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lizi
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t o nl',,~ntxvitp%tv,: ntrv pitt n0k6 ptupfi. no?&' (tnpptj a t ~ y ~ k n p f i ~GTO
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rpokicpk psyMq xrtnitnlru ~vApy~:itx~~. TV; ri~ytcCv~p~n~l<
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no11 ovilp'i~t:ztxt"P/lsyl?&q
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v sot) crtipxct.vso;,
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t rrijpt:ptx. M s p t ~ hernh
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nr:piso~r 1 My (My=~~ntt>ppl;ptct.
i-crl) txnB rqv Meyti3.11 Erprl<q, 1-1Oep~w~pntsitx
rov
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t
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(nfi;praaiirepo (r.n6 99% r r 7 ~ o z l : h t ~ i rtxtlrri
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ov fi no)ptrti6tu trcpiwi' pe ti: 6~1'lifi~t;f3txp6rqtnc. Onou 0 1 m~y~c;vrpinr:i;
ttiitt; yimvruv txp~crix pcyctkircepc;, nr t s ~ q p ~ ~ t $ ~ p vkyq
~ v c r atccivq~ h-tn crt:picov
xu~fppetrveccttrifr; r q i f h p i ~ t q t t rnpoi
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axori:ibt:cruvro1.c ycthtei ng r m crpq vrl rrrcci ?(Xji(ici~$.
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t B t ~ 4ptr~.xirnortr, ilkcpq trf;piov ~cx~i,pyt:t,crcr\~
txrcutnt neplao0ttyo p' ct7~wiiAc~pct ~' H f ) ~ p p o ~ p ~~ [~oitc! t
vu ~ ~ x q p t i s t ~ z oOLi ,<xt-~~Cpf;;.
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t t r ~ i i q n totv
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t 6hhn yp~lyopcisepacccr.1 i2;1,3ba
apy6zq-w. l'rx ixmpcx nau nsOaivo.t?vaivrxt xohii G ~ \ ~ M Xytmi
T ~ ~KY ~V ~ X Z ~ G ~~S kO z~ o~ tVc ~
uyrqhi; Bepp~~pafiif.:;
a m xp~~trAoitv
vLe; x v p q v t ~ i :antdpitcrei;,
~ not) xupityouv
nuprjv,.:q txtckipq nto nohimho~wv at f3txpi:zspov nzory,eiav, Z ~ Iclnoirx ;jraet\.~p~tii;ot."~[xt
6zr bhq q 6hq o r q Tal, mqt: i~xoitr
n r r ) .xr:pt@t~hhovruy,hpo. U~~c-:Gt:rtxt
; t . p o t p ~ c z uax6
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Et6irSrcq-w B c o p c i ~ u t6r1 r o HAttxtch kt(% (Ji,~rtjpa o ~ q p t n i m q ~x c~ t vxcpinnv 5
6 t a c ~ t n o p 3 p l u2rq I ~ E~ 1trti6f\0t)@tl
1 ~ iila&t~a(~irx
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h U R ~ ~ O EvG~I ~, ( ~ ~ b t b p . . m ~
(Nebular hypothesis):
T o Zllhitrk-ti prxc cciiorqkuj, fi~ewE51'1x ~ ( x ~ w ~ t viym;
i v ~ ) fit~i3vq~at U E ~ ~ W ktc
Y

0 t : p k t o ~ p a ~ fI~~e p i x r ) -270°C:
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@r(putil;i< ~ E R X ~ TWV
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p ~ t c t p h f i O qOf.:
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: I'IC~~CIGOT F~O
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ttnh rqv c n t 6 p ~ o qrq; Pcipilrqru; cqqjur~i<o\~rtx;
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8cppo~f"trritrsf(UIT<JV TOV n p & ~ oG X ? ~ ~ ~ I ~ T YOU
I O ~ Whiov,
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trhtlOtvh ixmpo nt~txri6cv ncxp~iyupE V C P Y C ~ Ctxni)
~ xup?1titr~j
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BI:,pkttt~txqve o t ~ ~ r e p t~c;pio%fi
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~ t o v t o c~%rlpari
i jovttn httxv t'ypb5 K ~ U (~Rptq
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ktt:.ccrci<ir ?nu;. Eitxflth; g ~ y k k e ~ vw
onoieg pr: rqv nhpo6n rov ~ p 6 v o ocnty~o?\+?~?j$qwrxv e
pkyrHo; roll; ~~rxxt.6tr~ovttxv
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~ A K I X ~nyite@era
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r: nttu
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(planetesimals) 1tt: G~itperpnan9 pepwtL krn p t ~ nepixou
p ~ 100 km, H 6Aq 6ttt61~ct.ciitr
tm6 rov 8iah-o mot,? npwro-nhtxvrjrc5 r;ivclr pul ypfiyopq litr:pyrioitx rq; tixtq; r w v
10.000 L 00.000~.Qt rrpwrttd,,riwjlse; rtrrkintv r:v&Br\h-au a ~ q p t h t r n t viLiyou; cre
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150 h4kn1,
Whto crt: U R ~ E P T G I C~f.:pixot)
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 fhe earth's equatariat and plnr dinmeters, fircording
to the Geodetic Reference Svstent of 1967 l.rmgiti.de 3t3d latitude are nteawred nloflg drcs (ti
paratlels and meridians, respectively. TIte poit~tP has a torlgitude
%./Y of 6tl"tt',d fdtitude 50%.

Dirrtt;-titmof earth rotatiun and revufutinn.

~~.PILTPD@
K HA -IIEP~&OFA
~ THZTwr.

At atf times the eartkr's axis mainbim an angle of

6&he with the phne ui the wbit @lane ot iiw wliptie,.
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o$ slpCg
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A0~qvcbvri.var 37"55'I 8" B.
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oxcticc npoa6topi<ci1zcrt pc Pituq ~ q yvo v i u )IE rtlv oxcria ot t r r r i v e ~rot;)Hhiou ick{prouv

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25% Krrt 3f"B mu Bbp~;toXfpincgaipio ~ t x t11S"N k-at 35"N f i ~ oN6t1o Mptaqcr.iptct.
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c v p 6 ~ q ~~t hi o uxp05 TOV ~nlrp~p1~6
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pf.:r~x<i~
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11
s v t ~ ~ ~ ~v ~t ~
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~ q t o n t~vkyovh t t u
tm6~2~torl TOIV Oi~~~tiocrtov

p ~ ~ i p i ~(ijtjvceprl
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(2) Xl t : p t m h ~
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sc,c:ptmpacp~\trl; Tq; y0prt1 tan6 tov 1.-Ihtoa e r:hhetn.clmi t p o ~ r hfun0 t r x d u t ~ x u
npoq zu Avcr;roh~stk)p q ~ o u q9 4 f P I U b km ykcsqc rq,Otqlrug 30 krn/scc .rro\j

iitagteei 3656, 5h 45'18''. To r-:.nixciiuTI)< n~prpop&,-

tq; Tqs yijpw ux6 rvv M"ho
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g axu to^ Mhto,
uvop6Sr-:rui EcptfiAto (I! luvoricrpioo. nnitrnmrl 147*106 kkmf, ~vcbr o crqpeio t q i
zpoy,rix$; xov rx.ntjd~,tq v p ~ y t ~ ? ~ O txxifvtt~.~11
t~pq Aqujk~o(2 Tctuhio~),
ot9op{$<t:~t~t
mitcrtucrq 150* 1 Oh km). To o ~ q p t rqq
r zpoy,t$g q; Tq: ~ r e ~ ~ P i i h L t :~ze(pi ~1 f i 8 1 ~ i t
c c ho~1:u6vichfip~c,KUKXIKO~ 6 100.000y.
11x6 ~ h i ~ e ~ x r i a6 6 ~ 01stnat:peti enc?~&;
Tat) ~ l t w torpeihovrcxt
, m q v xcp~tpapir.tr1; Tqq.
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L pc bho TO ~ ) ? I u KaGotqptx
~ X ~ O Gf i ~ t t

optrspkvo o~l,ur:io Grttm9ymoc,.

(4) M~T~XR-C~;~SS~QI~~. 0 irtnvu; n c p r m p o c p ~r q~ < i.*qj n ~ q p f x r i jyowici ~i 23.5"
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rqq T t l ~~6pt11
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 Hurricane Anita, over the \vetern
burr or *wxii:tf, as observed hy f.;OES-2 on Sep-
temkr 1, 19?7, The e y e of the stonn was ahout
17.5 km clrJrJ mi) southcxtst af Brownsvilie.
Texas. 'The hurri~~znltt
was nt~tvingstowly in
southwctsterly direction (rind later c r o s d the
coast 2:3tl km (140 mi) m f t hof Bmtunsville,
(Satellite Services Wivisinit, Environn~entaiDbQ
and tnforntation %?rvice,NOAA.1

414m41
t t ' i d s are di?sigrmtedaccartiin~to the cafnpaKs ,s)ir~t
from which the wind cam%. ,4n east wind cum@ from th?east,
but the air is moving westward. A cuptype anemmeter. rile dial at the base rwonb
(he n w n h r d revofutiwts made by the shaH in a given perid d
time, ihafivml Weatkr %wic~.t
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either side of earth.

Highly g w r a l i d world map uf mbr cJimatic reghfiuns accerdint; to the

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(SqJutx(irj q Glrrtpopti pm'utii nl; p ~ p o t jK(II ~tcyixhn~i
xvCpyt-:lu~rcot~SL~t:rtxr kvus z6.n~; u r t TI^; tnvT-icrzot~qqt x 3 . r o ~ ~ r ~vipycttt<).
~ O ~ i ~ ~ ~q ~
ttcppct~pttrshatw tiepix. rtt ~atttrpq~tvicqttxta.
08 a f i l ) ~,~tfj,<t;s
~j K U ~T ~ p
XI : : ~ m k
tov~.
H lilCrspmtl zcrril K ~ T 1<1~B I~ vt h-iiptuvj
~ ~ I ~ ~ (TZ c dnov; pc @iwqs o wktpfxtlsti ni~rnr)p.it
stxi Korppen nou ~ i t ~ c 161txitcpa
xl ci:~pqmo nt)vonrtsci eivut:
A. 7itvn~ci[$~r)/f";f.wi ~, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ U I ( I ) UK ( ~J ~U (E!ifit'~t
t ~ L i l l ( r t M$CTI~ I ~ : ~ ~18-'C;
p ~ y t t h l j ~ uxtj ~l
Xoyiq ~ q t r b v t rY~q).?j
: z~ficr~ci
& t u ~ d ~ w nrur
q u n c p t n p ~zq;
i t:tfjatr~: ~<its&ttcnls.
B, Zqpti K ~ ~ K X T I.1
~ Ac.:<irrltrnq
. u n e p r s p ~ iriov cre pin11 rtpq bho ro
wtxsc~xpqpvtnpii~wt~
trog: Acv ~ . } r r i r px>,ebvtrcsytj
~~t i'~pc)ii:At:v ~ni,.pym)vxoritpitc lit: phvtpq poi.
C. Ei:x~~mxt,
i:;;oti (pt:niiffclyrxI h.;.(t*rxr<~. vrci kxr: L pi:cnl O ~ ~ I O~ Yt ~ ~ i t ~
O yu~pOrt:po; ~uj
~iictrj txxi) I IICC, ~ Y J Jrtirvo~
- ~ trrru - 3 9 2 Tuo>.zi~
twos. kvts i Cyct y kcrq
i t n tin6 It1"C: 'I'tx r;Aipnrti rmrt'x. i.,xovis cxct~i.,; ~ r t p 3 v r r k-at
B ~ p p o ~ p t ~ ~nhjtj~
~tthosttipr,
D { j c t ~ pi&p,un
AYtt~~~t~n~~:icnij-f3i~oci,~ftf r ! xi&onr. 0 vt j ~ p t i t ~ p o ;pfivet; C X cl y kczq
f j ~ p p o ~ p t r a ~i iox t c l , rm6 -3'C: 0 O~:pp<~z~:pctq
pljvrxj C X C ~pkbq $ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f ~xOi1ct.1
pcu~lifr
onoia rl 8tiLp~rp0; t115 rqs eitni ioq pe 6.4 m. TOTE ~ u ) L ( ~ ~ x vTO
o v~Ty~r 1~ A
~ b r e ~( 0T I ~ ~ C ~ O
zuv 11.xripr:)v f 1~tu)lc'x
ttx, r;optyfi Everest. 8 -8-1.8in tm6 n l v t:atcprZvr-:ttx ~ q B(xJeixorrt.t~
g xot:
tixo>Loyi:cmt 6x1 t ~ e pqFCv
t \r\lr6pcspo) rrrl y o @uBi,rr:po arlpeio tonf t:)t(;t:~xVL;)t5(Mariana
trench, - I 1.OMHI) zbrc q truvoht K* t l y m p ~ z p t 6~(1qmph
~~i cxt'<xp~utrDT~L66o tj,tjth ~ r l p c i t ~
6cv ~ivfxtpt:ycxhi~tt:pq a n 6 1 cm.
XI., ~rcyrthi~zjseprl
Kki&tt~tctl ~ ~ ~ ~GTtS
~ I V ( I Y \ ' Q ~ ~ < € ?T(?CYO : rll[&ipoui6fi0 K t l t GTO15 O K E ~ I W ~ ~ ;

pttcpbt~prl.~~xprtrczqpim~h-it,
ztx xctptttczqpicrz~~il:
31; ~ri.<rt;.
H mttptt~~cttxxfikiopcpohoyi" rotv rlxaipwv ncpAcrpf3itv~i trx E S ~ G211; slitq;
~crpatctqp t s t trti:
(1) lipatovth-Cq ~>~uutlp6pp~s
(cratonic ptattfurms) 4 r j n r t p m t t ~ iuani6e~
~ fcuntinental
shields). AV~:\JF.PY&$
X U ~ I ~ A -~$ t<p l @ % k~ j X op~~i:litt/.
V ?\ ~ ~ q i l ~ ~XOU
: f i ~~ tX O I I V
~pdtvtti wtrt nro o i v o M
crzuf)t:ponutqOei npiv ctnit xoibh4 ~~txsc~ppi;ittct rove
rruytcporoijvttx~ tmti x l l p r y ~ v ~wtrt
j ~tr:ctx~tup~tsykvtx
xr:zp(bprxtci a6 x~~hi,.rchok"r\
6 tir7tt;q. Anotciio6v 2.0 peyt$ki~rl,iirr:po~ t x tcupicr~q
t so cntorr:p1~6spfip(x T ~ qmiptt~v.
V

(2) 'l'tn OC)OYGV$] fl O ~ I ) ~ E V E T I~K&~v~G $ fl opf)b~kp&$( O I T O ~ ~ L ~arngcnk

S belts fi mountain
belts). Zr~,\ji;, eatltfirtet;, ~;tjOiiyptrppt:qrj TOCOELSE~< <(OVI:C VE pcyO15+oty.~)pcrpo~ t t ~

tpq1':it.i wut cttcrxv6~ratrlt;.;ctcpt:tvc:ttt.+Axcttekoi!~~

T~J CLTOL'O caviayh\jcpo rpfiycx ttov
qx~ipo~v.
~B (continental margins), Xn ct\-ciCtcn~l pc
(3) N ~ z i p o ~ t1~~pt66jp11l T(I npoqyoriktt..t5cl
rrov rivctt
anosckei .ra qtqyrs zrl$ ~ln~,iprtv M.&TCQ
rx7tci TO vt:pt~~ c x crtjv68et
t tq\: fjxr-:~p0
pr: r o s WKE hvio n pi h{lpf3(xve1t?lifq x ~ l f ~ ( ~ ntiq?~?<~%j.r)hpqxit&x
7[1)0~tk~(x. h-?) /(pf~filillO1lO1

she(#'!,trlt9qxt;r(,wn~tj f ~ ~T
i ~ ' c t f f t i f ~ t~' ff l ol ~f fK(XI
m.tztopt$jr;.r~x I ~ ~~j J~ t ~ : t p ~ l/ r~ ~t 't t~; o~ jf i x ~ ~ f
 MAAA (A
g h KA I E ~ A ~ ~ Himalaya Range
c~ Indc-Gangetic Plain
pR &
,./ Mt. Everest
Elevation,
0 10 20 30 40 50 km
nebI $848 m
krn

.-
O 10
-30 rnries
20

Basin and Range Region

krn Grsat ':alley Sierra Nevada Range

100
(30il
,.....,-.--
Sea levei --,"
15 cm (6 in.) represents 3OO krn (180 mi)

15 crn ( 4 in.) chard -" ,,,..:$g

..,.:.:.3.2
5::$Tu
.... .........
.
,
m (l0.5ft)
..::.:,,...+.y..
center af
+.
"'\ Straight line
::::I$% this cirde
 . 'This map znd profile
show the major tapsgraphic
divisions of the North Ark nric.

, Cmtitwntill Ocean M i d - m n i c rid* Uwan Continsntat ,

basin flow I i
,
Wnftaor rnaqln i

d n f l ? ~ , V I V , C ~T c P ~ @
10 ? P
/+.---.,, ..............,. Continental margh+,-d

khematic view showing the pans of the continanal margin,

 . Tsx~uvirc$ a 5 v a) Bpro aup~~8csr;wcp~~uti,
~Anlclilv~ ubpoyfvsaq
i dx~avillv
X U ~&V&?truet]T&V ~ ~ @ U L O T ~ ~ U ~f
&
?'V & VP)
E
& -
6pt0 CW~711f0606t t ~ f l l t ofbtC~ti~00if-
n~ipnu rcul bwizrutq bpomtp&c; tcui &&uai8ti< firpu~nr~iujv,
 jt'unlim>~ttu/rise!. Otl,op~ircxt p r r u f i t m ~ ~ tinjptx
tj p ~ t a c i ! TCOV ~lxeipcov K a t tiov
? i v cruxvit n a p i y p ~ r p r ~ ccx~~z oavlkyhtlrpo rat' ~ ~ h ~ u ~ r i iMt u IvJ .~ E I ~ I ! Z P ~ K ~ ~
o ~ s ~ [ i t ~ ilctrl
~rpt6~oh-pqniiki
F F ; T C ~ V ~ ; ~a~xA6I tts cx~"tii;pi:xp .to paf)a; r o v 200 m ~ & r wtrxb ~ q v
r . x h i r t o ~.nr-:pinou 72 km, noti
~xrrpcivrzurq; Oit,hacsvcx;. Axorsluei p ~ rcx ~t ~ r t v ~ t tpr:
lchivct chtrtppti n p o ~r q v AkAtrc;otr (-d2mlkm). H rln2;tpo~tlmj~ ( t r o l ~ k p~ivtxt
~ ~ ah i i
' orr; tnofltiCt~ictrru
w.nbrupo npcxvic: npo; r q v ~tithcxu:trcrupe pknrl ~ h i o qnepilrov 1
200- I X00m c ~ t c i v e r t ~p ri ~ t pzo f$&Buq .tat73000 ~ n Tt',ho~
. 11 rlxm ptl~rttcrjrxvtyo~crrl
civtrt pttr p ~ p . l j S~ h l u qt ; ~r t ~ q i t v ~ t t fno11
. K ~ ~ . Z U ~ T ~m
+ YoIiCr : tt~lc~6vto
~ xvfJpk\~11~ f ~ t
r s ~ ~ p c x t i < a trmu
u t srlv rxntjtjxerq roll t)hlk-06 8@ptoaqc zov rlreipcov. 'f'tr qnr;~portrch
~ r p~Cttbpur
c G ~ u ~ifc?ifrc.ctrt
pi or:: ((1) E V E P ~ L~ I I E I ~ W T II IK E~ ~ ~ O ~ >(active
~ I U continental
margins), bzctv txxt?rchoi)v u p t t ~~ ~ i l y ts )~r i ?bt@o~(patpt
~ l ~ ti)^ x?,(t~o'ivGllibcx6~
q ijne t po;
tiw o OKE<IIJIOS ~trtjpkvt~;t~vtj
KOIW CT~: 6 t t ~ y u pte~~k q~ L t B ~ u t p ( ~ ~ pKt>~~iX: ;K ~ ,got,
Z

st,yrhivo~)vnpol;c~hti)\~rtxg
opoyCvt:cnl ictxt (P) naOqrtrb,qnstpwrtwh ncpl86pta (passive
contineijtnl margins), b t ~ tvo x j i p ( ~ , t ~TpI [~~Gq ~ t c i p o xK~P O ~TOY W K ~ : Q V ~~i
, V ~ iI kv{;li;~(ifpoi;

ctlipcivob5 h-cn nxe~twica ~ c t f t ~ p ratwuppttyqq.

j5
O nuBitCv(xc r o v calct:trvrbv rcapt htxp#3itvxt r u txx6kt~rB* pcjpqoAoy~~tL
XfLpfik'tl]~_)tbZtk'(t:
(If Apunatrb~nsCiL6c$ (abyssal plains). Czo bteyc;tJ~i?zepo
rpfipu rou u cl~lceirv~o;
xu0ykvtx;
tmo.cchcirrxt rxn6 rrg uptmotrC; nc;i~ii&;g (3O"b rq; yqtilcvq~~ x ~ r p r i ~ ~ ot
t u ionoiz;
).
t:ivtr~ mirevei;. cnincdt;<. xcopig tcit.no~u td~ctitcprr ~trpu~stlpcmih-tilctrr
apno&iopi<ovtctta' b v t ~pBon fii~troi4-6 Lrn ~ixrcl~
ct.& r q v cntcpi~vsux
r q t)i$-tiaoa;.
~
f2) p&s$ (midwetla ridges). A .nor citoiw fi t~tx a0oT;ilgtr p(~.~*eto~'
R'fcso-o~~invtcc m qv
~tLs11toul rn~ecr.voi!not) r~;t~ivt;oro.t 11n6 55,000 km St(r pkaou
CTE p f i ~ o dpt;y~~h6rtt:p~?

TOV F(ti I V ~ ~ K
A ~ l u \ ~ r i l c o iE. I ~ ~ Y I K UAPKTIKO~)
G. U ~
<if~t:fl\'06. 0 1 I.~E(TO-~~)CI:~V~

p i r ~ ~~ ~: (~p ~ t ~ z q p i j nmtt
i ~ trr:t.rptrth
rn tnv; rptjptr ctnb itla rrxtppor:t5il ~ o t h i ~ faoij
tr
k ~ z nhixrog
t 15-50 km Ktri r o pi:cro f3irf)os tr]< eivca 2.7 hm. H r u ~ p a e t & ~ttusfi
\;
rothMtr c~pioOc.rr:isutcut6 rtxciropr ijouvir nou ot)%v6E ~ u t 6yo5
~ v 1-3 km sixvw *xi?
rov oh-chvto xu0pbvtr pt: rci ~oputpctit~
s#fip(t.~truuyvix vu @ q - x ? [ ~ h ~ ~ttni?
o u ~n~l v
clrttpirv~tt~
511; OiAtxorrti; G ~ A LV~ T ~ C T L (~ Xx . 2~1 Iuh(xv&i~).
(3) Yiypa~upctua~tl~iu.rta@(transform faults). IIp61cettcn yru pqjtyt:vzi~i ~ \ *SO\'
q
I I

fi~c\~@t;vovtt.it
i:yrBpa~n to< npo; r q v ~tr,ao-ct,tieiittr p u ~ r j~ c f trqv ~tt:a~.tclxi~o~v,
crt)rfi sqv popcpoXo y t
o>bua?krlplvuv~tq ~ qi3ttxrtt:ptj~rlrrt xctv o8qy ei c r v ~ v ho r q is
r:py<rttra?l xoiLi,is rlqwrnaioif ~ c r trprl~r:i&vpopqo;?-oyt~&~s
efitpnxov rrc pc p t ~ i t
t~ifigrrnti~ f r rsqpf.:ic~
t ~ ( x f \ fI ~ ~ ~ \ ~ ~ o I K~t:iji(iS(k~t~.
C~)V
( 4) Y naOak,iraotu purwi (se-enmomtsf h-u~wrclrv\tr vqntir (uceen islands). hl cpt~Sr
qtpc2,i~r~rit
Ktrt rxi,uoi8t;< qrptxrrrr~itt~v
k-cxtkijc h-(xi zo\l
riv\~tyr;tot:t; u x t G~r,-y~ci~ur:r~
 ( I ? F S ~ A ~ ~ Ilpji0106.
OU uxtlt; ~ivftlTI C I V ~ ~ ~ W5q5
C YB
~ EC~/.AO
O X~I )J~~U~
T ~L( O
~ ~~)~q,ti&~oh.h
V

por:tfrlr icr,hucriije< [$ot}t~hvnot) e i z ~tpt~xvou~p

ue hytq 2-3km tlyqhcjtcpa ax6 tav
ct)b;r&vit) xv$j~tv{iKar ~ \ $ ~ p C i ; ~ vt rxt i~ ~ ; l ~zcx
t ~ B r /ht)1:2. i ~o ~~ ~~ i~~fZ iW Vu \ $ l ~ q ~ d i ) v t > v ~ t i ~
;ztk\$w txn6 n l is crrix0pq rqq Oti>+arscrtxjovqlixjot r t XI x ~ ~ O U V C ou~fj.
( 7 / t i .Tf
W K F ( ~ F ' ~~1~/ C X
uGaruaq, Ono; o (o~t:itv~oj
C ~ o u vfiunr~?~t,tc~fi xt~DpCtw;. ~ u at0uvir
t cxv~uvtr~,.hotv
ptcr
EKZEVI~ ~lyxxtrn~iti~li
Ejptxm~~p~6ttl~~a
&tFjl*/rvlitqCTC iieyisktr. ~yriparu-ect~i oh-eirvrc,\j
ntiOpCvu o c U6ax1; nixvu~txnci jrcrr6r!c*~di.ocpi' (mcrrrfki ) / t t ~ ~ ).~ : ( '
( 5 ) 3qatc'uz-c~~ 26&0fvolcanic art). Xt; X O J ~ zpfipr~tr
tb&o (island ars.)-qr~ute~tz:~uicd ?~~ tot)
Etpqvt~oilQ K E ( ~ v c ) ~cfJV?Ltfy.
~. rcat tot! EaLhrlvth-oi,
K ~ L Luhho6, fit,~t.rccpr3Ltfpf3c~t.to~tr':vot~

j ~ q ~ 3 Cn'lp~?\-t:ypt.t
Atyitit~u.cq~jpclri;~zrn1,tct"t~ l t , t c p ~(~>~110i6(1. I I ~ ~ X I ~ L L * K if11at(i)\t
&V

~x~vfifto; xpoq ro oxoio uvtm6nacna ptrx ~nqtrjh-qq

ro~or:r6olj;poptprj~.~~tpir?~?~ri,rl;Ln
orr:\$fi. t~hhir.rcohG y~yti>~ot) f!h@ot:$ fouvtj$ou< S- tUkm) rkqpo< x o ~ l(~vop(ijt:-&nt
cuk-t.6tvr.a ~ u q p fuceun
t~ trench) (x.x. Marrisna trench). To a6yxht:yptx rtov v~lclitthv
~ J T ( ; ) I ? X ~ O L ~ , X T E (1x6
I rqiJ imt~pzq-00 m w c C:iX\'l(li put;
ti.rt)-tov r t O rtnu cnx-b
t ~ ? ~ t ~ t ~ixrw t -(rfo~-
Xrq v rnp&rq x ~ p i r n f o ~TO
~ qu1;jixhcyp(t rcov I ~ ~ T ~
L ~
~ ~V ~ x x t i ,niit$(cf
~~t~;~txt
or: ~ ~ E ( ' ~ v(pkot6
Lo xat OVO~~ET:& r&Nj=O.xtth m~~tj\$
1 ;T) /( u~ tIh a ~ o 8 ~ i ) t t : px~pixrmnq
~ TO

ts6pxhcy ptr ~ I V ~ L G ~ ~ C T ~~{x'tfo

R T ~ I06
~ qTte r potrlrclj qhcttti ~ t x tc,voi~t,
je~rxtgp~ttn~<:luliti
%3f.:~txt6
~(jco. T I ~ G~ ~ t : f ' X v t (~btppctt}
~; i Z O ~ Q I :o~qpfxtii;c~rxt
KII t ~ l rlqt~to"t~:,tcrx~~t'i K Y ~
(accretion prism) h-at npori~nzr:rtrn6 r q v cn)vc3(,1ixpbo0eoq uibtwoi
npiapn ~rcaii&qaq~
U X tqV
~ I I X E ~ ~ W T L ~IVU?.C)WPI~X~~~X,
K~~ ~(~~(d t pKfXl
t p ~~XL'<~WU)CTI~
t~ 80\) ~ 1 1 , 1 t ~ t k ~ ~ t t X l

txviipcrsa cno D\)Elkl;Gpt..vt~axnixvto nrjOpC.wi ctxt uro qpoimctith-6 r b t o p~

curoskiincr~tcx\ ' ~ t l $ w ~ ~ p j (~r)t$f:~til;
3 0 ~ $ ~ t u\yqAt5repc: O t t ~ ~ (~a(xt~@xv~r)
tq y~ F.~~IXXCUTIK~:;
~ t v f p ~X
k u~ p. t i ~ r q p i ~ ~ txt~~)k&etyp(~(~
k~h q q t x l m ~ t i ~ o !ri)kor)
" t m o r ~ h o i Z) ~~ I~ q ~ t t i :
Mjjho~,h/fkt)tt\$tt.. Xcxi}rupii9q.N iertlpo;, KGj. K.(I. xau o~qpfxrii;t~cr~ti~
rrx6 "tqv
vnoPGft~nq~21; I \ ( P $ J I K ~ X V~1iht;tt;
I Y ~ ~ ~ K ~ I T OU ~ x>,.<LK(~ rqS
K TT)V Ektp&~tj<
fEhhllv1~6
4-5km f E X h ~ l v t ~~fij t q p o t~~fu ~ t u ~ xt pq( tK
rtico) j ~ cW X C ~ W I~ittppnfi<xtl~)t); ~pfi~q~
K ~ Xn
L p i ~ ; ~~Ti I ( X ~ , < I TOY
~ B T~~{ B~ P os q j K y r j s r ~ .

H ~ o o r c p i ~6op4
i j K a t aita~aqr q 5 r q ~
H cittpyetcr not, ux~)~cuitt;yiv~.rt~t
ttxS dvit o ~ ~ a ~u;tiit;itt-.t
ph ykntr n-cq Trl p~ poptptj
MC rqr: trvtixn,)~qnlq a~tcrpoi~ny
n c tt.pth-hv ~t~pi~rioi.. ic*; ~ c l r xmu:ypttvfi;
c;~;tcrptk-(ht$
~upintwviytvc txv~thqx~i)
brl rtj ~ctrsprtcti,fxurri.wiyurta uAh<x<oiwrti~Gzqttr
rtrti i~1cO8uvoqor:crt~yh-cuptpkvtrPixOrl (~xtruvk~ctcq
~trxilnlsa;). fit:i~vc)nug6ri q 1-q
r:itfrxt ri t S t qxi,tt\$fizqjnou trlt~trt.:?*~:irm
11x6 ~ % ~
K lnrp(ifpttt(~.
Tiit~lf~ i
 2 5 mi)

Mi
780
1803017
2 i ESI
3950
rancentric z o n a uf fkearth's inferior. P 3c st /c&

~ O % L . Y~ C'X~.~\P\JDITHL
B
,.*
CHL
i/Ill&
\

[ Ran 21~ e u i 1 ~ 6 ? : n ~ r .l:?23)

;w. . n ~ n h r a x c ~{l
r 3, % )

FIGURE jS.24 Gross+sc;aionalview of Earth showing incernol szrucxure.

 zq; f q c . civctt tl h-w~nvopfi LOU a'uur9 rrllv q u ~ t ~ 6 \ :
Etor q GopQ -cot: ~cscrltsspt~oii
pcy&rbv R U ~ I~Ctptx~Tllpijo\,~
to u h ~ q6 q ru4 ~ i v u tq n v r v 6 ~ n s oh-trt ot
oratf~pk;. Avti$crci, q rri:cnacr?l tau ccroscpth-oit rtlq I-?IS civctr rl @vh-soho?&
r ~ uhth;'oLi z q ~?iqhu%fi
~ h r n t x c tot) , q ~qbtr't;~i
rcn ~ p ~ ~ ~ x ( i &op$
h h t ~rob.
?j )I C T ~ ~ G Ttoti
~~GI~

uhrlc06 trl< rll{; 6~ civut ncrjzotj i6ttl. crhl.,~p1.:rti~6)lhcrto.renct&?\:( I ) cxnotch~irrxtmri

Brctrpopatt~ti~ i l p t r i xomtyeic~.(1) \,cpinsmcrr p~rtxtponfjt q ~ r l p i ~ f iahcrrtxrr~l;
; .tot,
t~htrcttljL6yw u,kAu.yQ< errq B ~ p k t o ~ p r ~ tctii
a i a ~g ~ i a a qxtxt tvtx ~ck~pcokux
itxopai vw
~ ~ ~ r c x t p unt.,
r c ~<xi,ha,
i fit (3) t : ~ i c r r a ~ u~r~ e r a t p o ntrlG
f i ~pt,~~ui,Atk-fj;
&u)t?j~ ~x1 r q ~
K U 6

~llbltk'i)~ hbyw t q < ahh0,"fqc;B'cll E)Kpp'.'Kpfi~kKICl TTJ ITi~tfll.

t C 0 V ~?pt)~TCif\'
CF~JCJT~XCYTJ;

T a c-~.tp&ptrnco.
xot, c~v(iyvtt~pi<o\ltrrrrx.
tin6 n l i r r-37ctrpcirvcttx rrlq f l q q n;po< TO ~ L v r p ot q ~
t:ivtr,i:
.- E i v t ~r, o~ e t o r c p t ~ i x ~ prta
o Aerrz0r:;po n s p i p u ~ q I'q5.
; En<:t6Q
civtrt t o xr-;ptocrSrepo ~ p i r omptbpci rrlG Tq:, unorshfiirul em&owi.,qpii irctpt;~~ttx.?:tx.
To R&O< l ) K O ) M I ~ V F . T U(~ L L 20-40
to\, r p ? ~ 0 ~K 6~ X T WU K ~ )TLj q ~ 8 j p 0 j ~ krn. KUt ~O[X~'EL
~ f t n~ t 70
x Lm K ( I T ~ cxnd ~ t opoeretpk~,
$ 0 q % < : t p ~ t ~(~hoti);
~ i j < tm~)rEhl-:isatTO t x ~ t ~ ~ ~ c p i )
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i Pit(fq ~ w a350
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t rbx 700 Zznl y R ~ p 5t1 Kal

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rwv 15-20 km,EVOq 8ep~~)rpacria cre p~yahfitepaB60q ~ i v u uvnreipevo
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rat m o sawreptrb sq; Tq;, m ~ e6x t r u y ~ h v ~ mp~t rq wveyfi peracpup& Beppb~qta5
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mpuacpatpa. Crqv nopeiu a u q , q t p t p i a r b q v nupupbpcpooq zwv nerpw@zov rat ra
pa5tevepy(x toutona ouvetacpkpouv mu cphotd q)ca\~~rdr ROD& 8cpp6rqzaq.
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UL~VII

KW < i f ' ~ t f i71

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jovsrx; t.60 t.pkot6. H 6pcmqpr3~qrrrt n ~ nujipuivei
n~qp(xclri i yttrri rct
t~no@cir.cicroltx
f t l - ; p ~ ~ i ~ ~t~~olchiv0~5tx
t ) ~ ~ p < t xt:pt@(;)p~ct
TW f i p i g ~ ~ x ~m~q
H~UKO'JV c t t M K E ~ x Lk.e~~~i:t$v r : ~ .
Mitt nr:pi~~iumluxtth-hivonog neptf)tapioti ~ivrrr rl qasqmr~h-ii ratppoyB$+caq
{cuntinentaf rifting). 8~l3.tri3lj11fi thp y rl<?jtcr r i o trno~ept~pci;
p t u ~rl E C I ~ ~ O xFwcx~ui
T ~ K ~nr:
~
 Fig, 2. Muuernen: of the l i t h o s ~ h e r cover the nmre filjid asther?osuhere. In the cerb
ter, the Iitflospf~ereSpreads away from the ccean;c ridges. At: the edges of the dia
gran\, it: descends agairi into t h e asihenospttcre at the trer!ckles. (From 8. Isacks,
O/jite:, and L. Fa. Sykas, S.$j~:noiogyan# the new g(ob;d ~ ~ c ~ o P ;1. ~ Gs~phy.5.
c.s, kt?$..i73:
5855 - 5.899,ccpyrigh: 2 %'iH Dy Amei,cz?r?Ceopi:.ysrcd!Uni0n)

CIC3NVE.XGENCE
LyTxnc2.V
VoXcax~isrx?associated ~vnrhpfatc scparatian at a usid-ocrart, ridgp, wid1 at] dCANjctx/.. dnc ~ ~ orr i
ucean-cxaan glatc collisiur~,wit13 an or:ean-cunriricnt plate coiIi.siorz, ant3 with plate nroriun
over a It~utspot, 1-foe spr3rs aci:ount f{jr the cxesriu~~ uE ~lxid-~latu chains of vulcar~icislartiis,
~ ~ ~ rjxc ~ I A E ',~LL~vc-s,
Mapnj. r1st.s froxra a hot. \pot. to c,rea:e d V C J I C X ~ Z A4 C tt C ~ T ~ I CCIS^
S vuj~ar~v

ofT the hot spot and ehe VO~CZIICIkccomc*'; ck)tmltcr: ,4r]c\xi \.ulcdnu duvcluph over tjru hot spot.
In tl-zss W A Y , A chd~no f V O I C ~ ~ O Cthest+
develops; S vc?lr:r\~toesgcr prt3grc~tj1vtly~ I d c rwith ills-
tanrc C'rorrt rhe hot q ~ t .
IRK:, '&GSS
4t '
3 l )
t ~ r / ~~ 1 $ . ~ . 4
 Oceanic QKEAN~A
lithosphere A ,IBOr+-Plr *A

I@AfX'?t taK%.l't y ' p r t 0 ~ ,

Volcanic
Xuyahivov~ansprOipta nbuwtbv (convergent plate boundaries)
Z T o~u y ~ A i ~ o v rXu E ~ I O ~ nh~i&ig,
~ I ~ I 01 (Ci:o ~ b ~ ~ ~ a ( p nKl~ p& t( C~I ;f~(SUYKSL~VOI~V
.~
61li,tx&j h-ivoC~~al q pict npo; ~ q vikhq. H otiytc>+rcrq~ m o p ~voi yivei p ~ r r r ~66 0 ~
nhrxtce;lv: ( I ) ktr; ok-~tivtocpho16. (2) pr: qxetpwslrcti KfLr O I K ~ : ~ J Vtphoib
~O t w i u ~ o t ~ c fj
x .13)
crvcipccru. at; 660 Z J ~ < I Kpe
F ~ ~-pre~pmrl~i) X T ~ VB C P ~ R X C O O ~ i ) y ~ h ~Bi10
<I)>~oLS. ~ljj
qneiportwtbv nhurc&v rl 8tr:pyu~itr ovoplt<erai ~nctgtutivii ai,y~pouaq (continenla!
collision). Ce ~ 6 nspi~crwaq
8 ~ ro ci.rtozkht.:cr~~cr.
~<rrprr(r.;ut(1x6 T I ~ Va ~ s r t ~61a+~opi
q
ot 6iio rr?%.htte;.Etm, urcttr 8Co n i h r c ~ irrvyrhivouv q
x\,ttvuxqra; xorj nttpo~jcr~ixjotw
0 v chug yisrr:prl Knt Oct ~ l a p p q c r emov ptrv6i)u. H
rc\th-vrirr:pq Otr Pt,Airrsc i ~ h ~1f ~i )x rq
iirttlitruaict aur rj ovop0jertx i tmo(j0tliaq (subduction) ~ t r at,yfiexivr:~
i crc p~yitk,c>\j
114rot);.

