ABSTRACTION_CPE 198 Unit1 Lesson1 NATURE AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH

Research is basic and it is paramount important in any development at all times. -

Bermudo et.al. (2010)
- Research is a key to progress, without research there will be no progress in all human
endeavor. The purpose of this course is to make the study of research methods and
techniques as well as thesis writing easier, more practical and understandable but
comprehensive.
·       Research is a key to progress, without research there will be no progress in all
human endeavor. –Calderon (1993)
- People do not seem to understand the importance of research, the things around us
today are all product of research without research there will be no development.
·       Research could offer solution to our numerous, biological, social, educational,
cultural and behavioral problems. Our health, economy, security depends largely on
research. 
-Education is a continuous process of searching for better methods and strategies to
upgrade the quality of education. Innovations are also made in areas of science and
technology; politics and economics; business and industry; marketing and management;
and others.
 
What is Research?
Research is a process of gathering data or information to solve a particular or specific
problem in a scientific manner (Manuel and Medel, 1976)
Research is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing information or data in
order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned
or interested in (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001)
Research is a systematic, testable and objective nature of research permits careful
examination of the process and results (Allyn and Bacon, 2008)
Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING
ANSWERS to QUESTIONS

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
Research is important in the preservation and improvement of the quality of human life.

PURPOSES & GOALS

1. The purpose of research is to serve man and the goal of research is to provide
a good life (Good and Scates, 1972). This is to satisfy man’s craving for
 more understanding to improve his judgment, to add power to reduce the
burden of work, to relieve suffering and to increase satisfaction in multitudinous
ways.
2. To discover more facts about known phenomena.
3. To find answer to the problems by existing methods and information.
4. Improve existing techniques and develop new instruments or products
5. To discover previously unrecognized substances or elements.
6. Discover pathways of action of known substances and elements.
7. To order related, valid generalizations into systematized science.
8. To provide basis for decision making in business, industry, education,
government and other undertakings
9. To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity.
10. To find answers to queries by means of scientific methods.
11. To acquire better and deeper understanding about one phenomena that can be
known and understood better by research.
12. To expand or verify existing knowledge.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH

1.    Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.
2.    Research is expert, systematic and accurate investigation.
3.    Research is logical and objective, applying very possible test to verify the data
collected and the procedures employed.
4.    Research endeavors to organize data in quantitative terms, if possible and express
them as numerical measures. Research is expert, systematic and accurate
investigation.
5.    Research is a carefully recorded and reported.

Goals of Research

1.    To Produce Evidence-Based Practice- it provides best practices for institution,

this means that educators should provide the best teaching practices therefore teachers
should ensure that what they employed in their teaching strategies and pedagogies are
based on the products of research.
2.    To Establish Credibility on the Profession- the profession can be considered
distinct, efficient and effective if these are product of a constant research and
applications
3.    To Observe Accountability for the Profession- Every action must have a
rationale, thus all professionals must be accountable for all the actions, tasks he/she
performs
4.    To Promote Cost Effectiveness through Documentation- The findings of
research must be shared to individuals, community or groups to which the study is
intended. It will be useless if the product of research are not made to public and must
satisfy researcher’s goal before he shared it to publics

ABSTRACTION Unit 1 Classification of Research

CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

Some of the researchers focus on using research to advance general knowledge,

whereas others use it to solve specific problems. As such we would like to classify
research

A. According to goal
1.    Basic or pure Research – is done for the development of theories or
principles (fundamental knowledge about human world). It is conducted for the
Intellectual pleasure of learning focuses on refuting or supporting theories on how the
world operates, what make things happen, and why society change.
2.    Applied Research – application of results, a testing of efficacy theories. It tries to
solve problems or help practitioners accomplish tasks. It is frequently DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH its strength is immediate practical use. There are three types of applied
research:
a.      Action Research
b. Impact Assessment
c. Evaluation Research
 
Comparison:
The procedures and techniques utilized by basic and applied do not differ both
employed scientific method to answer the question at hand. The community is the
primary consumer of basic research—they are teachers, caseworkers, decision makers.
Applied research have obligation to translate findings from scientific, technical language
into language of decision makers or practitioners.

B. According to time element

1.     Cross-sectional Research- research observed at one point in time
a.     Explanatory /Historical Research/Qualitative research describes what was
b.    Descriptive Research describe what is
c.     Exploratory/ Experimental Research describes what will be.

2.    Longitudinal Research – It captures features of people or other unit at more than
one time. It is costly but very powerful especially when the researchers answers to
questions about change.
a.     Time series
b.    Panel
c.    Cohort

C. According to statistical content

1.       Quantitative Research – is one in which inferential statistics are utilized to
determine the results of the study. Several types of Quanti (Sulamolson, (2007)[1]

a.    Survey- use of scientific sampling method with a designed questionnaire

to measure a given population's characteristics through the utilization of statistical
methods
b.    Correlational- used to determine whether, and to what degree, a
relationship exists between two or more variables within a population (or a sample)
c.    Experimental - investigates the treatment of an intervention into the study
group and then measures the outcomes of the treatment. There are three types
of exploratory approaches: pre-experimental, true experimental, and quasi-
experimental (Leedy &  Ormrod, 2001)

d.    Causal-Comparative or Ex Post Facto- the researcher investigates a

problem by  studying  the  variables  in  retrospect.  It  is  research  in  which  the 
dependent  variable  is  immediately observable and now your main concern is to find
out the antecedents that gave rise to this consequence

 
2. Qualitative research- use of quantity or statistics is practically nil.

a.    Ethnographic- engage the researcher in target participants’ environment to

understand behavior, cultures, challenges, motivation and themes.
b.    Narrative or historical research- narrative approach weave together in a
sequence of events. It can be done through in-depth interview, read documents and
look for themes, relics, etc. It examines events of the past to understand the present
and anticipate potential future effects
c.    Phenomenological – when describing an event, activity, or phenomenon
can be done through interview, reading documents, watching videos or visiting places
and events to understand the meaning participants place on whatever’s being
examined. You rely on participants’ own perspective to provide insights into their
motivations. To examine uniqueness of individual lived situations.

d.    Grounded theory- describes the essence of an activity or event, it provides

an explanation or theory behind the event. Use interviews, existing documents to build a
theory based on facts. THEORY DEVELOPMENT
e.    Case Study- in-depth examination of a single person or single individual or
single institution/ organization. To provide an accurate and complete description of the
case. It can be explanatory, exploratory or describing and event

Muhammad Ibrahim(2016) Types of Qualitative Research.

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2563.4962 retrieved
from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299532851_Types_of_Qualitative_Resea
rch

Method Focus Sample Size Data Collection

Ethnographic Context or culture   Observation &
interviews
Narrative Individual 1 to 2 Stories from
experience & individuals and
sequence documents
Individual experience and
sequence
Phenomenology People who have 5 to 25 Interviews
experience a
phenomenon
Grounded theory Develop a theory from 20 to 60 Interviews, then
grounded field data open and axial
coding
Case Study Organization entity,   Interview,
individual or event documents, reports,
observations

APPLICATION:
How do Qualitative research differs from that of Quantitative Research (refer to Prieto,
N. et.al (2017). Practical Research for SHS 1: Qualitative, Pp17-20)

According to Purpose
1. Predictive or Prognostic Research – has the purpose of determining the future
operations of the variables under investigation with the aim of controlling or redirecting
such for the better. It proposes to give the result from one specific educational practice
or pattern and seeks to establish statistical connection between characteristics of
students and a prediction of educational outcomes.
2. Directive Research – determines what should be done based on finding. This is to
remedy an unsatisfactory condition if there is any.
3. Illuminative Research – is concerned with the interaction of the components of the
variables being investigated, or for the components of educational systems and aims to
show the connections among

C. According to levels of investigation

a.     Exploratory Research – the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a
specific situations.
b.    Descriptive Research- the researcher studies the relationship of the variables
c.     Experimental research- the experimenter studies the

D. According to type of analysis

a. Analytic Approach- the researcher attempts to identify and isolate the components
of the research situations.
b. Holistic Approach- begins with the total situation, focusing attention on the system
first and then on its internal relationships.

E. According to scope
a. Action Research – done in a very limited scope to solve a particular problem which
is not so big. Considered also as problem solving.

F. According to choice of answer to problems

b.    Evaluation Research- all possible courses of action are specified and identified
and the researcher tries to find the most advantageous.
c.     Developmental Research – focus is finding or developing a more suitable
instrument or process that has been available.

[1] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320346875_Quantitative_Research_Metho
ds_A_Synopsis_Approach
Lesson 1.2 Qualities and Ethical Guidelines & Consideration in Research
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the unit, the pre service teacher (PST) can:
a. Demonstrate full understanding of ethical norms and guidelines through correct
application of concepts in given exercises
b. Demonstrate full understanding of ethical norms and guidelines through correct
application of concepts in given exercises
Content:
1. Explain the relationship between ethics and morality and the researcher’s ethical
responsibility when doing a research
2.  Analyze their own practices while doing research and express their realizations
3. Demonstrate full understanding of ethical norms and guidelines through correct
application of concepts in given exercises
Timeline: 

CPE198_Unit1 Lesson 3 Ethical Guidelines and Consideration in Research

Ethical Guidelines and Consideration in Research
INTRODUCTION
Research, is a scientific activity that call for the involvement of human beings. It
behooves the researcher to observe ethical practices in his relationship with other,
especially with the research participants. Respect for the right and values of others is
with utmost importance hence ethical consideration is deemed necessary to discuss in
this lesson.

ABSTRACTION_CPE198_Basic Rules for Ethical Research

BASIC Rules for Ethical Research
    The professional integrity of the researcher is at stake when research is carried out
without considering the moral issues on what ought to be done and what ought not to be
done. The notion of ethics according to Denscombe (2002) is said to be closely linked to
the ideals of morality and the concerns the system of moral principles of which
individual can judge their actions whether it is right or wrong, good or bad. Ethics in
research calls for a moral perspective rather than practical or logical perspective.
Brinkman (2012) listed some ethical questions as guide for researcher at the start of the
research study.
1.     What are the beneficial consequences of the study?
2.     How can informed consent of the participants be obtained?
3.     How can confidentiality of the participants be protected?
4.     What are the consequences of the study for the participants?
5.     How will the researcher’s role affect the study?
 
In the context of social science Murphy and Dingwell (as cited by flick, 2011) have
developed an “ethical theory” based on four principles
1.     Non-maleficence- researcher should avoid harming the participants
2.     Beneficence- research on human subject should produce some positive and
identifiable benefit rather than simply be carried out for its own sake
3.     Autonomy or self-determination- research participants’ values and decision
making should be respected
4.     Justice- All people should be treated equally

Integrity of the researcher- researcher must act professionally in the pursuit of the

truth hence they should be committed to discovering, analyzing, interpreting and
reporting results as honest as possible.

 Acknowledgment of the sources of information or data used throughout the text.

Knowledge or information taken from sources must be acknowledged by citing the
name of the author or authors and the reference materials when such idea was taken.
Deception and misrepresentation must be avoided. The researcher must not be
influenced by other consideration except only of what is the truth of the matter.
Misrepresentation mostly occur among social researches fund or sponsored by external
partners or entities or even motivated by personal interests. Human frailty may lead to
temptations due to man’s innate vulnerability to it; that’s why observance and
commitment to one’s self to ethical principles is truly proper. It is also the duty of every
researcher to discuss the results of the matter to the participants the consequences of
the study either positive or its negative implication. Good if the participants agree to take
part in the study, but if the participants refuse to participate, the researcher cannot force
them, thus it is necessary to get their consent prior to the start of the study.
 Informed consent- it is essential to seek the voluntary consent of the participants.
When selecting a participant, one should be of its legal age and be able to exercise free
power of choice without any intervention or force; they must have sufficient knowledge
and comprehension of the subject of the research to enable them to make enlightened
decision.
What are research misconducts?[1]
(a) Fabrication - making up data or results and recording or reporting them.
(b) Falsification - manipulating research materials, or changing or omitting data or
results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record.
(c) Plagiarism - the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or
words without giving appropriate credit.
(d) Research misconduct does not include honest error or differences of opinion.
 

