Ch 2 : Landscape of the Indus River

Introduction
Indus River is one of the largest rivers in the world which originates from the
Mount Kailash (5182 m asl) in the Gangdese range of southern Tibet.
The river drains through the tectonically active zones of Karakoram in Tibet,
Ladakh Himalaya, and Nanga Parbat in the western syntaxis of Himalaya.
The geological, geomorphological, and geophysical investigations on the
sediments of the Tibet, Ladakh, and Indus fan implicate that predecessor of
Indus was a centripetal drainage that filled the basin in Ladakh Himalaya until
*45 Ma, and subsequently due to regional uplift during early Miocene (<26
Ma), the present westerly flowing Indus River came into existence.
The catchment area of Indus River, from source to sink, placed it on 12th
position in the world largest rivers. The upper ~470-km reach of Indus drains
through Tibet and Ladakh Himalaya and then it cuts through Nanga Parbat
Haramosh Massif (NPHM), where it diverges its path and starts flowing
southwestward.
Fourteen major tributaries which contribute a lot of water and sediments to
the Indus are
Sengge and Gar in Tibet,
Zanskar, Suru, Shyok, Shigar, Gilgit, and Kabul in the Higher Himalaya and
Gomal, Khurram, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Satluj in the Punjab
plain of Pakistan.
The major locations in the upper Indus valley to downstream are Nyoma, Upshi,
Leh, Nimu (Indus–Zanskar confluence), Khalsi, Dah Hanu in Ladakh, Skardu
(confluence with Shigar), Jaglot (confluence with Gilgit), Attock, Dera Ismail
Khan, Hyderabad in Indus plain Pakistan.
The glacial melt water, Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM), and moisture
brought by westerlies are the major source of water for the Indus River.
Glacial melt water coming from Gangdese, Karakoram, Ladakh, and Kohistan
contributes 40% and 60% is contributed by ISM.
The river has also played a major role in the existence and growth of civilization
along its bank. The Indus Valley Civilization, one of the ancient known
civilizations, exists along the Indus during ~6000 BP.
Fig. 1 Topographic image of Indus and its tributaries. The major location in the
NW Himalaya and Punjab plain (Pakistan) in the Indus River’s catchment. The
Indus River aligned itself along Karakoram Fault (KF) in SW Tibet and entered
into NE Ladakh by diverging 90° at upstream Chumathang. The dotted red line
represents dextral strike-slip Karakoram Fault (KF)
The Indus System (New ncert)
It is one of the largest river basins of the world, covering an area of 11,65,000
sq. km (in India it is 321, 289 sq. km and a total length of 2,880 km (in India
1,114 km).
The Indus also known as the Sindhu, is the westernmost of the Himalayan rivers
in India. It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu (31°15' N latitude and
81°40' E longitude) in the Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m in the
Kailash Mountain range. In Tibet, it is known as ‘Singi Khamban; or Lion’s
mouth.
After flowing in the northwest direction between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges,
it passes through Ladakh and Baltistan. It cuts across the Ladakh range, forming
a spectacular gorge near Gilgit in Jammu and Kashmir. It enters into Pakistan
near Chilas in the Dardistan region.
The Indus receives a number of Himalayan tributaries such as the Shyok, the
Gilgit, the Zaskar, the Hunza, the Nubra, the Shigar, the Gasting and the
Dras.
It finally emerges out of the hills near Attock where it receives the Kabul river
on its right bank. The other important tributaries joining the right bank of the
Indus are the Khurram, the Tochi, the Gomal, the Viboa and the Sangar.
They all originate in the Sulaiman ranges.
The river flows southward and receives ‘Panjnad’ a little above Mithankot. The
Panjnad is the name given to the five rivers of Punjab, namely the Satluj, the
Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum. It finally discharges into the
Arabian Sea, east of Karachi.
The Indus flows in India only through Jammu and Kashmir.
The Jhelum, an important tributary of the Indus, rises from a spring at Verinag
situated at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the south-eastern part of the valley of
Kashmir. It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering
Pakistan through a deep narrow gorge. It joins the Chenab near Jhang in
Pakistan.
The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus. It is formed by two streams,
the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal
Pradesh. Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga. The river flows for 1,180
km before entering into Pakistan.
The Ravi is another important tributary of the Indus. It rises west of the
Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through the
Chamba valley of the state. Before entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab
near Sarai Sidhu, it drains the area lying between the southeastern part of the Pir
Panjal and the Dhauladhar ranges.
The Beas is another important tributary of the Indus, originating from the Beas
Kund near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000 m above the mean sea
level. The river flows through the Kullu valley and forms gorges at Kati and
Largi in the Dhaoladhar range. It enters the Punjab plains where it meets the
Satluj near Harike.
The Satluj originates in the ‘Raksas tal’ near Mansarovar at an altitude of
4,555 m in Tibet where it is known as Langchen Khambab. It flows almost
parallel to the Indus for about 400 km before entering India, and comes out of
a gorge at Rupar. It passes through the Shipki La on the Himalayan ranges and
enters the Punjab plains. It is an antecedent river. It is a very important
tributary as it feeds the canal system of the Bhakra Nangal project.

