Research Objectives

The research aim focus on what the research project is intended

to achieve; research objectives focus on how the aim will be
achieved. Research aims are relatively broad; research
objectives are specific.
Quantitative Purpose Statement

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between

use of internet communication between teachers and parents in
suburban schools and the student achievement on test in high
school social studies.
Qualitative Purpose Statement

The purpose of this study is to explore parent stories regarding

internet communications with teachers about their students in
one suburban school.
Research Questions

• A research question is a specific inquiry which the

research seeks to provide a response to. It resides at the
core of systematic investigation, and it helps you to
clearly define a path for the research process.
 Qualitative Research Questions

• In a qualitative study, inquirers state research questions:

• Central question; and
• Associated sub questions.

“What is the broadest question that I can ask in the study?”

_________ (How or what) is the _________ (“story for” for narrative research;
“meaning of ” the phenomenon for phenomenology; “theory that explains the
process of” for grounded theory; “culture-sharing pattern” for ethnography;
“issue” in the “case” for case study) of _________ (central phenomenon) for
_________ (participants) at _________ (research site).
 Constructing Qualitative Research Questions

• Begin the research questions with the words what or how to convey an open and emerging design. The word
why often implies that the researcher is trying to explain why something occurs, and this suggests to a cause-
and-effect type of thinking that associate with quantitative research instead of the more open and emerging
stance of qualitative research
• Focus on a single phenomenon or concept. As a study develops over time, factors will emerge that may
influence this single phenomenon, but begin a study with a single focus to explore in great detail.
• Use exploratory verbs that convey the language of emerging design. These verbs tell the reader that the study
will
• Discover (e.g., grounded theory)
• Seek to understand (e.g., ethnography)
• Explore a process (e.g., case study)
• Describe the experiences (e.g., phenomenology)
• Report the stories (e.g., narrative research)
 Constructing Qualitative Research Questions (cont…)

• Use these more exploratory verbs that are nondirectional rather than directional words
that suggest quantitative research, such as “affect,” “influence,” “impact,” “determine,”
“cause,” and “relate.”
• Expect the research questions to evolve and change during the study in a manner
consistent with the assumptions of an emerging design. Often in qualitative studies, the
questions are under continual review and reformulation (as in a grounded theory study).
This approach may be problematic for individuals accustomed to quantitative designs, in
which the research questions remain fixed throughout the study.
• Use open-ended questions without reference to the literature or theory unless otherwise
indicated by a qualitative strategy of inquiry.
• Specify the participants and the research site for the study, if the information has not yet
been given.
 A Qualitative Central Question From an Ethnography

Ethnographic research is a qualitative research approach that involves observing variables in their natural environments or habitats in
order to arrive at objective research outcomes.
Examples of Ethnographic Research Questions
• Why do you use this product?
• Have you noticed any side effects since you started using this drug?
• Does this product meet your needs?
Eg:
Finders (1996) used ethnographic procedures to document the reading of teen magazines by middle-class European American seventh-
grade girls. By examining the reading of teen zines (magazines), the researcher explored how the girls perceive and construct their social
roles and relationships as they enter junior high school. She asked one guiding central question in her study:
“How do early adolescent females read literature that falls outside the realm
of fiction? (Finders, 1996, p. 72)”
• Finders’s (1996) central question begins with how; it uses an open-ended verb, read; it focuses on a single concept, the literature or
teen magazines; and it mentions the participants, adolescent females, as the culture-sharing group. Notice how the author crafted a
concise, single question that needed to be answered in the study. It is a broad question stated to permit participants to share diverse
perspectives about reading the literature.
 Qualitative Central Questions From a Case Study

A case study is a qualitative research approach that involves carrying out a detailed investigation into a research subject(s) or variable(s). In
the course of a case study, the researcher gathers a range of data from multiple sources of information via different data collection
methods, and over a period of time.
Example of case studies research questions:
• Why did you choose our services?
• How has this policy affected your business output?
• What benefits have you recorded since you started using our product?
Eg:
Padula and Miller (1999) conducted a multiple case study that described the experiences of women who went back to school, after a time away, in a
psychology doctoral program at a major Midwestern research university. The intent was to document the women’s experiences, providing a gendered and
feminist perspective for women in the literature. The authors asked three central questions that guided the inquiry:
• (a) How do women in a psychology doctoral program describe their decision to return to school?
• (b) How do women in a psychology doctoral program describe their re-entry experiences? And
• (c) How does returning to graduate school change these women’s lives?
(Padula & Miller, 1999, p. 328)
These three central questions all begin with the word how; they include open-ended verbs, such as “describe,” and they focus on three aspects of the
doctoral experience—returning to school, re-entering, and changing. They also mention the participants as women in a doctoral program at a
Midwestern research university
 Quantitative Research Questions

Quantitative research questions are questions that are used to gather

quantifiable data from research subjects. It relates attributes or characteristics
of individuals or organizations, called variables.These types of research
questions are usually more specific and direct because they aim at collecting
information that can be measured; that is, statistical information.