[1] The Office of Research Integrity, U.S. Department of Health & Human

Services retrieved from https://libguides.library.cityu.edu.hk/researchmethods/ethics

CPE198_Unit 1 ABSTRACTION. _ETHICAL PRINCIPLE OF RESEARCH

Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In
addition, it educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high
ethical standard. The following is a general summary of some ethical principles
 
Research ethics  Provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research.
In addition, it educates and monitors scientists conducting
research to ensure a high ethical standard
Honesty Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and
publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent
data.
Objectivity Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis,
data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant
writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research.
Integrity Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity;
strive for consistency of thought and action.
Carefulness Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically
examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep
good records of research activities.
Openness Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to
criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual
Intellectual Property property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results
without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Never
plagiarize.
Confidentiality Protect confidential communications, such as papers or
grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or
military secrets, and patient records.
 Responsible Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to
Publication advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative
publication.
Responsible Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their
Mentoring welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.
Respect for Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Colleagues
Social Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social
Responsibility harms through research, public education, and advocacy
Non-Discrimination Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the
basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not
related to their scientific competence and integrity
Competence Maintain and improve your own professional competence
and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take
steps to promote competence in science as a whole
Legality Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and
governmental policies
Animal Care Show proper respect and care for animals when using them
in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed
animal experiments.
Human Subjects When conducting research on human subjects, minimize
protection harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human
dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with
vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits
and burdens of research fairly.

[1] Sawant, Sarika (2012). Research Ethics. Facets of  Information Management in

Libraries, Retrived from https://www.slideshare.net/uqudent/introduction-to-research-
ethics
[2] The Office of Research Integrity, U.S. Department of Health & Human
Services retrieved from https://libguides.library.cityu.edu.hk/researchmethods/ethics
 

ABSTRACTION_ Unit1 Lesson1 NATURE AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH

    Defining your problem entails defining your purpose before starting your journey.  It
determines: what you will do, will it withstand scientific scrutiny, how you will do it, and
what you may achieve. To do this, there are five factors to consider whether it is
researchable or not. They are the following:
Elements of Research Problem
The term research implies an investigation, inquiry or study is to be conducted, or that
the problem is ready for investigation, inquiry or study. There are certain elements that a
problem must possess before it becomes a research problem ready for investigation.
These are:
Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation. This answers the question WHY? Why
is there investigation, inquiry or study?
The subject matter or topic to be investigated. This answers the question “WHAT?”
What is to be investigated or studied?
The place or locale where the research is to be conducted. This answers the question
“WHERE?” Where is the study to be conducted?
The period or time of the study during which the data are to be gathered. This
answers the question “WHEN?” When is the study to be carried out?
Population from whom the data are to be collected. This answers the question “WHO?”
or “FROM WHOM?” Who are the respondents? From whom are the data to be
gathered?
 Two Essential Elements in formulating a Research Title
Independent Variable (IV)
It is the variable that is referred as the “assumed cause or treatment” of a problem and
the reason for any change in the dependent variable.
It may also be referred as stimulus, control, explanatory, predictor, or manipulated
variable
A predictor variable/ controlled or manipulated by the researcher
factors that are thought to be explanatory (x- axis)
 Ex : IQ, Study Habits, Sex
Dependent Variable (DV)
The variable that is referred as the “assumed” effect of another variable which is being
measured as an outcome of the study
It may also be referred as, response, or explained variable
criterion variable or variable being measured (y-axis)
Ex : Academic Performance, Opinion
It is the “assumed effect or outcome, response” of another variable
COMPARISON between Independent Variable and Dependent Variable 
Examples of Research Problems
Intervening or Moderator Variable
This variable attempts to work and clarify the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables. As a result, it may weaken or strengthen the effect the relationship
of independent on dependent variable. For example; this might be a concept such as
self – efficacy or social accountability. 
--Why did the intervention have an effect?
Examples:
“The Relationship Between Abstract Reasoning Ability and Academic  
Achievements in  Math Among High School Students”
  Independent     Dependent
     
“Factors that Influence the Extent of Involvement in
PTCA Assembly among     Parents”
Independent Dependent
“Awareness of the Dangers of Cybersex, Attitudes towards People and Study  Habits of
Senior Students in General Santos City”
      Independent       Intervening               Dependent
“Difficulties Encountered by Students In  the Use of Understanding By Design (UBD
Approach) In Selected High Schools In General Santos City”
Independent         Dependent
An Example of a complete title:
“GAMBLING: IT’S PRACTICES, REASONS and HAZARDS AMONG
THE STUDENTS IN SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS
 IN GSC SY 2010-2011”
Subject Matter   : Gambling
Locale of the Study : GSC
Population involved : the students in selected secondary schools
Period of the Study  : School Year 2010 - 2011
Three Types of Research Study
Univariate Study- this is focused on the evaluation of the effectiveness of only one
variable for the improvement and modification recommendation by the researcher.
Bi-variate Study – aimed at determining any relationship, which exists between two
variables. One of the variable maybe found to influence or affect other variable; or; the
other variable is dependent upon the former. It is the effectiveness of one variable which
makes good or bad in the other variable. Example (1) Influences of Working Conditions
on the Job Performance of Factory Workers (2) Sales Compensation Package and
Volume of Sales of Network Distributors.
Multi-variate Study- aims in determining the interrelationship among three or more
variable. The study maybe focused in correlating two or more independent variable with
one dependent variable.
Models for Stating Research Problems
Variable [variable1] and variable [variable2] among [type of subjects]- descriptive
research
The relationship between [variable1] and [variable2] among [type of subjects]-
correlational research
The effect [independent variable not under experimenter’s control] on [dependent
variable] for [type of subjects]- quasi comparative research
Tips in Writing a Research Title

Guidelines in the Selection of Research Problem or Topic

The research problem or topic must be chosen by the researcher himself.
It must be within the interest of the researcher.
It must be within the specialization of the researcher. 
It must be within the competence of the researcher to tackle.
It must be within the ability of the researcher to finance; otherwise he must be able to
find funding for research.
It is researchable and manageable, that is; (a) Data are available and accessible; (b)
The data must meet the standards of accuracy, objectivity and verifiability. The data
gathered must be accurate, objective and not biased and can be verified if there arise a
need, otherwise, the results of the study will not be valid and generalizations formulated
will be faulty; (c) Answers to the specific questions (Sub-problems) can be found.  Ex.
How qualified are the teachers handling science?; (d) The hypotheses formulated are
testable, that is they can be accepted or rejected. Hypotheses are not proved, they are
only determined as true or not. If the findings from the data do not conform to the
hypotheses, the latter are rejected. If the findings conform to the hypotheses, the latter
are accepted; (e) Equipment and instruments for research are available and can give
valid and reliable results (f) It can be completed within a reasonable period of time
unless it is a longitudinal research which takes a long time for completion; (g) It is
significant, important and relevant to the present time and situation, timely, and of
current interest; (h) The results are practical and implementable; (i) It requires original,
critical and reflective thinking to solve it. To be able to apply these, the research must
be novel, new and original; (j) It can be delimited to suit the resources of the researcher
but big or large enough to be able to give significant, valid and reliable results and
organization; (k) It must contribute to the national development goals for the
improvement of quality of human life; (l) It must contribute to the fund of human
knowledge; (m) It must show or pave the way for the solution of the problem or
problems intended to be solved; (n) It must not undermine the moral and spiritual values
of the people; (o) It must not advocate any change in the present order of things by
means of violence but peaceful means; (p) There must be return of some kind of
research, either one of the ff.(1)Monetary, either increase in salary or publication of
result (2)Advancement of position, promotion and (3) Improve specialization,
competence and skills in professional work.
The Characteristics of a Good Research Problem
Novelty –A research topic must be new which focuses on current needs. 
Interesting – The researcher needs to consider problems which attract his attention. If
a researcher is not interested in the topic, it will be difficult on his part to put his heart
and spirit in it.
Relevant – A research problem to be conducted should address the needs and
problems of the people. Additionally, the research problem must give contribution and is
worth investigating.      
Feasible – This means that a problem be completed within the allotted time desired
(without undue amount of time, money or effort). Feasibility of research also implies the
researcher’s competence or expertise in the conduct of the study. 
Researchable – A research problem must be SMART.
     S – Specific. It answers specific questions
     M - Measurable. It can be measured for meets the standard of objectivity and
verifiability.     
     A – Achievable. It must possess the needed data that are within his reach 
     R – Realistic. It can give practical, valid and reliable results.
     T -Time bound. It can be accomplished within a reasonable period of time. 
Ethical – A problem is regarded as “ethical” when it does not infringe the rights of the
sources’ information. Additionally, it must not harm, hurt or risk the subjects or
respondents.
 
The Sources of a Research Problem
According to Calmorin L. & Calmorin M (2007), as follows are the sources of a research
problem:
Specialization of the researcher. The field of specialization of the researcher is an
impetus towards the conduct of research.
Current and Past researches. Current and past researches are rich sources of
research problems especially for research replication by using the same instruments
which are to be administered to different groups of subjects and areas in order to
compare the similarities and differences of the results.
Recommendations from theses and research journals. The recommendations made
by the researchers for future researches are worth to be studied. 
Original and creative ideas of the researcher based on the problems met in the
locality. 
According to Adanza et.al (2009), listed below are worthwhile titles of Research
Problems:
The Relationship Between the Vocational Interests and Occupational Preferences of
First Year High School Students
Independent Variable – Vocational Interest
Dependent Variable -   Occupational Preferences
Method of Analysis – Finding Relationship and Correlational analysis
The Predictive Efficacy of Academic Preparation of Nurses on the Licensure Board
Examination
1. Independent Variable – Academic Preparation
2. Dependent Variable -   Licensure Board Examination
3. Method of Analysis – Simple & Stepwise Multiple Linear Regressions
The Relationship Between Emotional Quotient and Leadership Skills of Managers of a
Manufacturing Firm
1. Independent Variable – Emotional Quotient
2. Dependent Variable -   Leadership Skills
3. Method of Analysis – Correlational Analysis may proceed to simple and multiple
linear regression
The Interaction of Age and Gender on the Science Performance of Grade 6 Pupils
1. Independent Variable – Age and Gender
2. Dependent Variable -   Science Performance
3. Method of Analysis  - ANOVA : Two-way classification

Unit 2Lesson 2_ STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND SUB-PROBLEMS

A problem statement is a short description of a problem or an issue that needs
addressing or a condition that needs improvement. Making a problem statement
template would allow you to identify the gap between the current state or the problem
and the desired state or the goal of a product or a process. As this document focuses
on the facts, the design of all problem statement examples addresses the 5W’s namely
who, what, where, when, and why.

Guidelines in formulating the general problem and the specific problems or specific

questions

The general statement of the problem and the specific sub-problems or questions
should be formulated first before conducting the research.
It is customary to state-specific sub-problems (specific questions) in the interrogative
form.
Each specific questions must be clear and unequivocal (one meaning)
Each specific question is researchable apart from the other questions, which are
answers to specific questions that can be found even without considering the other
questions.
Each question must be based upon known facts and phenomena.
Answers to each specific question can be interpreted apart from the answers to other
specific questions.
Answers to each specific question must contribute to the development of the whole
research problem or topic.
Summing up the answers to all specific questions will give a complete development of
the entire study
The number of specific questions should be enough to cover the development of the
whole research problem or study. Note: Before writing down specific questions,
determine first the different aspects of the research problem being studied, and then for
each aspect make one specific question with sub-questions if there is a need.
There should be a general statement of the problem and then should be broken up into
as many sub-problems or specific questions as necessary

The following are examples of research questions in education that are not sufficiently
developed for actual use in research projects. An appropriate methodology is provided
for each question.
Does client-centered therapy produce more satisfaction in clients than traditional
therapy? (traditional research)
Does behavior modification reduce aggression in autistic children? (single-subject
experimental research)
Are the descriptions of people in social studies discussion biased? ( grounded theory
research)
What goes on in an elementary school classroom during an average week
(ethnographic research)
Do teachers behave differently toward students of a different gender? (causal-
comparative study)
how can we predict which student might have trouble learning certain kinds of the
subject matter? (Correlational research)
How do parents feel about the school counseling program? (Survey research)
How can principals improve faculty morale? (Interview research)
The Research Objectives
Research objectives are statements of what the researcher plans to do. Additionally,
research objectives state the concepts in operational terms which are usually stated in
behavioral terms and begin with infinitives like:
“To determine….”
“To find out….”
“To describe…”
“To compare…”
“To test…”
“To establish….”
“To calculate…”
Another way of stating the objectives:
“This study aims to answer the following questions…”
“This study sought answers to the following questions…” 

Types of Research Objective

The two types of research objective in every research study are:
General Objective – This states what the researcher ought to do and expects to find
out. It must be stated in behavioral terms.
Specific Objectives – These are the sub-problems in the research study. 

