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114 DYNAMICS OF THE LAND SURFACE

Table 4.15 EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES AND TECTONIC MOVEMENTS ON

THE LAND SURFACE OF THE EARTH (SEE KELLER AND PINTER, 1996)
Process Effect on land surface
Direct effect of earthquakes
Change of land elevation Alaskan earthquake of 1964 (Mercalli X–XI)
caused vertical deformation over an area of
more than 250,000 km2 including uplift as much
as 10 m and subsidence as much as 2.4 m.
Orogenic uplift.
Violent ground motion Surface disturbance.
Active faulting Strike slip, normal faulting, reverse faulting,
Horst grabens.
Liquefaction Transformation of water-saturated granular
material from solid to liquid.
Tectonic creep Displacement along a fault zone not
accompanied by perceptible earthquakes, may
be discontinuous and variable in rate.
Effects on other processes
Mass movement Trigger incidence of mass movement including
landslides and avalanches.
Rivers River capture, formation of lakes.
Waves Instigate tsunamis when ocean water displaced
vertically.
Effects on existing landforms and features
River patterns Offset streams, drainage basin asymmetry.
Terraces Displaced, faulted, warped, tilted.
Coral reefs Emerged from sea.
Shorelines Deformed, tilted, offset.
Alluvial fans Segmented, deformed.

arising from the existence of a fault or other structural feature which is the
consequence of past faulting. Some ways in which earthquakes affect the land
surface are shown in Table 4.15.
In view of the substantial effects of neotectonic processes, prediction of earth-
quakes is of great interest. After observations of the 1906 San Francisco earth-
quake, an earthquake cycle was suggested (Keller and Pinter, 1996) which
models the way in which elastic strain gradually builds up until rupture occurs
releasing the strain by displacement as faults. Subsequently strain will build up
again and in any particular location the pertinent question is how long will
elapse before the next earthquake.

4.3.2 Volcanic activity

Volcanic activity is the other endogenic process responsible for dramatic and
often spectacular events. Whereas igneous activity connotes movement of molten
rock or magma, extrusive igneous activity or volcanism occurs when magma is
extruded onto the earth’s surface as flowing lava or by material erupted by
explosive volcanic activity. Volcano refers to the vents through which hot