Fig. Longitudinal river profile of Indus from SW Tibet to Indus delta. In the
upper reaches (SW Tibet), it is almost flat, in NE Ladakh (downstream Nyoma),
the gradient of the Indus is sharply increased, whereas in the Leh Valley, it
again reduced. A sudden increment in Indus gradient is also marked at the
confluence with the Zanskar River. In Nanga Parbat zone, the slope of Indus
again increased.
Climate
The regional climate in the upper reaches of the Indus, i.e., in southwest Tibet,
NW Ladakh, and NPHM, is cold and semiarid. The annual average precipitation
in these regions is <150 mm, whereas in the lower reaches of the Indus, in the
plain (Pakistan), the mean annual rainfall is ~500 mm.
Two major climatic systems, ISM and westerlies, affect the discharge of Indus
significantly. June to September, ISM dominates water budget of the Indus. The
westerlies get active in the winter (November to February) and cover SW Tibet,
Ladakh, and Kohistan regions with 1–10 m snow. This snow melts in every
summer and contributes about 40% discharge of Indus.
Socioeconomic Importance
The flow of the Indus River largely influences the socioeconomic conditions of
agriculture-based economy in India and Pakistan. In Indian context, Indus along
with its tributaries is the lifeline for the people living in the cold and hard terrain
of Ladakh. It supplies water for both drinking and irrigation.
The Leh and adjoining areas are the attraction point for the tourists which
increase the economic values of this terrain.
The Alchi is the only dam in this terrain which starts supplying electricity in
this area from August 2014. A small turbine is also running through the link
canal at Kharu.
The Indus River is very famous for trout fish in Ladakh and Indus dolphin in
Pakistan. The ecosystem of temperate forests of Himalaya is also supported
by Indus and its tributaries.
The Indus River supplies water to the 80% agricultural land of Pakistan. Several
barrages, dams, canal, and links constructed on the Indus supplies water for
irrigation and drinking. About 1.2 million people of Pakistan depend on
mangrove forest and its resources on the Indus delta. The rural people living
around the delta largely depend on the fishing. The Indus River’s sediment is
highly fertilized and actively helping in economic growth of the Pakistan.
Natural Hazards
Arid part of Himalaya is prone to episodic rainfall events that usually occur
during the summers. The intense monsoon year brings more moisture than
normal monsoon year, which penetrates the orographic barrier and precipitates
in the drier Himalaya. The sediment supplied due to landslide and hill slope
erosion during the episodic rainfall events exerts cascading impact in the
downstream areas. More than 600 lives and 60 villages were destroyed in
Ladakh in the August 2010 flood; at that time, Indian Air Force records 250 mm
of rainfall in less than an hour at Leh airport although the normal August
rainfall is only ~12 mm.
In the plains of Pakistan, the Indus has a long history of flooding and related
hazards. The floods in the years 1928, 1929, 1955, 1957, 1959, 1973, 1976,
1988, 1992, 1995, 1996, and 1997 are well documented that demonstrate their
damaging nature and their hostile impact on society. These floods can occur due
to abnormal rainfall, cloud burst, and glacial lake burst.
Landslides are another major natural hazard in the Indus basin that usually
occurs during high rainfall periods. The combination of high rainfall and
landslide initiates debris flows that often dam the river and form landslide
dammed lakes. The subsequent burst of such lakes creates havoc in the
downstream regions. These landslides also occur due to unnatural reasons such
as vibrations caused by movement of army trucks and slope instability induced
by human interventions.
Earthquake can be another major cause that can induce landslides. In the year
2005, more than 1000 people lost their lives, largely due to the earthquake-
induced landslides in Kashmir.
Human interference, like construction of dams and canal, changes the natural
fluvial regime. The discharge of river has changed drastically. The construction
of barrage, dams over the Indus in the Indus plain (Pakistan), limit the
sediments and fresh water supply, resulted to change in the deltaic ecosystem
and mangrove forest land. A large part of population, reliant on Indus water are
suffering with the lack of adequate water due to dams and barrages.
Increasing population pressure along the Indus River has polluted the Indus
River in Ladakh and Pakistan. In Ladakh, the tourism is increasing year over
year that stirs pollution in the Indus. The factories along the Indus in Pakistan
drains their effluent directly into the Indus, increases the Indus water toxicity
and are attributed to the death of Indus dolphin and fishes.
Conclusion
The Indus River has been the cradle of civilizations through the ages evolved
vis-à-vis the Himalaya. The basin exhibits a full spectrum of fluvial
geomorphology that archives the evidences of past climate and tectonic
perturbations. Erosion and sedimentation are the basic functions that any river
system undertakes to build up the landscape. The Indus landscape suggests that
human intervention can aggravate or subdue any of the processes and that can
be hazardous to society.