Steps in Writing the Sub-Problems or Specific Problems (Bermudo et.al.,2010)

STEP 1. Write the general problem of the study. In writing the general problem,
always be guided by the title of the study and/or the elements of research problems (i.e.
purpose of aims, subject matter, research locale, period, and population or universe).
Other elements, however, could be deleted in writing the general problem like the
population or universe of the study. 
STEP 2. Identify the variables of the study. The primary or the key concerns as well
as the secondary and auxiliary concerns may be identified. The student should list down
as many variables as he can identify.
Example:
Key Concern Variable: Status of Teaching Mathematics
Auxiliary Concern: 
*adoption of curriculum comparison of teaching performance of  
mathematics teachers
*Factors that influence the performance of mathematics

STEP 3. Analyze how the key and auxiliary concerns may be classified. The
classification serves as specifics.
Example:
*adoption of curriculum comparison of teaching performance of mathematics teachers
1. Science and Math oriented
2. SEDP
3. other curricular offerings

STEP 4. Decide on the option.

Focus only on the key concerns
Include auxiliary concerns or include all identified auxiliary concerns
Focus on one classification of key concern and include all
Other probable mix

STEP 5. Write the specific questions based on steps 3 and 4

For research questions ask the questions “what is?”
Ex. 1. What are the leadership values professed by student-leaders of MSU-GSC?
      2. What is the performance of students in mathematics?
A difference research questions typically ask “is there a difference between two groups
or more variables?” In case of two or more observation is being compared
Ex.
1. How do male and female students compare in their coping mechanisms?
2. Is there significant difference in the work values of the nursing senior when grouped
according to the profile variables?
3. How significant in the difference in the coping mechanisms employed by nursing
faculty when they are categorized according to the profile variables?

A relationship research question asks “What is the relationship or association between

two or more variables?” and implies a correlation/association design
Ex.
1. Is there a significant association between the work values of nurses and their clinical
performance?
2. How significant is the relationship between job stressors and coping strategies of
students?
3. Is organizational commitment related to staff nurse's length of service in the college?

Examples of Research Objectives

Example No.1
Research Title: “Classroom Management Styles and Teachers’ Teaching Performance
of Lagao National High School”
General Objective: 
This study attempted to determine the relationship between classroom management
styles and teachers’ teaching performance among teachers of Lagao National High
School
Specifically, the study sought answers to the following questions:
What are the classroom management styles practiced by LNHS teachers?
What is the teaching performance level of the teachers?
Is there a significant relationship between classroom management styles and teachers’
teaching performance?
Example No.2
Research Title: “Multicultural Classroom: Problems Encountered and Strategies
Used by the Teachers and Students in Glan School of Arts and Trades”
General Objective: 
The main objective of the study is to determine the problems encountered and the
strategies used by the teachers and students in Glan School of Arts and Trades in
dealing with a multicultural classroom.
Specifically, the researcher would like to determine the answers to the following
questions:
1.  What is the profile of the fourth year students of Glan School of Arts and Trades in
terms of:
1.1 Tribe
1.2 Socio-economic Status
1.3 Religion
2.  What are the problems encountered in having a multicultural classroom as perceived
by:
2.1 Teachers
2.2 Students
3.   What are the strategies used by the teachers and students in dealing with a
multicultural classroom?

Example No.3
Research Title: “Construction and Validation of Test on the Sociolinguistic Competence
of First Year BSED English Students”
General Objective: The main purpose of this study is to construct and validate test on
sociolinguistic competence from the selected BSED ENGLISH first year students.
Specifically it seeks to:
1. Construct test on sociolinguistic competence in terms of 
1.1 Register 
1.2 Jargons
2. Determine the face validity of the test in terms of 
2.1 Appropriateness
2.2 Adequacy
Example No.4
Research Title: The Extent of Involvement in School Organizations and Leadership
Skills of Students in Selected Secondary Schools in Polomolok
General Objective: The researcher aims to determine the extent of involvement in
school organizations and leadership skills of students in selected secondary schools in
Polomolok.
Specifically, it aims to answer the following questions:
1. What type of school clubs or organizations do students engage themselves in relative
to:  
1.1 Type of Organization
1.2 Position
1.3 Years of involvement 
1.4 Seminars and trainings attended
1.5 Project conducted or accomplishments 
2. What are the leadership skills of students who are involved in the organization in
terms of?
1.1 Human Skills
1.2 Conceptual Skills
1.3 Technical Skills
1.4 Communication Skills
3. To what extent do students involved themselves in the organizations?
4. Do the leadership skills of students significantly influenced by the extent of their
involvement in school organization?

Example No.5
Research Title: Effectiveness of the Speech Laboratory of Mindanao State University-
General Santos City
General Objective: 
The researcher will attempt to find out the effectiveness of the speech laboratory
facilities of Mindanao State University, General Santos City. Specifically this will seek
answers to the following sub-problems.
1. How effective are the Speech Laboratory Facilities as perceived by:
1.1 Students; and
1.2 Teachers?
2. Which of the components of the Oral Communication skills are highly developed as
perceived by the students and teachers relative to:
2.1 Pronunciation;
2.2 Accent or Stress;
2.3 Rhythm;
2.4 Features of Connected Speech; and
2.5 Intonation?
3. Is there a significant difference in the perception of the students and the teachers?

Background of the study in research: how to write one

SOURCE : Olawale, Johnson(2020). Background of the Study in Research: How to
write one. retrieved from https://www.legit.ng/1174941-background-study-research-
write-2020.html
How to write background of the study in a research paper 
Stage 1. At the beginning stages of formulating your thesis, many of the issues are still
very unclear, and you need to solidify your thoughts, you should conduct preliminary
research. You conduct this preliminary research on the specific topic, and the area of
study will help you to put forward a research question or thesis statement that will finally
lead to more relevant and specific research. You can visit a library, check the Internet
and other electronic databases to find preliminary sources such as scholarly journals
and books about your background of the study. 
Stage 2. Read and gather the information you need to develop a thesis statement or
research question that will guide your thesis. You should take notes and also keep an
accurate track of the sources of information you have used up to this point. A lot of
people use note cards, but it’s easier and better to use electronic note-taking programs
in this electronic age. Just make sure to use a form or recording that is comfortable and
easier for you. Also, make sure you cite the source of every information you are using
on each note so that you won’t forget where you got the information from, just in case
you want to use it in your thesis 
Stage 3. Develop and pen down research question or thesis statement. Think about the
things you’ve read and searched for issues or solutions that have been found by other
people and then formulate your stance or opinion on the issue. Write out your position
or opinion as an authoritative statement. You can decide to do more detailed research
at this point and look for more sources that are more relevant to your research question
or thesis.
Stage 4. Complete your research using question and thesis statement as your guide.
You should be able to find sources that are relevant to your specific thesis and provide
more insight into your research question. It is critical that your sources provide
information on the history and past researches related to your thesis or research
question. 
Stage 5. As you create your background study, create relevant sections. When you start
writing, create five different sections that have the key issues, major findings, and the
controversies that are surrounding your research question or thesis and also a section
that provides evaluation and a conclusion.
Stage 6. Identify the further studies that need to be done in the in the conclusion
section. And also mention possible solutions to the issue that have not been put into
consideration in the past.
Stage 7. Do a revision and editing of your background of the study. You can write out
several drafts of your work, revising, editing, and adding more information as you do so
before coming up with the final one. Make sure each draft is better than the previous.
You can also ask someone else to help you go through it. Read
more: https://www.legit.ng/1174941-background-study-research-write-2020.html

Unit 2 Lesson4_ Scope and Delimitation and Limitation of the Study

Scope and Delimitation
The scope and delimitation reflects the coverage of the investigation. Some research
topics were broad and researcher finds it difficult to cover all the topics of the study. It is
important that the reader should be made to know what to expect and what not to
expect in the research report. 
A Scope refers to the furthest extent within the coverage of the study which the
researcher could cover due to inevitable restriction (See, et.al.)
Limitation of the study includes the weaknesses of the study beyond control of the
researcher (Calderon et.al)
Delimitation is a specifically fixed limitation. It is the extent to which the researcher
decided to cover in the study.
The scope and delimitation/limitation of the study is included in any thesis in order to
know the coverage of the investigation. When titles and sub-problems are formulated,
the researcher is given a general picture of what the study is all about and what it offers.
This section sets the boundaries of the investigation and justifications why they were
included. Likewise, it cited the variables that were exclude from the study and the
reasons for their exclusion. By setting the scope and delimitation/limitation, the
researcher guides other researchers who are interested in conducting the same
research about the gaps which they can fill in. In other words, it offer clues on what
research problems other researchers may pursue.
The scope and delimitation of the study aligns and focuses the research in the desired
and expected perspective. This consists of the following
Indicate the variables included? Excluded? And why?
Indicate the geographical coverage
Indicate the unit of analysis, what is being studied? Individuals? Groups?
Indicate the time frame of time limit

Example:
This study was delimited to the perceived effects of the parents’ overseas employment
on the emotional and social behavior of students in selected secondary schools of
Banga, South Cotabato during school year 2010-2011. This focused on the profile of the
students whose parents have overseas employment in terms of age, sex, ordinal
position in the family, and parent(s) employed overseas, the perception of students on
the overseas employment of their parents, perceived effects of their parents’ overseas
employment in terms of their emotional behavior and social behavior, and if there is a
significant influence of the  parents’ overseas employment on the students’ emotional
and social behavior relative to their age, sex, ordinal position in the family, and 
parent(s) employed overseas.
Purposive sampling was used to identify the seventy (70) high school students of school
year 2011-2012 served as respondents of the study. They were purposively identified
as sons and daughters left behind by parents employed overseas and were enrolled in
the two (2) secondary schools in Banga. Respondents from Banga National High
School were seventeen (17) females and eighteen (18) males and Malaya National
High School with twenty (20) females and fifteen (15) males.

Unit 2Lecture 5_ Significance and Importance of the Study

Researches will be of no value if they will not contribute something specific to a body of
knowledge or to some intended beneficiaries.
The intended or target beneficiaries of the study. The researcher should be able to
identify WHO will benefit from the results of the investigation. The beneficiaries of the
study vary according to the topic investigated. For researches which focused on the
academic performance of students, the beneficiaries or end-users could be students,
teachers, administrators, the parents, or others
The specific benefits each of the intended clients/ end-users may get out of the results
of the investigation.
The contribution of the study to the body of knowledge.
Calderon et.al.(1993) stresses that any or all of the following may be included under the
importance of the Study, to wit:
The rationale, timeliness and/or relevance of the study may be explained or
discussed.
Possible solutions to existing problems or improvements to unsatisfactory conditions.
Who are to benefit and how they are to be benefited. It must be shown who are the
individuals, groups or communities that may be placed in a more advantageous position
on account of the study.
Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge.
Possible Implications. The implications include the possible causes of the problem
discovered. The possible effects of the problems and the remedial measures to solve
the problems. Implications also include the good points of the system which ought to be
continued or to be improved if possible.