~mptjwt;,ar):t'j;j i;l;)vt:; no\) avophjovrtr~(hvcp unupfi$raqq fsubdtrcfial~zones) u x t mi;

l ~) ~ C O U mo\. c(uv&~[x,r~,i~t~ix
o n o i q q ~ \ ~ B I J c T ( ~P h~ i~t ~P~tti<r:~cilt
It K U ~ V Oq (I~KC~VLU

n h u ~ c lpnopei vu BuOtarci K ( I ~ vet ~,trr~ioprjof:~

pknrx nrov pcrv86a. cnct6fj L ~ e pryt3hq
i
x ~ r v 6 ~ qcvct'~
~ u trvri0crtr
. q q n e t p o r t ~ fn)+irwtx
i &c\'pnclpei act puc)icrrei, yttxri ~i vrr~rcohh
~htx(ppt(i~ { x ~
t ~ 6 1p ~~ 0p i ~Ji It~ I C rprjpcx~i1
P~ 7x11 ~ K L I P U I T ~ K cphnio6
O~ civtx~6\ivu-cb vrx
~uQtcrzo6v
crzrl jhvq t,ncspill)laqq pkt.rca.s t o v prv6ijtr.
Ce nuy~rinpitx~ ? ~ i p ( r(3~ ptjOj.iciq
tx K ~ x T I x ~ ~ TCIIJ~CXLCS'~;
c ? ~ ~ ~ ;qA,0106 t-:ivut ifio~;p): TOY

puOp0 n ~ q p ~ x r t a p ovkov
6 qA,c~olj~ t t tcxopivtt)j ~ ~ X ~ L P XpR~I xS \ ~ V ~ X JtLnLo K
p pI ~ ~ i (pcx
Sllpioi~pyirjviou qhoct~6a e iithyopl:~O&GRIS h-ol ~ct~trmpocp~i
nrd+ic)i)cpi+o~oD
ar: ixkhei,
Ttx nr<htr#itrepcrrr~rpth&ttx~o
o~r:ii~'tctb nou x povuLoyljOll~4
1pi,o1~16 xv e ivn i nepirrou 200
~ V ? ( X ~L ~ L ( x I K
My urn t n ~ 6yttrri rn)vi:xr:tcr U V ~ X ~ - ~ ~ I C > + C ~ V mo\? J B~ X~ITI;
~ I jcbvr:j I : ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ C ~ ~ C T I I C .
r:~6J TI1 X C T P & ~ ~ L T (TO!)
X I ) K Z I ~ O T I C O (ph0106
~ ~ i t ' r ~EO>&
t ( ' t ~ f ~ t ~ t i ) t l : f ? (~X( : . x v I K(1i 3.96
; i ~ n e ~ m o y p q ? i t crc&v, pi>vo nohG p~tcpitspfjj.itx~tirwv
~ ) v yttrri nrt; StLvc; t~nopbQiml~
qrcc ipttnl k-trrcxrnpkyo~~~~xt~

!flepi0Co)t~uyc t a o ~ q p a ~ t n p(transform
~~b piate boundaries)
TZeo~rt x~plfithpzo crxqkttx~ii;cztr~0x011 ot 660 ;zh<x~eg~jLtof)uivt)~~~'
op~rl;Ovtt(~,
r:cptxrctopcvt~h ~ t oc R T ~ ~ A u T ~ ;o
r ~U I ~ L ~ ~KIIT~:~:OUYCT~. ~ 0 x 0 ;K I : ~ I C ~ Q ~ ~ O U ~ R O P C1x1
~

r:prprlr.vrctci r@oo GTO~{; cl.r~f:tx~toijg

boo ~ t r tarts qx~ipo~j;.X ( ~ p c x ~ r q p s~i ~~ ~o ~
t ~o 6t )
rfisot, rreplOcip~o::ii*tri t o pfiypu t t r t j Ay. Av8pkcl G T T ~ Ktr?twitpbpvttt
V (Sari Andreas L'rtult).
1. Ecu ur61.1t.xzix t3cp-sac: ~ o u ut : j c r fmantleconvectlon). Ocav ivcx trypb
O E ~ ~ U I V C Z ~U T~ ~ ~ L O I I P ~ O ~ V p~i?ptxta
TCXI, ktcratpop&; O ~ p p 6 ~ q t u .~j ~c t x t t i ~TT);
(~
t r ~ 85:ppoi! vy pot; fcrtr) phnq) mi, zc! a.j(rzr~t%
S l c t t p a p ~ ~ wx q~ ~) ~ v c i t q rzou y~qp6r'.:po
(cr~qv~n1cp6vcicr).E s ~ F;UL
t pkoa crsov [mvGicx ?b6yw t q crir,3pq;
~ FI~ppo~panicri
q,;
ax6 TTIV pa6t~vcpy6emctpxlj Knl sov u n i t ~ c i p e t ~Oc~~p p b ~ r miprjvrx
po rxvtwxs6cr~o1~ct1.
k t o pu,v&i}ag,r v h rival
pe\iCtl.xru p.,.:ztuyopixg 5 . q ~Bt:pp6syrrx$. Vnsv@~+lijot,~te,
ort-:pe&, ctcxttiag ~ q xcihi,
; vyr~lib?j~
Br-:ppo~p(raiq~
ptcru. acci y~.:~hoyik;O
xpOvo ~ l t ) v
t:~cx~opyupiwv
rrtbv ptet xaL6 rxpyr'r.

2. A [(rravitationill M.H a~cdrvttr ht06crcptxtptr cicro

cxnopct~p6v~ttrr
txxh rtr. t;r':~~tyrr
t:'nt:,r;rtrc~11~
"~ivl.:srr,r yrt,-~,ph'ct:pqKrrt cxupkvo; yivI-:ttxl
T ~ - c o " J ~ ~T(, 1~1E: Q
I IIK~V ~ T C ~ IM
I , c ~ h t m tJbc'ty<o
~ crtl'cq; rqS nil.~vvr~rl<
11 ~ h i a ?TI)<
l pixn~l;
t q cl>~t:tlvtu<
~ ucro rmoprh-phtc~rttunb s u h-bifrp*, tlrro1Lc)yinstlh-t: cir~
h~tf@opt~tpct;.
?r~pixotj8 'h,r;E,iotl nov rivcxt xoh0 p,:ycx?LOtepq rxxb avrrj mt)
p ~ y t ~ h o i~~t ~x eyiv~trxr
t l

vxuhoy imqtcc 6rt rxnat~t;icat y rcil vm 7~po~rrhCwtP ~ I ~ U T I KoSlidJqnq

I~ tqq
ibtRbcrcptripti~.Ern1 ~ixnttitrmtypfi Rcv pnoy ~i vu. a v v ~< R~I ii9rt nhict nirvo a r q v
t.otft:v@aqv.oprt ~ c x if3\?fli<r:s*t kttatx a ' tr,txijv. To P~JQ~<tipcc'o
sktjpu ~ p u p hKC(^ TO

untih(,ino tklrjptr. Etcrt hnyPir,v~;t ~thptx11 rrivqcrq r o v ?Li80agcupt~6v

~)~t,trrrtitv,
rl
onoitx pnopci p~ rqv ompix Tlli vtx n p o ~ & ' n c t ax p~ir~itxrtr
p~rtxqopk; Qcybdrrlstt;
mrtv prrv6ilca. 0 ,u.rl~rxtwq.&qsxpci3kaya-rprirpqyljl4~.(push-pull) yxopci vrjr 6ttx~qp~jncr
t11i~t c r r t r ~ v t ~TOW
t j lbtQ~t3(pfxipr
~ f ixhtx~riw.
) ~ ? ~ ~ h >6f;v
~ f jpnspci
. vcr trl'clC~~xvljt7ir:t.

TMY ~r~vi5ljtx~Lrjl'j,OtDi0f\'mar1t le ~1&.

3. Cen 1: i)xt~~)$n hotlf iu
T o pu~&v(r);i) E i t r f ~ptcr
~

r t v ~ p ~ c i p e 8cpp4
v~l ~ t x n?*tkaTi~?i
t vri);?q & I ~ X V & ItjA1~oir
~ X K Oxuti
~ a ~ q p ( ~ ~ i PtlHtit
j~trr~
G T ; ~ ptivd6ti
I~ x~ft(tv(~,
hbyw ~9); B~pvOtqttisKOU ~ p o o q ~ 0p x~ ttq ~ j ~ t trl?
i ; r t l s rj 11
pc~6tev~pyciq
~cinoktxfjpCntx cnov luri~66tx.HnetGrj civtxt Bt:pktOtcpij F;(L~ ~3~11()pil~cpq
(1x6 rov tlnhi,t~ttropbpo cot) puv8On. ctvtpycrric npc\; srx nirvw pr:n*gfipnifrtrj p~yhhcg
n a a 6 ~ r j t ~ ,ursvriI
q trr~ofi vkllioi, rrpo; r rlv r-:xitpixverrt TI^; !"tl; K I X ~D X I ~ ~ ( L T ~ ~ ; E I

~lrptximt:ic~ f ~ 4 : XI:C)~UX~; xot, t ~ t t x v r r r t B ~ p p i q liqkibcl; (hot spats).

X c x p r n ~ r g p t r r t xrnp~6rryptr
~~~j r i x o ~ ~ qh v~jao;
~i X{xfXxrl xou ei\:rir kc'tr qqtxzntetcxk-6
~i:t"lpo 01: pt(x rhst3trt O r ~ ~ t~l j~ l i ~ iExcia?\
hr. r u gt~v;it)tt~;xhocpicl o~~1~tcy.~i<o\.rui
P~xOII'P.pku(r m o v ptiif80~t(*!
rftptiisr~ttxr01t' O ~ p p . 5h-q).,iSwv
~ & i ~ F ; e l ~ r t~tC~: C T I X ~j
bicx~plif.mi, ta 3ptci. noc. ~ ? ~ r u ~ c Fzrrt
hv. t',xt:l xl-)onx6t;i ttni, pcpt~oi,; O t t oi f3ct)pC~
~ q h i & t vxopoirv
.:~ V ~ Iyivotw f~rqc'
nt)vi:yt;t~x~ k v t p t~xk~errfill~;.
j
 Q P U K T(millterals)
~ r i w i ot v u a t ~ C < , ctv6pyu11,:c;. c?pofittc\:ei< crsl.:psk(; o v ~ i l ; ~
j c crirmaorl; ~ t ~a p ~ ~ ~ r t t x i l80jti)q.
h-ctOoptcryrivyq ~ q j u w ,i,t~q~
an5 ~ q p i ~ai tto t ~ c i u(cheutical elements) fi
I'u a t : p ~ ~ o b t ~ oppct/i ~ r t itrxo~ci~t~Cvrca
m ~ v 6 v u o p o Gx~~ ~ I K [ ~moqt;i(ot',
c . Ttx ~ r l p t ~ imL o ~ ~ ~R LiI YtU x~ TU H ~ p ~ h t 0 6Gq \ ~ ~ U T I K ~ X
~ r ) ;iJwq; wtxt liev pnopo6v pt: r t; cn1i~q0icr~tkv~;
xq ptcC; G ~ ~ y y c x airr
i ~vxolittrcpr;t)06i1
i oc:
p~tcprj.cr;ptr.ryrjpcttct, 52c~~ricro
rxxh ~ t cs;tjvoii,cs
3 rwv 93 t p u ~ ~ ~c qt ', iq p ~ ~ ~ < C j ~ t~t :qt ~p o~~~~ t b v
n ~ o ~ ~ e i rrx
o vopuh-rir
, ~.rrturl:?~o6vrtti txni~2 pC;gp~5 )
~ 1 x 5Cvct p~tcphaplCtp0 (i,~)vfiffo~<
iim.~op'-:~rwci)v
x ~ ~ I K O ~C FL ~' O ~ X E ~ W I J .

0 tpho15c rqq rqq rmor~A~i.rcri

tm6 88 auvohtrh ~11p~);ir ~ ( O J CP ~ V OX (XKO
cr.roi~t:i(~,
t r u ~ h- so O ~ ~ l y h vro o Xifi~lpo;.m Aof36nsio, so M t r y v i o ~ us. o
o . nuplrto, t o AibotA~yivro.
Klxhla ~ uTOt N i x ~ p ~ rxncrrshoOv
u- n~p~rmi,zcptr
tmi, 98 '";i vh
"CC~U ~l~ij.
llcrpityoia. Trx o p v ~ t inot)
l trvtxy~~topi
jo\ztti vtx tioyot'iv s o tqq rq; ~ i v tIrn ~ p i n o u
3500. 6 p o ~sjtx ntrptrx~iro8 X ~ ~ L K O( XT U ~ C C~ T~ IX) V ~ ~ O p
~~~ tTr x
U t~iTO\)<
) 118 T T ~ ) ~ Y C U P ~ ~ ~ V O U S
t p u n o 1 1 x~ o 06~1
~ ~yo6v o s o o~qptxticrp69 optixtci~vf j op(xfiov o p t ~ r s t h nov
i ~ cry,qjttltr~ikouv
ru nctpcbptxstr rot) ~?Lo~oG
~ q Tq&
; Ttr opulc~ijtn}rti cwopjoc-rrxt netpoysvsrkctir. upuiizh
(rock-forming minerals). cvcb tct b ? t h ? b o ~ ~opolcrix
t~ nuu o v p p e s t ~ n t wcnotla1w86; mcr
w r p G huxttr u va pix<cr/~ttrr~nnt1ntlo8qoguctru (ztcessory rninelars).
0 1 ojtd6t:; -caw .xetpoywl;rtr;t?'n~
opuctOjt~1:ivtl.t:
( I f Ttr ettrocpoj arurxciu (native elements). 6nog u ~puaC~;.o t'rpy~lpu~.o p..x?*~6<.
z,

r'xv@pt;trtngfCiltxv<xi5tiI\ y p t l q ~ i r ~ lh~, ): ,u ~ 6 ~ p i 1 o o ~ ,
(2) Tu o<cMtm (oxides), t r x onnitr. rtpo~6mcttivaxi, i:vomq p::tahht~t3v ~.rc~tp:ioiYKcnt
oQq+i~o\).hxoq X.X. o juqvrjrisr\i. utptr~irqc;.~ptqtitrlq.~opotjvbtc~
a.rx.
(31 I'* OeCi~k(sulfates). str t3~oitxx p 0 ~ 6 m o uunu
~ kvoq tXh.rcjjrtcr?jitY ~ C L ~ pr:
IY (SO&)'-,
cirrwc Q yO\~o;,u txvt)8pi~x.
LJ @trptjzqs,

(4) Tu cponcpoptrti (phasphrtes). Snt!~;n cmuri.rq(;rtrl TO n:p~ouci<.

( 5 ) Tu auukcpidia (sulfides) noI) xpotct:.lr~ouvctxu Lilwtiq ~ET(I?~~;I,IMO~~
O T O I X E ~ ~ ! )p~
\ ~ Ocio,

Onw; o ytrkqvi~q;. o rrtptr?bcpirq;. o ~ i d r l p u x t ~ p i ~ q ~ .

(6) Ttx av0pn~r~ir.
feurbonates) 6nroi 0 txrr(3entisq;. o 6o?,opis1l;.
n ptrrijizq;.
(7) To. t~cipctkddia(hydroxides). 6x01; o kr:~po~tfirq;,
(8) I'tr aloroviritu (halides) u x o o~ (thit115. o (~Oopitq;K C L o~ ~i\t;I.@i~qj+
(0)Ttx xuptrtiiii (silicates) ncjx) 6ltx~pivov.rtrrnc 9 O ~ V K fj
T O~ ~ ~ & O S I I K T ~Ot
E ~ S Y~pixfic:;
.
.toy rn,ptrth-&\~rrerpoyevcstrcOv op\;F;rt(tv ei vat: 11 ) 0x1pivq; (t~livinc).(2) xuphGevo;
fpyroxenc). f 3) crpq~i[3ohn;(arnpttihoict. (4) yupptxptyitr; (micat. f 5) op2r;sc'w rqq
" Oxygen Si11::on A!urn:l)wn! iron C a i a m Sudlkm Patassturn Magnes.:l'
Q C Y 3YPr?10
~ ~ AhgWtUrO L,&H@L.hZWf?la H43P%U P&tlO MY~JYZID
Ifhe average cumwition of 9he earth's cnist is given
here in terms ctf the p r c e n m by weight of the eighit mast ahn-

FTGURE 2.20 Nuxlsiliir~re

minerals [clockwise finrn
upptr Icftj: halite, spinel,
gypsum, hr.~r~ar.itt.,calcite.
pyrite: 2nd g~lenn.C;'l?ip
Clark.

FIGURE 2.18 Silk

mixlcrais (~iucktuisc
upper icfij: f?ld:ip:w,
r)yfi3X<?Pl<t, qtldT1'Z. 3
vine. f:.'A!? i:.'!..rrk
TABLE 2.4 Camman nsnsiliare mineral groups Zrhtwe v H H 7-l vpg 7tK 4

Oxides Hematite Fezo, Ore of iron, pipens

QEefbrA Magnetite
Fe3Q4 Ore of rmn
Corundum Alp3 Gemstone, abmive
Ice Hzu Salid form of water
Utaninite UO, Ore of uranium
Sulfides Galena PbS Ore of lead
+?."QY~~$lll4
A Sphalarite 3 s Ore af zinc
Pyrite Fe5, Sutfuric acid produdon
Chalcopyrite CuFeS, Qre of copper
Cinnabar Ore of mercury
Ijulhtes Gypsum CaSB, . 2H20 Plaster
MA Anhydrrce CaSQ, Plasxer
kritiz hSU4 Uriling mud
Natiw elemenu Gold Au Trade, jewelry
A ~ T O + Y ZYQt
~ XCzA Copper Cu Electrical conductor
Oiaanand C Cemstana, abrasive
Sulfur S Suffa drugs, chcmicab
Graphite C Rncil lead, dry lubripant
Silver 4% Jewelry,photqraphf
PIatrnum Pt Catalyst
Hake NaC! Conmucl ~ l t
Fluarite CaF, Used in steel making
5ylvite KC1 Fertilizer
Calcite CaCQ, Portland cement, time
Dotomite GMg(CQ3)2 Portland cemenc. lime
 Tu opvrsci p ~ o p o i vItn&~t~~ptC)oi;\ip~takbtrtp6pa~ p ~ wfit ohp ~ w t hpmaibbzitparc~~
(ope minerals) an6 tcx o x t ~ i upnopoGv vcx : . : ~ ( ~ , x O~k)ijotjlta
O ~ ' L ' pkt(rj;ht~ hkhu ~ q ~ t t x &
c r o t ~ e i c t~ t j mu
i pcopq~usvrlcQupi~rcrii(industrial minerals), ti onoia k ~ r j t ) ) 't i i i ~ t i r ~ p ~ l
nqtaroiu K ~ L I~ t ~ ( s p j . ~or?]
o y j ~ I O ~ I ~ X ( I Vb ~~ Ut t ,)n.X,
j rci ~ t ~ ~ i p oOp~t U~ Khy~fl
T ~ htn&o~(~tu

DTIlV popyitt, ru. tl~Optlh.l~<~

~ ~ ~ , t p & p7itC)lI~
) t~lR I ) T I : ~ D < ~ M ( Y
ti&
L ~%CTPI:CJT~TI~
')fit1 5q V

06onotitt. xut ~ q 01~06t)btwQ.

v
N r p v m u h i t j~ cpirnij twv opt;r;sth~fttvucpkpe~uta ~ q tpr~nitrfl
v cjlcpitvtnq ~pucnixi~htnv
Ktn t q i ~ t ~ y t i t : ~ p t p k~UIT(Y<CQC
v~j~ TO)V 6upllct&v r ~ v q ~ t c ? q ~ i f t (ix~opa,
)v i6vnx)
fK ~ K 6G . lip6szaAko~ t:ivtn~ 11 ovcriu tq4 vnoiag rts h ~ q u i k;ivc~r
rtx<rvopqpivtx nr: ~ V C A~(~'t'ovtxb.
x ~ ; p r l s S ~~~(sv~thtip[3~t.\~6~i1;vt~
~h xkk;{pu.
To6-on Oct UECT- n~,yrr:aDtue\lo~c;,oortxt x-t

n"~~TUfli.3t>if-fif$J u-nr cYfi~,?fkOI1

-1st ZUW ~GVTOJVrofv -cxt,rci,t:.*~tfi r - c f ~ o c ~ ~ m xir-;ci;~
T-O,\ :B~CT tc?t $.

Or opyttvt~iccwcrir:; nctv npoi:p~ov~cxt

~ L K Ortx yv'tti I C ~ Hrti fctjtyti\'t~if~;
h.i)opo(;

ttvitx'tugqc (>no; civtti x . o~~txktil,rr<icy.

(2) Xphpt,~u~ ut oi ~phprrt q awuvq~
~ (color and streak).'I'o ~ p t b p r~ivtxtTO
z o v upr,r.r&~~
xpctjro npriyits not) ~ p r l c r l p o ~ r s tk-Ctnctra~
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6 fxlTipp:~(it
]:ti ou)tn?+rlp6~crt;1
rtj t,dGt~b
KO\) lr(x~cmfq.18
~ I C Cexxu ~ q /36fitnq
v tq;
( ~ x e h ~ t n)+ixc<r.(+
tq T~C?A.O~
111jrit)+a ~ U O C TN~:pktbr.rlrtiq
~I xut tm6 t q v ~ p t p f i
Gq~t~ot~pyoi~t'rw
nou rxvrrnrilnrrcrcfi pr: r t ~
K I V I ~ C ~ E Zt~\jstSq
G K<XI krnt q xponf)fi~tl
vz~)t)t:r,13 ~ p t p ~~t jx t11
x r Q s ~ jrrjj ricorl; (ovv8urxjip~11~~),
huchvautj zprjpctzcx rrl; ~xn8~t,6~vti1pcts
~ t p<t@rl
;
nepimu 100 km. II xpoci~lolvspoi~anozcki rov q p m x i , r c p o naphyovm. uvtiQcm pz
V cpaivetut V L ~E I V ~ qL
T ~ ~p1llf-l 1 ~ 0 6 r ~ sno~~nt(hSq~.
po
(y f zc,tvyhgualcoiv >boqimv.X u p u ~ ~ q p ~ ozap&6~1ypu
r ~ ~ i , unu~chciq qcpn~crts~unlra
.rou
Yellowstone National Park. ro onoio chat xohi, pu~ptiran6 ra 6pm l r ~ O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ p ~ ~ ( ; )
X ~ K ~ J V .

Ozuv ixu mp1rt~6nCrpmpa >blll;)n~l

T ~ T CTO paypa xov znaphyczat 6toy~ti)vermm t k

10%. ETDI&/tc~
p K p 6 ~ ~ prn)nj6qru
l) an6 r a x~ptPb%z~rt~
m ~ p d j ~ t a Kat
r a a v d p ~ a 6zoq
a~
.ro acp6otar0, ns ~ y q > ~ b ~~pfipara
cpu rou cpho1o6.6zou q O~ppo~putriu q xkcq ~iwx
T UJ O, Z I % G ~ vC$
~ K ~ ~ T E ~ U o z s p ~ o x o ~ ~ iKr m I ~ ~ ? ] p T i <7t ;ftb ~ t . ~ f 3 v iWTphpa~€.%
~ va ~&

(intrusive 4 plutonic rucks). H orcp~oxoiqmlaurQ lmopci va yiva ~uzcu0ciavo~qv

~xlcpawuqj Tq< on6t.s ompaxijovrctl Ta kqpta i j rlcpawrsur~hchmpd~fga~a
(extrusive
volcanic rocks). Y nhpxo~fvlcut n u p ~ y mn c r p & p m nou q p u z i ~ o v r a an6
t zn p u y p
zov r l ~ @ ~ ~KU%
: . ~~aCi I C E~V~~ I~~ ~ . ( F . (ph&1
~ E O ? T U OE ITI. ~ C L ZOUY O @ ( ~ V C ~ ~
at TU ~ E Z ~ ~ ~ . . KUUT&

ne~p&pam(h y pabyssal rock).

wnoqcputmc~alc&
I I ~pt~arirhlox-nlTUU pkyparog a~o*b~tUei
o p t n p h ts~afita i,se zqv mhoq rqq
rqv paypanlcil Stacpupozroiqq (magmatic
8sppu~patriaq. .ra onokr anor~>~oiw
differentiation). Tu crtix&~u
mjrh ncptypicpovza~ax6 zqv nc1ph ~ p u o ~ c i h ~h qo ~Bowen
u
lrov ncpthupf3hvc166oxaph>Xrq>qoap65 c~vrdpircrco~v:
( I f Mur c r m ~ v coc:ip&
~ ~ a~.rhphat;wvpc ooL6qpopctyvqa~oi,~ax
ttpu~zci,nou ovop6<ozjzcn.
~ M ( P ( K opv~rJ1:
~ tuziq at
O?r~(jiq-frlup6cajo+A~tqi~oh~)+B
(2 ) MU3 W V L ; ~ ~iT&lpd ( x ~ s ~ ~ ! $ ? ~ T c ~ 'J1E:
oIv A O ~ ~ C G TRO? U
& ~ % ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o z to~-iIIN
x 0u T Q

(cpchatirdr, o p u ~ r i ) .
xhtry~i,~huoro
Tu u p ~ ~qr1)iutt<6p~~a
~fi O P U K T ~~>~tPivqq
KUI ~ o ~ c ( I T o ~ ) X nkyt6tthucrro
O plropouv va
ano~wpmo15vand zn phypa, Givonuq Czo~oro pkypa pur x~ptoni,n:po651q critcrruo~lfi
vc~xupapeivo~~v
~tkmin' U U T ~ at va wr18pio01~~ I V U W UX U~ P ~ < C V O ~ a 1 K(I?L~O~)XU

n k ~ y d ~ i ~ ~ ruvrioroxa.
.oro t i h a b ~ a n i auunj pnopci va nuv6xtu~n0aiKUI xu vc61repa
cr;flpar@)rt-va O ~ Z ) K T$ ~~ p 1 TO ~c)Ltli6C T T ~ ~ lcI aOziL TO tmoio qqpari<ovrui ~ucah~oij~iltns
u nou ~ i v arta U~~.&td1611
h a ~ p wKW ~ u h(iff<. npv~zhtwv ypavnl~ti~v
n~zpopi~wv.
Muypata.r~h*btacpopoxoiqoq p p ~ (1r6p13
i {LErqv aEj,yfj q~cnicrranrli w i j ~
vu c7ttlrC)~~
tlvcpllop5vo1) +wiypTcts:
( I f Aicci q v tivofi)ph~oq~$VWI.~ vbt~ciovax6 zu nsp[3a3Litov~amtpC)pm.za+H G q y a ~ i u
arpopuiwaq (assimilation).
n~).rilOVO@<EZUI
( 3 ) An6 tq paypart@ awipst8q (magma mixing) S I ~ ( P O ~ Em\n~~xa-q%
T ~ I C ~ S~ ( C Y ~ ~ TxWmV~
Cppvxa~06 cicwpij.
(b) Later defi2matton squeezes
I-emainlne Ijcju~d~ - Q cqi~tal
V m~sh
n~ptypatp3z o v aupxyevhv nezphpcrzwv
T a w)ptysvfi nsrpchkmmcc ncpryp&ycpo\~atye fXrrnl .rtr oyurrrir. K ~ rov I t m 6 toil;. O
xazt55 (texture) crvrxcpipctut s r o /rty~Ong,TO a ~ r j p (Kr K TOY
~ sp6rro no\) cruvlito\zcct pcrufi:
toll$ zrx uputcsti.
h.lc pucsq r u op~jtctrinow ~ c m
r ~ v w r o 6 v8 t t ~ ~ p i v o v ~OC:
( t i( 1 ) LTF~II(I(I)~ICO(ultramafic).
( 2 ) pctcpl~tifmafic) [ t ~6poq rnittic xpo~Cmt..itrrt6 731 a16qpopuyifqcrlcjiqu(;\k~gnesiurn~ u t
Ferro) o p v ~ t 6 (3)
. svcitciy~cru(irttermcdiate), (4) q~hcrt~r'w. ffetsic) [o b p o j frlsic ~ p ~ ~ l ; i n x t : ~
m i TO OPUKT&f cldsp;tf' ( m ~ ~ p t o ~; )t i 'sflicit
r f jll~h~<iuq)].
!'VIE f%{XCYr) TO )~C')'E$OC, TtW KpilCRhhk(0~'Cat9~lf31)~Tdl'~~
TlX 7tii#>lyt:\~fiXI.;TP(~)~(XSC~

(phsseritic rocks) .fi cpavcpizag. crnr onoitx rtx

~ u t( 1 ) qwvejjlttrix EETPOFUTU
G ~ u r p i v n ~ OF.:
optr~xia.kmopailv va 61rxrptOoOv isc yupirO ulpf)trXpb. h-at 12) gnu afpx.vtztnh nccphputa
(sphanitic rocks) i) ucpuvizac. n r u onoict. T(L opult~ci6ev &ttr~pivovrtxtjtc yup1'6 ocp0txkph.
K ~ 61trtcpi~~)vtc~r
' ] r f ~ p x b ' t : I) ~ T I n~rp(bpit?(~ BC:

Msobwoicwu,
= ML?cHog
Abpuwo~~cr
-
Asrtlzriwo~rcul-. Mk;~EBltqK U K K O ~M~ F ) ~ ~ C T T ~ I~rrlm
Miyetlo;
~ ~ ~ C ~ W

K ~ K K " ~tcpt)n~(i).,k~~
~)v txndf 1-5 rnm
(mi) > 5 trim
K ~ K K ( + ) V~ptrrnti;LJ~(~~v

Mr-: flfierq TO xpOp(r s01v r q ~ \ ! ~ Ijt~k;piviw~(x~

~hv fit-::

Aer~rcofcpu~xrcu tbpc?~not) 6ei~vt:i o y u ~ t t ip ~ .rrvutfi~ciy~pi-ii,ctj~u

~prhp[x,y ~ \ : i ~ i x
t~~0t~t6xpo1j.!ta.).
M ~ ~ ~ T O K W~ T
~ tI pKt~; q i u( ~o ~p lt ~ ~ ~&II:< r pirptu y ~ p i?j pixp~rt npixntvo, YEVIK~~

~viiui.pecrl,xphytr),
at:sptijyuzu l o g t r ~ t 6VE crb;oi,pr) y ~ p fii rcpti.et\!o y d ~ p.ri'lpo.
MsLuvo~pu~t~ir. p yr\*~.u'i,
a ~ o u p u~ptoptr).
~ k o # ~ c k u ; v o t c p unszpti3pazu
;r~~~ Y ? ~ . nohi)e3l;c,i$pwi~-prxi)~~(gt~
( ~ c ~ o o h tE~: Xf ~i K P ~ X T ~ C>9Q'%;,,
tlp~~ttbb').
0 tm6; ~:iifcr~
noki) crtlyclvrt~i?~ t r p c t ~ t r l p l a s y~ w
~ iir c i ~ i ~ v eGI:r p ~ : y < rPt~Opt5
: ~ ~ ~ 50
xep~[lOhhr,vnro onoict ~~11ptx~icrr1lh-cxkrptoprx, cxr~pknovttrqdror cr.~ov;yecrlhbyot);
vu h-tivovv iithlpopr:~tmcttltnt:tc iclrsti rqv uxtriOpitr ~ p y u a i c yt l c ~rov r p h o nyq)axsinpc?i
tu>V x ~ T ~ ( ? . I ~ , L ~ ~ Z W \ ~ .