“Does _________ (name the theory) explain the relationship between _________ (independent variable) and
_________ (dependent variable), controlling for the effects of _________ (control variable)?”

“There is no significant difference between _________ (the control and experimental groups on the
independent variable) on _________ (dependent variable)”

Eg: Do parent-teacher Internet communications affect student performance in the classroom?

 Constructing Quantitative Research Questions

• The use of variables in research questions or hypotheses is typically limited to three basic approaches.
The researcher may compare groups on an independent variable to see its impact on a dependent
variable. Alternatively, the investigator may relate one or more independent variables to one or more
dependent variables. Third, the researcher may describe responses to the independent, mediating, or
dependent variables.
• The independent and dependent variables must be measured separately. This procedure reinforces the
cause-and-effect logic of quantitative research.
• To eliminate redundancy, write only research questions or hypotheses, not both, unless the hypotheses
build on the research questions (discussion follows). Choose the form based on tradition,
recommendations from an adviser or faculty committee, or whether past research indicates a prediction
about outcomes.
• If hypotheses are used, there are two forms: null and alternative. A null hypothesis represents the
traditional approach: it makes a prediction that in the general population, no relationship or no significant
difference exists between groups on a variable. The wording is, “There is no difference (or relationship)”
between the groups.
 Descriptive Research Questions

• Descriptive research questions are inquiries that researchers use to gather quantifiable data about the
attributes and characteristics of research subjects. These types of questions primarily seek responses that
reveal existing patterns in the nature of the research subjects.
• It is important to note that descriptive research questions are not concerned with the causative factors of the
discovered attributes and characteristics. Rather, they focus on the "what"; that is, describing the subject of
the research without paying attention to the reasons for its occurrence.
• Descriptive research questions focus on only one variable and one group, but they can include multiple variables and
groups

Descriptive Research Question Examples

• How often do you make use of our fitness application?
• How much would you be willing to pay for this product?
 Descriptive Questions and Inferential Questions
Eg:
a researcher wants to examine the relationship of critical thinking skills (an independent variable measured on an
instrument)to student achievement (a dependent variable measured by grades) in science classes for eighth-grade
students in a large metropolitan school district. The researcher controls for the intervening effects of prior grades
in science classes and parents’ educational attainment. Following the proposed model, the research questions
might be written as follows:
Descriptive Questions
1. How do the students' rate on critical thinking skills? (A descriptive question focused on the independent variable)
2. What are the student’s achievement levels (or grades) in science classes? (A descriptive question focused on the dependent
variable)
3. What are the student’s prior grades in science classes? (A descriptive question focused on the control variable of prior grades)
4. What is the educational attainment of the parents of the eighthgraders? (A descriptive question focused on another control
variable, educational attainment of parents)
Inferential Questions
1. Does critical thinking ability relate to student achievement? (An inferential question relating the independent and the
dependent variables)
2. Does critical thinking ability relate to student achievement, controlling for the effects of prior grades in science and the
educational attainment of the eighth-graders’ parents? (An inferential question relating the independent and the dependent
variables, controlling for the effects of the two controlled variables)
 Descriptive Research Questions

How many calories do Americans How often do British university students

Question: Question:
consume per day? use Facebook each week?
Variable: Daily calorific intake Variable: Weekly Facebook usage
Group: Americans Group: British university students

How many calories do American

Question:
men and women consume per day?
Variable: Daily calorific intake
1. American men
Group:
2. American women

How often do male and female British university students upload photos
Question:
and comment on other users' photos on Facebook each week?
1. Weekly photo uploads on Facebook
Variable:
2. Weekly comments on other users? photos on Facebook
1. Male, British university students
Group:
2. Female, British university students
 Comparative Research Questions