Example:
The result of the study was hoped to be of great help to the following persons or group
of individuals:
 Government officials, this study will enable them to revisit policies in promoting labor
migration as a way of generating employment opportunities without adversely affecting
family relationships. Moreover, they would also have to create more jobs with decent
wages, appropriate protection against human injustices, and provide families with their
rights and privileges;
The school administrators, this study will make them aware of their roles to play in
addressing key issues affecting the welfare of their OFW students;
The parents, this study will enlighten them of the greater needs of their children not just
financially but also of their need for their tender love and care;
The students, this study will help them understand their classmates who have parents
working overseas on the way they behave that they would adjust and be able to realize
the vital roles they played in their lives;
Other researchers, this study will be an important contribution to the augmentation of
literature and study for future researches;
The researcher, the result of the study will help her become positive-minded when
dealing with her future students who may have emotional and social problems
CPE198_Unit 2 Lesson 1 Review of Related Literature and Studies
Legal Bases. This is to determine the relevance of the study to the government’s thrust.
The major sources of related legal bases are laws and department directives such as,
circulars, orders, memoranda, etc. These laws and department directives serve as legal
basis for the paradigm of the study. In presenting the related legal bases, the
investigator has to arrange the chronologically from recent to past and the relevance of
each legal basis is explained. No explanation of the legal basis relevant to the present
study is unscientific.
Example:
Republic Act No. 7164 known as the “Philippine Nursing Act of 1991” defines
professional nursing as the performance for a fee, salary, or other reward or
compensation… toward the promotion of health, and alleviation of suffering through
utilization of nursing process. (LEGAL BASIS).
The foregoing professional nursing definition explicitly expressed that nurses practice
their profession for a fee or salary commensurate with their work in order to satisfy their
needs and wants to cope with the fast changing world.  In other words, the performance
of a particular job affects nurses’ values especially if nurses meet the problems related
to their job in the hospital, hence, promotion of health services cannot be
attained. (EXPLANATION OF THE LEGAL BASIS)

Related Literature. It is a section in a research paper, thesis dissertation, and research

project in which the sources are taken from books, journals, magazines, novels, poetry,
etc. that contains facts, laws, theories and other documented observations. This is in a
chronological order from recent to past when presented. It is unscientific if related
literature are presented and of no explanation at the relevance to the present study.
Example:
Murray’s (1998) article on nurse executives’ leadership roles stated that chief nursing
officers (CNO) leave their position due to lack of power conflict with chief executive
officer (CEO), and inadequate nursing personnel. [Related literature by Bruce P.
Murray. 1998.  “Nurse Executives’ Leadership Roles.” Journal of Nursing
Administration. 28(6):48. (June 1998)].
The article of Murray has bearing to the present study because staff nurses’
performance would be affected if the middle managers or chief nursing officers have
conflict with the chief executive officer or top manager and with problems met related to
their job, for instance, inadequate nursing personnel. (EXPLANATION OF THE
RELATED LITERATURE)
 
Related Studies refers to theses, dissertation and research studied substantially
characterized by the presence of the following part: research problems, hypotheses,
objectives, related literature, methodology, findings, conclusions and recommendations
and bibliography. (Local if printed in the Philippines and Foreign if in the foreign
land). Published and unpublished research studies are sources of materials that
included in this section. This studies are segregated into foreign and local studies.  This
is also arranged chronological order from recent to past. Each related study has
explanation on the relevance of the present study, otherwise, it is unscientific.
 
Example of LOCAL STUDY:
In 1999, Sultan in her study on perceived sources of stress among staff nurses at a
tertiary hospital in Quezon City, found out that lack of administrative support and no
rewards were perceived by staff nurses as the most stressing… (Related local study by
Vilma Sultan. 1999. “Perceived Sources of Stress Among Staff Nurses at Tertiary
Hospital in Quezon City.” MA Thesis in Nursing. Central Philippine University, Iloilo City,
Philippines.)
Sultan’s study has bearing to the present study because lack of administrative support,
no rewards, and no opportunities for career development are among the job-related
problems met by staff nurses in private and government hospitals in Iloilo City which
block their way to perform effectively and efficiently. (EXPLANATION OF THE
RELATED STUDY)
Importance, Purpose and Functions of Related Literature and Studies
A survey of review and related literature and studies is very important because it serves
as the foundation of the proposed study. Related literature and studies serve as a guide
for the researcher in pursuing his research venture. Reviewed literature and studies
help or guide the researcher in the following ways:
They help or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research
problem or topic. By reviewing related materials, a replication of a similar problem may
be found better than the problem already chosen. Replication is the study of research
problem already conducted but in another place.
They help the investigator understand his topic for research better. Reviewing related
literature and studies may clarify vague points about his problem
They ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies. There is duplication if an
investigation already made is conducted again in the same locale using the same
respondents. This is avoided if a survey of related literature and studies be made first.
They help and guide the researcher in locating more sources of related
information. This is because the bibliography of a study already conducted indicate
reference about similar studies.
They help and guide the researcher in making his research designs especially in
  The formulation of specific questions to be researched on.
 The formulation of assumptions and hypothesis if there is any
 The formulation of conceptual framework
 The selection and application to the methods of research
 The selection and application of sampling techniques
 The selection and or preparation and validation of research instruments for
gathering data;
 The selection and application of statistical procedures
 The analysis, organization, presentation and interpretation of data
 The making of the summary of implications for the study
 The formulation of the summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations 
They help and guide the researcher in making comparisons between findings with the
findings of other researchers on similar studies with the end view of formulating
generalizations or principles which are the contributions of the study to the fund of
knowledge.

Guidelines in Citing related literature and studies 

A. Characteristics of the materials cited
The materials must be as recent as possible. This is important because of the rapid
social. Political, scientific, and technological changes. Discoveries in historical and
archaeological research have also change some historical facts. Researchers in
education and psychology are also making great strides.
Materials must be as objective and unbiased as possible. Some materials are extremely
one sided, either politically or religiously biased. These should be avoided
Materials must be relevant to the study. Only materials that have some similarity to or
being on the problem researched on, should be cited.
Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or
data to make them valid and reliable. There are cases where fictitious data are supplied
just to complete a research report.
Materials must not be too few but not too many. They must be sufficient enough to give
the researcher insights into his problem or to indicate the nature of the present
investigation. The number may also depend upon the availability of related materials.
Ordinarily fifteen to twenty-five may do for a master’s thesis and from twenty and above
for a doctoral dissertation, Depending upon their availability and depth and length of
discussion. For undergraduate theses about ten may do.
 
B. Sources of Related Literature and Studies: The sources of related literature and
studies may include the following.
Books, encyclopedias, almanacs and other similar references
Articles published in professional journals, magazines, periodicals, newspapers and
other publications.
Manuscripts, monographs, memoirs, speeches, letters and diaries.
Unpublished theses and dissertations.
The Constitution and laws and statutes of the land.
Bulletins, circulars and other emanating from government offices and departments,
especially from the office of the president of the Philippines and DepEd.
Records of schools, public and private, especially reports and other activities.
Reports from seminars, educational or otherwise.
Official reports of all kinds, educational, social, economic, scientific, technological,
political, etc. from the government and other entities.
 
C. Where to Locate the Sources of Related Literature and Studies
Libraries, either government, school or private libraries
Government and private offices
National library
The library of DepEd
The last two are especially rich depositories of related materials particularly unpublished
master’s theses and doctoral dissertations.

D.  Ways of Citing Related Literature and Studies: The following are the ways of
citing related literature and studies. 
By author or writer. In this method the ideas, facts or principles, although they have
the same meaning, are explained or discussed separately and cited in the footnote with
their respective authors or writers
Examples: According to Enriquez, praise helps much in learning etc..[1]
Maglaque found out that praise is an important factor in learning etc…[2]
By topic. In this case, if different authors or writers have the same opinion about the
same topic, the topics is discussed ans cited under the names of the authors or writers.
This is a summary of their opinions. This is to avoid separate and long discussions of
the same topic.
Example: It has been found out that praise is an important aid in the learning of children
Chronological. Related materials may also be cited chronologically, that is, according
to the year they were written. Materials which were written earlier should be cited first
before those which were written later. This can be done especially when citation is by
author or writer. If citation is by topic, chronological citation can be done in the footnote.

E. What to Cite
 
            It should be emphasized that only the major findings, ideas, generalizations,
principles, or conclusions in related materials relevant to the problem under
investigation should be discussed in this chapter. Generally, such findings, ideas,
generalizations, principles, or conclusions are summarized, paraphrased or
synthesized.
 
F. Quoting a Material
            A material may be quoted if the idea conveyed is so perfectly stated or it is
controversial and it is too long. It is written single spaced with wider margins at the left
and right side of the paper but without any quotation marks.
Example: Suppose the following is a quotation: Said Enriquez
    Praise is an important factor in children’s learning. It encourages them to study their
lessons harder. Praise, however, should be given very appropriately.
G. Justification of the Study
It should be made clear that there is no duplication of other studies. The present inquiry
may only be a replication of another study. It should be stressed also that in spite of
similar studies, the present study is still necessary to find out if the findings of studies in
other places are also true in the local of the present study. There may also be a need to
continue with the present investigation to affirm or negate the findings of other inquiries
about the same research problem or topic so that generalizations or principles may be
formulated. These generalizations and principles would be the contributions of the
present investigation together with other studies to fund of knowledge. This is one of the
more important purposes of research; the contribution that it can give to the fund of
knowledge.
Easy Steps in Writing Related Literature and Studies 
Researcher should always be guide by the topic under the investigation. It is suggested
that the student should be able to identify the variables of the study, the problems, the
scope and delimitation and methodology
Write down in a separate sheet or in index card the titles of the theses, dissertations
and other materials researched. Write down the call number, the title, author, date of
publication, the school (for theses/dissertations) these will help you find the materials
with ease.
In the actual searching of materials, it is advisable that for every topic researched one
index card or paper be used. This is to avoid the possibility of placing different topics in
one card. After the information has been written, always write in the card the source of
the information. Correct bibliographic entries should be observed. Label the card with
“Related Literature” or “Related Studies”.
After a reasonable search has been made, the index card should be arranged by topic.
Separate the card for related literature and the related studies
Organize the related literature and related studies reviewed. Group together similar
topics or related studies.
Write a summative description of the research literature and studies undertaken noting
among others, the problems/objectives of the study, the scope, hypotheses and
methodology.
Compare the related studied reviewed with the current study. Always take note of the
similarities and differences between the previous studies reviewed and the present
investigation.

[1] Pedro Enriquez, The Dynamics of Teaching and Learning. Manila: Canlaon

Publishing Company, Inc.,1981, P102
[2] Juan Maglaque, “Factors affecting Children’s Learning in Pag-asa District,”
(Unpublished Master’s Thesis, San Gregorio College, San Gregorio City, 1984)
CPE198_Unit 3 Research Methodology
Research Design
The proposed study design is described as the “blueprint of the study (whether
descriptive, experimental design, etc.). It guides the collection, measurement, and
analysis of data (Cooper and Schindler, 2001). The design becomes the basis for
determining what data will be collected, and how they will be analyzed and
interpreted. the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation. Its purposes were to  (1) to
provide answers to research problems (2) to control its variability 
Is a plan and structure of the investigation conceived to obtain answers to research
questions? The plan is the overall scheme of the program of the research. It includes an
outline of what the investigator will do until the final analysis of the data. 

Two Types of Research

There are two major types of research:
Basic Research-  A type of research that is conducted for knowing and understanding
or sometimes referred to as theoretical research designed to deal with theoretical issues
concerning different phenomena. Its main objective is to test and arrive at a theory with
the ultimate goal of establishing general principles (Garcia, bongolan, Nuevo,
Malaborbor, & Gamboa, 2011). It is oriented towards problems that arise in some fields
of application but not aiming at prescribing a solution to a practical problem. Empirical
data is required in this kind of research
Operation Research- Aimed at tackling ongoing problems within an organization, but
does not involve actual experimental activity and are concentrated only on strategy and
methods. These include (a) observation of the mission of the organization; (b)
identification of goals; (c) establishment of criteria in the attainment of goals; (d)
formulation of measure for performance against set criteria; (e) measurement and
evaluation of performance based on the goals and (f) preparation of the report on the
results of measurement and evaluation.
Action Research- It involves components of the strategy of the operational research
work but is distinguished by the application of the other components of the strategy and
the introduction of observation as part of planned change.  (Rothwell, 1999)
Performance Research – A generated data from interviews and analysis to arrive at
the answers to the problems under study. Interpretations are backed up with empirical
data on the different criterion measures of performance.
 Pure Research- A research arising out of the perceived needs of the discipline and
generally conceived as one which is oriented towards the resolution, clarification, or
comprehension of theoretical problems, and the need for empirical data does not exist.
Usually requirements for those who work for a Master’s Degree in Mathematics or
statistics.