0 nlo c r q p t x ~ r t ~ 6xtrphy
q ov~tr; nut. k-ttOupii;t.:r TOY t v ~ t jrot$ x f ; ~ p r h p ~ ~ tI.:uivcxt
; I)

pt~Bpiiqpc rov oxoio 1-0piryptr yG~r:rut+ O m v to -xj*cc-iri;o\z(tt

gtiipoi ~oi,mtr?~)+ot-fi)y I-:T(x~~ t o w t ~ ~ i C c > ~ ~ t x t -
~ ~ m c t ? . .t.h rt..vr
n ~ i01i puypari~ui8irhupoi (magmatic chambers) nou Ppin~r3vrolt t f i c tit
vicrct ores rpknt0 ~ q ;I 'qi v13xo~tctti 4 upyb
~ (tvObt6. cvt;~t v u henrci rrrp~~)trx
hirftct; rcou
K K X ~ W I : T U~
~ ~ 1 1~rcrtp(ivcttt
1' 'ill; fxx pnopei vtr:ytl;xlrf?Fi~ 1 w~pct)xonfiCipi:cr.ti 08:
a L'U
 flohibej not, ~~~~vixc~F.rov'I:er'~
Li..yr:< Gpej. E v d ~oi qtpcr;tcrtt:ltr~i~ mcrv udpa ~ a t h71lv
Glitpttciu ptu; p i m q ~~cpalms~uwfic
B~ptl:qi m ~ p e o n o t o h j r aot x ~ 6 6 vtrpCcroj.
T u nupl y e v ~nj e ~ p h p u r axor) n ~ 1kt(xri<ov+a~
1 O T v~C K L ( P { ~ V C ~r( X
~ l I'qi
j i) xoA6 ~ c r v r 6DOC
~6 ( ~ \ i 1 k ' p o ~ p t ~ c c x t f ~ fi
txvnjlf. crro cr6vohh r o q , Ei19ul~ E X Z @ K O K Mpt:~ ~U ~ P U V I Z C1Km ~3~tt;i~~
1 ~ S5S6I~~I ~)a ovopil<ovx(ti
~LC~OICOKK l alpavtttwh ncrphpxzu. En~iGlj11 uvrxyviy tcrq

t w v o p u ~ ~ t im~ av ~tptxvttt~(xx>:q~&)it;f,tu
~ E C PE ~ V ~ L;St:v[xt~j
I p~ yt,pt'u ulpO~jLvb. t f r
~rxptx~-t?~f?i~or;pc
)LC fi<rrJrl t o "~,(b\luc rrov o p t ~ ~ c t ixot,
v ~ v $ ~ t c t p ~ oo~q.
t ; \ :h t : b ~ o ~ p r f ~ r ~ r ' x .
r:vtitltpeou .tj ) 1 ~ i ; c i \ r o ~ p t ~I\ ~,UR
t ~ hIjlk~~q
TO ci&o; tat9o~c,K'c(;)v
KO\? ~t,yirtpp)tivO$C
qxksr ~ i x rv8
, iri.pt.:ficr ~ u kuiyir;(r.
i Cuplc'x mtf xcrp&)yt-.cratxt,rci. xapcl~rlpoi,\~tu1wcvir no\;
npo~finrotlvrrx6 .rtn rxtytix rtuu &ter.qxi~yot,v
trxb t o phyptr K I X ~ ~ o~ Jr; e p ~ o ~ ~ l c1'ir1t {K ~I V~~,
uutci o ~ o v i r j o ~ ~cpuauXiiia(;
ul (vesicies) ~ t x lppimovttxl crttlij cr.i~h~t:k~q
t:ntcyhijsta t u t 9
ls,,af3Cz~.
ten6 tqv entcphvt:ur
erpy& $trOr:u'r ~(xw
Zzqv ncpinTc.3arl nou r o pdrypa ~p\!mfr>~)~cbvf:xtt(
~ r Trl;.
l ~ rbrc r u ne.cpci,p(~cclrrxnor) o ~ t l p m i k o ~ ~ it vr u~ l& ~ ~ M K L ) K ( X03~-0~pum~rhliriKiI
( K O K C ~ ~ &ti~ ) )~ t : ~ t y p i t ( ~ o~j I ~ O ~ U TTU
~ u t( P C I Y E ~ ~ T I IEEE~ T U. X E T P ( ~ ~ ~ L ((t\ith
R~L

unttzcLoi~\zulni,tjpo~~un6 ~ p u m u A l t ~ Jp;x<ci
I p~ r:uplcyeOcii sbbgir~pttot,q kt<: yuk~vi)
o~OtrLp6~ p u r n l l i ~ h o r Trx mq v r:xccp(rvc icr rq2 Qq..
! ~ . narpti,ktclrtx txutir t~~occtAi~nrovrtti
phvo txcpoi, xtr unt:p~t:ipcvcr nr:p@ilhi,o\zci n~rpcbpii~tx
fituppu,OoCv .tj uxoyrx~pt)i~Oot;~?
AOyct~rcrrot~tli61vtr1ri6v ( x . r~u uncp~cipcijucv35 nupiyr:t30\i~iiyh-01) n~spth~itrro
vtx
&acpGyo\jv nhevpl~cr.hijytrl tt:w~uvto~tu6).
Zt~yvbntrptxrqpcircu pi..act mtr nt-:tycSp~xtclpr:yi~?~ol
h-pi,rnc~Mt~t
vt/ f3pin~oijtc1rpt.;nct

nc ptu ph<n rtnh I }K~p&~800;~ p t l ~ z i x j i h ~

~ L E P ; ) T I P OO Zrqv
~;. nr:pinnociq rmrq r)nirpxr:i
6 i t ~ q r ? pt ~~t l j E ~ ~<:Tu<&
I rtw ~.I:"J~~J,o v }
KC)\ ~ ~ ~ f j . h (j +Lt ~ ti\ ~i ' t ~ ~ p ~ f c i ? , k u s t ~ ,
phn~ocrysts) KW I U~:)ir:ht&~Govq.p i (graundrnctss) h-ttt tct ne~ptbptxrr
pijovttii (05 eoptpopoeriiil (nlon~ovmb)fi noptpuptnrth ( G Y ~ ~ % I Y I : vn$ ~) t p t ; ~ p a ~ a
xcxptrtc,-t.q
(parphyroid or porphyritic. rocks). PvtS u n i c p ~ o r ; ~~ t x i xt,ptgr:vfi x~rptbptrm y E
qkt~~pt,mtxh>~th-h
trsxb Grlhtx61j m q yiit<tx rot] nxsptdpu~v; txvclyvwpijt:aa K ~ X I TI