• Comparative research questions aim to examine the differences between two or more groups on one or
more dependent variables (although often just a single dependent variable). Such questions typically
start by asking "What is the difference in?" a particular dependent variable (e.g., daily calorific intake)
between two or more groups (e.g., American men and American women)

What is the difference in the daily What is the difference in the weekly photo
Question: calorific intake of American men and Question: uploads on Facebook between British male
women? and female university students?
Dependent Dependent
Daily calorific intake Weekly photo uploads on Facebook
variable: variable:
1. American men 1. Male, British university students
Groups: Groups:
2. American women 2. Female, British university students
 Relationship Research Questions

a useful way of describing the fact that these types of quantitative research question are interested in the causal
relationships, associations, trends and/or interactions amongst two or more variables on one or more groups. We have to be
careful when using the word relationship because in statistics, it refers to a particular type of research design,
namely experimental research designs where it is possible to measure the cause and effect between two or more variables;
that is, it is possible to say that variable A (e.g., study time) was responsible for an increase in variable B (e.g., exam scores).

What is the relationship amongst career

What is the relationship between prospects, salary and benefits, and physical
Question: gender and attitudes towards music Question:
working conditions on job satisfaction
piracy amongst adolescents? between managers and non-managers?
Dependent Dependent
Attitudes towards music piracy Job satisfaction
variable: variable:
Independent 1. Career prospects
Gender Independent
variable: 2. Salary and benefits
Group: Adolescents variable:
3. Physical working conditions
1. Managers
Group:
2. Non-managers
Hypotheses
Definition of Hypothesis
• Hypotheses are statements that make a prediction or a conjecture about
the outcome of a relationship among the variables.
• Hypotheses only apply in quantitative research.
• Researchers' base hypotheses on results from previous research and
literature.
• A study usually has three or four hypotheses.
Example:

• Students in high schools in the suburban school in which parents and teachers
communicate through the Internet will have higher grades than students whose
parents and teachers do not communicate through the Internet.

• https://www.readersinsight.net/JMIS/article/view/1452/1104
Various forms of Direction in Research
Purpose Research Hypotheses Objectives
Statement Questions
Intent Overall direction Raise questions to Make prediction State goals to be
be answered about expectations accomplished

Form One or more One or more One or more One or more

sentences questions statements objectives
Use Quantitative and Quantitative and Quantitative Quantitative and
qualitative qualitative qualitative
Placement End of End of introduction, after literature review, or in a separate
introduction section in a study
 Example of Writing Research Aims and Research Questions
(Qualitative)
As Richards and Lockhart (1994) commented, ‘what teachers do reflect what they know and believe’ (p. 29), this
study probed into the nature of teachers’ perceptions with regard to the use of CS amidst the MCIS community.
Additionally, this study examined how the teachers integrated their perceptions into classroom practices to
provide effective pedagogy. The following questions serve to guide the present study:
How is CS manifested in the ESL classroom?
• This question led to the analysis of the practice of CS observed in the ESL classroom. Cazden (cited in Merkel, 2015)
suggested that discourse consists of beliefs disclosed through speech and action. In the attempt of addressing this question,
classroom observation was conducted to report the discourse of CS that took place in the classroom. The related outputs
are presented in Chapter 4.
What beliefs do ESL teachers hold about the use of CS in the classroom?
• This question led to the examination of teachers’ views concerning CS in the ESL classroom and the factors that
influenced their choices regarding CS. The interviews with teachers were analysed and the findings are presented in
Chapter 5.
Do teachers’ beliefs align with the practice of CS in the English classroom?
• This research question (RQ) determined if teachers’ beliefs matched their observed classroom actions, including the link
between belief and practices. This question led to the discussion of RQ1 and RQ2 using the comparative
approach between data gathered from interviews with the teachers and classroom observations. The RQ is discussed in
Chapter 5.
Example of Writing Research Aims and
Research Questions (Quantitative)
References

Literature Review Assignments (n.d.) The Aut Library. Retrieved

6 May 2021, from https://library.aut.ac.nz /doing -
assignments /literature-reviews

Wong, Y. V. (2019). ESL teacher practices and perceptions of

code-switching in a Malaysian Chinese independent school /Wong
Yee Von (Master dissertation, University of Malaya).

San, W. H., Von, W. Y., & Qureshi, M. I. (2020). The Impact of E -

Service Quality on Customer Satisfaction in Malaysia. Journal of
Marketing and Information Systems, 3(1), 46 -62.