Research Approaches
Qualitative Approach- involves the collection of extensive narrative data to gain
insights into phenomena of interest; data analysis includes the coding of the data and
production of a verbal synthesis. This is usually used to examine questions that can be
best answered by verbally describing how participants in the study perceive and
interprets various aspects of their environment (Crowl, 1996). Qualitative research is
also referred to as ethnographic research that involves the study of current events
rather than past events. This involves the collection of extensive narrative data on many
variables over an extended period of time in a naturalistic setting. 
Quantitative Approach- involves the collection of numerical data to explain, predict,
and or control phenomena of interest, data analysis is mainly statistical.

Kinds of Research Design 

Listed below are the eight (8) kinds of research designs:
Historical Research Design - The purpose is to collect, verify, synthesize evidence to
establish facts that defend or refute your hypothesis. It uses primary sources, secondary
sources, and lots of qualitative data sources such as logs, diaries, official records,
reports, etc. The limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid
(Calmorin, ). Aquino (   ) enumerated the activities to be undertaken in conducting
historical research as given below.
Formulating your problems
Gathering your source materials: this involves the classification of historical sources,
determining the places where the sources are located, and systematizing your note-
taking.
Criticizing your source materials as to the genuineness or otherwise: the literal or real
meaning of the author’s statements, the competence of the author or observer, and
testing the truthfulness and honesty.
Interpreting your data and materials; and
Stating conclusions and recommendations
Case and Field Research Design - Also called ethnographic research, it uses direct
observation to give a complete snapshot of a case that is being studied. It is useful
when not much is known about a phenomenon. Uses a few subjects.
 
Descriptive or Survey Research Design - It attempts to describe and explain the
conditions of the present by using many subjects and questionnaires to fully describe a
phenomenon. It answers such questions as who, what, when, where, and how. It tries to
describe present conditions, events, or systems based on the impressions or reactions
of respondents (Garcia, Bongolan, Nuevo, Malaborbor, & Gamboa, 2011).  Survey
research design /survey methodology is one of the most popular for dissertation
research.

TYPES DEFINITION
Descriptive-Survey Survey derived from the Latin sur or super which means
“above” or “view” and vey which means “to look” or “to
see”. Survey means “to look over or beyond”. Usually
used by graduate and undergraduate students when they
attempt to analyze, interpret, and report the status of their
subject matter or problem (Calmorin, 2001). This
approach is appropriate whenever the object of any class
vary among themselves and one is interested in knowing
the extent to which different conditions obtain among
these objects (Goods and Scates, 1972)
Descriptive-Normative Describes the status of events and people or subjects as
Survey they exist. Deals with standardized instruments like
mental ability test, stress and personality questionnaire,
morale, and job satisfaction questionnaire. Normative is
used because surveys are frequently made to ascertain
the normal or typical condition or practices or compare
local test results with state or national norms (Goods and
Scates, 1972)
Descriptive Comparative Comparative Survey where the researcher considers at
least two entities and establish formal procedures for
obtaining criterion data based on which he can compare
and conclude which of the two is better (De Jesus et. Al.,
1984).
Descriptive-Evaluative This study judges the goodness of an existing program. It
is directed to whether or not a particular program
achieved its goal or not. Value judgment in  terms of
effectiveness, desirability, or social validity (Calmorin,
2001)
 The purpose of this research is to appraise carefully the
merit of the current study.

TYPES DEFINITION
Descriptive-classification This method is employed in natural science subjects such
 as Botany, Zoology, Biology, and the like. The specimens
collected are classified from Phylum to
Species (Calmorin, 2001)
Descriptive-Status A quantitative technique that determines the current
conditions in a group of cases chosen for study employed
a problem-solving approach that seeks to answer
questions to real facts relating to existing situations.
Descriptive Analysis The purpose of this type is to determine individual parts
and units integrated into the internal system. It will
determine the structure, composition that occur as a unit
within the larger structure.
Descriptive Correlational  Used to determine whether or not there is a relationship
that exists between two or more quantifiable variables,
and if there is, to what extent or degree the relationship is
determined, the researcher must identify whether such
relationship is positive (+) or negative (-) and the degree
or extent (strength)  of relationship.  Help determine how
much variation caused by another variable
Descriptive Assessment A fact-finding activity that describes conditions that exist
Method at a particular time such as practices and beliefs. No
hypothesis is preposed or tested.
Descriptive Trend and This descriptive research is based upon longitudinal
Perspective Method consideration of recorded data, indicating what has been
happening in the past, what the present situation reveals,
and based on these data, it projects what is likely to
happen in the future. It aims to project the demands or
needs of people in the future.
Descriptive Ex-Post This type of research is also known as causal-
Facto Method comparative research of after-the-fact research. In this
method, the researcher is trying to establish a causal
effect between existing conditions. This research design
attempts to explore cause and effect relationships where
causes already exist and cannot be manipulated. It uses
what already exists and looks backward to explain why.
Descriptive Case Study A case study is an intensive and descriptive analysis of a
Method single subject. It examines social units as a whole, and
the unit may be a single typical individual. It examines a
social unit as a whole, and the unit may be a single typical
individual, a family, a social group, a social institution, or a
community.
Research and Uses longitudinal and cross-sectional methods. It has the
Developmental Studies same sample participants  over an extended period of
time, while the cross-sectional method studies
participants of various characteristics at the same point in
time,
Documentary Analysis Involves gathering of data by examining records and
 documents.

Experimental Research Design - This design is most appropriate in controlled settings

such as laboratories. The design assumes random assignment of subjects and
random assignment to groups (E and C). It attempts to explore cause and effect
relationships where causes can be manipulated to produce different kinds of effects.
Because of the requirement of random assignment, this design can be difficult to
execute in the real world (non-laboratory) setting. Luck Wales, et al (   ) described an
experiment using the following characteristics.

a. The variable under test (the treatment or solution hypothesized as being causal)
can be applied deliberately and its nature specified.

b. The results or payoff from its application can be identified and measured in terms
of relevance to the given problem
c. The extraneous variables in the environment, which plausibly could affect the
results materially, can be identified.
d. The test or experiment must be able to produce valid results both internally and
externally. Internal validity means that no other plausible cause of the observed
results should exist except those tested. External validity means the conclusions
can be projected to real-world problems. 

Experimental Plan

1. Determining the experimental problem or topic

2. Surveying related literature and studies
3. Formulating the hypothesis or hypotheses
4. Identifying the experimental variables
5. Select the appropriate experimental design
6. Selecting the sample
7. Selecting or constructing appropriate instruments to measure the results of the
experiment
8. Conducting the experiment
 History 

 Maturation

 Testing

 Biases in the selection of the respondents

 Experimental mortality

 Interaction effects
9. Measuring the results and applying statistical procedures
 10. Writing the reports of the experiment

7Ms of Experimental Design 

a. Manpower
b. Money
c. Methods
d. Materials
e. Machinery
f. Moment of Time
g. Marketing

Experimental Designs and Models

Other Experimental Designs

TYPES DEFINITION
Posttest only design  Also known as the one-shot case study that involves just
one group of subjects who is exposed to an intervention
or treatment. After some time it is given a posttest or is
subject to observation. 
The one-group pretest- As to posttest-only, this design is without a control group. 
posttest design
However, a pretest or baseline observation (O1) allows
the investigator to determine the effects of the treatment
by comparing pretest and posttest (O2) results.
The static-group It has a control or comparison group. 
comparison design
The experimental group is exposed to an intervention or
treatment (X) which is derived from the control group.

After some time the experimental group and the control

group are observed
The pretest-posttest this design involves the random assignment of subjects
control group design from a single population the experimental and the control
groups. 

these two groups receive initial observations or pretests

(O1 & O3) and posttest (O2 & O4) to determine the
differences.
The non-equivalent involves two groups which are the experimental and the
control group design control groups. like pretest-posttest control group design
both experimental and control group undergo pretest and
posttest, the only difference is that in this design the
assignment of subjects into these groups is not done
randomly
 A separate Sample involves two groups, the creation of which was done by a
pretest-posttest group random selection (R) of samples. one group is subject to
design a baseline pretest (O1), and another group is used for the
posttest measurement (O2). 
The time-series design an improvement of the one-group pretest-posttest design
because it has the advantage of repeated observations
before and after the intervention or treatment has been
introduced to the study group. The more pretest and
posttest the better it will be for study.

Methodology checklist

This checklist is based on the typical requirements for carrying out your research. Some
of the questions relate to designing the research and some relate to the writing up of the
research. Select the questions below that are most relevant, depending on the type of
research that you intend to do and what your institution requires of you. 

Local Requirements 
Do you need your supervisor’s permission to conduct the research? 
Do you know how much detail you are required to give? 
Have you complied with your institution’s ethical procedures? 
Is there a word limit? If so, what is it? 
Have you looked at previous examples? 
Will your supervisor read a draft? 
 

General Requirements 
Is the method you have chosen appropriately for the nature of your research
and your research objectives? 
Did you have your supervisor’s approval of your research tools? 

Have you explained the basic nature of your research – is it exploratory,

descriptive, or explanatory? Are your central questions descriptive, relational,
or causal?
Have you justified your choice of methodological approach? 
Have you explained, in detail, how the data was obtained? 
Have you explained, in detail, how the data was analyzed? 
Have you discussed your choice of data collection techniques? 
 

Academic Writing 
Have you provided a convincing explanation of your research? 
Have you proofread your methodology? 
Have you laid it out clearly so that it looks quite nice??!! 
CPE198_UNIT 3 Abstraction Population, Sample Size and Techniques
The following are the terms that a researcher should comprehend.
Sampling is a process of choosing a representative portion of a population to represent
the entire population. 
Sample. It is a proportion, an element, or a part of the population that is scientifically
and randomly drawn that actually possesses the same characteristics as the population.
This implies that every person has an equal opportunity to be selected for your sample
 An element is considered as a member of a population. It is a unit in which data is
collected and analyzed
Population pertains to the total number of elements to be studied. It includes all
members of a defined group that we are studying or collecting information on data-
driven decisions.
 
The parameter is the summary description of a given variable in a population. The
mean income, the mean age of all the families are parameters. The age distribution of
all people is a parameter.
The sample size is the number of subjects in your study. 
The margin of Error is the allowable error in percent due to the use of the sample,
instead of the population 
Sampling Error is the error attributed to the chance difference between a random
sample and the chosen population. It does not result from measurement or computation
errors but contributory to the inaccuracy of data. 
Sample vs Population
As follows are some reasons why researchers use a sample rather than the entire
population in the conduct of their study.
1. Sometimes the population is difficult to identify who makes up the entire
population.
2. The sample is cheaper, faster, more accurate, and can yield more
comprehensive information.
3. Getting the population is too costly in terms of human resources and other
expenses, and time-consuming.
4. In population, there is a lot of error to control and monitor.
5. Sometimes lists are rarely up to date.
Advantages of Sampling
1. It saves time, money, and effort
2. It is more effective
3. It is faster, cheaper, and economical
4. It is more accurate
5. It gives more comprehensive information
  Disadvantages of Sampling 
1. Sample data involves more care in preparing detailed sub-classification due to
the small number of subjects
2. If the sampling plan is not correctly designed and followed, the results may be
misleading
3. The characteristics to be observed may occur rarely in a population, for instance,
the teachers over 30 years of teaching experience
4. Complicated sampling plans are laborious to prepare.
Good and Defective Sampling 
Keys to Good Sampling
 formulate the aims of the study
 decide what analysis is required to satisfy these aims
 decide what data are required to facilitate the analysis
 collect the data required by the study
Defective Sampling
1. Sampling that is too small or not a representative will be biased, invalid, and
unreliable.
2. The sampling becomes very complicated if the population is too large or has
many sections and subsections.
3. The sample (respondents) should have common characteristics to eradicate
faulty conclusions.
4. The sampling becomes biased and unrepresentative if the researcher does not
possess the necessary skills and technical know-how of the sampling procedure.
9.5. The Sample Size
            One of the most frequent problems in statistical analysis is the determination of
the appropriate sample size. One may ask why the sample size is so important. The
answer to this is that appropriate sample size is required for validity. If the sample sizes
are too small, it will not yield valid results. An appropriate sample size can produce the
accuracy of results. Moreover, the results from the small sample size will be
questionable. A sample size that is too large will result in wasting money and time. It is
also unethical to choose too large a sample size. There is no certain rule of thumb to
determine the sample size. Some researchers do, however, support a rule of thumb
when using the sample size. For example, in regression analysis, many researchers say
that there should be at least 10 observations per variable. If we are using three
independent variables, then a clear rule would be to have a minimum sample size of 30.
Some researchers follow a statistical formula to calculate the sample size.
The size of the sample depends on some factors:
1. Degree of accuracy required
2. Amount of variability inherent in the population from which the sample was taken
3. Nature and complexity of the characteristics of the population under
consideration 
QUESTIONNAIRE SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION
Daniel and Cochran Formula. the formula used was for unknown population size and
is given as 