K C , U G ~ ( X ~ L la^ctt(;lo~us~l
~IK~~ Ktrt 11 t,f.:ht;)ij~l;.
A ~ h p qttctrir n l v 810rp~t:lrrqcptrtrnt:ttrwd\~ E K P T ~ < E ~ O ) L .m. l ~ v ( iTO jivt~~iC~w ktiiypt~
r-:~-clvr'wnnr:rm~ r q ttzp6oyorpci.
v ~TCO s ~~ I~ p : ~ x o t ~ ~i rt e~ thyprjyt~prx,
it i p~ uxori-:hsqltx vtr
q r\ puri 5c~lxtn k ~ p ~ ge ~ t m i i ([glassy texture). Tux t
p t 11xI~d~6il~ ~ i tpuol~ci
t ytjt~?~i-rrit~~ot~tctkt{t
cPcrlv ne pinrconq txuzrj ~ivcrr oyrtlirav& (obsidian), not, t.:pcprt.vi<ct{xtwq )ul\ipo, ~ o v t p 6 ,
~ r x r ~ p y c ~ a p kyt,trF.i
v o {ic x u p u ~ r q p t otrw k ~K O - ; ~ O FiGt:i;
. f t p t l i ~ j.
t:ai~it\j~~$:; q
T i k u ~ ktl:pik-ir, ~ ~ t } p l * ; j ~n~zprii~trxtcx
ij9 n ~ q p u rjovtur
i t x ~ 6 t q t - mepeunoiqnril
<e.;~t~,ptnsciw
~oppcx~txhv ~ c cmuit~
x~'~p~tf~tfj.ton*,
t E . : K T I v I ' P G o (GTOV
~ \ ~ ~txipt1
~~~ tmi) Pdt~lf-:q

cttpli;ct<. Tu r:h-ti~~ctaai~p~vc,
~lcpct~nrr:~rxt;i~ ~opp(tri(z;m~p<:iV(X ~:i\?fitkc':xtfj miix~11.
 nxci ru z o r ~ d p r r t rsoti
i,uffi;~$vsj aohi6cg fj pcyhha r;opp&r~w.,t u onoitr trnocrrci~~crt
xlipou (h-kstpuu ~G66or) r t ~ v ~At~rtiv)~ t x ~ c i zrts
. S I ~ ~ K E TUI ~LC qqcr1~~tctt1~&
fipct~~qpt6rqttx;. v n r ~ u p o ~ b a a trarb
l'tx nt)plyr;sfi n~tritx s r p h y a ~ txi a p c r ~ ~ ~ l p l o trnb %~b
(pyructastic texture). Enetdfi ~ c nupo~humlair
c xcrpcbittrra wrro~c&oB~tztx~
tin6 <r:~optarir.
rokcjt(crttr AETP~~~~,x
, T~Op~ txxh
h, ~ptim(xkl?c,\,;, 71 u q ~ f lroug ?tp@fiopOlh(~tacptcrcr6rspo
row r<llg~t;l-royr;stIn*
7cc~pet~piTxrwv
tc.tt.1 htyriz~pozov it,hhrov n\)ptyr:vG~t'
nctpwpizwi*.

An6 zu qwhork-c'x 37 litri*ct~ c ~ p c ir> ~y4'c'tvizqq

t i Kcxe o p\dhlOoj.

tprrvcl)rt~O,, u c o r i ~ o ~ uo~
0 ypavirq.; (granite) r:ivtxc bvct tt?..oute~vt~ir. o rt;ipOicotiao.
ir<ivrj; ai;srcJatlq. ? b ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~o ~p cv ~K t~l I~) i~) ~.( Kx OAK JK ~~ ~~XK
cpr:>.at~O. p~
) ~@ ~ p c h t 0 8 q

u (lr~pkTo\)25-30':bt
o p u ~ ~~t~F,trjitr Ktri mTTpio~<(nbvo ctnti SO'!>) ~trt)c6; K t t l (~eplh'il
nuptrt~rlx u p t ~ t i x : P ~ o z i t q (5 ~ c p o m i h p j , 2 poay,oJi;irq). blx ~1pml;)oq t q ~
iteppo~pc~,oiac
(600"-500°C') h-ut rqv m~peoxoitlotltou 63vo1.Jyg.ctvcr1tc.013 ph*fpuro~
not,
K ~ - : P ~ ~ XiO'i/o
EI ~ : ~ I-?(';'::
~t:p6. GI: ypttvittl nou r r e p ~ i , ~)ii9vo vt;yit. nnc?f3&k>Mxrtn
vcp0
nhotjoto at; nztlrlr{i m ~ m c t r t ~ xi xo ~ r:ivtrc
) K U ~ I : O ~ CJE
~:Y 6to;~iFilo
O TUU x \ , p t t i o ~(SiOrf.

A1203. c~J~~ixibux
utx~anixvt* X I ~ ~ Ko
" ~ o t ~ s i t6nfr)i
x Xitho. pqpfjkeo. 86ptn, iwptlvto.
tp86p~o. ~txiolo.~ c t 0 L ;K(O
) ~ f i k ~ l~ i ) ~ exx6
rr TO pkypt~.TO ~ ( ( ( L Y ~ ~ x~Tx II )KT~~1~) 3 ~ \ ~ a ~ 0

iiic~nfiile~
~ k a na r n nrrtxfiiutx~crrot) ypcrvitq tc.tLr tonr xeprf3~xibi,hOsrmvnctpwltirtwv,
yjCyertti i I T C ~ ~ O X O L C~~~~ r~ )LpI t i ~ ! t i &ipAefit~fj;
~rtC ~ ) \ ~ ( q p o p p j ~(n>k(t~~3~ih~:i;)
x~p~yevtj
nr:rpdbtclttx ~ ( 1 1~ t ~ o q ) tno!)
~ ~ Ot jV O ~ ~ < Z ) V T71qyptitir~;
~I~ I\ ~LXJ~~TE;.
0 l[qypa?iq$
(pegmatite) ~ i v t rprrt ~ xt~I\~ii
~ qhefitrjc )topw~!; fnibtrr;ot:ccifi;f t r h p i f ~ ~eo)~~ q ~6pd~o~h.q
nupry~vfi
j F~cioGtinqytrhus-cS~pw[t~tuu-kct,~oi)
xphpcrso;. no\) cmort:icircct tin6 p;yi~?bo~?<
~pr~crrixE,?~-ou;
c~~~utc.rci~v
nt3u trvt r:/vwpi $>\~cn K ~ X Insc)v y prx\'ir+q. 6x015 o ~cri,tx:icr;. c, t
usstpror
~txJ~eo\l;~ot Krxt (3 f h u z i ~ ~ l ;01
. k-pi,~~cxhhot
zwv opt)a~cbvnrrjrjg mlyflutitr:;
tmosro6v xoAG peyixibo pCyt:Bc)~f @pt@rlxm~
~yi~muLi.ot
p~ytr?~.O.ircpo~
tm6 10111 O E ~ ~ K O S

K ~ X I3m a c fititycrpo) t;gunitrg r q i ripticrqi rtlt) vcp~tJ noti Eatrpixc:~rrr ibv~civtt

perttvtr.mei'ot,v ypqyopc~xpuc rot); nxqpart jitpc:~vt>;~pCmnJ~i,or);.r:vt;~ncrpitiblLrlhcrSEV
cx tapixt.;t -erw fi~q)tmr;tnpi)vitrtv ~ p u ~ t h ht',h T~ ~r 16v~tr
~x ~ t ~~71(rvtow
t ~ x
~ I LIIC ~ ~
Vt~rx~itr)\:

no\) 5r:v rtrtp~it.Cutli$

y6acx a r o K ~ I I ~ T ~ X >xi,typci
,J~IKO ro1u f3~0e~h1'
O~I>KT~;)V
TOI) x q y p t ~ i z q

q iLc)tlt r 6 tcxc5>op~sr~rk
n ~ pctr opr~tr'xxol: crt!xvt'x. A6ytu roxl y q 8 f ~ o u cKCII t q ovcrttrcs.rjq
~
o t , ~ 0 an)bizqg (rlpiite) c:ivtrr h e v k - O K ~f kTt - : ~ : ~ h )
"rrw; t.itnorci,oi,v ~ t ? ? ~ ~ 6 r t pibiOo~~g.
~ t ~ p l y c v ix; t t p ~ q ~cpicrjt~fi;
u 61~icr611oq;pic h-irptti opvxrci ~tti,tr,icr ~ t l t~ctktoOnn
hnzpto, 6nw; o yp{rvi-r;.qr;,d+hixcivul rahil h t ; r n O ~ t ) ~02~ o~ G T T " T ~ K O K )#at
; O r) imti; rot)
e it~a
t pt.r;po~pumahiL
tw.
0 pt)rii,rf)o~i j 1 , i ~ u p l ~(ryolite
tf~ nStpCopa pc, x $1pi ~ f l
or liparite) rivtrl r o 'qcprxt~rt:ra~6
tcttr q ~ t l ~ ' i r ~ ? ~ . nijmavq
. o ; ~ ~ Q t x v r i u ~ o ~txtini
~q TOU "~ptxvirq,ijtacpCp~~
hpo; o , ~npo; rqt9
ttcpl\. Eivtxr I X ~ ~ X V ~ CTT~\ ~KX~V~
, ~o p ( ~ ~ p t t r t c
~;Cb ,X T ~ K O K
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~rri,tiSitrqppiok-ertxr r 6 ~ wq Orro ~ t x r(95 pwprihr8o; mq Ot.:plc:7~tc;liirlq
u tpatz~v~p6o.t.r~?~->~~?;,
pkcci. 01 qutvo~pGmceiho1eivcri crtjvrj0eoq t&tOp~pymW; tl~i8rtjjfap(~nt.
0 f310rirq; xivtlt
t o ~ . ; g t ~ p t j t E ~ ~ z)~pp tc ~)I X~ KiTIX
~> U U ~ I Kcy~t.j~~iX.
~~!

ARUT ~ avGrtjpc:n/~.
I xerptijprxrtr (1 5lt,pirq; KC~u
I rn\*$coitrl;.
0 tirsyitqg f dioritu) c i t w xhouro~ijltcli,t p a v t : p ~ r ~ ~pr:ou~putlrclj,
ri, vho~pt)n~t~hh~l;il.
htccri,~or~r,
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~ i ~ ) Mntixjrt ~imio;rrttv
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ocpctcrl~ph~pt)rrril.i,he,v~rx?,tx<itr.Tu ~ i p r c top\)rr(x eival: ~ u h l t ~ Cnkct-fr6xkit~rrj
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fandwite) ~i pt:cco~pccrt~O.
yrpi ~ p t , b p ~ xirpwprj,
~og trvrimoqo zcw Stop irq na y,rlptvlj KGI o p ~ i ~ t o h t ~ ycr6mtmq.
~utj
Am5 .rtr C M X ~ ~ K ( ' Xtj, [+uut~tj,
E Z T ~ C ; ) ~ ~ J T { IC ) yIB[3Ppo~K ~ X0I Ptx~cxhr~1;.
O yha(tpo;: fgsbbro) R / V ~ L I I C ? ~ O ~ ) T ~ U V@~I.C)V~RVRI;.
LK~. ~ J ~ n c p t ~ m t r i ~ hX tO~~i 'l)aao0po
.
xp(it-uvo 1j xpt~cc~\'i~prlvpt)
( p t : r ; t ~ ~ p t x ~K~U P~~iO)S,S ~ E ? ~ ~ I V ~ ? Kni:zpt.obttr.
~ ~ Y " C~tc;I KK~C) J) K K ~ ~ ~ ~ T ~

tnrh. Ttx h-6pltr optitc~hcivw mjp6<t:vo; h-tn txrr()c;moiqo xhuy15xhtxd~opc oi,tPivq Kttr

ocic ptsp6~r:po~nrroaz6,O yirPf3po~6cv civttt n u u ~ j 0 ~n~.rsrrrrcuS

trprpip~?~o g x i t p ~ ~TO\)
~p(~
qm.cj ~ r ~ s c ci?hot
~ t ' )06. akhk YrjU t ~ ~ c i f . \ f l ~ t > ,
0 puaGti,rqs (basalt) ~ i v t t lr a nto 61~6t:iiopk~*o
t~.xC>
t t r~ ~ t p t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ zf :r~t pt ~c ;ifYp t i~~rt ixt
txt~totctt~cm
;i vv yciPfip ra.reti plttt~rji;M < X ~ ~ J ~ U K Z O ? , O
n i~! ~ ~KfTw~q <qK. ~ T Rtxxi)
I TI<

e(&%ot~;
(<ttciaiLtti~\.
t)nirpyc~ru avrintotjlo yr(3fipttcit akrpctrprx no\)~prl~~crkkr6vr:ttrt
mo
f%rBo<~ t x zy~ocpoiiorr:i
t ~ ~ t f i ~~ ~ qt11<pe~imc:tcj~fi
rt h ~ Sp~r~rqpici~qrtr.
hanericie Granite
1 Dlorite
(caarse-grained)
Aphanitic Rhyolite Andesice Basalt hmatiite (rare)
(fine-grained)
Mineral Quam Amphibole Caleium feldspar Olivine
Composition Potassium feldspar Intermediat~ Pyrsxsne hroxene
Sodium feldspar plagiadase
Miner Mineral Muscovite Pyroxene Olivine Calcium feldspar
Consticoents @atite Amphibole Amphibole
Amphibole Biotite
Rack color tight-colored Me$lun*colored Dark gt-dy ro black Dark-green to black
Based on % dark Less &an 15% IS-40% dark Mom than 40% Nearly 100%
{mafic) minerals Qrk minerals minerals dark minerals dark minerals
 Ttr xiiov~o)vt~rkncrpc?iprrrer. axqrw~i<tjvv SoyLq. u,ndt Trq oxoi 8; ot XIO

~ r x p t r m q p t a t r:ivrxt:
t~
( I ) Ba0611Bog (Batholith). Opoq ~ o t )y,pqat~rorro
tt;ictx~ y tu vct x e p ~ y p k y ~pin
t 7~02.6
pqjlMqi C ~ r c t n q(>~l OOkln2) ~ t x yt ~ v t u rctaQitqrnvq5
i to< npog rct n~ptf3tihXovnfrpcj~pct.
xuptyrvoi); 6tcirr6tjcrrlq. rqq uxoia; TO 6 6 ~ ~ REV
8 ~t.:iv~t
1 :~vu~miS.
(2) @itpa (Dike). Opo; nor) ~pqntpoxott:inu yru vtr ~ c p i y p h ~ y :irrtx
:~ a i b r r ~ n ~ ~ i i ~ i ) i
pt'lptpli; iir~ia61joq.q orct~irx~ i , B t : t t r t crzpf;tcrrl rv tlfitiLi,toaq ~ t o vxeptfictj,h6vroii
xcxpop{~-cwv.Zr#%vilcivat GG~wu?~o
m11v Gxtx~tfpovtr 6rc(~ptBeiptu cpl,i:Ptr nor1 ~ t t p e t
pc ptsprj ytovin rqv ~ . n i n ~ ; iuvrj na5 rqv mirq.
q soti xcpt[!u^hii8v~cuvnc~pc?lpkro~v
ZtivfiOm< q qACPtr t:~a~o)pl:i
pCou cs' i;vu xp06xkpxov pliypct, nikjel ~ t tot-/,tiptrrrr
x

rot,, ew.rt;ivr:r r,y citpattl nurir mt a ~ n p qno?~);ht~ &tct.cAtrfitiactgnou

ipopf; a~tjpct.ci~ct
ovupil jovrcr c opilv(s cpkcfkbv (dike swarm). H cs~1~jvJl0to
j ~ t x ~ ~ i ( ~ (phi:fi~
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K U ~ ~ V ; ) I ) ~ K TS~t~roprjq
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< nwbqv6pup"pl gthtfia $
~vi)l~i~<l~:ret.l
a03l q v u ; ~
f pipe).
(3) iioirtl fi ~otrosi&$lq
cpbkau (Sill). Opoq nou ~pqat)ti3notfi;isuty i(x vtr nepl y piryrcr pi tr

6 I ~:iflSt,flll.
~t\.lf)lyF,t'fj
(6) Cwpbs (Stock). Opoq not) ~prlcrtponoteittzl yicj vrr x ~ p ? p < r wtc bttcx 7tt~p.vyevii
titeicrbuoq. entcptxue~c~a~j~
C ~ t c l ( ~ pt~p6rcptl;
q< txxb LOO krtt'. 71 unoitr av\f?jtfwg.tibJW6
6x1 xitisrs, ~ivtrran6,ucpwvq otc npog so .rrr;pt~ixi,)Luv7ei~ptoptnKtir n p c ~ r s o ~ a ~ i~t e~ te vr
C)crUitl,tfk~e ~ - c lux6
i ~ TO ptyt-:tto~.
( 7 ) AukibktOog (Lacoiith). F:itImi ptct. ni,pcp(ov7l x~!plyr:vrjg St~ia6tboq pz: yvwarci Ij
 liuk qtpatazebaic$ nzspipasa
Hcpatoz~tcitqtu
'I'o pitypcr tptixvzr hSytn
G T ~ YE T I ~ ( P & V E ~ ( X zq; qcprxtcrtt;rtx~fj; iiplxazqpr6~1tzq,not)
yivr:zut Ct;6qhq csc ii~clxipopcx crllpcitx r11; r:nttpixvt:rci~ z q ~f q i , ahh(x titxt mov
t moOtrib&trcrto~ c b p ope Gtutpoperth-h or: 60111) qcptrtcrmloti~iK&MI)C~.
N q~ctinscrtmfi6 p G ~ qO ~ w y c i r uatrv
~ plcr Gt~p*pnicrrrou ox qituscrij e ~~vrunct~ci~tr~ix
pouvir crt: cr~rjpcx ~Avorj. ~ c p t o f i t ~ kpictre;
; ~ ~ p f i < c t r - c ~ 6 q k c i 1 fqvcxtosetn~fi;
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~ t q(~tximt.:ldrq; Et~cr;. ? / l ~ h o i ~ @ tpl ,~ p l ~ j i ;
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S Pkrle.;. <X~.?~C; H Tjmtx
X C ~ ~ ~ L K T I ) ~ ~ ~UO V ~U ( k<o&o

~ q qAkptr;. @no; cmpvtrivct n ~ vqn~ir

u trl; XaBitrl~.xo~piiv u ~pc)h-tx>~orjv
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v xot, s v p y c t i ~ o \ ~cr'i jtxvrit. Ot xtxpio.yo\?~eq
w ictrQopijouv r o ttuici~;rot) pixypcnog Ktrc ~ e t t i uenlh-mcrq mli9
cn~roi~ s q p c i r < o ~Ktrl
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str cptrv~nmei~ u v s xco; T I ct6crlcrq
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f Ptrntdxth-C; hir(lcg) p.iptrh-rqpi;ai~ctr ctrrit y~ytik11pr:uorOs qtu ~ c t lpiouv at: pc?ixhc<
tunoasiror:l; p 6 ~ y i~ t x r150 k ~ n .r:vti~t c t h t ~ v t tp'rypcrrcc (p~,lo>*rO~~bq
Fbixpl:q) civut n o h i
7 ~ 1 ~ ~ i l p ) :~t t) xotciv(lt)v
t~ vet c3~qptxsioot)i*
p t ~ p o ipfitim);
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t pok.
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crrxiwezcxt crrqv enttpixvc~orq; t'q; c i i ~ u l ~K tor r fixltr. A\.riO~ttr.mtpia,; ot i t < t v c ~1,6Pf:<
xov f S ~ r ~ tpth'p6r1~:pq
w C)f:p)wrrt,tu~~iu
x(x1 ciwxt x ~ f t~ C ~ L X ~ ~ C U P:ii9ut
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rC:isp}@oi)v v X A670 tt\)rb 6r:v grti,vovv c;r~l~
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(r1)55 vxeptcr~6ouv0 8 ~prptjxvlaqrct yptr\~lnt;itnt;sp~5~1cxstt.
crc o ~ k n qp ~ c pvct?~-tOrrii
t
nx-cy~bi,ittx.cn
aov civtxt nc&i anirvtt~.O x@po{;pxopei i9ctPot~h6crcinnit TO S<t\<op<~;ytr.t o
onoio npurc~hcicpp&:tpo crzq fimcpt,;j~iraw tir:pict)v itr: tirtoriihsopu t q t T Bq~tto~~pyitx
zr:pbcttwv n~t'ia~wv.
Kc'wxottx ~povttificrs1:qtrj 01 .rr;pixcr.ctr:i n v y ~ ~ ~ : t p o y kmkcrct~
~ ~ t : ; crni~
TI) 1. nhoi:t*rx cx0;qnq r r ~ t ) S-;IKOI,> swv tx~gitrtv (hhyo) Rt:ppcirqrtr ~ c nrrl< pr~pil;
htfforr;cxrth-fi<nic;a~l<fu x s p v t ~ o i ~ra: Ptipo; soy netpuqt<xrwv xoc C ; ( c r t > ~c s z ~ ~ ~ e o x o ~ r ~ f ~ c i
OTO xbpo. Hpoh-txkt:i~tx~
tOre /liut11 I:.t;prlCq mrlif o x t ~ i aS~trcpaGyo\:i~
tcr utpta. cxhh<x
%topi; cttirb vtx o6ilyr:i nixi.rtt Kcir ctvtryh-rmrt ~6 tiul mllv i ~ p q ~ t ~i61011
t } t v b p<r;~pt~~i);.
 h9.t~~ c r p t w ~ r q p r m ttGrtipc-)pcpq
~b itopqi hkfkx~ eivm q KCXSLU+EVI~ f)a~(njs~t~~ij

nSqpp6pa (flood basalt). Zyqptx~i<crat6zuv TO ~ ~ X V ~ V ( XAolpio

KU ppicch-t:.rcx~rr{i.rom6
qnel pcorr~ljA ~ n t t r t xt h h ~ a .H Ozppfi ~qhi8c.xprcop~ivcr o6qyljrrrt at.:tt:pixmto
b y ~ o~ t x c r e x 3 . v ~httpac,
~ ~ s q onsirw txvfpprai mtlv yrjrvq ti.nttpi~t'crw,unu nrjporj< ~ c r t
a ~ i a p d~ ~
c l t~ ~ t r ~ w p s i j ~~c
r t xcxhht.:nixAktl3i,tx
i 0 @xtstrxhtrl,; z~hrrcir.u n o ~ t b .
nspti~p{.rxtx+
xdt~og~oh)~ci,\l
~thropizpovKtxr ~trh6xretrr:pixort~p~ ~ z t : a . c rot,
r ~ r . rrpotropotfi<crt!tl
~ nc
.rri;rl pptlipcr t;al y la *to h6yo tat!tci, t'jr,hho~mtl;,
ovuli$&tat ~3nntr3;~t~fl
xhqp~i~~qxx.

qytatazctadjj 6ph~q.or15
~poi6vra
1'rr xpotti\ftrx r qj ? ' t r p l x { c s t ~ t t x ~ %t~pr&rlqrivcrz q pkol~ott3,6tQa. rtr aCpta h-tri t t x

viLtwh.
~upuiiiluta~tub
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atphputtx li htopiiit;~pwj; i>nws zra nottip~a.Q ptrO\@ paljq rmv haf3tbv uurtbv eivtxl txnli
10-300 r n / i ~ . XCtpc~~~qptrnl~i,:
T~)XOS ~ ~ ( ~ ( f k T 1 i C;ZixPexi
fij 2:ivcxi txvxli ROI) ~ptptrvi<~ttx~
ax r:r t ~ i xoptxhrj, heicr ~ t 1 1cq01~6popqq(pe TI O Q O ~ V
m)vcp;i; p~t6LScce1;C T ~ X V~i~oi\'r<xf,
ovopCr<~trxtpahoehoe t~ntirotis t@txyt;vt:iqzwv i~llcrlrlivn15 Xtx@<xr~.
rtj hltfitx nou i ~ 1rspcqsi
Av~iHcttr11 fltf,cstiiLr~ - e l ~.xttpBv~
ttx. * ~ n v i ) i w ~
T cC ~~ ~ X~It ~c i, t : ;

nhr;~jpt;. ovo\r&jr-:nxlaa mxt pic1 pt: 5-50 mlh, rxvrikoytx )o; tqv ~ h i o q~ q <
~nc~ivGt~vc;
7ckffffth;.
l&tcxirj:ptx evrvxrt~crui~rj
~ t x l~ u t x ~ 6t~p1j
i not)
r ts~qprxrijnt)~
at hixpr:~nou
CITE pcoxi)it~i,v.rfirs t q ~~ k p aivtxt (cof urnnar joia~ts).gvrQi?
~ o at azqloctzicii; ~cr.cn.cpi1ae.t~ t

t~noftti,i,tirrcnr;; 2v;~[+~; o
P~xntxJ~~tat; T I pa;ihupor; t&cii E t p):
trxo~k>~~csptr
(31 htrfit:< tx~nr',;
vrt ~txSLni~ntx~ i6lfsg (pillow lavas).
patgirnpo~tdci~
Ttr, txkplir XOti e ~ h 0 0 n u~eep Ti3 Cito<r:ihotot, tlvOpn,~tx
t t 6xi)v~tttphcrtx GTO phy~itxd~tr>(;
nr.t-pl n65ti. Enr:tGq 11 h~jtyqc.c~pio\itrab ro rlcpt~icrce~o
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i ot
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r ( t lp(iygtt.
W txipitx q h r T~ ~ I ,~6?ptx"co{;
J .rrlcr-rsi:t;.c;trt6rt tmo~l:SLr-:i
ztj 1 -Y'Q~
raI; avvr,htxo6 pi~prs\!i
tot^ p<iyprltu~Krtr TO noaoarh tturfj; K ~ ~ T C X O I(31; ~ \:Bplxt~ioi.El aimtxm1 rcav
y~ytx3~i)tt;pt1
rlcputort:trili.<b~~
t~e~im ~ ' nuhi, csylrcxltrci~fi.y t i t i ni t~j';plut ~ t : ~ xrrn~6r;tctt
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twhi,ti bit1 t T ~ ~ IQVI P ~ ~ I V~ ~ ~xtbtb~ifptx
1 6 tptx;.
"1.ta ~lcptiia-ct;icx,o~zhuct,ea~aet:3~oi?\' f?t>ritk.qxqyli (xzpaat.pulpt~~j<
pBi,t:vam Kttr

pnt~poGsvtt E P O K ~ L ~ ~ ; ~tzpix~~~trx
O\W s~tbi~tkoyr~~x
~p?fih~jguttt,
Ttr nt!poxhtjr,~.rrw'~
t > h t ~ ieivtti
i rtr: mcpcit. hi ti it TOU p h y p t ~ t ~xot)
< zxtt~~iX~o~>t+~i~~
crrqv uspcin~txcptr cguiricfi tq5 t ~ p q c r l c rwv ttcpiov. Xrct f3ucrfx),tit~ix pix"flnxttx
h - ( ~ t i x fi.ro\f x6p0 y(tri
~:~ttWicrtsc~$~f~t tfx (~hptrx6 t ~ ~ 1 : i ) y c $G ~ ~
E ~t j~ @ E KUI
P C La \ w C ~ ~ i a .

mtx ntt~i~p):uorri
A ~~rif~i-:tt~ piyptnrx -its trCpt tu. KO\) ijttxqci1~~$1
mqv t x t p c ' ? ,p~0(r01'11~
I\.
 A. March 20. 7980, Ivtrusiorr of magma
4
*.&,' 7-
:
generates earthquakes. w
&@
+&@:T, .
$"*,,fV I""&<

srvptiat~develops

FIGURE 4,4 Ideatized diagrams

showing the 1980 eruption of Mount
St. Melens, A. First, a sizable
earthquake recorded on Mount St.
Welens indicates chat renewed
vo.>fcanicactivity is passible. 0.
Alarming growth af a bulge on the
north flank suggests increasing
magma pressure below, C . Triggered
by an earthquake. a giant landslide
relieves the confining pressure on
che magma body and initiates an
explosive lateral blasz, D. Wishin
seconds, a large vertical eruption
sends a cafurnn of vokanic ash ta an
altttude of about: f 9 kilarneters.This 1
i
phase of thc eruption continues for i---
over nine hours. 13, May 18. 7980
ntr71i ftDCiXDhli :I)
"r *" -"?- ' 7-
i fiy /.,;phi Y F ~ ~ : 4~
Y f AEW~~L
 A A - AABA

Partiaty ~rnptisd
magma chamber

Farmation of Crater Lake and Wzad Island

a.rL~zqil tgtplppa (ash or tepbraf Ctr: KUCKOI?$ ~ E Y ~ O O L . 4nm.
~ rl qcpular~itl~fi
~~0865
(lapitti) p>:;)l~i.lycOor trx6 2-643nrn K-ator qcputnxsta~k~
k-6tck-w~ Ifo?,.iiiai;(volcanic bombs) pc
ktC?cOoj KOKKWY3 64 rnm. Ot ~ltprxtm~,itx~uct;
pt.GLi6c; p>:6dkpopo , ~ c y C @~u ~a ~~,ljpct,.
i
u~crtl cruy~okha\:,vcnt,rrplktt;tzi<ovv qrpuraz~ta~lriri,uzu7~ttnuyfi(voicanic breccia). Eta
~t;pOh.>~~tx~i~ih^<l
l~T.fpci)).tfl~~ ~ t l t 11 zbatppi$nxrp~(pwnicc), oxoict.
Ctt~~h.(~St~hk"f~,tt~1 ~ X E I

txpt.8~6rtav qurra?~i601v-~~v(hv
xov n ~ q p c t t i m q r a vtmb sqv iitatpuy,fi TMV aepicw p~
cr7cozi3Lc~ptr\}(I ,:.n~nhlets t o vcp0.

To iltpcticrrn~oB(jycizui cmu 3 rpicx pi;prl: ( I ) xov ~ h v o .( 2 ) -coy x6po rtxl (3) rov
kiptxrljptx.
O K ~ V O C(cone) tocl qtptalcrrciot) a~qp(t.oijt;ttxttxx6 ta vhrtcir. xwv ,i~pfi<eatvnrtu rivtxl
~ itjypfi ~txsirmtmqf^h<rpuh-nt xupo~i~ttartuet
r r o~epf:li bht~ir).Av<xhoyci p ~ t,o ei6n; rov
\)htk-Ojvo K ~ ~ Y Oh~xpg<kc'f;l
S 8 l t ~ ~ ) qa~rjprx.
~ ~ ~ Ot1 ~t i3) i $ r txou
t t ~ ~ t j p c ~ ~ i C ok-~yio;
v~tx1 rx~0
pcvrn4 P~ICT(L?~TIK~~
?$uixi3~~(ijxx~~qpi<ovr(xl
t 1 ~ Sk ~ ~ y h h6lix~t1:xpo
q bdtcrq~ tctt.1 QEIES
~hicret; niLtx;juyl& (xepinot! 6'-12") wxt rtr qrpaicrs~iape ri:~otousu 0 v o u ~o c o ~ t r j o x ~ t x ~
rnaltt&ii~.ciKrlrpaiaxczu (shield votcms). Ttx (~rrntiiw~iw.
~1cptnicrwlrxp.rrop(silv ~ r ~x t u a o t l vOF,
biieytihtr 1:yrl.
A criff~ttxot Y ~ J V O LKOU dopoilv~ot UR;) E V ~ O K ~ ~ vhth.i/
X ~ ~ ov~pitit)vr(fl
K ~ X KI;)VUL

X I ~ ~ U K > ~(py ~ ~ K ~ cones)

U roelastic ~ V k-cx t vuv$tt~; SOp i , t : ~ tti cxx0 qcpalrr~~1
txmi ztoptx Kir t

ovopix<ovwc ~41votrkpp(q (cinder cones). 01 ~ h v o tttwcji C~ouvpeycrAtr~pq ttkioq

xhtry16< 1-30"-40") Ktrl p r ~ p f iutLtpr:rpo pharls. Trx ~ltprxitrretclry' t11rrtl6; zoijq rtQvat?~
xivm p t ~ p h B, U ~ P C T ~ ~~Kt 2G ~t t , \ - ' 4 f ) ~t pt )~j t i , i ~toq
t ) ~TO~ i'qm; tu)tl 300 m. W G~c'r.p~clr/,
nl;
jwi; TO^ civtxt ~XKTIK('B y t ~ p f;atxri
l rtx 7t1yo~?~txmth-&
i!hl~Giittij3pC;)Vov~tjt
k ; i ~ ~ ; a ?~w(pt)~'j
~t~

6r-:t1e ictrt ~t)yaoA,?~qpCvtr

pcrex;i LOU;. T&h; V B ~ X P X O ~0V1 (16vtfctot K ~ U I ~ (composite
O~

cones) nov npottt;rrrts\ii' txnci ~vrrhicx~fi..;n\)porA(t~z~tctirv

t,h~uuit. ~ t t ti,ix@txg ~ u tti
~lcpciio~~uyltr
p~ rk~ornt)rijxct~,h-d~\'nt);~ u h 6 t f t c tmh@cta
t 4 cr~po~arupopcpa
qtpuiasetu
(composite vctleanors or stratovolcanoes). Z?qv ~ ~ h e u r a i nr:(rinronl]
tr q rr~hqp?\hhpcr
~ t i i C x ~ t : t t x nopo~Atrcsrt~itvhtrti xtruyl str npacrrct.tcie~ tmit rqv 6iiippoorl.
stri~ttwolcanotmorc>$-r:i11 vjcru< Zuvtupi\*tl,
Xttputcqpirir1~6ntrptid~~y)*t~
X~qi~it.
x(xvtct or: kvrl ~ 6 p l utchvcz cr~r\pexti<oi~tu,~
pr ~gntir~ p rt ?u i ~ i ~x(?t)
o ~rjt$t>~i<~<o\~rtr~
~cr~pclmlzl~r,
i xthtlot.
Kwor T l u ~ o ~ n ~ r r ~ x ~ d
(RAG LGIGlkbii Lfliirigi~:~,
/. ' I '

{WR)
 0 xcipoc; (vent) 7ov r ) q l ~ i . ~ ~ g iEIV(II~
. o t ) o u-y(j~y6<ax6 TOY omio uk.1~6tov
TIX. ~bilot~
cckp,xax~at 0 xcipoi; t:ivtxt U.XAOTE urthb,; K ~ I <x3.,Aozc
mqv ~ .tqt-kv~la.
n . ~ i v u ~ep~.anijzt:po
r
nohG~F,olio~big f i t u ~ h ~ 6 h a c tos. ~ a \ 6 ~ ~ r o r onpjptxtog.
1) X u ~ v f r . per& zo ti?,og tqq

qqat~rf;ttxr;.rj;Gphcrr~,TO ~&;/UIX xapnpkvr:~iricsa rs~ovxlipo KG! mcr:p~.:oxorr;i~at

pdnrx clr'
Xrqv
c~~i6t.. nepin~cimq rnjr~ja x q p t i j c t kva ru?\.tvfipr~o6ny ijptltos sbrpopu xou
ouopkjcznt qtpuraxcra~6c>*arprTic(vntcanic neck).
0 rpa~fipaj(crater) civclt t o cn~~trvr-:tatib
itvoi.gpcr n t o ctxoio rarah~jyer o
qy'xtcsrt;ttx~& n6poi;. C L t t i ~tt6t;tircrct o payywri~biBirhtrpo; p: n l s rltplxrvrcitr~ijKpirtrq
Gtlplo\)p~citut.~ i ~nn6 ( x , !it: ~ X K U T ~ A L Gt5cl
t o rov ~ p t ~ t ~ j pKCVO ~ C~I f u p J j t t i vK~~.I~T U Q P E U C ~ I ~
t crplpct~i:esc~t ytcr peyWq a e GI Srys~po
rctu xcx~vtpch-oittpfipazo: rtw ~ p c i z ~ j p~a u vu
(Xkrrr) ~ a i r v qpt.: r:.nint:6o n6toprx. at anri~uyrrzor~cGkurtn,xou .rrhrlpcbv,.:ztr.t pt: vt:pi'
oyq)itasi(o~~ta;prct peyirhq hipilq. I lp0uccrut yto t q v k-trholpr:vq ~tx2~6tpu (caldera).
;Yctptr~tqprmtl;flxepi~rturnlucrL6i:ptr; t:i\nt 71 X{xj~~opivrl.
Tn tltptrinrcrtr. &tttcpivovtut oc cvspyh qcpcxiarzw (active volcano). 6 2 t 1 ~x t t j ) w r l p ~ i t ~ t
n' t n ~ qqxrrcrrt:ta~rj
6 8pO~rq ~ i i f c t t~trvir
i yttt rlcp~xtrnctcr~i
Gpixaq. cut GE ufipuv* i\
ao~ptapivuqvt-licl.t~ta
(dormant volcano) @rtzv 6ev Gptxrrr~lp tonoro6vrar ~ fj pr ~ p a .hpw;
C ~ o l w6pwnqpic~xotqH1:ia r o m~peh06v~ t eivtrl
t ~ ch-uv& vu r:nti1~cvrx8pclmqp1oxot1lt)oi~v.

I c ~ o ; ,TO aflqcrpivo qcpuiatao (extinct volcano) civ{z~rxtjri'? rtrx; 6t: v crwy kve~trI vtx
,..I*

iiptttsrll ptorcolqfki %ixvix~fzctprihiijv.

 Tro. a p p a cr~ci;itcr.rqG t m o p i n i tq; Tqs, ycrw26 4.5 C(LI 3.5 Ry. q t:n~cpllvr.cus ~ l cTIE
~opf3rrp(ii~~qtcc: not) C T S / ~ ~ ~ X T( ~x C~ ~S IUx~~ ~ O ~ ~~ pT ~O tUt lS j j f~~E<O, S
a n 6 ~Xrjffo; ~~crt:tuprl;~b\!
au\:t',f3ct 6hhwott; wur cssot~q t)~tiht~tnot);~ h t r v ~ j t~~ u: ~l;rp9
t ZsAfivq. Rothtsu. or
rprxrripz; ntiroi e v i ~ 6 ~ 0 l ~K ItXrQ C X S ~ ~ O G \ : T UO~ T ~ Y~xttpixvetu TIIS X C ~ ~ V Ik~pCu v.
r-;>rqrxvtmt:i UKG r q tf cntqc'tvs to T r g Tq;.
T o " ~ c y o v c icxtirb
~ cpitvt:p(i)v~ihrt q f q c:it.c~r kvcc & u v t ~ p t ~nibpi.
tj TOLI o ~ o i i t u11
cxttphv~rrrC T I ~ ~ ~ E Xtx?'~k(r<f:t.
~~I; Crqt' tt,?kh~y~j
(It)Z?j~ v \ ~ t - ; ? ~ o~ti , ~t 'J ~ c ) Y ~ \ : ~ : T I&K t~.<~ , p * g ' t ~ ~ ~ i ~ ;
KUX 11 q q t ~ ~ ~ t ~ 1 6xot,
r t l auvr-:pig
f~, txvrrvehvut)~.rip t:xtvhvt;tu. r q i r q xtrr
~ trpj
tivuyrcbvout9,akhir ~ c t1
i1 trrphntpn~ptx~ t t tt o V I : ~ O 7101~u&rpoCv m q i f ~ ~ E O O ( X @ ~ W O ~ )
iiti~gpmaqrew ncrpop6to)v tcut y ~ v t u i rt q v in~stxtoopi/u?Lttici)vtrx6 ttr uy,qhust:pri mlyeiu
ma ~ i i p Lute
q pa.
W wxonti.f)ptoaq r n l q fiiitupcoaq tcui,oLwt~ccil ~ < t o y ~iv5f : f i l ~ p y i c ~ i c : ~EXF.~&$ .
ovpfiitivo~)~ 15 Trj: K ( I ~ 11 C I : ~ P Y E ~ ( IT O I ~~ Q ~ p t i x (1x6
C T T ~ Ventcpiivcltt n ~ u ttqv ~ i ~ k p y ~ t r r
rot) WlLit~t).0t G t ~ p y t m i enl)rL;.
~ txnor~.l~oi)v
Btrath-0 qtfipu rou ncspoAoyiro6 h-Oahou.
c 1 ~ ~ 1 6E f~ iV ( XI ~~I I R ~ ~ O \ ) Yyttx
R < t q v ~ t ~ r i i t p ~5f i~i )ruyethv
) ~ xc;rpwpixtcov rre t jlj[trttu.
H nncmciHpuxq (weathering) t:i vctr q cxxoniivO~cn~
ictxt tmocitopyti\*wnrl s o v upt~lct6iv

~ u TUIV rG H trlr()(riiUpoo.rl trx6 )Lt)vq s q i q t n ~ : p t C ~ ~ i

t ncrpwptitos m q v ~ x ~ ( p i ~ t ~Zt :~t tI"qq,
noht? pttiprj lj ~ut3A?~-o\!
pc~trtp~)plx
tcuv ttht ~ t i ~ t ' .
H lii&til)ptwq (erusi01,iun) ~ i v t t tq ~ x n o ~ ( i l ~ p ~h-ut
) v ~ 31f q pctrttpc~phETE i ~ U ~O60q
q Z~:)Y

trrcocrtiUpc~pkvtovxpoTi'vstr)v-~~?~th-ii~
!kc: TU vcpt'~, TOY (tvcyo. rot)< xiry R T C ~ VKrrr
~ ~ .r:r)-\j

Ptrptjtrpi~.
I] tmoaix~pwcrr]& t c i ~ p i v ~a6
~ npt q ~ a v t ~~nucr&Bywaq
e ~ c t ~i r l ~ t tnnoah8pwoq.
~ij 01

t~noic;c& r ~ c ~ p trtxt,tti~povit
~Cv trr rit)vtqo~vijovtril~ vt~.::xt~p(~sci
11 pi($ CTC c q i : ~ r )[IC t q v
in,hi."l1.

H pq~avllc4azocr&8poaq
H p i l ~ a v t ~uauairUpu~q
fi (mechanical weathering) tmo6tol>yuvibvr:( ro nkrpwptx p~
n ~ q p t m n p i t ~ p ~ t apt:yhAwv
li ~ t xp~nfil-:t(i~t~if
~ t h k t ~~ I I K P ~ ) T C ~ Itcpt~31ti1i..
~)V irkkit ~ u j p i qvrx
t q t 5~ r l pwfi
t~h).~lxcc;t r otiwtrorl rob xe~pit~ptxzoy.
Y n i r p ~ o r ~Kv ~ ~ i t p o p ~ (DI)CT~KF;
t t ~ k ~ &tt;pytoi~qp):.~mT ~ O Coxoiojv I : X ~ T G ? X ~ J I : E T ~q~

& ~ T ~ X [ I V ~~KxTx~L ~ c T < x ~

0 c1 )6~t ~
~)pcy~rTm~i .qc ~ t , ~ ~
k rvfwt:
,i
y6gq (frust wedging). To vr:p6.
( 1 ) Zptlw~%&$~ ~ T U Sxfi:ft30ei+ (xu<thf):~
tov ~ ~ Y KTOU
O

~ a t i i :,. rZijyi~titjtfi; t q q t x i ) C i ~ ~ r jtr3u

; c j * f ~ . ositt ~vep0 K O ~ )c t ~ i ; p ~ ~wt
r l xh1lp0i~t:t
~t
~ t r K. G V ~ X~j t l ~~xrrc~i~i(xttf,
~ tot, x ~ r p t ~ t p t OTILV
~ ~ o xfxy;)c~f:t,
~, ~ I C T K Clet1i,6
~ ycyixhrl rrieaq
 mu. sot~oipari?rot) nczpthpaxo;. H ~ u v r p ej ~ x t z q ~61~pyrxcritx; c ~ u r t j ~
o6rlyai crso n ~ pcmrtnp6
q axilyaro;,
pwy p i v txp~p~o~tbotjg lrou o\$op&Qovsol
K ~ ~ ~ E Z G ) ~ EOI ~; ~ V E ; . tilf,t . c t ; h ~ ~ nzqv
& tilto6rrspyrlvwn71 ~ c i i ~tr;ru,atpotp.riTUU

ltc:zpc?jltti,~o;.if iit~pyciaiu.txuxlj m u sivrrr 91 xto S p t a a r ~ r jcilepyrxnict. p q ~ r r . t + r ~ ~ j ;

aaooixt)pc)nq<civctt ifiuri~~ptx GI: OPI:ISC< x c p r n ~ k 0x01)
liptxrn~~lj ~ . q tleppo(~~p~(rirx
.. .
TO\) \fr-:po6~tqiaive~tzl
~ctvtClozo tjgto iyi,<qi rot:. Iti xrxhtrpi! r;trl yov146q ~ ~ k t ~ t h z t t i -
(ctxoouOp<;~pu,.cu=dehris)
u h t ~ hrq; ctxon~z8p(oo?l~ n t q @ & ~ r t)t o ~ '
auyr;c:.t~pcb\~oi~zrdl
trnbztrjtruv nprx.tj6.tj a p l .ttrw.ti<rwq acopilpaza (talus or scree) nuvfjfjwq pc TI^ htu pqrj
tccbvou, xou ovop&jt;ttrx ~Covu;icopqykrsv (talus cons).
(2) Opalioq ax6 untttpbpnaq (Z:nloa&g or pressure-release fracturing). H02~Aixirupt y ~ t . 4
k-tn krc~c1poppo~prit5ux~tpcliycr.ttr, nou tt~ov.tfo ~ q ~ " , ' m ~ mor:c i p~yIlxJ~i,f3~r811.
I : K T c ~ ~ o \ * T~~ r~ j j i q x (rtqv
~ I:TCI(P~I'CI~I~114 1"115, ?\-(iy~ rrl5 61ii,fip(:)nq< TOIV
< i ~ H htOorntzr~tofinicoq a' tn?riv
~)rrcptiaipevc:)vnctptupihtwv ~j hityro r t : ~ t o v t ~cttrrtii~j.
re1 ~teyti>~c,tr
flhCtr1. q onoiu x p o ~ i m c tmli
t .m Pupog rq; rn7jhqi ~cuvuxeptiaipcuo\.
rcspwpcircl~\f~ i ~ t rraptimttm
r ti^ ultohoyi@.ec~li,n r:ivta nnpinou 5000 cpupbi
jwytrfk6~apqtmi, rrlv r:n~cpuvstixwjrcit:nq. E ~ n qt (xlrocp6pnrnl xou cru\.rr:h~irct~
orqv
rxicpci.w:trx zqq Tqq 06 11y ei cre iirttcrtc,hrj rov ncsprbpea.cc><Ktmr OTQ 0x11 ~tf;lzta~tO
azuat)t&tct~v fi fituppijl$at* (fractures). M ttx xerptiunl ptmlurj nepi m o a q emsi j q rq ;
i i t ~ p y c ~ ~ icivtri
tti 1) anoLbnta11 {exfolhtiun) ltou X ~ O K G X T E ~ uxb C T X ~ ~ ~ X T I ~ ~ O

nrtrcrlp'x~ov ltctpMAqho\f npo; srp; cto~t~pttcfi~n~rpixvr:ttxtou xerpchfitr~o;.

xpooAi6ovru; pttm ~trprxh-trl
p i r i ~KI\
t xou
I: t ~ O \ f c ~ ~iiaaparo~tiiilq
o.t~op~~ilj~stxt
nrpq.ttirt?zaq(sheet&) ~ c t x rir<~
t n t q a.cpr!lp(x-cwuqrot) k-pr:lyu)&
totj.
13) @r.yptrijStaatokil aat ntw~uhj(Therntai expansion and contractinn). 01ovvc~r:i;
cct)~npctcba~iq
s q ~Ocppc,~jttmiuq K ~ L T ~ 5qv
? C I ~ ~ X ~ I K C ~TI);
C~ qpRptt; n p ~ ~ d ~ o i ) ~
rr,vricrro~jyS trxcrzcthfi K-rJl ouarcrhq zcw rt;zy&pu~oqTo rptit.lvci~tr:vc~
u , u ~ 6yi vsztrt
i&tuirr:prx & p r ~ ~ ~ nr:
i l ~ xt:zptb~rtit(t
i) yt: O ~ U K TKOI)
~ ~ CXOUV ~ I U ~ ~ O I ) C . Tg
IK~ ~8 p 6

(4) AnB&mq (abrasion). H t-,nlqxivciuraiih{i~i~

rtr:tyoy~xttovvtx~(ip j ~ o ;t w v notupd~t'.zttnr
 Shattering

z+lir~oclawrW Y Z H
Frost ~t(edgit'rg
(5) O P Y U V fi G p b q (organic or biological activity). A\:mpt?p~tutart<sr t k c r ~ q
C Bl~koyt~fi
K~~
rut k-ev<hv~ ( $ 1ran? oncmtp<xtcu\: you
cna zor~~~pcp,'t:rx
not? a s ~ u 6 v01 pi@^ rcov cpt~s<h,v
xctp<hpc~,ro,;,
nzo oxoio i p t w stery,a,p?jrrst.

H X I ~ ~ I . Ka7t00hOpmoq
$
f i ~ q p l r i j ctnoa&.t)poq (cltenticaf weatherittg) xr:pi>k(,rrpp(xvc~
r t i nokimJeoltc;
filep?cmic;. ut oxoiec cnlcpc'.pouv tr>li,ti-ylcm q v X K I U~ ~ U E T U ~ ~ ~ Orriimclarl
~ ~ I K(II Y~KT~ ruu
nl;~pcbflrxtoc~ c x tt ~ ? ~ ~ t zo trurl':~xu11 Ilcrni<ovtut otrp
c i x txxt~su\:Btrouv.On Sl~pycltai~;
6pucsq tot) vr:(~od~ c c trut) 1~6patr3qk(tQo~,vrqv E O W T C ~ I C T60pj
~ pr.~ tqv
T(OV O ~ ~ C T V

K ~ ~ F T B T ~ 4K I ~t ~ ( ~ ~ ~ i p t jt~lplf~d~v
-;ml ~ O I X E ~ O J VO
. t ) ~ t t m t ~ i XTCT
, c~,mtrO?j t~pl)xt&
y c r m p ittctirrrr fj trvrtt;tx@ianxvrtt,rcmci i4tr crrtr$cp(r m u n ~ I l3ir.hXrtv
p u p u ~ t hx o t ~
o\~apil<ov~tar
npoi'ci~itcx'rrl; ulpl wflq uxonc'wOI~rt~n~1;,
01srtu ~q j t t e t s ~Kl,':$ Gr ~pytiniKG 3511p . 10;
~ tr7eoo(iOpoa1~~ivtxt 11 ijtiXhufi11. 11 v6p6htarl

Ktil a<~.iBomq.
'1'0 V I : [ J ~ . TO SLO:E~~IO
t L ? \ r h~@(?(lktlt,
T11 o < k ~0.1 fik7r.y K t t l 70 o~t~ybI'0
eivtxt on crt~vfiBct; ouoir:; xov pirro T ~ O VX ~ J C L X ~ ~ I Yi!j) i e ~ y t l ~ t c~bL~ K O~~~VO~~O\~\~
acTpr;~&ttxT1~.
Ot ntxpilyovrc; aou r : ~ q ~ ~ c 6 < rrlv
0 u v ~ r ~ k t ~ h Gt<tppoarl
-fi civai: ( I ) t o h-kipu fuyprxnici
KILI (21
Oepjt~~p(tsitr). 01 <OII?T(IVO~ opytltvl~goi,(3) o ~ p b v c f ~(4)
, rl o p v ~ ~ o h o y t x r j
aim~tisl-l.

A rhiLuoq (I)issulutiun)
Ztq fitirhrin~l.titv~trli opitfi~; ~cit.~.rov
cm6 rtx opuarix not) cruvlmoi~vr o nirptqtu
tltnop~~ptljvovztx~
gt: +i)vxpb, ~ t j ~ v ixr .< ~ pIYXi ~t ~ l p f p o t ~(~i 7i 1 0 1 00 p t ~ t 0~ x v c ~T; .~ J16nt1
.
t x t ~ hcivtrn firu?%-t;~civti
ptcrot nrc? vspS. 62; ntrp6iit:typr pxopoijp~vtr civrtcpkpoupc: T I ~ Y
61titLt~n11
tot?aku,tlo6 picrtr, m o ~'xpif.
. prrc~pcivtx tmctp~rlcptljvcircc tcivrtr txnA rtx opr)ctti.
Zuxvir t o vcp6 tmh jtrjvt~~ o u 8cij
Crar Bnsc.
ukAh cii9rt6pilge kvu iiEbibonllmurtrh ccnd TO ncptf3i~>~?~ov. I Ycr~rlpcj~icrel
~ pirr
~ J - X o\iniu
I~ (aut1tjHwi ~itxorct0461. m t~troiuv o p c i iJtx ctr~.r6~cl
rrlv u~opirtcp~~vaq
srov
th?<!>Ir
f Otbf 0p1 rk."efh~.

Id~txitaptr mlptrvrc~4 r:i\sll 11 6 ~ir>~kml

~ c w tro/3t:mirrl tiul TOJV uv0ptrtit at;?\
n,.:.zrpto)16zw\t not) ~ X O U V~pq~t)t(jnotq@t;i
K(M(~~ b p o
m ~ l ty*h t , n ~ ~ m~ \X, ~ X ~ " C K T O V ~ ~K tI l\ t t
xqv 6cjp11n11 ~ r ~ t o l ~ t c ; ) v .

(Oxidation)
C>~cihml
o<e1.5tiivovsutmi)t o o5\)y6vo q;txr~c6agutpacl6xto; n.X. o
X'iohhir ~ r l p ~ i crrro{y,~itx
i'
h-at C S K O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ TGKELLI&p@ct
ni8q jjo; not) o.<~~ficb~c+wt ..? GI: ?:X(L(PI\ k1.C 5 0 ~ f , p (~t c l tl 0 v ~tdpcx.
YGpbhuoq (1%ydrolysis)
Ktrr6 rrp* GlikXunq. r o t ? p \ ) ~ s GtcrAGt:rtt,~.
S oh?,& 6 ~ tvr ~ ~ t f i p xi rq p ~ C cPE: TO G10?~.1:ya.
AvriOerv nrqv 1i3phhqnq, r o vr:ph u n t 6 p h pc ro oputcr6 o~qpnriGc)~~rtz<
vCa o p u r t e .
Xuyrcrpr~i8vn.TU ~iivrtrH' ~i
OH- ~ o liopios.)
u rot) vt:p06 txnt~c~.ftcrroCv
rrr 1 5 rot}
~ ~

mqv wpurprtrhht~fizov doprj c~~qgcx..eii;ovrer;

opvr;zo\:i mrr ~t,p.pr:rC~uuv vkrx opu~,-tit.
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f opytrvrwh u h r ~ 3 ) .T o unOho tna SO'',;, irxozcIbcirur axti acrvh, rrr. onoicx ~ii,r)p~hi~o\~-ctrr
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Mineral matter
mixed with
sums humus

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Light colored
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Accumulation af
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parent matsrial

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pawn? material
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n~lper\.r~~F:;
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i~ t ~ t p i n ~ e r r t xkvt~g
l nt,vsxijc
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P E / ~ ~ I C T ?LI~f l t ? ~ t : O ~ <TO K(L1 50 ~ i ~ f i ~ f t l

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H ~<rlp~xroykvt:crrlcivut rl iitu6r~tiairtrrl; ~tu.Oijrl~iif~ ~ t i (rPci,O~otlc
l rtov ~ h u m t ~ r h i '
t # h t ~ t i 11~ \nnoitr
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; noti ctvctpixjoi-rrxt
O S ~ ~ ; ) J I U T(beds
U or strata) KUI ~ t t p n h - r ~ l ~ ~ i < otin6
v r ~Gt ti t ~ t p o p e r t ~~~q\ p t a~ hqm u ~ qKrxl
pkycftog K~XKOV. 0 1 6ttxxl~~~ris0f:t;
m q v 094.
x q p t ~ i( ~ i i o ~ a ( K~~r Xl ITO m ' x ~ ( 3j
t
n~~ruverrE,oi~i~ rn>vflj ~ qortc
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(ntptoOei). pe vt~nori:~~raptx
it% mpthptw vvtx civw pctvcxtith-6 ~ t x tStuircpcl.
l

H l i ~ f r ~ ~ )TLOV
t c r t<rlpixtwv
~ G E ~nin1:6cjE X I ~ ~ ~ fYa rE pIh~g a~ n ~Ko\i
) n p o ~ i ~ n r ctmci
t~)~~
51; G~vtupopoxcttjnctim q i f txn6Ocml ovopi<crtxt n r p t i ~ ~[bculding
q or stratification) ~ c x t
txnoreAeE re, xto ~ c t t v KUI
i ~ ~ t x p c i ~ ~ r l p t c r ryvcbplnptx,
t~it rwv tjrlpcitoy~;vci~v
nr:rpwjuirwv.
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~
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mpcimrt;. tixtn; ~ivtrt:
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l a n 6 sqv FraphOptnq ~w v
M E f i k J r j 70 pknfeffogwus. TILtL6pOpcp3j ~ I B O @ ~ Z O \ " C C