where n = sample size, Z = statistic for a level of confidence, P = expected prevalence

or proportion (in proportion of one; if 50%, P = 0.5), and d = precision (in proportion of
one; if 6%, d = 0.06). Z statistic (Z): for the level of confidence of 95%, which is
conventional, Z value is 1.96. In this study, investigators present their results with 95%
confidence intervals (CI).
Types of Sampling Techniques
A. Non-probability Sampling (Non-scientific). This type of sampling does not provide
every member of the population an equal chance of being selected as part of the
sample. Additionally, the data gatherers choose sample cases as they WISH. These
have 3 kinds:
1. Availability Sampling, the sample size elements are selected from the target
population based on their availability at the convenience of the researcher and or
voluntary / self-selection. 
2. Purposive sampling is used when the researcher selected samples that are
according to the purposes of the researcher. 
 2. Quota sampling is used if a stratum is small in the population but important to the
research questions being presented. This is done by merely looking for individuals with
requisite characteristics. 
3. Convenience sampling, exactly what the name suggests, is oftentimes what we
have to use because of reality. We cannot draw a sample, but we have a group that is
accessible, is representative of our target population, and just available to us. Instead of
becoming purists and throwing out the chance for collecting data for decisions, use what
you have with the honest acknowledgment that there are limitations.
4. Respondent Assisted sampling. The elements are selected from the target
population with the assistance of previously selected population elements. This
sampling procedure is often used in studying social networks, rare populations, and
hidden populations like drug dealers and other criminal or commercial sea workers

B. Probability Sampling (Scientific sampling). In this type of sampling, the

researcher follows a procedure that assures that all elements in the population are
given an equal chance of being selected as a sample unit. There are 6 types:
1. Simple random sampling may be done by drawing lots or with the use of a table of
random digits. This gives all elements an equal chance of being selected as a sample. 
Steps in Simple Random Sampling
1. Determine the population of the study
2. Determine the desired sample size (You can use Pagosa formula, Gay’s formula,
or other formulae in determining sample size)
3. List down the respondents (population) of the study on a sheet of paper.
4. Write in small sheets of paper, names of the respondents or codes, roll these
pieces of paper and place them in a box big enough to accommodate them.
Shake thoroughly the box
5. Draw the sample one at a time after shaking the box until the desired sample
size is drawn. The names are drawn include in the sample.
2. Systematic sampling is an often-used sampling strategy and cost-effective. Again,
you must have a population sampling frame list that is in random order and non-
overlapping. Determine both the size of the population and the size of the sample you

want to work with. Then, divide the sample size   into the population (N) size to get
your key number, symbolized as “k”(sampling interval) a method of selecting a sample
by taking the kth (sampling interval) units from an ordered (alphabetical /chronological)
population. The formula applied is: K=N/n (where: K is desired interval, N population,
and n is the sample size)
Steps in Systematic Random Sampling
1. Identify the population of the study
2. Determine the desired sample size, then, apply the formula above. For example.
If you have a population of 800 and your desired sample size is 10%, then you
will have a sample of 80. Applying the formula above 800/80=10), the sampling
interval is 10
3. Hence, every 10th in the list (or arrangement of households as the case may be)
is taken as a member of the sample
4. Close your eyes and run your finger down the list and then stop. The number,
which the finger points to, is the random start number.
5. From the random start number, pick every 10 th in the list (or arrangement of the
households) until the desired sample size of 80 is obtained
3. Stratified random sampling is used when the population is heterogeneous and it is
important to represent the different strata or sub-populations. There is a proportional
representation of strata in the sample - proportional to the population strata. We divide
the entire population into strata (groups) to obtain groups of people that are more or
less equal in some respect. 
Steps in Stratified Random Sampling
1. Determine the stratum or class to which all elements in the population belong.
2. Group the elements of the population according to the characteristics inherent in
the whole class or stratum
3. Apply either the pure random sampling method or systematic sampling in the
actual selection of the sample. Do this for every class or stratum. Note: The
same sample size should be proportional or the same percent is applied for each
class or stratum.

Year Level & Section Population Fraction Sample size

A 30 30/75 x 30  
B 20 20/75 x 30  
C 10 10/75 x 30  
D 15 15/75 x 30  
TOTAL 75   30
  
d. Cluster Sampling – selecting a cluster of elements or blocks where each
consists of heterogeneous elements (Calderon et al, 1993).
Steps in Cluster Sampling
1. Make a listing of sampling units, the primary sampling units (the first clusters to
be sampled), the secondary sampling unit within the primary sampling, etc.
Suppose the provinces are the primary sampling units, the towns are the
secondary sampling units and the barangay are the final sampling units. These
are called natural clusters
2. Since the sample is 20%, 20% of 9 provinces equal to 1.8 or 2 provinces. Select
these two ( 20 provinces either by pure or systematic random sampling)
3. Within each of these two provinces, select 20% of the towns either by pure
random or systematic random sampling method.
4. Within each town selected, choose 20% of the barangays. Since there is only
one elementary school in one barrio or barangay, this is the final sampling unit.
The respondents may be stratified into teachers, parents, and pupils. The
respondents have to be taken from these stratified groups either pure random or
systematic random sampling.
Example:
Desired sample: 50
Population: 100 with 10 clusters
 
Step1. Number 10 clusters 1-10
Step2. Use simple random sampling
Step3. Identify the groups represented by the
numbers drawn
 
 Multi-stage Sampling – a selection of the sample is accomplished in two or more
stages.
Example:
   Desired sample: 50
   Population: all men with 0-6 yrs old children in the
province
 
 
 
Stage1. Draw sample towns in the province. List all the names in the province and use
random sampling to draw the three sample towns.
Stage2. Draw sample barangays in the sample towns. Secure a list of all barangays in
each of the sample towns and using simple random sampling, draw 3 sample
barangays in each of the three sample towns.
Stage3. Draw a sample of married men in the sample barangays. List their names per
sample barangays from the 3sample towns then use random sampling to select the
men with 0-6 yrs old children.
C. Mixed Method Sampling.  This sampling method combines different types of
sampling methods into a single design. This is supported by the idea that the
weaknesses of one method maybe compensated by the strengths of the other methods
that are used.
1. Telephone-Based Sampling- sampling procedure that utilized telephone numbers
as sampling units
2. Web-based Sampling- In this sampling procedure, email addresses, website
visits, and recruited  users of the internet are utilized as sampling units
3. Address-based Sampling- Postal address is utilized as sampling units
4. Time-based Sampling- Units of time are used as the sampling units. This is used
in studying repeated outcomes that vary a great deal over time
5. Space-based Sampling- a set of sampling according to Daniel (2012) is called an
area sampling, spatial sampling, location-based sampling, venue-based, or
facility-based sampling. It can either be geographical units or various locations or
venues.
CPE198_Unit 3 DATA COLLECTION METHODS: SOURCES AND TOOLS OF DATA
Tools Used in Generating Research Data
One of the major components of research designing is the tools for gathering data.
Among the data commonly used in research are as follows:
1. Questionnaire – considered as the most frequently used tool in gathering data, also
known as a survey form. This tool allows the respondent to complete the questionnaire
before the researcher or his representative or via mail. The questionnaire has different
types these are; 
a. Personally administered- confined to the local area and the respondent is willing
and able to assemble groups to respond with the questionnaire. 
b. Mailed questionnaire- this type of questionnaire covers a wide geographical area
and respondents are given their own free time and convenience to complete the
question. However, return rates are low and respondents doubt cannot be clarified by
the researcher. 
2. Interview - this is feasible when personal interaction is available. The data collected
through direct verbal interaction between the interviewer and the respondents.
a. Structured interview – the questions are stated specifically in a fixed list and the
interviewer asks the questions precisely on how they are listed in the guide questions.
b. Unstructured interview- even if the interviewer has the list of questions, he does not
need to follow the order on how they are listed. This type of interview is more flexible
and open.
3. Observation- involves the researcher studying the research situations. It can be
used primarily in a descriptive and experimental investigation but it cannot be used in
historical researches. 
a. Structured observation- the researcher knows what aspects of the group activity
are relevant for his purposed. It is focused on designated aspects of behavior or
controlled experiments.
b. Unstructured observation- also called a non-selective method of observation would
be a complete account of an event. 
The validity of a Research Instrument
Validity – This pertains to the extent to which an instrument measures what it intends to
measure. Valid data are not only reliable but also true and sound. It may also be
referred to as the appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness of data. There are
three (3) kinds of validity:
1. Content Validity
        The instrument has content validity if the content and format of an instrument
appropriately covers the topics and the variables intended to be studied and the items
adequately represent the subject to be assessed…its operational definitions are
consistent.
2. Criterion-related validity
        The instrument has criterion-related validity if a score obtained by an individual
using a particular instrument is significantly associated with a score he obtains on
another instrument/ criterion. For example, if one the academic performance, he can get
the general average of the academics and compare it with his NAT score, which can be
the criterion variable.
3. Construct-related validity
        It refers to characteristics being measured by the instrument and how well these
constructs explain the differences in the behavior of individuals. For example, a
researcher constructs a questionnaire to know if students from low-income families
have higher aspirations than those of high-income families. After the result analysis, the
researcher was able to get the data he wants.
Reliability of a Research Instrument
Reliability – refers to the consistency, stability, and dependability of data. A reliable
measuring device is one what if used for the second time, will yield the same results as
it did the first time. If the results are substantially different, the measurement is
unreliable.
3 Common Methods to Determine Reliability:
1. Test-Retest Method. This involves administering the same test twice to the
same groups of the individual after a certain time has elapsed.
2. Equivalent- forms Method. This involves the administration of two different but
equivalent forms of an instrument to the same group of individuals during the
same period of time.
3. Internal Consistency Method. This requires only one administration of the
same instrument. The split-half procedure is the most common method used to
determine its reliability. This is made possible by using the Spearman-Brown
prophecy formula.
Methods of Checking Validity & Reliability by Fraenkel & Wallen (1996) 

Validity ( Truthfulness)
Methods Procedures
Construct-related method Assess evidence from hypothesis
Content-related method Expert’s judgment
Criterion-related method Relate to another measure of
The same variable
Constructed-related method Assess evidence from hypothesis
made form theory
Reliability (Consistency)
Test-Retest Give an identical instrument twice
Equivalent forms Give 2 forms of the instrument
Internal Consistency Method Divide the instrument into halves
 
8.7 The Steps in constructing a Questionnaire
1. Determining what information to collect
 review the objectives (sub-problems) of the study
 identify the specific variables that need to be measured
 specify the indicators to be used for each variable
 identify the question items for each variable and indicator
2. Grouping the information items (in outline form)
 Group together related topics or items.
 Arrange topics/items
 Include items on respondent’s identification
3. Formulating the Questions
 closed-ended questions – give the mixed answer
 What is your civil status?  1. Single  2. Married   3. Widowed
 Open-ended questions
 What factors can affect your academic performance?
 What are its advantages?
4. Formatting the Instrument
 Avoid crowding of questions 
  Arrange questions based on your SOP
 Provide adequate space for answers & use font 12
 Align parallel responses or codes of responses.
 Make sure all important information about the study is asked
5. Modifying and Pretesting the Instrument
The instrument must be pre-tested on individuals with similar characteristics to other
study respondents. The number of pre-test respondents must be at least 5% of the size
of the sample population. In revising, watch out for the: incomplete/
inconsistent/vague/no answers.
6. Improving and Finalizing the Instrument
 Finalize the layout
 Ask consultants to comment on the content and format
 Weigh the recommendations and suggestions
8.4   Types of Five-Point Scale According to the Data Asked For