~.~>~r-rrhv ~ tI I~. 1C T U ~ K E L Z ~ < ~ V O L T ( L I

mt1 ijixnq toit otyiiprxtu;, e1?6 crrtr.c'>itelcitnpo; zu n&vw, exrupci~oiwta xc,pt~rs0tspu

hcn~opcpfitjht~ti.
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TrX ~ ) x o E ; E ~ ) L E L ? ( ~CXf?l'jpl~T~.
0 X ~ J ~ ~ ~ ( L V U ^ C ~ ~ t~WC1 T' ~, U~ ~~<I c T u ' ~ ~ QC Tc T~ ~) ~TC~P~~ v.fh)~l&
:OV

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x ~ r p t q r h ~ o vf3. Srrxo~cr\,po~f'jozphrs~l
rxrcotahsi ~ c r p a h - t q p t c s ~ Ct ~Tr jT ~ ~to,\,
~ G SeL~ti'i~thv
I ~ tt~tctE
U~:OIJJ.
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3. 5 1 ~ ~ b d toz l tv R O P O I ~ C~TO~ U~ Vti(t\jC~jtr F, i 60~
~eswrr-:prulj~
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1. ELualurtocl&fi<crtpbwq (inmination). Xrtprx~rrlpij~
1 rrlv otpii~crrj aohG hcnr6jv

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t;m3&crq lj p~.:t(xtnxdt txijtrj. 'I'ktot~,;iiopki; ciwrt:
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c cmci i.n
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pstj!ict,~tr ravrric),
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tfj nnil
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acr@rim pkntx D T O ~ Sx6po11g u~orc'J~<h~.~va.wi;
ro
aoyttokiqttd ukxlcb .ilubwh zacpkvttoaqs (cement). TO onoio o u y ~ o i ~ hr0u.q
ti K~~<IGTIKO~$
rhuh-ou~pr.rctcb rev$ o ~ ~ ] p t x r i j o \ . kvtx
~ a $ crh-ib?lp6csuprccryi:; nkrpu)pa.

Karq yopies-Titno% tcqpa~ay

~ v & vxczpoph~wv
Ttx t jrlkitaoy e v ~xj ~ z p i p u r t 61ctxcopiio~ztxc
r GE bijo ~ i i c;p ~ta~.srlyopiei-~iji,nuug:
~
viqpa~oycvijnstptb~tmn(elastic or detritsl sedimentary rucks). T[u.tci,crmucci
I . Kiaart~h
Z < I ~ ~ ( X T motchoilvzrrt
U. txn6 K ~ K K O ~ ) K(LI
; npcvt~tjt:ht~;f xou c3~(2&~~x<o~fttt
hth&@t$lj
(cfasts) xcrl E~crtlv~pok?~0t-:t
cvn6 r q t t tx7cotTitf)prncrv pczttcpctpti. Krnt txni,O~arlzot); OK

xtxh[lrpr'x f p q nut9~~zlh.0) zqq Tq;. xctt) p~

mhhhqhra azpc;tyraztr ~ t q vex~(p(xz~rtcr. T I ~ J

M (ippo; r n t l ~ ~
lb~Oo.xoitprlp ~ r c ~ r p f i ~ o v rcrerr l K ~ U U T ~ K <t I< q p ~ z o : / ~ v.xt:tpli)ptt~t~.
q
n<iyc$wicr,TU pxkitczrx Ktni ot. ~ ; p o ~ i r . CTT~;
k c ~ K O ~ Z E ;ZOJV X O Z C ~ ~ C ; ) ~V t x @ t ~h ~ t 71 ~trpyt ih3i,o~
Kal o .lrr))i,it~ a~r;hipvei; W r;rilr~l-j!i.tpicarxutq
tcrrr zrz ihrl civtat ~ h r x a r t ~tkfiptx~tr.,
ti
-xr-:prhtxp@Gvctr o 85% TO\) cruv6Ao11 rrov z<rlpcx~eysuhv. x ~ : ~ t ? ) p i t ~tctrt
( ~ v0' rxvzrjv
rnvil~orlv0 ~ y t n p p i ~o~ thuuht0o;
q, ~ t x ot rrpy~k?~izrlj*
2. Xqptttir i*;qpuroy c r i nstphpura (che~rticrfsedimentary rocks). Z ~ rputi
l jovmx txn6 rrl v
tm::t,t)citr; ~ t r f l i j q o qrruv 8lo~?~upLvo1v
~ r ) p t ~ c hotrcr~tbv
v (r~vbpytrvtr)4 rtnv crpyctvc~Av
t}r;03u~kcip~iitt.t$~c
( U C ) Y ~ I V I K I ' ~i j p t o ~ q j i l ~ i i )X. t a p ( t ~ t t ) p t r n ~ x
~tOx p h i i ~ t ~ p~~ tq p ~ ~ o i l
ran4 arp: ~txflijqnq toti
rr,vbpyrwo~;I jrjprt~c,<trxc3zt:Lr:i s o oyt}k-rtihkrx;, nov npctk-t')n~~:i
ixhtrcrq. ib6*9t) j nju Brrh{rarnvoi)fctiLpupoOfvapoC.
kvrctvq~i;l$~pto~l<

Kkaozuia 8jqpa~ayevfi~tetp&pa~a
Trx r;h~rattx&r<qptrzt.i (.;~tx%,tfpk)tcrxt t r x ti;q~lfl~~)yt:t$Q
~ t ; t p t b i ~ ff h1W07it1tq~tkt.f~~)
~~r~
?<iglttC?p~>fi\.rctt
p C @<tallTO ktky~.f)oiTklv ~?~t101<;)i'
TO115 OT,:
> 2mro.
PovGirr:; fynlcpirr:~).~ L pEk y c e o ~~i;cxrs.rthi?
, \ ~ 1~.05,mlr.txcxt 2tnrra
Apztrizt;~(tycryyi-cs?,,;).p,: piyt:@o; ~ h t x ~ r c ipc'~tx<i!
A a t ) ~ i r cf<~ ~ l h i t t ; ; )PC
. p C y ~ f h ~<? ~ t x ~ t C<ff.f)Bl?tm
i)v
E-ictl); po~jiiiri:; o l ~ y ~ t j ~ t a X i y o t tzut t~txArxp6
l xexXi~rc.rKtxr rtr. tr.vricrzot~txhi0oxoi~~ptt~cx
rcpaiialoxayf~fcangiommatt.) K ~ Aa~uzoxuyQ
I (breccia). nou E ivrt 1 ~ < it~
i KIO t i G p u ~ ~ c 3 u t

t<r\ptxrctgnv.tj~rt:~pcitptxtcr,.
X~txtipoxrahtzrcoty~jot ~htlnrrr,.:<citsut mxo(ti~pr?-;~yuhj~i?~pka~o~~
t:v6
0 civtct ~~c~)t.tdcir:t;-ti~"(~~~~it~t~rc~i.
arcr htx~ecvxctxe~y Enctdq oc gt:yir.boi ~ A h o r c qyi\?o\fttt
y p ~yctpcx.
i w o w t p a ~ ~ * ~ t ~ i , rns
~ ~noJvi)
~ t i : ~px~pk;
* t ~ ~ ctnoaetircf.j;x$
 and Sedilnnlcary Rocks
.......... M ~ ~ E t~ Xi ~I ~ f i f r .z-d ..-...
SEDIMENT \ x~pq PARTICLE SIZE ROCK q @ ~ ~ l c f ~ i

Sand ~ H M D ' E , L
Sandstone ~?AM~IITEI
-,,-. 0. r 162 111m -------
\
Sdtsconc iAYOfii W L
?,
...
- c413'
(I. 3 *I m -
---
--,
-, -------
bludsronc (blm-ky ~~ACCUTC:

-I*
I
TABLE 7.6 x HMIKA &a$ em xuuixn JZ H ~ A - ~yri
A i z r r ~ ~ o r p "n,v:t-im
r~u
C1;lssificatiot-i t>F C.:fxcrt~ical ar~dBiochex~zict~X
Sedirnzcnts
1 and Sedirncntary Rocks
+
-,-. "-4I
ROCK
CHEMXCAL
CQMPOSXTXC3N MINERALS /
Carbonate ~ 3 1 3 ~n.rtzS
4 xnud Lin~est~x~c Calcium carbanatc Calcite
Ax 0 F Z? 2ni&3& C;tCC>.; j2ragoni;c)

Peat, i.}rg~t.~ic
rssactsr: Orgartscs Gar bars
DPQbJr MA <:
pcrrxrpopci~.~ t xt 611pa~oyevtiai(x'i:ux~nw,yljfipi.crtit.,vtrxi, ~ F t V~ b . K
, O Y T ~GTOV ~ h p oT ~ S
zpo kht;ucr,r1~-rx1zcfo&Op(m11~;
mu.;.
Z~at!c apsvisec nr ptkcxp/3ixvo~p~(11
o t u z a B k ~ tt~; iippou (sand) ~ t ol~ tyapp.i.tec
l

(sandstones), KUI 0 1 tmoftkfiet; t k 6 0 ~(sift), nqrlo6 (mud) F a t apyil,%oo

010ij5 ir<>~jxit~;
(clay) K a r rtx I<I~c~~;xTu:!Ev~)
n ~ ~ p ( $ p t ~ ' t 0t r1: 13r~S*ht@og
fsiltstons) ~ c x t ar apylhhiza;tg
6pyxh'knr (shales).
fargiliites) qlrcrt a p o z i ~
01trpythhitcc; ~ t x or
l a x , ~ r n h rjlpythho~
q a-rrort;hoi,tj r;hr:tastl~iY~<qitmoyr-:vilri~tpcbytxrt~
nou XE~ISXOOL'
K J ~ ~ T Tpc
C It ;o ~ K P U T E P C btkyf;Bo;
) (< 0.004 m m ) g a t tr~qpcrsijovtatcrttg
nhqpplpe;, 6rcrv t o vepb \;no~.opci.art$ hlpvci ~ c x tml; k t ~ ~ . v o O ~ r >tctt.1
~ a ~oroug
n~<
fitlosii; C ~ ~ ~ C F C X V'ki
O ~ ~~
;. ! 7 6 ~, t i ~ 501i K ~ ~ ~ C T T TOUS
FS rhC70
F~v(.L ~ ~ ~ K P O ~ K O K I K7t01!
O~.

iitasqpoivmr o e crwip~jnrlpkcru crto ~ ~ p y~cc

c i lieyciko ~ p o v ~ t cS~irasrqpa
o ~ t r cpr:yi~hc;
txno~t(~ul:ti; ~ t i t ' GTO vcp6 p.c xokil tnyy0 puOp6.
K ~ I I~ c x @ t ~ & vpkotr

01~crppire; arro~ehoCvt o 15':::, rou ot,vhJMm)zov ~jtlp(rroycvcbv n ~ ~ p w y i t r w v01

.
K J ~ U ~ XU ~V VT~~E C
O M<C ~ I pxttx?$ 4
ktiti K U ~ I T I K ~~ ~ f l c m t r ~nt i~i )y
~ U jUj l ~ ~ ~ h ? ~i A
t l t t~t 6~ i ~
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~uhu;tu~ci$ufappittli (pr: xcti;u<ia > 9f)"..b) nou CXF,I ( x ~ ' ~ I K T <f?t n f j ~ - * f ~ p t ~ 6 > ~ ~ 1 . , ~ ( f - h ~ t j ~ c i

~ p l p . a cr,, oaprcijgi nou C X E I p661vo xpc.bpu fpe >25'%) croryious) Ktrt o ypaotjl)irh-q< he
v o (PC > j S'% I . ~ ? L InK? ~k f i p ~ ) ~ ~ ) $ ) .
n~oilpoy ~ p iy, ~ l ) ~ < o n p i l ( l ~)pL;)~tct
 'Tol .nctptb!u~a7~0'13~ fp t~i r i < m ~q 6 lcpyfrnicr- tqg q k
q ~ v ~,UE i r ~ q~rrCfi<qq;
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jl Y ~ O O ~6x<oq
. ~ I V C X01L U C T P F . ~ ~i J ~ t~ nohit
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~LKXT~WOKK(X.
Amierta, 6ttxv q ~crrrrrlcpfj!tvtcrq twv y*qp.tacti~ouot~"~\l
oqxii\e.rcxt m q ~
t-:<<xrytcr.rltot, vepo6. crxqputi<czc.rcr.1peytkkoi tipOntdbhor k-ai t u ~ q p ~ l iti;ii,~cx~ti
ti not)
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t:ivcrt I X ~ P ~ K O K K UTO
. o p u ~ t 6 &Au< K(X~ 71 "Jyro~ ::ivat TUXIKCX
p lO~I ~Ct Qi~~~~ ~ T WKO11
nrtpaficiy~ttitu~ ~ ~ S K O~ Kq K Y K ~ O K O K T U Cv mu T ~ R$il5,Ul~~
V 13 TOU
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xt:rpo~pr'~r<f~~*.
not)
rrpc)ttijn~ouvtta6 ~ p e i qGlepylrnici:
1. 0 av6pyavg u@xar6bxBo~(limestone) K t r r o uv6pyavo~x~pn~i)iixRt~
(chert). TU nnoicl
nx11~itx.rii;ovtcit1x6 r rlv n n ~deitx;
t lccittrtcpfi~-tvtcrt) h-ex r ~ o ~?LI)WOG
to11 Bt~~~t~ncrtvo6 v
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ptx x&tto txn6 ~ t f i l ~ k q( T o E fxo[OSeat6Jb~$n$
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2. 0 1 ~panupiz
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(evaporites), c5.rrc!1q ,:ivte.r tct)piw$ 11 y6yoe, TO op11~r6 c y l

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q jnvrnt. itrtxu r o xhoim-10 rrc F~uht~ptwxt6ltrtr vepit
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f j triLh&ixnore).~.irrrttrx6 ru optitctb
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Q h h p l v ~ t q ,q A t 9 ~ t O k r ~U lKj Z ~~ t l ;AI)CS"TP~I?~~US, i:;
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o i a;(rl)vrti<at r t~ cpqp~rrpkvcgt m 6 ~ p q p v e gcrur CS White Clifs m o Dover
t t ~ / 3 ~ ~ b i , t Onot)
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O p y u v t ~ otxofiefirhiLr$ot
i o ~ q p o rjovrta
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V W V ~ p y a v t u p t ; ~ ~t(t
, oxoiu,
rn~yucvzpGj\~oi~cr l j uT~I ~~ uVirim~r)
~ ( 1 t1x ~ * t x j ~ ~ y t ~pe t t a u .rrtlOpitje~rq; CfMttaoex<. KOpla
~ rpq!u~tacoriptx (forarninifkra), ro unoirw, r: ivcu
nqyfj y t r l rnmj t q 8v:~)ytxaic~~ i t ' t xrti
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c i t 9 c it ivtx ~6rpo)rtrax6 ~tx@apO
a x 6 nr m i p t r ~ h - i cnimtratlc
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j rq5
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rlxxtprrtrte ~ t x O~dLr'xn~tr:5
t Stspyticricj t<qjmtoyi.:t)4:nt1<
ntjvtrvtto~~t~~tut
pt.:ct.worlht;opfx
i9ej a~qp(~c/.tiCovrut
pcrtrptxrih-6 tj~jpcrru.Sxtus n.X htpuo8txhtioa1tt. noruyofi~>~ra'i~6,
rlcpti?,)ut~u(brackish) ~ t r i.ra o ~ o i e lxtilp(t~rr)pi<o\~rtxi
U X c~ ~ L ' ~ v C <):vtl;2J~~*/ki
~cpocd~1)1'
~ t ikAixfiole3i:
n <tlv<x.rcov.
@t~hhcrn-. T(I f)ctb'icrrrler ncptpit),hovrtx fictrxpivovrut txtthknytl pc ro
4 rou tt~rcttvoi~.
PirBoj rou xuffpZvurq; t)i~?~txcmct; Em[ d~t~~pii!oi!ttxl
RC:

f N q p ~ t ~ tj j i fhxfhj ~ji~iiinrrri~
(A fC;vfj,u~:c~ ~ 0 1 . 1 C T X Iptilf
~ i<01~t;11ntq v tl xc t p ~t h.lij ~
t~tptzho~p~l.lriGti
(P&@u$<20fffll),k.cl!, xt:pthtx~tfi<~vc~t~t~:
fa) ~ q p t ~ oi xp ~ f x ~ ii;?jplxru
~ i ~ t i (x.x.
ttvAptmteit jlnh m rs>.t)cpq tmv Oc~hix~~tol\*
opgnt?t~p&v,
cjlreoc r t , ~~u rop~jli,lLltil.rtr

Snrpcltctr ~.?$-.af.
([t) ichtxmlah trppotqu rtti ri,h\;ufixu-xqIdoijxtt ijfpttuctx.
2 I,r@pcrnc fkx0~t;rti;N~iiarmcr;.Z* ur!rir xq-~;i,ct~l)ixvovxtxl:
((1) ~rfiprtrni ~ n e l p w r l ~ f l <

~tnzturpip~ttx$
tc.rxr txvl:,ijju,a~l~.
rixotc t;i\:rr.r ttr. tQ$pat{t fi t ~ t ) p P t f i(turbificic
roufi~6tzt~ix i~~~
:o\-ctrl ax0 t r l v ntpo pli.d6 rl
sediments ctr turbitites). rtt uno icr. crx-rlpct~i li TI tpl',tBGq .
P O tQ
~ t ~ ~ t 1 hC-~qC T ~ I (Kt11 r ~~6 0 ~ 0 1ZNV
1 K ~ ~ X G TK t~l t~ xVt f pt~Ktl) QKOVZ(XI1x6 ~
k3~ff ~ K C S
~:vtxhhtxyb; ymggir tvhv ~ c t tl n l ? , t r l ~ t b v mywptkoti~ ME 6itxficlOp~rrg;cnphall. 0 t

rot,p[3iGircq ~ t r p t x ~ r q p i ~ c ~ pt:
v r t frclv
~ 6po tpAtin~q~fflyszlrh), 6rtrv rl ~llretpwrt~fl
lit~~:~(~i:pf:ltt ~ p r j p Lt ~V
~;IIICIT~:?~E~ C ~ ~q
N x' f~ : ~ p ~ t ~ ~ EIXOxcxrt'ii T
t tt ~e :opit~t \ ~ p i o ~ . ~ fiiepytrntriiti
V

rr15 tlrrt:rprn~t~~jq
txiti!ij~toa~lqxtxptrxrrlplntl~iq ~it*rxtoi ~~~t~pJ3iGrztvL;
tt?roAtaf;t; pa
vopcpfi pizntfiiov, aou Grlploupyo6vsat ulr6 uxoUc~?~ixocrtegxczroh~c~Ofjoetgnou
~ u r w q E p ~ ~ t(P)
nvyffnivm!v mqt' .q.ne~pwt.c.u.r\ z . xc:hayl~h Icai u/31~nat~t'x
t j f i p c ~ ~ c uta
.
onoia E~VUI ~ a t hP~JGI]b o ~ ~ i t lK~~ Ci ~f O T I K ( %
tjfj pat* ( ~ t j p i ~npy
~ itkh trti). ra onoitx
crnb ~ t ~ p o ~ K ~~ & c~ XxS?tot!
xpolcfi.~..r(juv o f f p i ~ ~ o v 61
t u l(XI&I)P?~(~?]
ktkfiu CTTU V C Q ~ .
8. METAMOYQRCH KAI METAhIOPcDQMENA nETPlRMATA

'I'cx p~~qtoprpcq.idtla
nczpcb~wraerj~,qbicr.aijot~acxt
rrto ~ n c l ~ - c ~ 2-11;
p t ~ r-11;
t i rxnu tqv. crr
a~epcfi~aziratumj(solid-state). p~~tx~u6pcpo)aq
npot n h p ~ o v r o vxe~pwpitra~v
fi~l?(~txtC~j
sqv
~ I ~ ~ I K~rrsohoytnj
Q, h-(xi o p t j ~ z o h o y ~tponuxoirjarl
~~j a e crtepefi ttn-c~xnttxcq xttti
nupprxitf,:t. 6ruv zcw. xcrpti~purtr \1p~UoiivnE fit,v6hjtce< nienrl; Ktxr 0r;pbio~prrairx~.
G tuq~opcztak; uxh TI; np;f I K ~ ;ntvChj KC< n ~ r j p f x ~ ~ azpo tv~~tW
. p~rupuprpo~o~l
nt)pfjuivr:l.
,sretlijj ~ i i H f Oi P V K T ~t;iv(xl n~(t0t:puktiati a e auyye~pl~i.,vc!
bptcr Oeppolipcxoici;. nir:orl~
~ l ~ t E ~ tlv U ~ j y l ~ ~ p u r rfii t x11 xi):ciq {n)$q@~i
')~llptqtoi}. ni;pt~ant5 TO 6pto UUTO, T\ o
~ q ~ t r a p b rou
e ~czpci,ptxzc?(; pcrrt.lJh-IlBr:i, tOrt: rti a p ~ t l c h oputcac'x pnopoiw vtv
txront~v~~@cji,v
~ u r(y.
t C ~ U T T Z ~ X T~~ Ko <u~qt9rx c ~ c x I ~ ~ x c TC~~ X ~ <uOvhtx
~ ~~~ ~I ~~T u ~ Ut?pr;h-th.
~V T I <~ ~ ~ :

onoi(x t:it'txt attiOl.:piXG Z I vit-;q

~ CTOL~)I~KI;.

0 1 tr?LJ-rxyl<asov tar0 (fabric). rqif tlcpfj

pcoayoprptlii..~81epytxciic; xcpthuyp&vo~>~'
(texture) ~ 1 x 1Z ~ I C I ~ U K T &zwv K I T ~ O J ~ & T G popi;
~V tjp01~IW tttrt~xntp(~(~oi)V or
~r:h~Zo<
~ q p t ~&t:crpoi
oi z a t 9opu~tc?jt'( t . : i X ~ " ~ ~ ~ ( i tIXIITO
rxv 7tirptqt(i F)IX C : j b ~ ~ vCuy~f-:~pt~i-:i~tj1.
c).
yivovaut rrhkfxyi; rrtqv vrplj (tcxturc changes). c r ~ oa ~ f i g t Krxt
t r o ptyc:t)o~row t3pi1.k-zhv
tiLAG ~ t r 6 p qaxqptrri<ovrar vkn opc)~rix(veopuh-~t>ydvt:o11)lctrt
ftxvcx~p\}trsixhhoo~l)+
i t L A ~ t . Tu
K<~~(P(xv~~;oL'Tc(L ~ O V U ~ K . I K Ttjqp(xtoy~:v~i
~X XETO~JL(XTU.0nw5 e i m r r . ~n
crcrfirnrhht8o< not! crnozl:hEirtit bt3vo rx.nO ao opt,k..t-6 trrrpemir~lj p":ztxrpi:7caj+rrxt a c
p6qjktapo no\) titu~pivt:z(tt tm0 ttls ~~s~cxpi181l
~C:~K[?VIPTO)V K ~ K K ( ~ ? no\)
V cii'fxt rC;)p~
) ~ c ? ( ~ ? ~ - ~ TKctPLo~I~11i'
i. j S t r t i i t ~ t ~ ~(x\irlj
i t x t t x ttnuAtF)ri)pt~ni
~~xrtiaapCqo~rat.
0~ntxpityovrei not, npo~uhctirtfxctt h-trOopi<ooi~
TI; pen~ljoptpl
ti&; 2tt:pytxcrific ~itffxt
q
~j C ~ X T ~ C E I ) O \ ) V U ~ ~11: VGpixn-Il
Rcp/c<irqrtx,q nicaq f~,cOoarurt~frj ~ ~ ) . rcov pr:unrcbv. t o ptlrpirb
acrpchpu ( frj xpot6;LtOo;).
1.1 B ~ p p 6 t q t ~(heat)
1 ~:ivati a o ~o ate ~~?1g~1121~i)q
x t t p i ~ yju y~w~t i~ ?rpt>niSiijctmu
nltptupcc Trlv cvkpycru yctl TI; X ~ J I I K ~ tri~ti6p6a~1;
S not) k ~ o t i vcrtrv cmotbi,ccr~t{lsqv
txwh-puortihhwrrrl zou np\)mGt\t rctri rt; tmitAot?rcg t5iLtryi:;. H cri:&qarlr q U~plio~ptxcin;
~
yivsrtn p..: r o Pixf)o<[cri,ktcptt,\<rxp~ TI^ yt;wOepp~tnjPuOpibtr). ~ c r hutv
t lilxnoto ntrpfupcc
nrw cr~qptr.ti<czt;~r O ! : p p o ~ ~ x i tt:ltb;
~ovrti. mrlv ~.rriqfivt.:ttr;iqrt..:i ~ t l i ft)yj-~lh-~i
8tcro8i:ovtoi; xtjpty~vnt'); cic;~ptxoj. l'"curr<x 8eoor:irtll (m6 ~ 0 1 5 nf;picrcrb?epot~~
yr.ohhyo~)g(\rt q pr:rtr~iOptpwnr~)gpctic<erui to~,Ait~taznv
250°C yrtr vrr u p ~ i n ~stj6
t,
txid.tgk< pxopoGv vcr crrrrr:u~Cto6vKat UE / I & K ~ ~ ? xf l ~ ~ ) ~ t t > tji pto< ( ~ i5UnC.
~ (KUI ~ xtrl\'
~eI.r:uruirx 6p(o1c n ~ p i m t o a q .or cxhiLfiyb; t:vrtiarrot>rcxt a r o cpcttvhp~voall< G ta y L v ~ m l j
fi3htx~.I jqptxroy):v-~j~ c t ~ e b p ~ t ( t f .
H Ak8orr~uztuiixicorl (iithostatie or confining pressure) cit'trl nicml m 0 TO ijtipo: TI^;
mrjhrl; tcttv xr-:.;.(pt~jp<i,~et~'t't pr: rc)~
K ~ I Irmk-citra& i8lo t p u ~ r or r p o ~i j h rt;
~ ~~f~re\jOi,vnr,~;.
X.I
hiffornuzt~fj~ i e a t lyivezrri pc-yahitrspq 600 au';&vc~TO PtkOo; ~ t x tp ~ ; ~ p l B ~
(rea tbars
(tb=1.02 Kg/cm"). Z t ~ y ~ c ~ p ~ p iov rptj@ybc
x, cri,$qaqq ~11; h16omtxrr~fjcxiecrqi; pc zo
PdLOo< eivm 1).3kb/krn. M y ~rtrpbpcpc.3crqo a a t r ~ xi
i aorl pr:yai+isr;yq na6 1 kb ( 1 000bars)
not, !;i~ill71 K ~ E CCT?F ~@6@0;
~ ~ j 3 i ~30 kl33
t r h.cXtl9 017~3TrJV ~ ? e t ( p h ' F l f tlj$
~. r11;. xtc: f{ff.@S;ti;
yt:cmpfiael< m u l<fj!t{nztr tot) ii8l;rct rou h4ialacrtxtj tdstkuu 6st ~ u p p i { xpcrtritopcp~~i)
f i t ~pytroitx6cv ot~ppnisetmtr npGjrir 2 km.
OLT E K T O V L K ~ ~~ ; v L ! ~ x noit
, L ~cxvun~G0crovztnr
c~~ pkrsa am E S T ~ O T , C : ~7;q;
IK~ Xlil(; x . GC
~
rrc p t ~ d t > v i Lno \~j~y ~ L t a t l tj~ c ~ 6 y ~ p o u a r l tit30
; )+~ffontptxtp~~cGv
n h a ~ c i ~ *v n ~ o C v mtx
x~spthptrzcrntkrnl nor, 6ev civt~tiotl npoS hkc; ~ i ~cj~cuBijvo~,i;
c tiui q oxoitr ovop<xjarat
ti-arsuQuv6ltevqniznq (directed pressure) 21 rrlcro~~ncfi
rcitoq (tectonic stress).
fi ukpla). t8irrirt:ytr cnlf uyrqhi; ftcpbto~pacri~g
Tu p ~ r , m i r(u-;~p& fiil@ouq,ciucirvntlv
t a v ~qpth-;tvuvrt6ptx(rccrtv, yttxri cxtzy&notlrj zqv ~ : U K O X O T E Q~~ ~ t
r q v St~vtxpt~itrqru ~ t

pr:yctMrep~l K \ I K ; ~ O ( P O ~ ~TWY
U ~ q p i ~ ( ~S hi x~ ~ m~v u rtn o t ~ ~ i otctrl
~ vcnojllvtu; otw~c?~a,o6u
ros .nk;rpctlpti.~t~,v.
m ~ l vp~stxbtcip(~~r)cc~l npirypcxrl, it.^ r r v t w y t : i ~ ~ 6ilo
~ ~ i s~ q ~ i t G~ iT ' F, ~~ C ~ ~

ouaie; (710~p~tcy3otjt.'vtr I I I ? T ~ ~ ~ ~ Opc(-:r(xkij

O ~ ) V sou;) 06: fl~ppo~r)(x~~iIX
ijwli~trior,t i x o ~ t r
6etf n p G ~ e ~ svrx
r ~ awpr:i.
r Exicsqs rixartx 6r;v Btjl y i v u i i ~ h ~ t~t lt t uv
t TCI f1~pprkt't)ij~tl;.
ECitt
upo)$ npoadi.,cct)uyt: ivtt vyph K.X vt:pcj. ritzr: ffu,rstjppr-:i q !t~;ru,56~ o t j~qpitcrj
~; txvri6pctcsq.
c i rcu jttxypi~rttc~x
'1-0 i ~ ~ pKtrr akpw ~ i v t r zrr
t pxuotir. not) ~v~Xocpop~.tl:,v
G ~ O(~tLc3th
tqi; Tqq
Ktnt npotiyor,v T ~ Ipc~txpci
* pcpaeq.
a q j t q ~ p l - ~ ~IEEZPC~OJU~TUS
f l p j p ~ ~ f~ ii ~ u t t ~rot, ir (parent rock) ~txfiopi(t:'i xo~i)
p ~ ~ n ~ t o g ~ ~ r onkrpoprx
~iit'o K Z X ~noto o i ~ erx6
op\jtc.r<n Qrx a ~ q p t ~ ~ ~ mk-hro~ v rrg vCFr
E ~ a rtvc~icp~qttr
nuvtfq K E G nsptPixE,?bctx~roq. t trx6 TO ntioo t)yqibrjt:iwr~11 t l ~ p p o ~ p r m iijt r
q ~ i e u q .(r.7~3Csrn xF',rp(opcn not) rrrr:p~irtxi txc~f3r:lm~o
6cv p ~ o p c i v(n ?rpoci,\ycr kvtr
p~scqtcopcpolrCvorri:tptnkt(r rri,utjato at.uapknztct.

%fr;zup6prputq ~:xutpljq f cantact metamorphism): E ivr~t q pcrc tpb p<pcorr11 .cr+)v

not) np~wi1mct.O'iir~~ X U Z ~ X#3pt.:OcrGva,;r:ntqrj
npoGnwgy,tivrw\f nc~pcrspil=co,u~ c j t qho~t>tt
)

pe p{iyjitr. f-f 1tt:rtrj~6pqwar)s x i i v ~ rrpt~~Cxr$-:t

i~ rmtj sqv @l:ppisrtlerrroll p(xfi/ptxro<KG t Tta\,
~ t x l 06qyei nc yc:~u)loprpcopi:vtr
mJvofichv Cteppc;~v ~ t j ~ h c ~ v o p o t j i ~ GririLt~p<r~ov.
ti)v
rrt:rpipast~. r(i m t ~ i t rovcrpE~ttx~~trt
pc~ayopqwpF:~t1 anc~rp%. E n e t b ~ jrti
n~s~,&qttnrx
n~ptrioi,rf:ptrxcrptbptrstr ~ i v t r t~ t x ~ ~o ~i Y W ytrl
~ O TI C ~~ l l j ~ t mnty,~iu.
~ix q !tcrtxpcipcptoaq
crrtxqtjc eivtxt bt'iti rnc:\>fj6 i v q e;ctupQ; i &Lo p r a p b p t p o q (metamorphic
~ halo) y \ j p o ~ax6
r o pk~ptjlKQI ( T ( ~ ~ V Fpt:
I r q txi}<qnq
~ t r g m3usctaq; tinti rr? gt<tyyct, X-l. yr-:ri~.yOp.ptuaq
ancttpfi< xot) t ~ c roxcaix
t txl;orti+ca~trrru~ c t r p ~ ~ i ruaci
t r t rrl\< tpCrrtl ~ t r tsov b y ~ orot)
pfx~f~ttxr1~06
trhttcot:, rtjif ~ C C T TTOR;
) x ~ : P L [ ~ ~ ~ ~~sc~pf;q.w~t);,
o \ ~ T o ; T ~ [{(xt)q
I r q AreicGvaq;
~
k-lrl ~ r l v~)i,iorltrl; cxtcpitvctac ~ x m p f i ~X.~ p ( ; l k . t ~ ~ p tn~tpfhpe12:f~.
~tt~it ~ E T Q ~ ~ ~ ~ X O G I ~

enucpr\< civctt ot ~cpari-rq(hornfels), sa onoia ~ivtxr pt~cl.j&%

q, ot~ltxcryq.o ~ h t l p 6~ c i t
a ~ o 6 p o 1~p(itptf't:o<
) ~ K ~ T ~ K O Kn&~p&pxr(f.
K ~ ~ ! no\, XQOK~ICTOUI'an6 T I ~ VV R T ~ ~ ~ ~ ( P W C T ~
'Ttx skarn rival ~~r,rapnpcpc?lpC\~rx
r:xrl?lpqc nrlktrr~thv i~qp~xst~>v. nt;tphpattx 71.01;

n p o t p ~ o v ~un6
u ~rqv p ~ t t r ~ d p c p o crccxcptj~
o~l uapetnoXi8tov K r i t 8o?,optrhv.
F'evtwfi (it ncptuxurii 4 ~ a O o l , t ~ i ptapbycpwoq
j) (regional metantt~rphism).W yevl~lj
~,tcrrrpitptpwn~l,rr,vziO$:zu rxxri zqv p,:trxp&pcpwrrr\ ~nuip~j,,I c : i ~ ( t~~ t t (~~ C T Q ~ ~ ~ Q ~ C T I ~
~ t e y M 1 1 ~hi ptt(t~q.nsq v OBOL(X X E C )LOX6; V CKTCAGT~ noibht5v %t h tdfiu~v
X L T ~ L ? ) ~ O T U Ikt<:
~thlopf:zpr!nf &tc~rs{topcphvo'5~cf1.
Eivrst t)nt:i~Or)wl y l r x zcr n,:pinoi~rr:ytr: ax6 t t x
pcttx,~topq~wpkvtr.tntc:rp&prx~o nou s~tc:i8ovzat arjpeptx Q C T ~ Vr:xtcphvcirt zrl< 1-I]{;.
h t t t ~ p i t x ~ fGF
r t 6fio s<)~otlc:
I . Onnrlrfi pcrupuptpujaq (burial mcttlmorphism). H tk.tna ~ fpi:.rttlrtiptpttm
i rl n p o x C n i t~
a n 6 srlv racpfj I? Oi~ylpctst~lvt5qutx~oyevcbv xerpwl~~xzc~~v PixOo;. pbatc nc
os ~tcy<t?~o
k ~ r i r v ~K tqr i ne xeptoxk;, 6nou 6&v ol~flljtxi\fok)v
kvrovcg T~:KTU\'IIC& 6t~.13ytxair:5. it
~ n r t p h ~ (t; oA C~T K ~ CtTf ~- : ~ r @ \ ~ ~t ~~ hT vE W VZ .I W ~ ~ .nc-:rphpcx.cr~
@T) xot! cr~1lprrai<r>\:~o11
ax6
trlv Cf~xrctt~fip~rtqlciptpronq r:ivrr,t a ttp.llthht~h<n~tn.c<-4.,tGc,q (slate) txxh To\);
(quartzite) ctx6 soi~i;xtxkajttrwotj~upevi-it.:q ~
hot)ri~xc;,t i ~t~?~-txjirq,- t TO
~ pOp~tcr,p~
t

cin0 rvv fiahohiit~lxrti zov tao~3r:c~clG.

too.
2, Auva~otteppl~i~
pcrupbycpumq (dynamotlterntsl mettlmorphism), H ~ L V U ~ O ~ E ~ C ~ ~ Y I ~

pcraphpcpt~~~fiq
uk)pfit'li\'c~ot.;l\ ~ ~x i~ap
~ ~ l t GC ~ o otjytchiaq~
~ig row j,t8onq(xtpt~t;)c)
nl~txh-ci~v
( j i v t : < unopLOicrq;). Onou uocu6vrtti t n p p t g TRKTOV~KC; Ij~vi.p~.t;.T ~ X
xszpipanr ntrptx~topcpti~vc~vc~~t,
~ c x t r u v a ~ ~ ~ ~ copoyi:vccq,
irtn 01r c ~ s o ~ ~ 61)vit.pr:c~
i~kg
~{~zah-tvoijv
xr:tp&)i{xtct tire CTE rroki) pcyixktx PbOq wt O~ppc~cpriait:;. on6ri:
ua~pet~ivt:t
K ~ O T O ~ P S Q ~c~txp6p(pton11 ~ f ti\~fi;~ti,~ol
K~TC i )I' ylrl k l j ~ ~ c : p
TOt~ t6, C)RUZIL:

nupPrtivt t c~vii$pop~l p c ~ c ~ p i ~ p ~ l w Ttc

a q . xc~piptlrtr nou oily pntijov~tt.1
~ t x p t i ~ t q ~ i j o \ + srr,n6
r x t trlv t~virns~i<q
~ttcxc r:xint:&l; t , ~ ? j < 11
. oxailx ~~vopix<c-:rc~t
rplikktitaq (foliation) ktiyctt zqg utisc.t)@uv6pc~lrl;
rrieaq< X O ~ Jrm~ciscxtts' at~n'x.E ~ i ~ v i x
m a pi:rcxyrtp~pokifitlrrxc~pcbptxcts.tnvcxyt?copi<e~cf~
ytc~ypkuyworl. xcttl q30~i,nretrt.7cir
zttv nrxprkXh~lktz.ng~onrxtlcttohtu1.1ci v , ~.;it:txix . ~ T. ~ IC J ~ \ ) K tqq
ent y~jk-tnvo p u ~ s 6 ~hxco~ T~

op(rfiu< TOV 4tp.pll3itji.o~~ Y C L ~ ~ mineral liwwtion) tj trx6

( O ~ ~ K T O ~ . O~E)(ipp~)@q. TQ v

ex qifil;~,)vnq twv ~ A t t n t h v o n a v ~ ~ r privq

, ~ p i S I E ~ Q I ~(ypQppa~mq
I~~T~ EKT~GI]I(;,
stretching lineation). Ttr, crtriffiQtlp~ztx~topcpropkvt~,
K I C . T ~ ( ; ) ~ U xtii~
T ( ~ ~ X I I U ( ~ T ~ ~ O PC
\Z~II

TqL' (h<l)btl @d)l_~06 LIE^^ ( . t 1 ) ~ 1 ~ ~[q>,t'Cth^h

p~t~)l<jg?cp(1)011< (i r~~Tpthp(~T21
L ~ V ( X I(1

upyt?.hr~it~c~tmd),iHoc (slatc). u ytt~i~hirq;fpbyllite). o a~tmS)Ltftoq(schist). n

yvr:Cnm; (gncissf tittt o ptypu-rirqc; (migmatile).
 Low-grade L----. _
-.-.--
increasing rnetamamhism
-.___ _. _..... --- ____
-___.__.___.__.__............................
- -
", High-grade

Environment
Low Grade (200") IntEtrm&Stnte Grade High Gmde /W]
. . ...................'.. ......
. . .:.:.:.:.:.:.::'
. . . . :. .A:;::::::::::::.:::;+ ..:...<'y.. ....................................................... :,:~.::,:::,:::::',::::::::;~fj.::~~:~~~i;I~~$;g::23~$<$~$;~:~fi~:~~i~~~;$$::~$$~~~~~~~~~~;~~:~:~~~::~~~~~~
......,i:...a.......$..c

Mineral
Composition

Quartz
1 . YfipuOcppt~fi pcruliupcpocq (hydrothermal metamurphism). Kcrlkeirrn txh-hitq ~ u t
06p0~cppth.fi ejuliLoimaq fi pctaaopirroaq (hydrothernlal alternation or
metasomatism). Eivctt kuu X ~ ~ I K I ~' ]E T ~ L T ~ TOOXI ~II[KTI)~A~~IZO;
~ (xxb TO jcm6 v ~ p h'1'0
.
vspb c i u ~ bpxo~-)eivtr. 1~po6hl)scanti TO pkyptx (huqyrx~t-lk-i~eptjj)
~j va ~txojS?~118ai
~cx~rir
trlv duxfilrtrcriu rqq pcnxpbpcptaaq j (btj;rctpoptptr(, vepij) I\ vcr ~ivtxturrtigr:~oyep6 xou
11 ~ t ) ~ h ~ ( ~ 201)
o p iq?tlkvct
ci GI: pcytj,Jku J3irf)q.ZF;p,(;.p~
KC$ nr:ptrcztbor:~q rcj {ccstb t'np6
,imopt:i vtx txvricip~iaxtys Qf.;4 0 i ) ~ t x I ~ ~ ) I K T ~{ ~( 1 1t ' ~~~ ~ ~ ) t t t Oet'i~h
r . ~ i oo<C:til,
c~ wt~iit
c ivw nohlj ncptcrtrb~c.:pt) Gptrorttrh. H [tcamw ptllirclmq Btr pnopu6crs vit
~rxpcr~.c?lpt~~,I:i
ci); plrt r:at~cj,xuv6pt.:q yr?pll>~j ')trqkrtk-ij'; M ~ Q ~ ~ X O ~ O U T ) ; . 'X'IX
apy thAonop~rtK& oprjh-rh trnucr\,vHi:zov~tfi itr; r rlv unopih-p~#vcrq rcov ct)li~ir.i,\rcwv
o-cotxciwv K , Ua. Cr? ~ c r tbfg ixnb TO gccr~3vrpci, t;vcit cxv~if~~:zm,
TO trtil TO Si
ntxptrpkvc~uv, trvtl&poilv HE to ok\lybvr> rot) v,c:poi) K R ~C T Y , ~ ~ I ~ . T ~ <(~pt~t~zr'x
O ~ : V ZT~C

txpyihho~r.E t a t ni u6pnOeppt~tip e r t x y t t n ~ r y u j ~ a ntlrcp(xvijo\.rtxt

~x (05 i":u~ir
<c~bvpkvtiK ~ L Ip t ~ h ~ ~ :~~ ht t .i ( i t; r j j xctpowiti< TOIV ~ - I ~ I J I CtTq ~i S(xpyikholi.
V BOI)

~ t c~(J.A(xK~.
ci-\lur>Lc~x<x ~ l

2. Mc.tup6ppcnoq pqy phriztuv (fault metamorphjsm), X E pe y i j htr fi6el-j. ~(x8t.G; a)

~ ~ z p h p t r r tKr ~ X T (pTj~o;
~ ~ t t f t ' ~ T ) ? ! ~ ~ T O J CrpijSov~(rt
P ~ E T Q < & TOUC;, ~ X V ~ ~ X T ~ ) ~ S O O ~ ? T C ~ ~

r~pirciilciT C K ~ ~ J V L KS ~~ ;C T F Lrat . U K ~ J T C A C Om~ q~ ~v r'jpeoq

F O~ppim1rlxr ~ t e ~ j ;MC

<~:JYT]TOC p?i?pa~oqnl I U X I ) ~ ~tiiot:q

; KUI TI ts~prlhrjUcpytir11m vtr o&q-yoG\jrrr:
~rvt~,~h.pvardrh>+wcnl
uerl qi;?iiLco~qz o xcrpwpixtct)~
~ rat m:vaxci~; aro ox rjpttrccsp5
pcrtrktop~coyivwvn~tp(~~p(x~t,t)v
XOI) ~ \ ~ t y ~ t X < t ~pt'ttx~t> ~ w vfanyionites).
it~t
3. R.lcrapupcpooq aity~po~joqg(shuck metmorplrism). Axnzt:hei ptcr crxixvrcl. trhJ,ij
~ ~ l ) t i ~ ~ ~ i l ( t8t tCt l js .l ~ t l a i ~CXT] bt(tTt0[t06 p ~ ~ ~ t ) & O p t ~ tX~C~Tt/~I ~t ~' ~~ ~v~/ T
l ~XOU
C?
W

n~jppuivcc.6 ~ ft iu ~
q p c ~ e o t p i r r ltrtj,yrpor;crrci
~ pr: rrlv r;ntrpi,.vsln rq; f'q;. Eivtxi
cxpk-r:rti ~?tri\*lu
ryixtvhpci~ct,ytc1.t.i friro ~fi:vt~hO
tot)<, 131 p c r t : ~ p i ~ cXI)\!
~ : $ ~-:~crtp~ovttxt
 ut?li1<x.cpicrcpaipatqi; Yq< ~ i v a 7co?%+tj
t i p t y coo;, r;at G T ~ V~ htovcjrqrt~
p r ~ p o or; s ~ou;
~\vcC&p.r.rlr{itllnb a t ~ t 6 , at& t q t } si~ylipotlcrqavumi,ncrrt\~m Cizav
t;~rr~vt;,t'uvtcxt,
&yf;"so ~ t b p or q crby~pauvqq
~ .cpoptitcrr~k<7 ~ i i : u ~~ ci ~ i E axail.,<
x r0 ~ p p o r ; p ( ~ . ~ i01 ~,
tihhtxyC.; ota x c ~ p h p r t ~ aTu
npoh-tihoi~vntcpvl6rtr~~th-Cg . c9p~~trL
~ r t ~ f o ~ Ki ~sI Iq ~
h-ocni~q;citjut nof+iqiopcp~qnotxthie< ~ui,cx:itx. ~ < n l p r ~ lpq<LjLqj
~ir ~ i w ( qN S~k b .
nor) ni.stmot~oOvn~ p(xvfi\lex~iiIlixGq 400-500km). rti oonoio 5t:v antrvroi)is crc, irhhu
~ F W ~ O ~ nr:pl
I K <f i ~~ x h h o t f s ~ ~ .

Avti.lLoycr pc TI; cruvQfih-cc, ktcrtrpbpcpwcrq; (O~ppcvccptrain-niccr11)cr~qpixrijr)vrtxr

61txtpctpr:r t xo i nut~6wxcrpui(ntrpny~vkcrm;) clnh vhti pmti~topcptsiirtpumix nov ~ v \ ~ r ~ t o i i v
r q ~Or y tc.h~
tbSq yti<ci rot] pl.:.capr?plpt~,pt':\to~~
xcrpt;,yrrtoq. Ezor z a !~c.:~cl;llapcpopgi~i
xr:rpc;~yexrtx ~)/F;~EL
I) ~ t t : t e r ) ~ i ) p ( ~ w
i ht ~a ~ ~p i v ~ v r t -crc,
t ~ X { L ~ L I ~ ~ O(low-grade),
G pknou
(medium-grade) ~ c x t t i PtxO~wii (high-grade) ervilhoyci p rr; ~ilisOj7x~i
pr.scrp<?pcptonqq. A ~ i t p q ~ c r B o p i m t ~ phAo
i~ osov a ~ r l p r r r t o p i tou nixor, Tor)
pc.rtrpopqo~yk~pc>t.)
ncsphparo; xniret q (p\jcrq ~ t x 11
l L.itfohoyici Tor) u p x i ~ o nezpch~ulro<.
i
T L h t ~ qi xccpot~oiclfi XI T ~ cpOh),omlc
G txlco.rei,ci ~ t r f t o p r m t ~nh~ c l i ~ c ioct)q v nt:piyputpfj
roti. tcr pc:rcipc)pcpoptvti nt;tp(hpu.rci oncptypkcpowut pr: Piirnl rci rpitr tn)zjr c n o l ~ e i t i .

@uLAd~,citGqnetpt;,#rarua p u ~ p ~ u p ~an6
. v an q i i r ~ g
(houtirxi)
T(I.X E T ~ & I C L ~ L(11T C)t(i
X ovi>jt<xjov~ti
t ~ e 1 1pc:rti-~q)L.i~:~:j
K { L ~civeir:

(slate). Eivtzr I:vtx ~exyqkoi)1ScA)pcti)(~tr~t'tlhfi;

Apphi,tau< t~~rt~z65+iC)o< 0t:ppoxpexfiirxc
K(LI 7tit;nqq). nohi) ~ ~ : R T U K O K K Cf) y k ~ ~ O oK(,\KKUIV
$ < f ) . l n v ~ ~xisptottct
) no\; ~pp(xviLt:t
ci,ti<ppti 6ter~pIt1jmt;ki,turnl (no\, t~vopit.;c.rti~slate cleavage) h-(it npc-wCrnci 0x6 ruv
~l~ncitxvcxztsohtcsp0
t a ~ vq~~?~Abpoptptnv
Jur:nso)u:pcitv pup)i{~pu-;~icvt')xwi~
opvxrchv ( u s p t ~ i ~ q ; )
ot; >,t:rrsix t;ninr:dt~nov txno~wpijot'rtn E ~ T K O ) ~PC
U TO i O ( P ~ J P I ~ O .TO XP~);)UU
~ r i ) n t ) p <(LO?)
r a J i l t ~pyth>,t
K(;)L' ~ipntohitjtoif~Ccxp~fi~(xr ~ q v ~ilmnoqT ~ I U p q ~ tpm i ) ~ q h i r q 01
I X R 7; .
~ptiOpntnc)itip*~r?,hrcctirr~rnt6hrt)orcivtxr nhoiicnui oc.;"siliqpo. t x npt~aivmnoixepli-,~or?v
~ i t xhwpi~rl.at nctytplrpoi r:ivrxt c.:prtormk~kvntp~ o<eifiici so\) pcryytviorr
c r r j p r r ~ ~ txoo6
mxt oi ptxijpo~txpy h h ~~ o ~i ~ ~ m h h l tc,iv(i~
t o i ~ ? , o i ) ~ ~ 1CTC
c l io p y e l ~ i x ir4kt~i).
~ I\VC;~~T?~T~X
{mh r q v cir;(t~pcorrtlrot);, b?uur t i vt~! f w x n ~ i ~ ~ 0 ~pch .( oT tX E ~ ~~~ & K3tixl.:&~
V 1~~ 1(1 j

o~tcrptt.wyt:vt;ijcntcpitvr;tr:; rrnoywptokio6, K ~ A Ikrut ~pqay.iolroioi)vrttlnixv 6c)yth-ix uhrltil

ori~
oriyei; t o t i 1 crx~rtti>v.
dPttlJ.itq5 (phgilite). Zr: f j c p p o ~ p t r n irccpinau
~~ 300°C rct p~xporr~onrrix
tptihh~hiiq
ol~t)ccth ot;wxirrlq cctri ~ J ~ u ~ p i rnq p< ~javv
i vcj G~crxpivovnxt (pi.-yr:Gog 0. t - l mrn)
apliuni<o\.cr~; rc? rp\A.Lthbc; h ~ . n ~ cctrq
i - peoivcoch-cl x&pv~ktct~u)\~)..i?rl;.Eivrrc o)u,yevi;
 unh rq p~rtx@S.rlh 6 ~ t y q ~ f ryevtt;a
n k ~ p w p aK a l ~apw~zqpi<ercc.~ )v reqpti)~C ~ X L O ~ O Y F V ~ V
rn1tpurvel.6~ixno~wptapoil..rcotj bpoc 8cv civcr.1 r60o &xix~8fr:$.
6x1115 UTOV ru,pythhilc6
cr~trnui~tfto,
crai,b ~u~tcx~oclSei:.
C~tot6LxOoq(schist). I n ~ \ i p 6cp\:Ak6Scq ( q r o s o x o q pL\~o)~ u ( It & ~ ~ K O K C xO i r pmpa.
To pkyeffog s o v (puk>bo2i0uK ~ K K O Y pappt2.ptl~11.yict
KUI ~heopir11 ~:i\?fll > 1mm. cvtb

GIIC(~XVTIK~]
&ivat rj O U ) L ~ F . ? O XTOU
~~ ~ t f h a j i c cx?~?dx
~ , 6x1 r o v a o s p i o ~xou
' Ssv \ i ~ s p f i t r i ~ ~ ~
TO 20".:6 ~ o ~ut : v o ? ~ t ~boyO j nrrpc?l~prxro;.Tcr. nepaxc~rr~tli,
~ o trot) 6pr.arwv K ~ K K B Vyivot'xtxl

F , ~ < P ~ X p~
V I ~yt+tvb ofp#(xh$tb.M t so ~cpupi~ i i ~ c t #.at
h a t r p h ~ s ger.no~copijovrrxllccxtir. y ? j ~ o <
~ o p p i r r t ax~spchpmo;. 01~pxth-85i<qy u ~ o y e v ~ .&opt5
r q ? a~tcrrcirqragiiey03%~x i< fi~o
cri,voA6 rev< B ~ o i .optlcrrri.
i~
r\~ctiowg(Gneiss). Xe Oeppoh-pucrieq 100" C to< 500°C rct. apurzix sol: aprrrohi,Ottlv
tr:ivr>v\l vrx 8tut.popox0 ~otjtr:tx~Ktrc tparcf~ravl:,~wvrai
n c nrp6vrxt.u yr esuyur,~pi.ltC-,v~l
nvy wC-,vrfzocrq opvtcrhv &r$rx;ifi v a ~pcpmvicovv yvsuatcrlcfi ntpfi (gneiss texture),
y v e \ j a i ~ ! g r i o A . c ~ ~ t c ? c p iipq.
o f - 0, ~y ve6crtog
~ o I., ivm at}vrjOo)i
pr:obrorroq wg t r S y 6 ~ o x ~ oK5 ~ sivut
I cr\,p~cxyfig.Ttr ~bvfj@r)h-i~ptuoptjsrix civci~o
~a>,m<iccq,oi. i m p t o t xou uncpf3crivovv so ?OX) rou nsrp(i~;u.xro; h-at rhnoto ci6og
ptorizqi; fi Kal tcr 6ho) I\ ~ ~ p o r n i k f l q s .
prxpp<xpt:)yitx(pr?n~,apizsli;,

@uiiL&i6qnrsptiopuza npcrcp~iipxvaan6 nuptyevij natpCputu

Ttr ntiptyei9.rjnc:rpt;tprt..ccx,yt:rtxpopqxh\~o~mu~ t t 6ivotl-v
l rcot, civcil:
9t)hhthiiq rn~poibttrrrt~
(greenschist). I "EI~IKO; <)PO j KOU
flpaatvua~tazQltOo5 ( I I ~ ~ X U ) ~ ~ E~VuX Ip i C~~ CKi ~ ~ ~ C T I V O I ?
~ p l y c t ~ o gxtxyqhoij
. w; ~ E C T ~ @xF)jtt~C
I. p ~ : t t ~ p t ~ p ( ~ t o ~~t~ktvprt,b ~ i t x tPI:
( x Oepc:ir1ci1G11
c-rt~artrrt
~ i rxhfj
i irq ( K a - h ~ ztpo ) , r:niiioso r;cp.r ~ ? ~ o ~ p i rEivtrt
? l , kr:nri,- cl~c ~ I C C ~ K O K M U

nr:rptbprxrci pc cprptr,l:?j t.p,i,hhtstrq f n p n t i q n r ) . -1'0 ~prhptr r a q eivtxl .;b~pi<o.

Y K Q L ~ O K ~ U ~ ~~ tV~Or n A p x t ~ huhtriX T O U F.~L V*I
. t w ~ ~ x p i rf j(~fzhfitvt),
~tiw ~ v p i o ;rtx [\UOIK<A
~ \ y w y m j ~ ~ ~ p f h p c i t f(@rm~xLtc;,
rt ~ t t f 3 f i t~f,) ~ tthfai! &etf ni~po\~atb:czcnt cppcx\l^ij{;
r npactvizr:~
crxtcrz3rqzcx t6rt; ova~dx<ctvtcs f greenstones).
OpUoyve6cxo~4 ypxvxrt~h~
yvcti(rtu< (orthogneiss or granitic gneiss). I ' e v t ~ 6 <Opo; nou
C I \ J U ~ ~ C ~ R Tt (i Lt j~p i ~ ~PC< A ~ t ) ~ o ~ p r xYr Yt C~Li ~l O I ~ I Kr~tptSp(~stx.
~X xt't) i'.~n\)\'
xpothf)ct a x 6
0;tvtx n~pty~r\?i]
~ t r ; r p c S ~ ~~ t1~x a1HI: ( ~ t i ) ? ~ > ~11
m ~owitx
q. ~ c i p t ~ ~ s t l p i j t xc1xS
w xoki;
m:ptoourt.;pa ~r,txh(xjirtKrxi cxv~pir?~);
nr; nxiorl ,pt: sru:pex~llrtio p u ~ ~ itin6
x , itrt ot yi1t:fiotor
XOC) ?tpi?kpxov~{fi
rxx0 srx ~q?~trltcif.
xergC~pefcrrx.
Mtyparirq j (Migmatite). Eivrxi kvtx nkzpojttr nou cmort:h~ircrt a x 6 rn ~pl.yc..vijKtrI
yt:ruyoptpct~+tdvt1 ~ b t ~ i8qlkcx6ti
x ~ i i u tc1fSt6pcn0 pcxt~gi}ZOV nuptyEvtb\r tctxt rcav
~ cyctpqtrtbtFvt!,v
~ u xr:rpr!~phrwtp. Z X Tpcxri<erct
~ t ar: xoh6 ti~pqhoifitt$puC ~ t c r r r p ~t ~ p
~ ~ )k ~
61r:ppiaic;. c i ~ t ri o
~ ni:rpwpex i r p ~ i < c :vet
~ tjcpinstxrtr~ ~tcpth-fiT T ~ ~ TClu-?~erptpkvt~
I. nc:
8~p)ro~pcxcrie~
nt?,pi;lco\:~ fi u yvs6cstoy nou
750°C o n~tci~63.,18ct~ 2x81 ~q,utwQcs6cr-cacrq
xciy6iturc.x tou -~pu.visqtlzpxi,Gei vrx z jtcczat. Tu nptbtlr op~)tczhnoti t r j ~ o m a tt5vw.r aa
rpeJeat.xh~"AajicxsK ~ I Ii l o ~ p r oEVO
~ , TU ~ Ip ~ h 2 6i)l~w; o
~ L ( ( D L K0 apcpifiohoj K a c o ptosi-cqg
.rctxprxyCvot)v c s ~ps6.
r Eirv r o yr:pt~r'xzrly ykvo xi:rpu>prx \yrt~xQsi..
zi>.t-tro;(.~pcxsi<ojrat
c p t b p a ~ up~ xt:p~~evoi)ij
~~~)okht:uCirlj
U ~ L (R~ G~ I ~ K O C T ~K~( XI ~~crt;oi!pa
C~) mphyr~rtrip!::
p~zakrapqopivou h t ~ (pshczvcinw,uu).
6

%~e~upoptptupEvcr
ilctp@uxuxta ~w pi5 qh>bbtoar(
MGppape (marble). A6 p i r ~ o x ~ ~
o .p t ) ~ ~ u h ; F k~-to~~c~i h. ij3(jrxx(~p&c;)
e x C r p ~ p tP;OU
~
xpodpxrxcxt r ~ n 6cmj31-,~rhAtUofj 5ctXopirq. To ~cuOw.pbytt,pptxpo rc:iwt kct~t~cj
~ t l t

tircoreAcittn uxti zn r,pt)xrb it.nf3cc3t.itrl;. Ano-cshni xc?h\i 61aSF;iupkvo ijopt~it KQI

~ r p ~ t t . ~ ~ r u t:k1~6
v t r ( , K ( x @ ( ~ J K~ C I ~ t~ht)iCltq; Y > ~ I ~ T ~ K IT\ ;~ X L T R
~ ~G. T ~ D61(1Pp(i)vcrr11
~,
tm6 t o 6~o$ci6toTali civOprt~tx.OT~IV
t:i,~i?h(~ zbre s o
o rt.cr~eotcihif)o;8ev sivtrt k-rx@rxy;~<,
xp6gct sou p(vpp<xparlpnupci vrx civtrr puarvo, y ~ p i npiintvu~ni)
. I\ tctu.1 paipo. r-:vcir pxopei
i9rr nr-:prkp~
K ~ I Ir:nouo~&&~)
o p t ) ~ t l(r~ h w p i ~pupptxpuyirx.
q. yytrv{izq ~ u f 3t o k h r ~ ~ ~ a v i t q ) ,
gala j i q ~(quartzite). I IohG crxhrlp6. itesctpopcp(t~
y kvct nt:spuqttx nou svvfj0u1j
O Xq pr~ti<gt(l~ r) GF.
~ l t 6X ( I ~ ( L < Z ( X K ~v(~pyif ~ U V O I ~ K pk~tftl
E~ ttyq hoi) pcttfgctl)
p~ttxpttprpoall~.
Ot K ~ E K O Tot)
L ~(xhu<i(t
T I ~ K O V T C ~6~l .t ~ )~j U C ~ ~ V O5(1
U Vllt~pilK < t ~ l j l ~ ~ i f . ~ l ~ .

yr,rz2+totjq
Krit CS~)~KOA.?LO~VT~X~ ti"trv1rbmc, 6rct.v q tr,vtt.~p1~tr.cci.kJ+~11~~~1x p~:tl~pupql~fj
~ t d .nlv

o %rxJerx<izrl;uu pqv cmRc1 crzokl;

61cpyuvit~oho~h~lpu,C)ci. ( L ~ X I K O ~K; ~ K K ~ U~; t i h t x < i ~ ~ .

rr)L%.it pCau ctxS iit)su6;. To runt r S rot ~pthprxt:ivtx~h c u ~ 6wUbii

J . q nupnljnitr nltiql~06~wv
o<ctb;icuvy;lcopc..ivrx nponfitbonr nzo xkspt~~[rtt.
kvt1 p661vo f j nx
PO< X I ) ( ~ ~ ( X~vrb
, (3~0i'p~
4 ~pthpx.
opv~sixGivot~vcno xi:.rptopcr y ~ p cxnity,po~oq
i
 H SI<L~KEI(X rot! uv8phxou ~ r x yc~~truseprr.
~ t r ) 8pr~~r11ptor1jtu)~
\~ t rqs nv0pcbrclvq<Curfi;
xeptopic~trov ixv0pcuno vrx cnticpsera~h-upiwg crru. ~ i ~ o v rrl,cxiartx
~ ~ i x t q rlpkpaq.
~ rot)
k'1:ovq fl ZW hip!~tl6c~rxCrlth~.
AvriOertx. oi yrtoAh.))c,t~ t f . ? ~ ~ i ) ' t ?VCI
~ c a't~t/1er(r)xi<ol,~
tt ~txt

trx f M y)
va tx~urpkpocrtj1rre ?~yovtiza,rtr orcoirr cruvi;p~lorx'tsxpiv (1x6 ~h-(x~ap,ui)p fi
G~nr:r;cltzr,gbtilplaf By) ~pbvtrx at d t f j p ~ q ~ xoh&<x
cx~~ E K ~ X Z O ~ ~~p6vttt..
< ~ ~ I ~ X

Tor v c ~perp~jcsotwKni vu xponijtopinouv t c x p~:y<x?,er.writ ~ p o v t ~ fitctnt~jprrrtr

il
~ p q ~ ~ p u n o c o6G~t
i i v Ftutpopetl~o6~
bpbpo~~c
npnoi: yytcrtl;: ( I ) rqv ~ X E ~ ~yovu1.6yrjaq
I K ~

(relative dating). ccu c (2) r q Y ax6h-aq ~povoi.Oyqnq(absolute dating).

C X E Z Y~ , K
P U~V~O X Q ~ ~ O ~
H cry,c~tuI)~povoh6yqcrq uvt~tpkpertrtmtni nponciiop~nyd rr)q ~ p u v t ~ ; IGtafie~i<
)<
rtov nerpop<trwt5, tov Y E L ~ ~ J ~ O~t:y(tvi,oto)v
Y I K ~ ~ ~ V at TWB a v ~ i o ~ n t ~&oj~(ins
~ o v n01)
a ~ q p t ~ ~ i < ortxi
~ j vPexoi<~rtxc
, ol:e*nhC~Pacr1~6c;txp~R;. 6 ~ a qci.r~r o nktpmyu npknci vrx
o n t i p ~ c ly ~ t tv a ~jnorrrr:i sqv ~niaptxnq aimo~ouycycwhroq Q On rl an60t:~1jsttnl
c)pti;6v'~trw.Mf: P ~ C Y T ~txpxk; ixureq. rcx ntoy,topRvti. t-;fptx.crx
~jrpixrtovnpi:rtc;r vrx ;~ivert~t
npExet vtr C~ouvrcpui~ircr~rlbtcir~mei
(unoreUei optjhvrlcx) ~ t x btcrrxycvtnrepu
t vct ~ X O I ~ Y
mu~tu8r:i.8rlLaSfj rl .rt.tG~wcrq~ i v e x tpcrtrycvkmr-:pq r q cmh8etsrl;
~ t o v tjqpuroyr~~hv
~erptr)lltiXrr~~v.
l3trptir-ctri,rrw. q ~ X K T I K ~povohity
I~ rloq 6ev c n t s p f i ~ rqv
~ t tx~pipfj~ L r p q s q
nou c n ~ v ~ p01~ nrr,prxnbvo161t:pyaairc.
rot! xpci~~ot! ct~

Eltacpkq ygcrtkoyg r&va;(qpusiop61v(geological contacts)

Xrqv c r ~ r n e ~~pc~\'~iLtqqcrq
fi ~ ~ O o p ~ m l~l iqi \p r r sfitrxfil~c~ptr~i<ct
i~ rl cpbnq r q i excxcplj;
nc fiim xespri)prt~cx4 yt:u~>~c,oyt~oirq
c~vh~sotx a~rl~tttrtajio65.
An6 s11v ci1animu)nq rqq
cpiv-qi 19; r:ncrcpii tous H t t nporCyrct 11 OS/CTIK? TOIJj q n q .00 y i v ~ c
~ p ~ v ~ > ~ O yttILA,hh
K I X T ~ ' ~ V C )~
T ~u
~T t~ xnth
111~: dtcpytxcritx Ppkolr~rrvfie cntttp~i.
T;tq tpt;nq. r u ncrpchjtclrri b1nopoGv vtl ppr;Ooiw GE cnutpi picrc~~
rq; rmSBt:oqi, zrl;
Gteirrfir~oq<K ~ x ttbl\' TI;KTO\~IK(;)\~i i t ~ p ~ t t ( 3(~11; q ~ ~11;f tk~bt1)oqi).Eroi
t 6 ~ p I I ~ p h ~ t 0 0Kt11
ot yewJbonft~i;cnutpkj f tr~~pivovrtxt c t r p t ~ k f<3) n ~ i <
: ( I ) crti ~ ~ ~ / w ~ , p t x ~ ~ y p cx(x(~fi;.
r r ; ~ z a \ ~ t~xcirpkq
~ i $ u r t ( 3 )cti; c:ntxtpk; ;i1cio6r~sq;.
otpoparoypucptrk<cxutp6~(stratigraphic contacts) 61tx~pivovvrt:
0 t

(1) arlc ~ a v n v i ~ gfig nbpqwvrs; arpo3purctyputpth-C; cnuy& (normal or cconfnrmahlc

stratigraphic contacts) nor! civa t xtrpirh),rlAc; 1icrn:i: sot); h-ai q q p t x t i j o ~ ~ a6~tr't.
t,
rrt ~<fibaxstx~itc/fiTU ~ p . p ~ t t ~ ~o~~ ~p tt i~~ tp~x ~
it tt ~ ~ ~ f f k ~XQP~;
n v r ~& ~t ( tr ~, c ' ~ 01:
fl.
m:prgwvu (canfarmattlie).
n r r . p t i i J ?i a r ptitptlzri xot) ovu~t~x<twtrtt
(2) 6 - t ~ ~ ~ ~ p ~ o p a ~ o y p a ' p c ~(n~t)plpmvE~~
ic (stratigraphic unconforrnities).
Zrpct>patoyparp~mj
rxo\yrpct)virt. ~nhc:izcxt11 S t t x ~ w p ~ c t t sexl~t'rvelu-cipto
rj pr-:ztxt\j660
R L U ~ ) O ~ ) : T L K ~f ~l hS t ~ i t qI : ~ ~ C ~ T O * ~ E V aM@>,.~ri)UO!hi'
~JV KML ~ 1 ~ T l m t J l ~ t : i.XPOVLK~) K E V ~
CTE

xou npoh-Orret 0x6 .rqv filcx~nn~j sq; ctrcci$cn~l; i l ~ atrlv

t 6~61@pc1)~11. 11pkip1~~1, mqv
y$:mhctyrrc~j Lo~ctpicxrq< Tal~:ett t ; ~ ~ r r o ; ~ ~uxoUeot.:t< vei~ C:Xoti~6ttxrct.prx~r~i ~ u r
fitmX.mci cut}& +at gtxvcr, Fe ctnorkhenpt t,nrqv npr~mtif)culsov ycct,Fbhyc~~vvtr
c w t r ~ e r i ~ o urtq
v tx~oko1j0ie; ~cov tjr~pitsov8~JcpOpctlM63~
XLPLO)S[~V. G I ~ X Vva
~

t ~ xoti c: irr: 6 ~ trnostOrlh-av

ncrptrrq pcirtxt vu hcinot~vStkqwpot c r ~ q p ctabmi v xorC cirg
8tcr/3pchO~]~;~~.v
xplv unorr:Oct6i~ or v~rizc:pot o~qytxsta,iloi pr crvvkx~ttx vtr
a~rlpu~i5ot?-cctt
n t p t q l t x s o y p u ~ ~ ~~ro~,papo~vie;.
i:< Art~xpi~*o\'~(x!
01 ~ Z K ~ ? L O I @ O~Oxut
L

1xm1pcpovt6jv: ( t i ) rwvxhdq; aaugcpoviu (angular uneonforrnity). 01 r r r p i a I~< rcev

tjqithrurv ~ r a r i : p w O ~rlli
v E X ~ V ~ ~ ' K I ~t L q
{; ~ o t ) v (I()
~(xo\)pcpmvitxq 0 ~ ~ 1 ~ 1 u ~ i yovie~,
E ~ r p a i t O ~ ~ijf i r r~:puycvflc cnmpcpwvior (nonconfom~ity). N ):Os~pcr otpc~pk
vu
~<~lpt;ltoycvrjnt:tpcbptxttr. cxxu8i:tovxcxt nhvto UK 1.ceihatri.er:pm ~trl ~rpoprkvu
(nhourw vtrli nvp i y ~ v f j fi pezttppapobtCvexf nczpchpuar. f y) i i ~ f i q ~ v i i l 6
&xcr,fOyotlrcys:\*ijq ucruytcp~f3vCct (disconfurmity). 0
1 rrzpti)n~t; reov L:T~ lttrleoycvtbv
nr-;zpobtixzwsxivtrl ntrpbhhqkr:$ siccrsCpru0cv zqq i-iltrxtoptmtliqc t:ntcpirvctc~q,11 onoicl
6 i ~ o j tmntebci ~lttqhvt:~trcitirf3poml;. (8;) nuptcmr~lcpwvia (Parnr4tnformity).
i 611n8i k p t r q nt: pinroarl rxaul*cyovbr; no\) npoo6tttpir;rta o: ~povilr6
A n t ~ r g A ~pit1
~ t v h(hiatus), K(II 6x1 re< oucptj oponj yecap~~pth-i)
fitcrqoporcoiqcrv ttifii,p~cliamtr.
G~trt.pitpcr(rlj<
q Alh-ict;. ctl,Ati xctpitbtt~~ty
J"t8ctkoyit12 t:fi)a~zcx nnv ;itlx~topi<c:t,
yttr~i11
~ntqtivcltrrili rtrpountitjt:rrtt nxhir mg ptcx t:x~tp&vt:tcxcrrpci'~ntl; xul>iri,lq;Lrlnpn< rrl
czpthnq r t o ~
ti;qj.t&~an~
c~uar;~t*.
Or z c ~ s n v 1 ~ 5cnutpbr;
c (tectonic contacts) 8 rjpttst)p"~oi>vrcr,~
and uc y(rhqq ~ J ~ i p t ~ ~ t r ~
~ ; wpiostrv~cittct nc:rpii~irztr ~rxri).p t j ~ o qp~jyp(I~eov
p ~ r t n o n i c ~ esot) ~ ( 1 16 1 ~ s p q ~ r ~ c h ~

<o),,vivr:$trtxicq r w v S E K T O I J I K ~ VT ~ J E B I J J(phkne pqyfitlectrf.

0!cnatpi~6ieicitSunqg (intrusive cuntarts) 6rlp1oupyotjvru t (1x6 r q v fi tciofi~~oq
cvi;
~trplycvoS<xsspt;qtclto< ptotr. a r o ncptf3ixAhov nirpmpa. To 6tctnfii~t~v
ni;rpoptx civcn
TtJti x~;()~@~$~?~o\zu;
VF.STRI)O Kt11 ?I X E ( J ) L O T I ~ S ~~~
~ I C I ~ ~ X ~ P <O ~ t t \'{I
p ~ ?it p ~ h . ( l ? i k ~ ~ l
btr:tupbpcpmarl r . x ( ~ ~ l jAh-6btrl
i. gzcrcpb; 81ciofi1lnqg pnupoitv v u npo~i)ytclc)vtrrri) ~ q v
dtctniqx~~ j
ixvofio to)' ~ > > ~ t x r n t cptmop~xthv.
~{-i~ Pqp: 0 t ef3txnnpirc< nnu ~ p i o ~ r t ~r j~t ; c r i
pcy<dbri,o Pitftu~ r:kt~sitr; t r l j pcylik~jj A~Oi~mctrth-fi;
nit;oq; ~ ( t t O~,ppo~p(iuItq
aulrn~pc~kpotrcclr
o; ncr.;ydpr:t)cr~tr
(fitou8811) pt:uasir. zcx onoiu ~xelGfjeivtrt ~?~trtppi)rcpt~
cr.vtip~ut.rrtlxpcq r q v C ' I C ~ Q ~ Ylti,
C Gnto; K ~ A zu
I p61~pcj,zei ax11ptxtiio v ~ t:j3e~x~fpttlt~utj~
t ~
6Q)bttJI);].
Jurassic W i m n b
Xtpwpatoy patpia
0 ~ 3 ~ i t .tr);
u ~ jI'eioA.cjyitx; noij txo~o>~~;izttt
pt: zqv rx~o~;purcroyp&ytqcrtj,
t-:p~~pvcitr
tcrxt

~povokeyqnqr o v mpo!ti;vci~v nctpcopixrwit sivat 21 Crpwptx~oyptxcpitx.BnatrC; ivvotr:;

m q ~ t p u ~ p t ~ptxtpia
z o y ci t ~ t :
1. To a.rp61pt-x (bed) tmo~cA.ci rqv plrpisscpq ht0ornpwpcxroyp~rgz~f)povhScl nc
crspopkvtr nr:rpd~pcr~trRrxl clvcxyvwyijerur mm6 n~picintirspo ri 2utghrcpo c v ~ p l v f i
,;nixc&rr otpti>crrlq. Ttx ~~pc?lipAvrx~ C B ~ - M ' J ~ ~SXw
T ~~Xp i v u ~ " i f01.:
t.~ ~ . : ~ U C ~ U T O E Z ~ ~ .
ib~aroatpmpcrt36q,peoompir~~t~rrtsiir1
~ t x txu~orrrpopart6fi1ltxvhAoyrt pc TU xit.yo<

'TMV CiT.ptoj.iht0.l~.
r q ktxnlh-fi hrBocrspo~pceroy
2. 0 crxqyattcrp6~(formation) tr~ozc?~r:i p t i q ~K I ~pov&&rx.not,
pxopt-:i vtx pxpsoyptr.rpqQr:i k-tr.r xrxytr~z.r)pitet C~lcx xkrpottrr ti ptrx oblixiStr nctpopixtotl
bit-: l~c~ ~ t ~ p t ~ ~ r q p t m t ific <Gx ~ ) ~ K F , K ~ I ~ ~ . : v o ~ : s
ntyh-mptpkvtt. ~ ' l r 8 l < 2 ~ ( f?bi,00kt3yt~iX
cruvS~asytoi:~
h~OoI~t>y~~fi)v K~o
X U P ~ K T ~ P ~ ~ T T ~tctal ~ J~V~ y ~ r ~ p l p
nrptoptn-royptiqttcQ
dvq
oiicrtj,

3. H ary~opcnroypapt~%ju~o2~ouf)it-x(stratigraphic scy uence) u v txpcrcrctlx~~k

~ t plrx
K U \ ~ O \ ' ~ Ku~c>h0~~Oitr-opi~;)(1
I~ P<XOT)
~\fo~o1qktkt?t.~(1)1!+C I U ~ K E K P ~ ~ R V O ~V trp~~rqp~rnt~~;3~.
nrprrlpivrt~v xr:zp.op<xtov ~ o l t cxvrtorory,~i ~plivo
rre t ~ i ~ y ~ ~ h - p t pYCU)?.OYLK~
ivo
(geologic time). ~mrino,
o y~ohoytsitq~pif"o; tx rx~c,kou@ict;m q v ~ j ? t r y ~ ~ x t ~ k - 6 . ~ 1 ~
ciytuph tit n ~ j ? ~ h . h tTOV
. : i ~~~p b v oxot) fizfip~qat:11 tsn6C)esq t q tx~ohotlOit~g
~ ~ c x nut)
t

~ ~ x o VIZ
p ~~ i v t xnokhtE
~ ch-c.lzoplni,ptrx~pbvttx.