Verbal
Scale Qualitative Description
Interpretation
The student strongly agree with the statement
5 Strongly Agree
and rated 81 - 100%
The student slightly agree with the statement
4 Agree
and rated 61 - 80%
The student is uncertain with the statement and
3 Uncertain
rated 41 - 60%
The student agreed with the statement and 
2 Disagree
rated 21 - 40%
The student strongly agree with the statement
1 Strongly Disagree
and rated 1-20%
 
Types of Questionnaire According to the kind of data ask for:
 
1. Descriptive (Verbal) data
What kind of house do you live in? Please check
___ Concrete                ____Bamboo        _____Others
 
2. Quantified (Numerical) data
             a. How old are you? ___     
 
3. Intensity of feeling, emotion, or attitude:  Do you agree to have a one-day
election?    
    5 – Strongly Agree                     2 – Disagree
    4 – Agree                                  1 – Strongly Disagree
    3 – Fairly Agree
  
4. Degree of Judgment: How serious is the problem of Drug Addiction?
    5 – Very Serious                        2 – Not Serious
    4 – Serious                               1 – Not a Problem
    3 – Fairly Serious
  
5. Adequacy of Facilities: How adequate are the facilities?
    5 – Very Adequate                      2 – Inadequate
    4 – Adequate                            1 – Very Inadequate
    3 – Fairly Adequate
  
6. Efficiency of Teaching            
    5 – Very Efficient                        2 – Inefficient
    4 – Efficient                               1 – Very Inefficient
    3 – Fairly Efficient
 
7. Effectiveness of Teaching Methods
    5 – Very Effective                       2 – Ineffective
    4 – Effective                              1 – Very Ineffective
    3 – Fairly Effective
 
8. On Frequency 
     5 – Very Often                          2 – Seldom
     4 – Often                                  1 – Not Using at all (NA)
     3 – Fairly Often
CPE198_Unit 3 Methods of Research_ Quantitative & Qualitative Data Analysis
 Determine whether the responses to the questions asked are names or numbers.
If the responses are names, then the researcher can use numeric codes.
Example: The questionnaire asked for
Gender:                  (  ) Male           (   ) Female
Civil Status  (  ) Single         (   ) Married                   (   ) Widow/er
If the researcher opts for a manually generated result, then “M” or “F” for gender and
“S”, “M” or “W” for civil status, could be used. However if the data will be entered in a
computer program like MS Excel and other statistical packages, then, the following
codes could be used:
Gender                   1- Male             2- Female
Civil Status 1-Single            2-Married          3-Widow/widower
For data requiring numerical answers like age, length of service, number of years in the
present position, monthly income and the like, numerical codes are required if the
answers found in the questionnaire are shown in a scale.
Example:

Age of respondents (Please check) Number of years in service

20-25 years old _________ 1-5    years    ________
26-30 years old _________ 6-10   years    ________
31-35 years old _________ 11-15 years    ________
36-40 years old _________ 16-20 years    ________
41-45 years old _________ 21-25 years    ________
46-50 years old _________  
 
However, if the researcher asked from the respondents specific answers, then coding is
no longer applicable.

Please provide the information on the following

Age  
Number of years in the service  
Number of years in the Present  
Position
Number of Children  
Monthly income  
 
Note: if the researcher wants to capture the average or mean age, years in service,
years in present position, number of children and monthly income of the respondents,
never present them in scale.
 Always place the code for each variable at the bottom part of the questionnaire or data
matrix and mark it “legend”
STEP3. Preparation of Data Matrix. The researcher should prepare a data matrix or
template to facilitate preparation of tables before analyzing the data. For computer-
generated data, the researchers are advised to follow the steps in the preparation of the
data matrix (Bermudo et.al, 2010).
1. Determine the variables used in the study
2. Count the number of variables as found in the questionnaire. The number of
columns in the matrix or worksheet should be the same as the number of
variables found in the questionnaire.
3. Pre-numbered the questionnaire retrieved. If your respondents are grouped then,
number them chronologically from 1 to n. Do this for the rest of the group.
4. Enter the responses for each respondent in the matrix using the code you
previously decide to use
5. The columns represents the variables or the study and the rows represent the
respondents. Thus, all responses of the respondents are entered in one row.
STEP4. Preparation of Tables. The researcher will now organized the data into logical,
sequential and meaningful categories and classification in order to make them
amenable to analysis and interpretation (Rebustes, 2002).
TABLES provide a more precise description of the results and figures makes it easier to
see trends or patterns in the data. Whichever the researcher chooses, trends must be
discussed in the text itself. The highest and least figures or findings of the study
normally highlighted in the textual presentation. Data from these tables are integrated
into the textual discussion. In framing the table, the researcher must be guided by
specific questions as presented in statement of the problem. The table should clearly
define the problem to be answered. It should bear captions and headings to ensure
facility in understanding data aimed to answer questions posed (Bermudo et.al, 2010)
1. For ordinal variables like age, number of years in service and monthly salary.
 a. Determine the highest age and/or number of years in service and monthly
salary
 b. Determine the lowest age and/or number of years in service and monthly
salary
 c. subtract the highest age from the lowest age
 d. Determine the range Example: Highest Age 63 and Lowest Age is 28, then 
 35/5 desired number of groupings. Thus 7 is the interval size
For nominal variables like gender, highest educational attainment, position held etc.
Indicate in the table the variables as it appears in the questionnaire 
Table I
            Social Dimension of Nurses in Hospitals in Region XII

Variables Frequency Percent

Highest Educational Attainment    
Bachelor’s degree holder    
BS with units in MAN    
BS with units in PHN or other graduate    
course
MAN with doctoral units    
Doctorate degree holder    
Total    
 For data which are shown in a scale, the researcher may have two (2) options (1)
include the frequencies, weighted mean, quantitative response and qualitative response
(2) exclude the frequencies. For purposes of analysis, the quantitative response is the
rounded figure or the weighted mean.
 GRAPHS. Data presented in graphs add clarity, more impact and color to the study.
Graphs however, becomes useful if the research tries to compare one data from the
other.
 STEP5. Data Analysis & Interpretation of Data. After the tables are prepared and
frequencies entered, the researcher should now focus only on salient data shown in the
table. The researcher need not repeat in the discussion all those items shown in the
table. It is not sufficient to only describe the data but also to cross tabulate them in order
to arrive at a meaningful interpretation.  
During the interpretation of data, both the theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the
study are considered. It is in this part where the researcher looks for theories or earlier
studies, findings of which substantiate or repudiate the findings of the present research
being discussed. When certain elements of the theoretical backgrounds do not conform
the researcher justifies why this is so relating to theories, principles, related literature
and studies or conditions attributed to the present study. The following levels of
interpretation of data may be observed (Bermudo et.al,2010).
Level 1 Trending The interpretation of the findings of the investigation
focuses mostly on qualitative description i.e. ranks,
order, ratio and others which established implications
as to skewedness, distribution and other features
showing direction, heaviness, preferences or strength,
among others, but independently
Level 2 Classifying Findings of the study are categorized given meanings,
where implications of the study are drawn.
Level 3 Seriating Findings of the study are categorized, given meaning
and scaled as to magnitude, degree, enormity or
importance, among others
Level 4 Correlating Findings of the study are categorized given meaning,
measures and compared with other factors to
established variation or relationship
Level 5 Theorizing Findings of the study resulted to a statistically defined
steady associations of factors, path and relationships
where logical constructs and generalization explains
the phenomenon investigated resulting to a theory.

QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Almeida et.al (2016) underscore that statistical analysis is relevant for research projects
wherein numbers represent the information in order to answer the research problem.
In quantitative data analysis you are expected to turn raw numbers into meaningful data
through the application of rational and critical thinking. Quantitative data analysis may
include the calculation of frequencies of variables and differences between variables. A
quantitative approach is usually associated with finding evidence to either support or
reject hypotheses you have formulated at the earlier stages of your research
process (Business Research Methodology, n.d.)
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics is the term given to the analysis of data that helps describe, show
or summarize data in a meaningful way such that, for example, patterns might emerge
from the data. Descriptive statistics do not, however, allow us to make conclusions
beyond the data we have analyzed or reach conclusions regarding any hypotheses we
might have made. They are simply a way to describe our data (Laerd statistics, )
 Measures of central tendency: these are ways of describing the central
position of a frequency distribution for a group of data. In this case, the frequency
distribution is simply the distribution and pattern of marks scored by the 100
students from the lowest to the highest. We can describe this central position
using a number of statistics, including the mode, median, and mean. You can
learn more in our guide: Measures of Central Tendency.
 Measures of spread: these are ways of summarizing a group of data by
describing how spread out the scores are. For example, the mean score of our
100 students may be 65 out of 100. However, not all students will have scored 65
marks. Rather, their scores will be spread out. Some will be lower and others
higher. Measures of spread help us to summarize how spread out these scores
are. To describe this spread, a number of statistics are available to us, including
the range, quartiles, absolute deviation, variance and standard deviation.
When we use descriptive statistics it is useful to summarize our group of data using a
combination of tabulated description (i.e., tables), graphical description (i.e., graphs and
charts) and statistical commentary (i.e., a discussion of the results).

Inferential Statistics
We have seen that descriptive statistics provide information about our immediate group
of data. For example, we could calculate the mean and standard deviation of the exam
marks for the 100 students and this could provide valuable information about this group
of 100 students. Any group of data like this, which includes all the data you are
interested in, is called a population. A population can be small or large, as long as it
includes all the data you are interested in. For example, if you were only interested in
the exam marks of 100 students, the 100 students would represent your population.
Descriptive statistics are applied to populations, and the properties of populations, like
the mean or standard deviation, are called parameters as they represent the whole
population (i.e., everybody you are interested in).
Descriptive Statistics – are generally used to describe personal variables or determine
the characteristics of data. It allows summarizing large quantities of data using
measures that easily understood by a reader. The most commonly used descriptive
measures are (1) measures of central tendency (mean, median, weighted mean, mean
percentage and mode) (2) dispersion/variability ( range, average deviation, variance,
standard deviation) and (3) skewness and kurtosis. The different statistical tools are the
following:
 1. Frequency and Percentage Distribution. It consists of summarized data & the
information derived from such can tell the relationship between a part to its whole.
 Table 1

Sex % (n/N x100)

# of Respondents 
Male 40 40
Female 60 60
Total 100 100
 
Interpretation: The table shows that the females comprise the larger group with 60 of
them or constituting a proportion of 60 %.
 
2. Ratios and Ranking
 
Table 2

Leadership Skills Weighted Verbal Rank

Means Interpretations
Human Skills 4.583 Very High 2
Technical Skills 4.382 High 3
Administrative Skills 4.623 Very High 1
Institutional Skills 4.302 High 4
 
Interpretation:  Through ranking, it is shown that the middle managers were best in
Administrative Skills (Rank 1) followed by Human Relation Skills (Rank2), Technical
Skills (Rank 3) and last in Institutional Skills (Rank 4).
 
4. Weighted Mean. This is used when the options to the items of the
questionnaire are assigned points. Example:
  Indicators MEAN INTERPRETATION
  1.Punctuality 3.583 VS
  2.Tardiness 4.293 O
  Weighted Mean 3.938 VS
 
Outstanding (4.21-5.00); Very Satisfactory (3.41-4.20); Satisfactory (2.61-
3.40); Unsatisfactory(1.81-2.60); Poor (1.00-1.81)
 
Interpretation: shows a weighted mean of 3.938, interpreted as very satisfactory in
terms of punctuality and attendance. It is also revealed that low performance of
teachers is sometimes attributed to lack of punctuality.
 