Bacrch-kq apxdq
Avr::ixp~q~tx ci;rci rqv cxfitjvcytitr ~ue)c)(ttcrbtt~6
tan6Aurrl; q h i ~ i c ~qi , ~ p u v t h - 61rx2tj~4
j
r w n ~ r p t n ~ i k ouctt
v tc.~(1)vyr:tohoytk-&v 6opdv K T ~ I I nhvt(l
F , ~ ~ I ~ V E ~ }CTXRSLK~I f3ixsrl rtlq
xrrptrtfjpqnq; wcrt trjS ?Loyt~tic
KLLI p i ~ p ci~j~u~pct
t OTI~yt:~J~o-p~
~ t~i E
. I

V V~ I~~ XO T R A ~ : ~

r:pytxnicx [rotlcivtxc.
~t~yk.EKpl~l.&L~f~.~
I) I ; J ? U V V C ~ ~ X Kt11 (1 rrxOoptop(j; ICllq O):lpdf.; TWV yf:~>~~"fth.hft'
rrj/~~gurtnptb\~
~ u gc~o1?6rot~
t a e p ~ ( tnr:pto~fjPtrcri<crul at: P t t . o t ~ k ; t ~ p ~ knew
; ~XOIW

qc)~iq.xrrxnd rqIt ytl(&ntj real h-tr~trvti~lnnl

zov yerohoyt~dnld~pytxcrzhvhxo; n.x zq;
t~lpc.tro.yhv~t~11;.
rq; ~ltpatmczdtqer~;.
trl; iir(tf3poxnlq k-.tx.
OL@rratcC;up~C: rrj; n ~ c r t ~ xpot~c)i.ityr(nqs;
~j; ~ivtrz:
l avtopoptpiow6 (principle nf uniformitarianism). Anor:: hci rq v Ptjnt~.-ii
1. H a p ~ i rou
t r p ~ iYICY t:ppqvcit.r Trl; tcr~opitl; sq; rq;. Xtptpt~ivcxpe nlIs cipp/ aurJI ot
y<:utAoyth-t; G~cpyctnieq not: htxyflhvo~,~~ O p t r nfipqt'u xpuyytrsonoini~\~u(pc
xrxp6po1cj rpbno 6no; rn~vbptrtvcxvrrst) ntxpr:hf3Sv, xwpi; wnthno, o pt18)zO; yt: rov
oxcjic., htnpblixvtlt)~xchptr vtt. t-:iwxt~~tdJt:{Jri$,
2. H a p ~ qq s cnabiqkia; (principle of suprposition). EE ytu tr6 tcr~tipurrqijrl p a t o ye vrj
txrahouflitx. ( ~ ~ & h q l B~ Iq~ C ) &crtpoy&rov), rI(lOf-:C S Z $ ? ( ~ ~t:iv(f.l
~L ~ e 6 z ~ pl 0~ t TO
j

t m o ~ ~ i l t e vsou
o rtxt ~ u L t r ~ i t r e ptixi) ~ o ufi tihiLith; ro vc6rcpo
o ro ~~rrcprcipcvo
xou nuhcrloripotl, E n o p h r t ) ~Trx I j~jpctrriyiv~)v-cc.xrvcbzepcx (1x6
crzpthpcr ~mCpw~ttcil
r q v Pkcrrl npoG tll-\j~opvrprj,
3. 11 a p ~ f rq5
i a p p ~( iX~~ U ~ ~ O Y
o pCt V
< oO~~~~\ Q q ~ a ~ of originil horirontatitgf.
) t(principle
Xe pur cr5tctrirptrrsq ~jr))trisuyt;vja~ol~ouffitx. tmorr:i@n\.rut oc cjp~jhvrrtr
rct ij~jptrrc~
CT~~tb,lltd=ell.
0 1 ( t p ~ sq;
6 ~ cncr),AqAiug h-ut rr); crpytsijq op~C$vr~cinlrtr; civtrr @cmt~i..q
ctp~k;
rq; crrptupurojpclcpi(~;~xot) n ~ c r i j o v ~ lie
at TOY spOno cttrO$cn~l; r w v tjqpuzoyev8i9
i<rlphrwv ~ t x ~(1;
t ~ntspkxo\?v~Atnovzct; ptcr cy~kpcrtct.~ o ) n ~j I U ns~?tn~ttr~oyptxzpth-fi;
C

(~KO?LO\
r O i t ~ <trfr ~ p ~j( X~0'v'lh.lj
. ~ t ' )ltQ
TllV ( t \ ' ~ t ? ~ ~ ~ ~ t t ~ ~ fDUV O ~ t ; K I K ( Y Y ~ I X I PTlG
~~ "~'Fo&o?~K~<
tcfropiu< trl; ncptopj;,
1. W upri rov a ~ b c c u vabiqb~riGpaoq5(principle af cross-cutting relatictnships). H
f i fltxsiicrtit sro ~pocpuvi';iriupxbpclap.t 6r1 ~ i r vr o A cn~lpcix<crTO B, tcire
t ~ p ~ctt'tfi
TO A t;ivtit v 1 : 6 ~ e p ~ B, ETGIkvtx x c i : s p ~ npi;nr:z
tou p~ hoy~rit.nphzcx va V E ~ ~ X Gyt(x
I VIZ

vnocsrci ozliifino-ce. ~ t x (ip(t

t t j civut ve6snpq trnb TO nkrpo~p*fl
~ixOey c m h r ~ y ~6optj
rq\' ycu~Aoyucflliop3-j nou cntl pt;i?;r:l. n , ~o t.y p u v ~KR;~ r cpJvL/lc; nou 6tc1rs86ouv pbntr
a.to xt:ptptihhov nizpw)ui t-:iv(ir V ~ ~ T E ~urr0
E ; tx\?ri,, xvcb kvtr prjyyu stc,tl rhPx1 TI)

7l~i3l~(Xhh0~
~ l k ~ f ? f r ) kKc11 t:i~(ll{
t t ~ tlC; (jlhkp~< ~ K U ~V Q
C~TEPO.

5. H upxi? rwv cyrlc~alccit<t~v (principles nT inclusions). Evtr nkrpo~ycrA r-:ivot vcivrcpo

~~A,)Lo
(X~CO C V ~ X M~\~u tt)u n.
B, G T ~ X V A E ~ R E ~ ~ I ~E ~: ~:KxA~( :~ I~ ~ ~ I o , KOCY~I*L'C~{X
6. 11 npxfi tqc ~ 4 f L 1 5 q rwr
s anctikt(kup6rirt\~ rqS ravida~(principle uf fossil or faurtsl
surcesiunf. 0t i;tuvttx\joi fnnohttto~pdvot)opyc~vtrrpoi i ~ o v vt:$t:htxt)ai ( F l t A c ~ r e io
ha; zov lihki~)lie r s u y ~ e ~ p t p i ;~vc r itnvcqt\cropinlpt) tprino piocx crtuv ye~)>~oyzxil
xpitt-o ~ t r lr:noprivto< q n%r:rtk-fj xpt~vuh6ytpqroll9 xc:spro~tixttr)vwtfi q X ~ I O V I K ~
nr:pic?8oi pnopxi vu crrt)nlOt:i pc phaq rcr n~ol~lfftijpcrr0 rouq, Or x p o y ~ ~ ~ k n r r , p a ;
{top@$ <wj\; t?,ivtk~
cx~ho6azepeecn~hTI,; xr:prrrcrrizt:pc, f:<r:lttyp,i:~pertxycvi;,mcpt;~
p o p ~ i ;z~m ; ~ Ken or nto xpiicrqttx~ci trvt;nttlyyi:\teq; yopgEg ~ivrxz rrw ~ t r : v &
ntinyrcttC0~tt:vt;; ~ I Kt t < ~ ~ j l ~ t ~ popq~&{;
p t ~ k ; T B ~ Yt p ~ j ~ i h xtxt
t' ZWV <Djo~-\f.
~ x R tjzt
I~ t-11

rcpoyr;vio~r:pcg +ioptpki tous. f;rcr~ kvtx ni:rpc~,prr rrou n e p t C ~ c t tmohi8thkttr~c~

arprcrrihrepi, rt~l,i;s>~oh-q);
popcpfi~jo~fisc i \ w ve6tcpo (17th E K F ~ I J Ox o ~ 1
i ~ ~ p t CT~~ cXi
~ 1 1 rxx3.,t~Gss~~prlz
tivrinaur~ri~x~o)l.le&)iciztr. 5 ktopcpj; jorjg.
~ U T ~ K L IOV~ Y U V I C T ~ 3x0s
~ V , at)r&S l a q p~i;.vsuritCatx csra rjfipara Kat t-<qh~.atoy
evrj
~~,zpcitptr~(~,
rq; r q j ttal yevtrix mu \,h~.uirn l ~ ,01.n~~>~rx.1.o1.roii6yot
peht:soijv ta
rxnohrflriyrxsa y1t.x vcu. ~ i x . ~ u \ f a f p ont l~vv twopia r q ~jw.1.i; Ktrr TTIV t-;ck).,t$q t q q . Tc%
rx.~oh~t)Qpu~ru,
enlzpknovv tsrou; y~u~h6youc
vw. spyqvei?aovv rqv yr-;(ohoyt~fir~zopirx
nhqpntpopir~y.u. zqv q h t ~ i c trcov ~.l;qptrroyevthvnt-:.rpo~tiilrov~ u rwv
y t r ~ ixixpi;~o~;v t
c;uvO~lt;ti~\$
rx.rrci$r:o~jgzou.; real wrrotcscztjv tFtaitr.:p~lo-qycxciirr 6x1 hdvo 6rav &ouv eupeia
E ~ & R ? \ ~ ~ ! ) Guh')b&
V. ~ ? T t x > b k6~ctv
~ ~ k%o\?b'j f i ~ KG1
~ t u \ ' c ( ~ ~ ~ P o \GE 4
? T ~u ~L K P ~ CY~L"CO[LO
XP(IVIKZ~ ccj~tkmqpt~.
pkea GTOV Y E O A O ~ S K XF)(')VO.
~ 7'f~~~7toh~Qti~~tcrz1~ G ~ I EC )~V Q ~ U ~ ~ < O V T U I

~ ~ t O o i i q y q ~ ~~ ~othj l~ f ) f ;(index ' ~ u , -h;.alt:i vat x pfiot pa,, 6ru t9:( 1 ) Eiv{.xt r.kqf:Iovt:~mtx
) ~ . a fossils)
n~rpcit)~crca, (2) k ~ o u vwipciu y~oypcxtptrqe<hnhwcq. (3) un0pjpuv ar:riF11 fi yi;vq rrotj
rixouv Sfiasr oxe~l~c'x.
a<~v~ajUr.x
~ p o v l ~ cii~r.xm~jptrztx.
'x Krxt (4) rivat E ~ K Q S Lrxvayvwpior~ttx
~

mt.6 TTIv u~<ri$pm

t:p"~a~~iu,
Tu r m o l L t O h p ~dpto;,
a ectruq uxu 6rt ei vat nrlp.rr,cl\.tt~tx
h-wl nvayh-uicr ~pyuh8i.u
y ttr rov
ouo~eslrrp6 zov cr~qpt.xxropL;,vK~.XI r o v yeyovti~ov. c;mozt:Aofiv r;rxl rrq ptr;vrtrcoi,~
ncpt@?+?+onrroti5SC~KTCS
X.X. St;:i~votwt , r p C ) t : p ~ t o ~ p ~~~ ~ i rt z~ ~ W O CTI^, j Ohhucrm;
uTO
TcOV t?;)k"~cX~C;)t~,

Zrpwparoypacpt~bga u o ~ c z t a p h(stratigraphic
~ correlation)
O cn,ayusrrcp6< eivul TI trv~rcstoi~laq.tj o rcrxpcthhqibiop6; awif mpc,~yitzcr,vfi
cr~~t,urir~apci,v
G~txqopcat~c;tv, i 1~11.xr:ptu~(hv
p;taoi*t~ti;)v p~ :.~oni) v{x x p ~ ~ & ~ o pi]m t ~ i
G ~ I ; T I K I~~ o t j grcro6uv(~piti105 X P O ~~ 1 G 1T ~~U ) J I ~ L T Ot ~ ~f OCnq
~j I ~ I K ~ tXilJ.,t~itlrj 11Ml4~qv
~ r l 6 0 p t ~ prrlS rwv yc:yuvurwv m'r] y t : ~ ? ~ o yrmopicr
h trt1y';r,povr~6zr1zcx; t~i zwv n8;prtqtbt:
rn,sci~v. ,A~t~t(pivt:rrt~
wov XI)OVIUO C T U : . X ~ : ~ L O ~ ~(time ccrrrel;~tjoo) xrn mov
ht8oatpopctrcty pcip t ~ nvnX conelit tiun).
i ~r:r tnbti~f lithostrt>mittogr~ph.i~:

yttx rov crrpoptxroyptxcpl~bcrttcr~catapjcivlxt ro crrpth~~c~

IGrtrircpct aqptx~~th-i, no\)
r>vopt'x<!:~czti ~ U t ) o & q ~ t \ ' ~ Gx ~Z' ~i )~ ' I ~(key
( T : M).t Ipriwt:r~ti~
yrtx tvrx ):6~oA(xtxv(eyv~pi~~;t~tu+
A ~ n r it<qprx.royevk;
j rnprhkta ~ o ?yppiopq;
~ i ~ txn6$cnqq. NA?~<I
~ t t ; l o t i > ~ p o~vtqr~pt t : y i k q ~
ni\,~tjpt~lj<
(yzoy(zarpr~.r); ::<tircAwtsq~. Timtri ti'(_r,O~?iiq'~?t~rti'ri,
tsrpt5ptx~t~f-:i~cxt
yiir
rrr n t ! p n ~ h t x r i s ~U~ h~
nctpix&~.~yprt I fa'r<r%reg)
K ~ xor, xhprotjv nohii ypfi:~ctptx. s t x t ~ ~ b ~ p ~ t v t x
K ( I ~CTE p1:yf'x3.~1:;yco)"j)cx(~tx~x
RCJ) LOXC; ~ T ~ O K Z ~ ~ p~:y<xiirl t:kif,nho~nq.
I T ~ X ~ ;I ~ ~ C I ! C ) I K ~~
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*k~h%~i< to6 'Epyaz:qpiou Fewikrt.La~aai n&ic>vruiLc>- /
j yia; fi?c< rIavrn\o:~lglau 'h8qv(lrv, 1981, b g C r A, 'No 3?, /
h t d v v r 4 ~; 5 KaHr\ntt'p; N. 2kqwimvLb~~.
! *f?lC5iSE~utt?rwtk~a t @ li. A. ~ p u ~ t < t k~ qa mlwpyauiq
i i
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~ epwr pixr(ov. (2) r ~ l v rttxpapitpcpooq KCXI rli crm}yipct)vir;; nou rcpoa6to pi jotw ra

rbipuiia ~pcivotr(geological time scale). q onoi* ctnotc?,e i KLC~TO O X S T ~ Kq~p ~ p o X to 0 ~t 1);

~$fihlgq.;r q i [ " q ~npiv
, txlrS 4.6By nou o ~ q p x t i c r n l ~y ek ~ rrtjpr:pcr.
p~ ri\'c:sc~~
~LVT~?\-?]KT~

6.rt 6tro nqyirivotyr: niaw o s o ~ p 6 v oot n),.tlporpopie< ~ c r ot

t yvhrreig ttot) acpopocv t111tq

H an6 huzq ~povai6y~~aq-MC8060IQo

apoo6rop~apoi
H tlx@hunj ~povoI~6yqcrq
~ i v t l lo tr~ptei); ~ p o v t ~? T6~ \ ~~O & I O ( ) I C T ~((~kktp~l(fq
(?; OE

q)reyoi,c,y~txh-citrq) rrl; tlltrirrg il w u ~pCIvoucrxqpartcrpu5 .rcw xr:.rpophrwv Ktrl ~ r n \ ~

.ycyov6.reuv. rl onoitr t:.nttt~y~irvr:rtay s ~ q flo~jOr,ui
v q;rc~t*o),.oyiucitn cnly~e~p~gthvct
r(ov ptr6 t o ~ p o v o hyof j o ~ c w H (radiometric dating) nou i:yI N
. pcliSto~(jo\'o>~3-r/1je11 c : ~~
t n j
xpcbrtl cpopii ctn0 t o v B p t t w u cpt,nt~ORutherford mi<t l p ~ k qTO" cxttitvrx, civut q cpuot~ri
ktEHofioi xpctcr&rup~rrpc~G
ttl; utCptfifl$ ilht~itr;EVO; B I : T ~ C ~ ) ~ ~rjX \T) ;O
L ~ K O EOU
~I f i t ~ ~ f i ~ t c ~ t
o t r p ' pkrprlcrq rq; ntxpot,critlg, n.ro irkrpopcx 4 ~ ) ~ i Tor,
~ 3 trcrrer0oil;
, pcl61r:vcpyoi~
tairconou nou fittrcrnirrcn pc c r r $ y ~ c ~ p ~ l ttbtcrir~po
kvo pl10ph ~ t r ruv
t nrtrt)~poGicr@ronot~
nol! npox6ntr:t w; xpc?16vtturq; rq; 61it(mtmq5.
Evloh~v6rt. rtr ixto(~utrtmi ~11gn~tOv
m o t ~ c i w vm t l Q6crtl i:~ol;\'TOV iijto trpt@g@
.-.
xpfi)rovio\'. 6r:v C ~ I I I Vaixvru t u v i61o npt0p6 v ~ r p o ~ : i o \ fI .cr irropi mrir lu; 8ccrq{>pcrj~4
rr(?t@$t(j vt:rj)o~iui',XO\. ov~pix<ot+ttrt
~ G ~ ' C O X TO\)
[I 0r0qt:i01i. GC trpaerb moqeict r:i\ft~t
txornO~jK e r l Gtttontinrctt gtc stn,s6~povtlc~prco)m~i
~~L~IBI:F.~Yo~
O ;L K ~ I V O [ ) O
~ ?t ,~~' ({1Xi ~ 6
K ( Y T(X U j ~ \ ; ~ k t i i < ~p\t~x tf i~t te ~ ~ p ~ f i .
~ GTOI X R ~ TOI,

O h6yog nvtr q pttijtev~.;pyCj$

61~vntx1;~~t)
xpocnpkpt:~h c t pkvo
CX~T(P~ J , ~ ~yk.rpqnq;
:; toll
~ p 6 v o v ,uEitr~ cir~ o pt$$.tO; i,;Kir(lr: tx~optxrj; 61itancm11i eivrr~ nrerQt;p6; K ~ L I 6ev

orrlv H ~ : ~ I I c ) K ~ ~ ~ om
)~r:sixpilhkertrtern6 t t ; t~h?~trytq ~ ( ?x X, I I ~ I K~ }~ C T T ( X OKU.I
T] (5~11xisrn]

crt)\*~if3~c~
RLJII ci\:(ii ~ ( 1 at
1 ~ t q ? ( i . p XOII
~ ~ pgtt:.rirfk'~hkovt(rl
~~ :/ct~E~t>;~t~(i
GZ~X tp(il~t~'>pt:~cr.
Atlti) crqp(xiv8t @TI 11~x6Z ~ ~Vp o \ ~ ~ kG -Tr jI ? ~not)
~ iiq~~~ot~p~ ~ i ~ ~ptx&tt:v~;p?hv
II~st~ktti ~rext
tnil~onovc,7cot~fijnorc o ~ o6pntrv
o t r p ~ i j a t11 trvrimpocpq pC.rprjcrq r t l ~~tcrusponrjq
f&~ixoatxoq;)tot$; s e riroycl artxOep(ljv tcrhtt~nan'pt: myk-ck-ptpkvo K ~ X Icr.rnOcpit puRllij.
Erit5yvopikc,~rp~ tov p~dlpi,&~irnxtraq< K t i l pnoyoljpe vlx parptjnot+tr: mo 6r:iyptx rot)

r~tptbytrtoefi TOII VAIKOG, t t x itropt~toti r ~ t~t l f ~ ptntj.r<~~ol)

~i; ~ t f ra
(6t;ljr{t~pe~06) i iXt\)p~
f? X'NA L A C 'E'92N 'KYPIIC3TEPS;;ZXPAATOXPONf)AC3~XF;GlMb3E@OM2U
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EC KAI H
nAPL4MQP@flXHTWT: THX

n p i v ai~uxtxj~flt.,i
31 napttpOi,ptppc~,nqvat ot r t : ~ ~ o v t r gy~.aho*,tl~i:q
q 60pi:j. 1~pint:tVLX
uvcirpkpo~;p:: TOY rpbxtz ,ttc zov oxoio ~c~plypiatpo\+c~x~
KUI pchczoljv~txt ysvr~iw.of

y ~ o l h u y ~iiupi:;.
i;~
H " ~ t : ~ ) ) l t ~ : x):plyprxtpti,
~pt~.fi . I ~ ~t ~ p c ~ o a i ~ 1 ~ o Arruv
~ L V < X ~ I ~ ( SKUI t q t yr;whoy~t;&v
6~ ijo)ldv
xov ~.;srit<ov~crim t l v ~ccl)%oyicry i v e ~ a ilie n l v /!ojjHcio 560 f3aa1~Ljv yewlicrp~rriw
u r u t ~ t : i o v :( I f zrl; 1:~1tp6\7~1ct<K ~ Y (2)
I ~ q YC){X~!L~;.
j M E p<xcnl rct 660 tnjrir moycitx ui
'ffX!l?~t?y 1h.i; 80!.ik5 ~ I C ~ K P ~ V O \ T ~ L P ~ ,I ~ ( ) ~ Y ) o 1v TKt11
~Y I WI; C ~ ~ ( ~ ~ V C I ( X K C S

yewiiuytwk~&up&(planar geologicat structures) fl 0 5 YI)U/L~IKC< Y E O L O ~ I K601125 ~ ~ (tinear

geological structures).
0 np~cmvaroAinpci~ rcov yct~);I,uyl~L;)v ~o)L&\J, not) ~ C tL:iv(tl
V o ~ I < ~ ) M (iAACt
Ic~. ~I~ii~otlv

xpo; ~ i r n u ~ tiilc6ttvvaq
x a r o ~ k p oyivsrrr~ big: (1) r q v ntxpixrc6;q fi 6rsiOtn~cnl rov
(2) zqv ywvin h-hiaq~T a t , o t o r ~ c i o t ~w ,i l t ( 3 ) r q v ijtt:~81!vtr31r;hicrw tot;
tfitso~~ciov,
moq,eia~).
Eniqtr.vt;trxrci;S y t:oi..oy ticks 60pi:~:
( 1f IlupDlza&tiI1 bre60uvaq (strike). Eivcri rl yw vitx sew nx~lklt.txi<r:~
q op i<inztct. yptql jir\
xixva~nrqv r:?rrrpixvctrr. [it: t u v kit~yvqtflcdBnpp(t, kd opt$vz~tr. yprippfi x(?(?~6?c~e1
txn6 r q v ~ c y trlq
q cn~cpuvr:~cypc TO oprjinzro cnixr;&o. W xtipixtcrcrl ptL:rp~Cratpc
rrlv payi~rlrnrqiXI l<ii)(~
~ t x heqi[J(Iv~:~
t r1pC; 1 ~ xOnw360".
0
( 2 ) I ' u J~ Y
A i~
tr~ ~ mgfct, E i w t 11 ~ i y t c r t t ycj~vicr
q(dip l xot) nxrlprxti<r:~11 c x i ~ l k v ~ iuc
tr ro
op<Svrtc\ r:rcixt:&o etri I L E T ~ ~ ~ Z(ITX~I Ot : y ~ h p ~ i01;o XPC)C t q i t xtxpix~t~tq EX~AR~U.
r Z ( ~ ~ @ hT~ tf ~. ; kt tXxh
i t)C-ijf)".

~ direction). Eive~t q 61cfiHt)vcnl npoc T ~ oxoitr

(-3) Ats6@t)vaq w k i ~ q(dip V ~ h i v s tq
cntcprlxve~tx~ r x teistxt ~kt3t:zq w q v X ~ I F ) < ~ Z { X ~Mt:tl)tt:;tt~t
I~. q n~tpt'x:(t;q
t 5 ~ f t ) ~ KM

~ a i p v ertpl.,;;
l ant5 0"-360".
 0 t , ~ , C T \ ~ ~ K ( X Z L X A C ~ C Jmi$
~ r ~ o o v tS ~I EbP~Y W ~ FXQU V T C ~ ~~ v S o y s v r i 8tt:pyuaicq,
~
~upupopcptbvouv, ctvc.xtcuaAc?jvouv Kac ~ r r a v a a pp1 ~ i < o \ wrov q1?~ut6zrl.; T q q 01.

S~epycrcriesuur6;. puXovivct c~up[luivot.i\~

p ~ p u ~ cpopiq
65 ar. ypfjyoptx ~nr-:trr(tS~u.
rnjvqHo5
x~tiy~stxzonocoGvacwl. S r n ~ ~ S t ~ l i KILY~CPEI;
YE C P P Y ~KUI tl;< xou 6l.lrpc~pqci1vovv
nvvtrp& xqv
L U Tv5.
I ; K ~ ~ < I V ETTfS H CYqbtUCtiCt Kt31 O ~ff@01)1051.~Cj<
tOl!G f ~ b hGtqV
~ ) ~ < 6 ~ ~ TOV
1 c qvh0l.06
tqq Trli, o onoioi ~ ~ r l p . ( ~ ~cr06hq
~ i j ~ ~sqv
t ~~lm o y i us q Tq;
~ (- xptv crxh J.(j'By) yivcrcxi
npc7qmvfiq unC, ~ t l v~ti-6q
he6pt:vq .rtyturs~ctar;rjh;u-Isr-;i.nyi~fi
Sprin~l.sc! t:~~r:n~~ai~tocC%,
rq; sxccpbvetag rq5 Tqq t6cro m t ~
txILlhkirFtacpoycrth-ix ~topcpo6up~jvaru qrreipou; om K a t
n ~ o u g w ~ c a v oj.i t61.uirepcr yirltmtt. movq Y , ~ ~ O U EC T ~ Y K ~ I ~c tI n~h~~ .k i ~ f q i fi
p~stx.qqp-rrtcr,r.icx')
rmv cvepyiv nepc8wpiwv r o v h?~forrcpcnp~.uci)v
nhtrtcthv.

TELml-napap6ptpcgjq
~i p ~ s t x ~ t ~ p ( ~ i ~ b t C v a ,
T u seopt;rpttrcc, uve\iryrqru ~i'xv ~:ivtltnupty~vfj. tCqpt~t0~~11fi
CTI: kvracn) fi cvrart~fi~aruotaarl611hrr61-j ~ ~ O K I : L \ T T GI:
IJpi~f~cnfstx~ ( X L~t:pilmte<~Clcrey
no\)zivtzt TO i r n o t L h ~ ~ pTWV
u TEKTOV~K(;IVSI!V~!~COIV
K ~ Z~
I q f3~t~pfit1l~txq.
;
H Ptrp6~qrurtpo~erheiyttt icrq npoq i>Ar:< st$ tctxr~t4i)vaa c; aupni enq m u irerp<~baxrcr
it~ohrcrzuttrfixisoq fi t b c t ~(tithostatic pressure or stresf httc n yo ~ G n rIe
no ti ovc~pix<c~cjt
H k t O o c r r t ~ ~ rrincr~l
txni> r o phpttq r o v vmqxci~tevwvxe.cprnkt~r~c:~v. ~ f i ~ZII$(~CF.I
pe n l ~
clCkr1aq rou @{~OOV$,
ixcpoi, txtitirvei TO rctr~o; r t r ~ouvext5i so Btlpo; riov tmcph-cibtcvwu
~rerpog~xroi*. t r fipit. Oxoc rl xir:csq
uhkit 6t:v n c ~ ~ t u k r r t r ryitrti T ~ I vepol;
)

nieorl. hydrostaric pressure) x o (~mt:itilt

(u&porrrtx~eli~j ~ ~ GPI yhpttt ~j GI: 1105. 5rm

pp~crsO,tttrare.afint~eizo vepri.
$26 SGvupq (farce) nuvfiHw; opir~strtr o &~rrvr)np(x~tai~
ytyceo;, TO olroio rciiia~vex
" 9 I

(VL#,ti(;~1
V

iJ (~?,kitje?TI)V 1toptp~jtj rtlv tiivqn11 cvi~;akputoj. cvt6 1 0 zhvq

~ (stress) opi;c.rtrl
6<~(t~t'tl
R0V f f b t i f - : i ~ t l l l~ < l \ / t 0IT8 btltx C T ~ C ) I ; S E Lt V k'tn ~CT{J~XTIJ.Lat: blcl~<t&t:$
~ t~t ~ (]i ~ F . t t X

x i e n q ~N/Ix? M t h a q vna j x i vti trvtrhv$r-:i w ~ npoq

, zqv cntcp&vcttt.xou t;~tt,ppril;r-:~i~,~
er-:
660 nu\it~xhee<:m q v wiiflerq fi opRil r&cq (normal stress) KG[ $
m q v x~untupr:viic~
i l t a t p q t ~ ~ti h
j y (tangential or shear stress).
ALY~~ET
p~~ X , Rirw.p~) TI];
TIIV PupG~q~txi.01 ~ ~ t i t ~ v l h -ij~~i'lxbt~:ti;
E< 7ipo~it?~06\~
h;uzeu@ua+i)psvcr;
thtfrrc (directed ~twssc\s),;jqhe16 r j rixcse cq KO\;~i
vctt rrrppi,tepcg crr: y tit.
~ r ~ r ~ i h 8 1 1 xa1
t v q e. i w ~tt\)rli:~
~ X O I ~7~tr{~t.~pc>pqxijvcf~t~
ttim~p~gtt~tt.

f >rrxv r o 7CE~ptope1f&>i~af:~cjt
CTF, E I ' Z ~ ~ T I KK
I ~~ I Z & C T T ( X Gst^.
~ ~ ,C I ~ ~ zov
T T O ~ Z Epkpr] ~ ~ civui
* ? ,"
G~~vtrtb
vtt. pctrr~~vr\Uoi.v.
vtc c~rptx~o6v
~j arrt vtr ciis-rbit);ouvo;~i)ptt.ETGI11 tittptxpbpcpontl
TOV rrt~:~ptbpxr~?; i a\yet:i pr:: f 1) p~r&Uzar\ItransIation) ti2ukrxy7jzq; 4-3i;artj TOV.
p x a p ~ vtr
~copi; (~xh(xyfiXOU cqfipa-ru$ ?j TOV hyh-ot), (2) ncp~arpocpil (rotation), (3) ahluyfi
(distortion),(4) crkkuyfi ity~otlfdiiation).
c~ir,fipu.to~
rit3;hrryil o r q e i a q , so c~~tjptw.
W. yr:osyr:tptk-I\ txt~z~i I ~ K T ~VTOV
.I OYKO ZOU n~,tpII)itw.~~;
o\fqtir,jczrr~nmpaphwrttsriq (strain) tcer~pilopei ktw y i v ~ pc
t rpxtq Gttx(pop<:~:l~ot;c
r6trot)j
~ )UYZ U U ~ ~ C T ~ . rj
K \ ~ T I X ~ I K CK : Ok-r;lzl:r,B\)\~@p:vcr)t*
\} T~OEWV:

( I ) ErpsXllc-ucpcii; 4 i~rtncrx](extensionor tension) ii ctpriircuazzicEc zQn~,q(extensional

stresses). Or s r p i : ) 6 ; tfia,.:~~ ru\96ouv 4 E K T E ~ ~ O V 7V0 K ~ ~ O I . OGC
~ I ptu

G I ~ K E K ~ ~ 6tl-:OHv\mq.
~ ~ I J I ~ T~:ToLI:;
T ~ G jEK ~~ ~ J ~ I X Q mouS
X O ~ ~ X(;IQOU;
' uxbrAtoqi r o v
neprftwpim' tmv ~ L t @ ~ ~ ~ 7th(t~fi)v.
w t p t ~ & ~
(2) Cupnicaq (compressian) 6 aupxtrazzili~ ~ i i a e t g fcampressianul. stresses), 0 t
o u l m t e o t u i b ~~ i r a e qcnrpxtC<otivt o nbrpo~pctoc: yut m ~ y h - e r p ~ p ~litr:i}Ouvtrq.
;vr~ XTI;
jive; d y ~ h t o rqo ~v ktHo~tpcripc~iv
nhuicc(~v~ t ~ p 1 c x p ~ o016Gv u ~ L R I E ~ T Trilat:~;.
~K~;~

(3) Atcirfitlaq (shearing) $ ficix'tpqtt~C~ rijlipc't5 (shear stresses). 0t 8ttrt y q r t ~ l ;~ k oISc

C V E ~ ~ U~(I~<X?L?~I]?L~X
~ V p ~ ~ i r TOUS,
t 6 ( t?ihh o e ctv~i@t:rqh-(w.~r:681r\farl.npouufbb,v~cc$
r-:qturrc,btr.vl~d;~ J ~ I G @ ~ JTO\'
C T EF .I)<; M Z ~ I ) ~ ~ ( ~tE~Vp ( 1 ~ T@Il
6 J ~I'C~tpdlp(1~0;.?\fi15~€11'~lh-~;
rrlxoer; y,txpcrrzqpii;ot,v rct~i;~ i h p o-cwv
~;m ~ p t 0 ~ p i ~fl v<CIIVOV
btt:~(~~;~q~t(rr~opoi>.
r i v e r t a c r v r ~ h q n ~h b~ ctrt 8tctcpopcst~oirtjnot r t h q ; ~a8opii;ovrcttult6 TI; ~BO~OYLK~<