B. Inferential Statistics – deals with the description of the parameters based on the
characteristics of a representative sample. It consists of procedures for making
generalizations about characteristics of the population, based on information contained
in a sample taken from the population. When the entire population is studies there is no
need to use inferential statistical method since the parameters of interest in the
population can be exactly computed.
Parametric Tests (require normal distribution and utilize both interval and ratio data)
 
a. z-test – used for testing significance for n>30 (greater than)
 
  Mean z-value p-value Decision remarks
Method A 70
Method B is
Method B 74.0 -4.27 0.070 Reject Ho more effective
 
 
b. t-test - used for testing significance for n<30 (less than)
             - used to test the significance of 2 independent samples
             - used to compare 2 means (before and after treatment)
 

GROUP Mean Gain SD No of t-stat p-value remarks

 Score Items
Experimental 4.11 2.78  27 4.33 0.000025 Significant
Control 0.92 3.51
 
Interpretation: The t-statistics resulted a p-value of 0.000025 which is less than 0.05,
level of significance indicates that there is significant difference in the change in math
perception between the experimental group and the control group.
 
c. F-test or Analysis of Variance or ANOVA     - This is used to test the means of 3 or
more independent samples
 
GROUPS
I II III IV
3 6 10 9
4 8 12 10
8 7 11 12
7 7 10 9
  

Source of Remark
Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit s
Between
Groups 73.6875 3 24.5625
significan
Within Groups 27.75 12 2.3125 10.62162 0.001075 3.490295 t
Total 101.4375 15        
 
Interpretation: The F-value of 10.621 resulted a p-value of 0.001075 which is less than
0.05, level of significance indicates that there is significant difference among the test
scores of the four groups.
d. Multiple Regression Analysis

Teacher’s Technological Levels

 Affecting the Performance of GSC Secondary Teachers 
N=131

Indicator Model Interpretation

 Increase in UIT increased

TP
Instructional Y=4.057 - 0.013(CL) +
Increase in CL& IL
Competence 0.081(UIT) -0.093(IL)  
decreased TP
 
 Increase in CL and UIT
Professional and Y=4.266 +0.018(CL) +increased TP
Personal 0.063(UIT) -0.091(IL)  
Characteristics Increase in IL decreased
  TP
 Increase in  IL  increased
Punctuality and Y=3.949 - 0.057(CL) -TP
Attendance 0.162(UIT)+0.188(IL)  
Increase in CL & UIT
  decreased TP
Increase in UIT increases
TP
Organizational Technology on Teacher’s Increase in IL decreases
Performance  TP
LEGEND:     
CL = Computer Literacy          CI = Utilization of ICT Classroom
Integration              IL = Information Literacy
 
Interpretation: The findings of the data revealed that in the area of instructional
competence, teacher performance increases when teacher’s technological level on
utilization of ICT integration in the classroom gets higher. Teacher’s technological level
in computer literacy increases and information decreases teacher’s performance. The
findings are consistent with what Nummela and Caine(1991) and Papert (1987) found
out, they stressed that teachers should take cognizance of new technological
discoveries that will affect students’ learning. Computer learning does not come only on
its practical applications but how teachers teach students to manipulate, to understand,
to solve problems and to create programs.
2. Non- Parametric Tests (don’t require normal distribution and utilize both nominal
and ordinal data)
a. Chi-square Test ( 12x2)" style="width: 14pt; height: 14pt;">  - is a test of difference
between the observed frequencies and expected frequencies
 b. Kruskal-Wallis Test or H-Test  -this is used to compare 3 or more independent
groups… an alternative for Anova in parametric test

 Source of Remarks
Variation df H P-value H crit
Teaching
oriented
Teachers
Administration 2 19.17566
Oriented 0.001075 9.21 significant
4
Research
Oriented
Total
Interpretation: The computed H-test value obtained is 19.175 or 19.18 which is lesser
than the tabular H-value of 9.21 with df of 2 at 0.01 level of significance, hence it is
significance. This means that the IQ of teaching-oriented teachers and research
oriented teachers have highest IQ test results. Thus null hypothesis is rejected
Quantitative Data: Analysis Methods[1]
Data collection forms a major part of the research process. This data however has to be
analyzed to make sense of. There are multiple methods of analyzing quantitative data
collected in surveys. They are:
Cross-tabulation: Cross-tabulation is the most widely used quantitative data analysis
methods. It is a preferred method since it uses a basic tabular form to draw inferences
between different data-sets in the research study. It contains data that is mutually
exclusive or have some connection with each other.
Trend analysis: Trend analysis is a statistical analysis method that provides the ability
to look at quantitative data that has been collected over a long period of time. This data
analysis method helps collect feedback about data changes over time and if aims to
understand the change in variables considering one variable remains unchanged. 
MaxDiff analysis: The MaxDiff analysis is a quantitative data analysis method that is
used to gauge customer preferences for a purchase and what parameters rank higher
than the others in this process. In a simplistic form, this method is also called the “best-
worst” method. This method is very similar to conjoint analysis but is much easier to
implement and can be interchangeably used.  
Conjoint analysis: Like in the above method, conjoint analysis is a similar quantitative
data analysis method that analyzes parameters behind a purchasing decision. This
method possesses the ability to collect and analyze advanced metrics which provide an
in-depth insight into purchasing decisions as well as the parameters that rank the most
important. 
TURF analysis: TURF analysis or Total Unduplicated Reach and Frequency Analysis,
is a quantitative data analysis methodology that assesses the total market reach of a
product or service or a mix of both. This method is used by organizations to understand
the frequency and the avenues at which their messaging reaches customers and
prospective customers which helps them tweak their go-to-market strategies.
Gap analysis: Gap analysis uses a side-by-side matrix to depict quantitative data that
helps measure the difference between expected performance and actual performance.
This data analysis helps measure gaps in performance and the things that are required
to be done to bridge this gap.
SWOT analysis: SWOT analysis, is a quantitative data analysis methods that assigns
numerical values to indicate strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of an
organization or product or service which in turn provides a holistic picture about
competition. This method helps to create effective business strategies.
Text analysis: Text analysis is an advanced statistical method where intelligent tools
make sense of and quantify or fashion qualitative and open-ended data into easily
understandable data. This method is used when the raw survey data is unstructured but
has to be brought into a structure that makes sense.
Learn More: MaxDiff Analysis vs Conjoint Analysis
Steps to conduct Quantitative Data Analysis
For Quantitative Data, raw information has to be presented in meaningful manner using
analysis methods. Quantitative data should be analyzed in order to find evidential data
that would help in the research process. 
Relate measurement scales with variables: Associate measurement scales such
as Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio with the variables. This step is important to
arrange the data in proper order. Data can be entered into an excel sheet to organize it
in a specific format.
Connect descriptive statistics with data: Link descriptive statistics to encapsulate
available data. It can be difficult to establish a pattern in the raw data. Some widely
used descriptive statistics are:
 
Mean- An average of values for a specific variable
Median- A midpoint of the value scale for a variable
Mode- For a variable, the most common value
Frequency- Number of times a particular value is observed in the scale
Minimum and Maximum Values- Lowest and highest values for a scale
Percentages- Format to express scores and set of values for variables
Decide a measurement scale: It is important to decide the measurement scale to
conclude a descriptive statistics for the variable. For instance, a nominal variable score
will never have a mean or median and so the descriptive statistics will correspondingly
vary. Descriptive statistics suffice in situations where the results are not to be
generalized to the population.
Select appropriate tables to represent data and analyze collected data: After
deciding on a suitable measurement scale, researchers can use a tabular format to
represent data. This data can be analyzed using various techniques such as Cross-
tabulation or TURF.  
 
Qualitative Data Analysis
Analyzing your data is vital, as you have spent time and money collecting it. It is an
essential process because you don’t want to find yourself in the dark even after putting
in so many efforts. However, there are no set ground rules for analyzing qualitative
data; it all begins with understanding the two main approaches to qualitative data. 
Two Main Approaches to Qualitative Data Analysis
  Deductive Approach
The deductive approach involves analyzing qualitative data based on a structure that is
predetermined by the researcher. A researcher can use the questions as a guide for
analyzing the data. This approach is quick and easy and can be used when a
researcher has a fair idea about the likely responses that he/she is going to receive
from the sample population.
  Inductive Approach
The inductive approach, on the contrary, is not based on a predetermined structure or
set ground rules/framework. It is more time consuming and a thorough approach to
qualitative data analysis. An inductive approach is often used when a researcher has
very little or no idea of the research phenomenon.  
5 Steps to Qualitative Data Analysis
Whether you are looking to analyze qualitative data collected through a one-to-one
interview or qualitative data from a survey, these simple steps will ensure a robust data
analysis. 
Step 1: Arrange your Data
Once you have collected all the data, it is largely unstructured and sometimes makes no
sense when looked at a glance. Therefore, it is essential that as a researcher, you first
need to transcribe the data collected. The first step in analyzing your data is arranging it
systematically. Arranging data means converting all the data into a text format. You can
either export the data into a spreadsheet or manually type in the data or choose from
any of the computer-assisted qualitative data analysis tools. 
Step 2: Organize all your Data 
After transforming and arranging your data, the immediate next step is to organize your
data. There are chances you most likely have a large amount of information that still
needs to be arranged in an orderly manner. One of the best ways to organize the data
is by going back to your research objectives and then organizing the data based on the
questions asked. Arrange your research objective in a table, so it appears visually clear.
At all costs, avoid temptations of working with unorganized data. You will end up
wasting time, and there will be no conclusive results obtained. 
Step 3: Set a Code to the Data Collected 
Setting up proper codes for the collected data takes you a step ahead. Coding is one of
the best ways to compress a tremendous amount of information collected. The coding
of qualitative data simply means categorizing and assigning properties and patterns to
the collected data. Coding is an important step in qualitative data analysis, as you can
derive theories from relevant research findings. After assigning codes to your data, you
can then begin to build on the patterns to gain in-depth insight into the data that will help
make informed decisions. 
Step 4: Validate your Data 
Validating data is one of the crucial steps of qualitative data analysis for successful
research. Since data is quintessential for research, it is imperative to ensure that the
data is not flawed. Please note that data validation is not just one step in qualitative data
analysis; this is a recurring step that needs to be followed throughout the research
process. There are two sides to validating data: 
 Accuracy of your research design or methods. 
 Reliability, which is the extent to which the methods produce accurate data
consistently. 
Step 5: Concluding the Analysis Process
It is important to finally conclude your data, which means systematically presenting your
data, a report that can be readily used. The report should state the method that you, as
a researcher, used to conduct the research studies, the positives, and negatives and
study limitations. In the report, you should also state the suggestions/inferences of your
findings and any related area for future research.
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Advantages of Qualitative Data
1. It helps in-depth analysis: Qualitative data collected provide the researchers with a
detailed analysis of subject matters. While collecting qualitative data, the researchers
tend to probe the participants and can gather ample information by asking the right kind
of questions. From a series of questions and answers, the data that is collected is used
to conclude.
2. Understand what customers think: Qualitative data helps the market researchers
to understand the mindset of their customers. The use of qualitative data gives
businesses an insight into why a customer purchased a product. Understanding
customer language helps market research infer the data collected more systematically.
3. Rich data: Collected data can be used to conduct research in the future as well.
Since the questions asked to collect qualitative data are open-ended questions,
respondents are free to express their opinions, leading to more information.
Disadvantages of Qualitative Data
1. Time-consuming: As collecting qualitative data is more time consuming, fewer
people are studying in comparison to collecting quantitative data. Unless time and
budget allow, a smaller sample size is included.
2. Not easy to generalize: Since fewer people are studied, it is difficult to generalize
the results of that population.
3.Dependent on the researcher’s skills: This type of data is collected through one-to-
one interviews, observations, focus groups, etc. it relies on the researcher’s skills and
experience to collect information from the sample

[1] https://www.questionpro.com/blog/quantitative-data/
Almedifa, A., GAerlan, A., Manly, N (2016) Research Fundamentals: From Concept to
output A Research Guide for REsearchers and Thesis Writers
Prieto, Ne, Naval,V. and Carey T (2017).PRactical Research for SHS. Lorimar
Pubishing