K E~G I ~ O Tlla'
C T \ ~ ~ ' ~ ~11011 U Vf)k(5q Z0\1 ~1Tpf;f~flTt)~,

tou ncrp&paru~-Ei6qnapaphptpu3arlq
M q ~ a v l ~oupnzp~qmpir
ij
3-41 Bthrpopct xc~pihptrrutrtxpuuntir&ov\: Fwcpopt:r~tc~j
p q p t v ~ r jaup~eptrpoplih~(1tj
ppl:Ooi~va c x ~ ~ i x m t x I\a r~~J
I:VT{XTIK~~ ~~TI(TI~.
To n t t ytapu nrxpovn~i~jctt:hurnr~?i ou{msy icpopti (elastic brhaviour). dtj?,(rciQ
vcpiortrscjc sknnrtil* nupupltp'pcuar] (elastic deformation). tinrv pt;rO rtlv anoyhicpwriq
tmv stptxppoj6pr:vcuv &t~\trpr:o~v. yy r:mr a r q v
Tn ni:zpcop\r. eilir~k up^ I K ~ 0 1 1 B t ~ q4
poptpti ~ e ~ pvui ii ~ kcxcpcxmci
s ~ j c chtrmtr;hqrcr.c rou. T o Bpro
r o atjpcio t x ~ - r o ~11~ hpto
av.ro-&j fi 6pto ekaatt~6qruc(yield point or elastic limit) ~ t i l o s ~ hTO~ i~(titop~flr:lh-h
r ~ q ~ i?ti1
~ iC~ ~t ktrl"~,(evtmj
V at)p~k:pt(poptiEVOS x t : ~ p t b p ( n~ ~I I~' C ~ Y UmL ~y ~vI nrr.pcxbldptpu~nq.
K(XL (xilotl:A~iT C ~6pto b onoio q xtrpnyt~pcpwoy6 ~ ~vi v t r tn?LCoa}t:Xcrmtr~i.
nCptx o ~ ro
uJWh6!
~ { 1 f l ( l ) , i i ~ 1~lOi)tt~CX.
-:1 Kirt(i tl]\'T . ~ ~ X GBT( IIPK~ I~~ ~~~ I ) ( P ( OTOB I11006
] TI')< X ( I ~ ~ \ X ~ ~ ~ W ( U ~ ~ I ~ ;

givtxt cr\~ixkoyt~
srlq t~'ruo?l;scov ~cptxppc>i;Opsvu~v
6uvirpcwv 11~6po;Hookef.
Av~if;l~:tli.
S S ~ T ] n~.:pinttouq
\~ T ~ C pilv~pqg
; nt~,ptxpbpqcxfq( ~ X I C Ec~r:p(notci
:I TO 6p1o

8htxt-n l~titqttw.<). pt: i

t i t j ~ f i~mc, i pe:
v ~ t:x6qlieO~
t

( I f pc BpctGorl h-fir ay,rlptrnoph iitctpp~jSetov(brittle Pdilurir) tctxt ovobiix<s~tttQpawlycvfiq

ncapapbpcpo~cq(brittle deformation).
(2) pc ~iXpy~1 .rch(iarilcO ( o F\YI
KUI x t i ~ ~ o r rO~Xl ~, T F ,TO ~Etp[t)pa.rrtxpcr.prtp~pri,~~czfx~ ~
\)h1x6) ~ t x iq
#{1 mk61~:q OVO~<X~~,%
~(1ptw~t6p(p(r)~~tl T QII, . ~ G Z C
. ~KC~C ~ P ( W I ~ ~ P(ductile
(P~~)GR

deformation) fi
(3) pxopci t o drpwptx va nc~ptxpopcpci~veru~
cxpp~irXILWTTIK~
K ~ I IT V(I~ Op(11;~rar.
E ~ I K

0 x 6 s ~11 .~cmprrptipcpwnqcivtxi ~ ~ : T U [ ~ ~ X
p ~TrIuKcIis\) q ~? ~ i l a a l r c~f i ~a tq;
i xhamt~~j;
r;ctl ovopitjetal qpt0pauaty~vqs4 r1pin3~a,nartuilrcu(~xp6ptponq(semi-brittle or semi-
ductile deformation),

~apap6pcpcunq~
Or xtnphyo~ptc;xocl ~a8cjpi
<out3r q pq~tx~~rtclj
crupxrplcprtpir. zrw xcrpcitptiroq ~ivtxr:
(1) )f tp6nq ttrtt I I ~ ~ ~ K OKf&&
~). t l h 1 ~ 6x ~ t p t ~ u ~ ~ it61txit~:pq
i<~<~i ~ t l lt s t ) y ~ c ~ p q f b q

crt; ~ r ~ ~ y ~ ~ ~ Cp Ft UpV k~ Kv ErS~, ~~E C T T ~ ; f~~ppo~pt~CTitxq

pq~cnvtk-rjnt~ttnr:p~qopri
r;u[ ~aptr,mrtpi<czrlt(2x6 ~ Y . ~ K E K ~ ~ ~ ) ' bpi()
:vo ( L V T O X ~ ~fyicld
S strength). Rhhtri
netpii~kmrc~n.K c i v u l ~txoupb K ~ X I irhha 6h~1p(x.Ern1 rrc ptu cLroXouOitr
8ttx~opt:rt~Gvnr:.r$~o~pix~cov,
tj,vr& aou kxauv TI~V r&cr?l ~C~~X~OVTUI

(I,$ 660xlbaara(competent). r-:vci~

~txputcsqpi(ox~tr~ c~civtxxcw i:p.wv T ~ rcicrrl
V vu
nt~px~ptykpovz~xt
xc:ptnn6~t:pu nhtnmr~<c ~ u p u ~ t q p i < o v ~ t otc
xt ~illt>~u~ta
(incompetent),
(2) H Ocppo~puaiu.Aiigqfi11 rtl; O ~ppo~pcinitr;n p o ~ c t ? ~ ctC<.rla
ci q sqs t ~ ? ~ t t t jsqt l ~
ntg.txcply>op<i;.cot) ~ ~ ~ : t p t h p t x ~ ~ : q .
(3) ).I i,.lOoszu..rrlcfi~ I c s q ,Ocra p::ayrti2virt~pr-:ivrlr q h t O o c ~ t r r r ~.rcit:aq
~i rciao TO

nf spwptx ncxptx yopqivr,~~t;t(~,txi,txnr t ~ c i .

(4) 0 ~ p c i v o OI q r:nikpot;v n c ivtr. rcitpwpc~y t r pcy'iko ~ p t 3 v l ~(ithcsrqpt~
~ . . c k n ~ ~no\) il
r:t~voui,v zqv nILtxnzth-tj nv~mcprtpopci.uuroi. evl;r 01 atqvi;ltc:; xu1 ni)nokte;
F ~ ~ A U K O ~ ) L E~\ ~lEiCo ~~t i~
\ ?q
o o irqv
r~ ffptnin~yr:v~i
m!)tnr:ptcpttpii ruu ne~pti~ptx~oc.

M ntxpapitpptotsrl lsotl ti:~ot:vtmunrt-:i ra xf-:.cpoi&tcx~rr,

~ i v c r t xtxvnhqnrfj.
~ o~t:66\fsstt,
nt'ivtAr3 rotv ~ p t p r ~ vZOIJ;.
i ~ ~~~( xvtt6tixirt:pfx uzt~vxpbtit; tztxt tu ~ t p f r ) ? ~ kt<r\
v c[ ~I ~ X T Ot'rj
~E

t(l orroitc * ~ ) s I K6<~~0 t ) \(' ~ E M F C ) E ~O P I G ~ V T ~ ~KLt l l

~c?$Khpu~ti, Kh"~f:i\'Ol?ifl T [ ~ ~ E I ! I ) I KCTC
~X

)rc~ithrqt r n n m i t ~ ~ r i .
TEK'COVIK~~ 4 t f c f i (tectonic or dcfwma tional structure)
x u p a j i o f ~ ~ c ~ ~ iiupfi VOE i~txt

~ 8 t 60pfj
; 11 yvhptnyu. got, n p o ~ 6 m t : ctx6
t trpt lsaprty6p~tt~oll
TO)V R F T ~ ~ ~ ) ~ ~ I T O J V .

01~ l i p t otli r x c ~TEICTOVLKOJ\. fop6w r - : i ~ t ~(If

i : 01 X T V X ~ (2)
~ . ~ 1 ~1 ~ Y J ~ U T~( (I 1+1( 3 ) ut

;It trh-hincrr ;
Htv~Eg
H: I xov
T > ~ ~ ~ T~ [K~ I~ \( L v ~ ~ ( P o G~
? ~ 6 1 1 h ~ ; ) vpc
e ~ nsC~waq
ar o 6 q y ~ ac
i ~opmoei6ci;
~apxuhthoe
t;, xhpvje t; jj xupzGcrt:i~twv 61ugopf:zt~&vmposy<xrwv tosv nczpospd~zwv
b x w ~n,x. t o v crtpwpivov ijqp.moyevtbv nespwpkmv. Ercrl o; mu~ij(fold) vctciscri q
4
N ~ ~ ~ J ict;p~tr~o~l
I I rqi ccp~tttfiipopcpljq rol; xt:~pci.~rctroc
~ w p i vcr
i ~xti,Ozin c y ~ v l ~ i : g
ypixvvl:.; prjkq T T ~ Sc r w k ~ ~sot,.
t~<
0t nruxi j. po?svovbnpxopotjv vu cqrlpctrlmoiiv txxh a ~ r < r ri:t;r Ktrl 6 r . c n p q ~ i ~ i : <
jot}rcr~cmi~nuktxtlrlcrn th-k; nioc y. H irrtjpmrl
riroc:t$, crrqv xhelov6rqrct sot)<, cr~qpcxti
ou~q0trti;ctc8.r)hhvt.:rtxt ve ~ ~ p ~ c r a b t txrrb
e p e yia
~ 61u&a3/1~&
m t i x $ ~ ,or onois.2 kxat!v
nctpbp.oiw y e m l l ~ z p t ~~ht x p a c t r r l p ~ . n rK~II
t ~ bxpokkeuoq ttat o u v ~ m o i wym o,r.iix6a~ r t ) n B v
xau ovcyr'xjc~uraijaqpu, nzuxGv (fold system), xpo~ahritvttxqcrpi~ptwarlzoti ntxp6~prxrog

p i r i 4 TO I. rrruxf4v
~ z c t ) , ~ ~ c ~gtorpiar
Me T ~ ic~0ac!~crrl
V q11jursijo\.ra1 6l<x6oxtri:; h-ctpxi)l,~.<,
~v~soet,fic;i,;
~ntcpbvcte~
pc
trjv on6te ovcqt&i;o\~ratuvrijtoptpu (antiform) tire xpoi; rtx
.t;otpn6ho~.rlE ~ T Enpog ta xt'x~?o
K ~ WO ,I T ~ET u~opiX<ws(rlOUV~UP(PUf ~yaaform).Tcr, ci.vsipop{pa xau cr~ovxvp4 vtx TOI~S

i:~o\?vt u arpoyrxroyprrtpiwb xahrrtcizeprw, nerphprazcx ovoph<ovzcrt av.rik->+~vu

(anticlines)
~ r x trrx tsi)vvopcprx ?rut! l:xot.w GTOI~ xupfivlx TUU$ ttx \*f:Gz~-:p~
nt:tptbptll~tr O V O ~ ( ~ < O \ J Tt C W
ailyiiitva (syclines). T o nlo ~c~pnctrrl
p l m lh.6 q\.t~'~p
tcr,~ttcr o v xru~ebvg i vtr~ pe ytrhq s o t s
no t ~Aiti
t 0,: KOG; rilxov~,xou ctpiccttxt pt:
yr:u~yczp~ TOY ri pt3 t ~ ~ v u z p o x ixzti~qq
a f Sold
style).
0 Qgovag n ~ u (fold
~ 4 asis)
~ fj ypappii iLp0puwq~(hingeline) eivti~3 yptxpgfl rqq
,~tFyicrtq;~up7tGho)nqqjj tiiiprot0q; ryq r n t , p v t v q q ~xi(~<xt'f:tt~<,
QTIXVC) rjx$ovtrt~x t \ : ~ ~ j ;
t:ivttt cu8ekr ypuvprj T ~ T Cq nrtjxfi ovopix<ezcxt ~ u j i t v 6 p t ~fcylindrica1
fi fold), ~vcbeuv
. i ~txpnikqy p t t ~ p j21 mvpj ovopirjeso l pq ~ u l ~ i v &j
~vta p i(nuncylindrical).
r H jl3vtl
hp0ptucaq~(hinge zone) t-:ivtri q jr;l\9q yiyt~ttixi, tqv pk;{t~-cq rcrrpniAomq. oxoiti
~Fp@{1?bfit:tTql' ' ' / # l ~ ~ <~p@ptrtts~<.
tfi
Tfx xt.cp6ytu 4 crsCkq rqG n~u~+& (fold limbs) aivtr~nl nheupCg sq; nsr>~fiq~ o t i
~vthvovttx~
nnq ithvc;; ijpOptunq;.
.La<ovwifi ~xtrphvcua(axial surface) t:ivci~ .tl rprx~vmrt~rj
r-:nlrpt'xve~uxou ~vtlivelTI$
ypttplrk~irpNpwc;rli rev ~ I & ~ O X IoKt p~ o~~Vp i t ~pttrj
o ~ ~x t v p j j { I T . S ~ L ~ X Ffiq?bt~&fi
.L TL~V

ixcovtx mtqfi;) Ktrt fitrx;~ti)pij~i

r11\' nrtyQ (TE SOo. 600 t o i)t)v~t';h,G I ) C ~ J I C T ~ Irpflki(x~t1.
K~~

Ortrv q [ X $ O V Lt:xttpixvt:t*
K~~
~.iv(xtT . J C ~ X C Uo\~~v(ijt:ttt~
~ ffbld axial
~ t t (l X ~ O V ~ K ;cxift~S~3
)

planct. X v ~ v i x ,mtr !it:~txpoprpwpCvtt ~ IT\ ' ~ ~I R T ~ O C T F . T~(tXf Lp 6 k A q i ~xpt);

XET~C~JI~X t~ TI~V
 r q ~nruy,rj: tp6Ahmall nov ovopitjc~crt cpGk3mq ~ a r &
a(ovtlc4 ~ntcpltve~w. akovt~h
~ x i z ~faxiat
i i ~ plane foliation).
Tct crqpeia zwv cs~t;h4\1xuu ~ u p a ~ r q p i an6
~ u ~prj?if-;vt~.fi
t ~ ~ KW I L ; ~ U ~ ~K CZ T~~ta
Z ~

oxoia auvfikouv Gt(x.6o~1.x-ir

c.xvriktolo(lcpc~K ~ L Ini,vpoptpcx ovoptt:gov~trtnqpsiu avacrzyucpfig
z q ~~ k i e q(hflclxtun
~ points) KW 21 ypcr.krpq nctu cvttjvcl ru C T I ~ C I E ~ Ctx.uttr
I. ypatt~tfi
uvaarpocpit~rqS xibiaqg(inflexion Line).
01.~nl.tpfi.-ve~~;
nou negtf3hhhovv fi.1CliS0~1~hcivt.ip.opcpn Kai rr6vpoptpcr ovophgovml
extlpkveteq (envelophg surfaces). H y pc*!rbuj cncccpfi; r o v rtcp tetxAh,uucrh~~
nrpr~&i,J4otw%;<
~ntcpcrvcthv9.e r u uvri/i.opcpu ovopixjcml ~oprwpoypavpfi(crest lisle). c..~c;tC(E TO (~Cvpolo(l(~u
ovopix~o\rccrint)Bpaia ypnppfi (trough line).
MQlrug n r u ~ f i(fald
~ wavelength) ovokkx<cru~TI an6cnt:tcr.q ~ET(x<C) 660 ~ a p 6 p o i 0 i ~
n r u ~ h vn . 5 8iro iiLaiio%tlchv ~opucpcrimv fi 66o 6 t u 6 o ~ t r h v
crqp6iov 6l(r6o~t~cbv
xvQpcrici3vcrqpci.ov, xat 6yro~zztq$jg (fold amplitude) t.~vt!pit(l:,~crt
q u x 6 v ~ a u qp,:zatO t q ~
I'.:vS~&AEC~I~S
cx~q~~xvt;~t.t;
~ t TIIS nou ~rerp~x~txt
u nf.:pip~xf.ahourrt~.; ntrptxhh.rlhtx npos z.qv
at$vttcq cnup&vertr,
Av0hoy.x ye T I ~ V~ h i c r qro1.j tttova n r u ~ f j sot xrt,~ki;Stn~pivomalux:
(1) apt@vztq n.tu~rji;f horizontal folds), 6stxv o t l ~ o w gm t r ~ reij ~
vm opk<dvtto<
(2) Bt)Oti6psvs~ntuy,Cg (plunging fotds). O~cxv o <i<ovcc; n r t ~ p & ncxpntlcr~ei<t.~tfi
f3vO~crk~Evog
npoi prtx timefi0uvnq.
(3) Ka~atc6ptqce~czu.xCg(wrf ical folds), brav o ix<ovcc<~ . t . u ~< ?~ii v t utit:rrrtxti6pu~o~.

?VIE Pricr11 ~ q tihicr~j

v 2115 tx<~vtx?\;E X ~ ~ J ~ ~ V I : E6t~rtipi~t)t'r(t1
(I; crc:
(I f opQL; t r z t l ~ i (upright
i~ folds), iir(x\7 11U ~ O V ~ CK RI ~I ~ ~ V t ~ :vcx
~i It X
K~XT~~K~~~UV)TI,

(2) K E K > . I ~1~1VzCv G

~(redialed
i~ fotds). iutclv q cxcovtx-rjr:nrcpirvc tcr eiilol tietiJukpi:vq,
(3) rca~urccipcvr:< xtu& (rccumbcnt fuldsf,k t r v q uto\l~tcrjenlcprlrvettx r:ivtt,l opt;uvzttr,.
(4) avcazpapptvy n z a ~ k(overturned
~ folds). 6mv rl t x t o v ~ ~ ?cntc~irv~,ru
j ~ . f i ~

K F I ( ' X I I / ~ L uhk6
~~ ~ V XTFP~')'?O
U ILK 7PJlxfi$ k ~ l fix6
~ R~f)lflTfXX(pCi TI1V ~ ~ ( l y * t k 'T01)
fi

opti;S\.r~txffinq yo~vitt> 90' ~ t r it; ~ c cr\lttmptxtpr:i.

t
0 t nru~C; krc nzcpt;y tcx isucr~)pq~o1.14ovop6;avrcxt ~ u ~ ~ ) L E Tn
~ z~ qKE~ ~G(symmetric

.frtkts), 4:vf;) brtx\: .err nrep6y r rt k ~ o ~ 6i kaepop~zlk-h

v pfj KO< c)vt~,ttir'<e
>ifsfnamjpps~
~ E I ;~ t t ~ x i g

rlpijo'~rctxz(1x6 tpupQ4 uxblri,iaq

f asymmetric folds). 01txni~yperpeqnzt;.~t:,;~trpttk-t 6 yanfi
n ~ a x f i(fold
~ wrgence), 6vcr 6yo not) ~p?lc~poxol~:irti,l
yla wx dl.:i<a t.116' GY,CTIKT~

r t ~ ~ i 4 u v c nT?K
l lcivrlorlj KQI r q ~n~ptarpt,cp~i;tctxsix r11v mGy,ct~~q.[-I cpoph sqq
e x o i ~ p p ~ z pnztf~rjq
~jj npocr6iopii;cztrt npoq r q ~ (xx0 ( ~ I I T T ~tV
qc
Elci?Otwrrrq; h-hitrq~r q s tr<o\jlf~q;~ m p l l r v , ~ : ~ ~m~yfiq.
q
 M E Ptirnl T I ~ Yyovicl .nou n~rlplxsii;ouvrlx 660 ~ z ~ p i ) y tTt x~ nS ~ v ~ ~KUI
j i ;0 ~ 0 p 3 j ~ ~ a t
ywvia aroiyparo~rqG lrtu~ilq(interlimb angle) fi~irk-pivtwmoc:
fi unaki..~
(1) xoAh UVO'OIKT~S I 'On- 180"
(gentle). itc yu~vitt.ix~foiy)lc~roi
(2) fopen folds). pc: y w v
KT'C~X~S
UIVOIKT~S i avoi;ifitx~og
~ 70"-120"
(3) ~kr;wrC;nt~tyyC~
(close), p': yolvirw. cxvoiypu~oc,30"-70"
(4) CF~PI;CT& If1 ~ & fi
~ o k f i ~ k ~ t b (fight) U R O ~ @ O K ~ ~ V E(~uh-isf)~fina~).
~$ ).LC Y C ~ S V ~ U

c x ~ ~iy).ur,zo<
tl 0"-3Q"
4 5 ) RWK>.RVEES (isoclinal), p~ y ttlviex txvoiy par05 0"
(61 nmyputt~gqfi puvktapucdciq 4 cbaartlck~nru~kq(ptygrnatic or mushroom or

Av6i,oyu. yc trlv popqfi tqq nt.v-~,c!~pi\?q;

c.x~qx'xt*t:zcr~
fi,xus< quivctut a-k; npocpih) ot
7t2:tqll:j f i t i ~ ~ p i ~ ~ \ 'CtTfcx: L
( I ) XlrapiahiLqlc; rcruxki; (Parallel folds). 'Sc, x t r ~ i ~~c(, O V~ ~ t i ) ~ ~ ~ i f tlyxiepa-LU
j . ~ u l r t ~ KPC); 'eqv

nrr)~oyi:v?j
crrtcpiti9~let
61txrqp~irafr n e ~ @ ~ ~p it) : T(I itkprj tqq x ~ r q f i H
i T U S ~ ).LC
,~;
crt~rfpjcqii ~ c ~ v o ~ p o n~i ttrx, p u ~pi~juutl xuu
r l zm otpruyrivcr I jqpx~uyxlitjXKZC)~;~~U~."C(Y.
fix\: t ~ o ~ unoosci
tv Cg rncx
pcscxp6pcpwarl art,; nruatoaiyev~i; KUI c x o ) H q ~ ~ ~j4jtle~
I I LOPOYCV~~V.
R F , P ~ @ ~ ~ PTOlV

(2 ) y n r o ~ k(Similar folds). To n h ~ o ;TOW mpiu~<~ilrct~v

llup6po~ n u p i ~ M kq ~ cxpoq q t5
rx;o~f~tctjr:.nlcpir,v~itxGtr~qpriztrt attr0rpb. Z~qblci.ti<rwccxt tci,r.lioq crzcx ici.:vspt tc0
~yrjlfixttrTor] opoycvo6~tic pc~upopcpojptvtxncrphpurtt. Y E V ~ K I JJ ~I F . T ~ X ~ ~ ~ I P M ~ T ) ; .
I K ~ $ (Harmonic folds). Or ~I&ov~KF.:s t-:xtyf~xvei~j
( 3 ) A P ~ ~ V I XZI)X& ):i~'~xt
ovvt:~t:iq mt,t
8 1 ~ 6 I I 0T U ~X W ~ ~ ~~VOT
<~
Il ) h ~ I ~ t t l .

(4) At)oappovru&gxro~kg(I)isharrnonic folds). 0t t r < o \ : i ~~;xllpi~v~.lei

t~ firv ~ivtxlm j ~ K ~ K i j
vccx 6 u r 6 o itch
~ rcr~qojitkvucnphpxrc~.
~ n t mci cnixeftx
(5) EuGocpuiblLGct5nru~C;(Intrafolial folds). 01RWXCS n c p t i i ~ o ~ gbou
711; cpi);E,iLma~jsI\ rrcpwpiffrct~n~t;.
fh f F'wvtb&ct< fi ydooooc3ci$ n r u ~ E c(chevron folds). 1111;)5i:; to:i,lv&pt~k<,C I ~ I ~ ~ EL TC P~ C
pc c:xirrc;ir~ ntr:pcyttr r u t yo~t~th6etctrpftpBo':kg jlh-cri o k i ) i l i , c t ~ ~cty8ptSar:tq.
cq
flctptxrqp(,il\.rui tie p ~ x p ~ flStxf3poii
i, ; i t : ~ t ~ ~ i ~ ~ ? ~xesp4jp(xtt~.
t ~ p t ' : ~ f ~tjmt>q
x ~t t p t J A i " ~ ~ i ;
~ 1 ~ 1~XICTTOAIAOL.
0 1

f 7 f Kink r r uj~ (kink folds)-Kink j u ~ z q(Kink bands). I I T ~ X L G~uArv6plxi:<.troi>yysrpr-:;

~ r t y t r i q p o i : ~ ~ ro~
pc ~ninetStxncepijyic~x t r ~o:6ibr:llczt:~tt.p@p&or:t~. c t ig i ~ p o 6[)c~Optclt;
~~c.iirpopqot~it::tfe~
ncrptiytr~u.unoq 01 t p ~ > , ? ~ i KUI
~c; ol a ~ t m 6 > ~ O o t .
(8) flntylcarr~&n ~ x t il~ 6n t~o ~ i gpofig (Ptggmatic folds). Avcrtxp~ii3v1ttt;i r c ~ , ] ~ BKVpitni
i

a c cphcf3iritu .rwv y c r o ; w p c p c t t t t nr:rpo'~kitt.~o~\*

xut, X ~ I ~ U K pi
T ?jo\tr(fi
~ ~IXO
 a~ervcivimeqilt.:nsGvol:t~~ t 7t~x~tjv~tttq
~ t TWV R Z I ~ U Y ~ ~~(x0Ci)~
TOUS ~ KC([ TCOV < ~ D V ( ~ I V

ir.p$poaqq zc)us;,
(9) Doku~kivaic, n z a ~ i(i3tbtt,tyclinal
~ folds). 01 n r q t . ; CXUTC~ ep.qavijouv fiim fj
cr.tovtttCi e n t ~ i r v ~ ~ n
~~.ptoaci.ci;pc< c ;.. ~ot. nruxks ~Gnou~ u w l o i (box
r folds).

M Itx ~dt(xitt: ~~ $ povoa%ivils

pq at:pimomq m i ) ~ w ~ rCj ~gV U ITO P U V O K X ~ V((mo~~odine)
1 r r u ~ (ruonoclinul
3 fold), TO 0x0 io t x n o w h ~ yrct
i CTKW\ (~hvqc?pcxiL~i;~tjl,t~4111~
r)pt<o~:~iwt'
ij
nohi ~ I K P I ~ ; O iu;V d L i(TIIS O T ~ O I , U ~ I T C ~ I V .
X ~ j ~ vrcrxpnrq
ix peiscrt 8tLttpopt:i n t \ > x t ivti car1pccijnnut an6 veurcpcc nnj~ii;. Gtlh{x&ij
i nuptx~rlpcirai {era cnavantti~ct~atl(superposed folding). Cglq pcr~i~o\~tcxr
T~TC

crvy~x~prpfivtx tcr r?.rruicx ovopk<ct\.ccxt 1~xi&iu

cr~ljptxv~, a;uppoki~(interrferttnce patterns)
K(Y1 8itJ(ti:
I . 2 ~ l l i t orn.n/oOrjh-q; (egg box) 4 66pt1~~-hc~~xvtSv
(dome-hasin).
2. C~:':dloput9tsu~stoi)
fmtrshro~m),
.rrtt)xci,v (rekidcd folds) fl ouy~kiaewtf-tr~co~hicrcr91v
3. CxCiiia ~7ctxvc1n.c~~~opkvtut.t
t 1.
(cunvcrgcnt-divct'g~"~~

Eyt:buv 6 k t su xe~ptijparn,jrnv nnpcytopcpci~vovttno e ~crpqhk<Bcppoh-pclcricq K U ~

pttipq AtOowtxtnj nienq Gtlhtx61j or: b i t ~ p i ~Pit.00; ntrpoucrlit<ouv 8pu1.01y r-:vlj

crtipxnpicpopix xot? yiw:rtn cpnvr:prj pr: ox(xoipxro xat yqttyevaiq nnltpi~ift..~t:~
rcctu
crvokc6(~1t~rctr6tuppl;lt$t$ (fractures). RxstG~j o i Gtt~pprj<ct; t j u ~ l s 6ttrh-6nrovv nits
r n ? v k ~ t x ~ t xroli nerptbpt~roi o\wbd<cvrtr~ tittt r t ~ r o v c r i ~oloovC~~te5(tectonic
disconf inuities).
To pqypa (fault) rivw ~ I { Xex\q~xvt:itf ij CYTEVI~i(i)vtf ijl<x~)pq$lq. crci zqg n n o i u ~
cnlpptxivst ohiaitqnq ~ c r t a ~ ~ t t h -pcrtxr6ntaq
fi ros C K * T ~ ~ ( I ~ O E Vr8ptf~Liltj T ~ I )

Tc1
IIEC~(~)~~~X?:O ;. pfi?p(xxt~ n ~ q f l ~ t ( t r i ( ~ tmu
~ t t rxptiiar
~ SO- I5k1n rot, cpho~ob rxnit s q ~
t q Tqq.
~:xrqL~vclcr. ~
Tu xeprocritreptx pfjyptrm r-:ivtxt mivliHe11; txxi,i:s 6ttxr)rrlsttttq prl<lyt:vcic ~xl(pdrver~;.
~'knzcirrt!,q Gthrprlo11 ~ c . t tp e s a r ~ x t a rt ~o v K IV~ ~ X X O ' I Vp n u p ~ i\'(I
EKL~T~C)W~)T yivu ktr:
aXqpcr~tnp6ujcciu; o~r:~~fiq
<hvq; fi[hppq<q; ILE neptonci?:r:pr:<(1x6 pitx (1?nufnccpti,3.~3,r&q
G~tr-cpqzt~,':<
p.tl<lyr?,v~.,i< xQltt:i~(ttjhvq pilyparos (taulit zone), I\
cntlpif.\~ct~;.11 ~frcoir~ ,He

p c x ntcvij Gcbvq &tk.cpqnq~nJscccntxq; naptrpbptgoioq; (611ht181ij ~ o p i <a ~ rperrtopit

l
p ~ ~ ~ ~ ! > $ ~rl ctnaicx ttvupti<t:rtxt j d ~ v qZitr'nrpqaq~(shrar zone).
~ i ~ y k - ~ : t c p t6rapp?j<Kctrv),
 o&c:\oh:%Ji Multiply defarrned
EEZTCPMH
fi&&$k$U ~€rP~rn&YT,KL)
n*o- Qph~oBite Metamorphic
iwOXJP4 \ complex with
~ 0 X " b t
\ @?yxTAMrg& rnafic-ultrarna,fic Slate
Fornlaad Foredmp Foreland fold \ C'ystalline zone 1 zone ro~ks belt Faredmp
1 1 and thrust heit \ *aFWs ; / I '\

pluton suture ar'lcd thrust &It

....................... 8 mgal ------------..............,-. -.. .................."..-*
, ..................... --, p......................,,
5

I Foredssp
.......
3-
I
~ ~ i ~@ n ~ r z @$Bgw .w:mf@rKO
rr)*#ACTp$.(4
ultrarnafic flLc"-~.7 Fluton: sy rsurugenic,
r f k r ~ h t l f f*:Af-
\r-----~
*'?,
..................
iGneiss andjar xhs .......... " lA';qpT!Kii
rLI
-
- 2 2 ~ ~ . Pjutsn: postorogmic
3hslYY J , N $ Y ~ f
r ~ m ~ c ~ s p tar ti u
r r ~ ~rat
i a ~ t v q p a s ~ tcov
i j l pqyp & ~ w v
H clt;tfpCjlv~ia2011 p f i y p a ~ t(fault
) ~ plane or surface) ov1?ljOojq civui rnixriiq KQI cpi:pr:~
~ ~ p c:ti~zicr<
~ t q; j zptprj5 ~ o xcrpoyir?ov
v ~cxricrqv ~?~iri@qcrrl.
E t 6 t ~ S ~ r : p u11.
t;xtrpix~je~ct
tot, y puroq nou epquv t<r.crrl oytxJwrj,h~itr.~ r ozthnvrj
i ~ Ktrt tpt?prr ;r,upcx.yic

(an6 z q ~
~pi[)rjzmv yt.:rtx~ontrryktlwv~rxrri:prjco; zrl; cntqGv~trxqo~i+i~pti)t:
p~~jjrh*
~ h t r c i ~ d hKOKKQY
~ ). i ) v ~ p ~ t & c r~aat r o n r p i ~sniqkvsiu
h pfiypuru~(fault slickenside) wit
o i px pcyi.,; pqgiyeueiq o>-ia8c1ypupptiocjaey (fault slicbntines or striations). Xztp
xnpixrconq rrotj 11 cxtrpirvctti rot, pfiypar~qI;~(PUV~(CT:~(LI
~ o i h qlIPOj rrl: ~ih\~to,
liqha6fj
npoaoyo~ii,(c~
azq popc~t.tirot) txA~.cp~ct~L iira~piotup$ypa
T ~ T Eetj yrjyprx ~~*o~ttItjl.,zrxt

f listrie fault).
Avhkoyti pe zej ptrpo r q i ye)vitrc ~ k i ~ q~-1;1 2I - : I I L ( P ~ ~ V R ~e01)
~ J $ pqyjlti~o; lj u ~ A i tot)
i
pljyprx'co~,zru priyprrzcx d t t ~ ~ p i ~ * o vGK
~ ryaicph~
xr pfiypa~a(low-angle faults)
yttzvias ~;L,it7q~
itrrrv ~ h i \ ~ p~
o tyttfvi(x
~ <4S0. CTC )t~y&Lq;yo)via< ickiaqq ~ ~ ~ " J I L(highmangle
G~ZU faults) cjzrxv
~ ? \ ~ i \ j opc~ nytuvitx
j 345'. xat ai: vararirpi~cpupilypara (vertical frrults) hrtrv lchivouv bit: VU0.
X~rx prjytuxzol not) 6k:s k:ivcn ~ r ~ t 1 a ~ 6 p t , qr~t d~rEj~tcx~(t<
., ~ l t ~ tK, ~ V Qx&vw
~ ~ ~ t.tp
7 ~ 5
ex r cpir va trx ~c31.i u a ~ p ~ c i p c vrfop a ~ (hanging
p i y [ttx~c); c)\~ctp($<erti~ o ~ wall). evci tmrb nou
r i\ a t ~ k r w
txn6 ZT]v ~ x l q l x ~ttt~TOU
f : pljypato~O V C ~ . ~ ~ < C1 "vno~~ip~.:i.tt~
C~ f footwall).
~fipa~ocj
W )~czutbxtcir)TOII' I.:KcI.TCP<!IOE\' T I C . ~ [ X )klxopci
~~V VtX Xi?tKiX<:t11x6 A ~ Y ( XI?LIOB~G
x BftL

pttcpopi\y)ttntu (microf3~ults)p F ~ p z~ t r ~ ~rXttipt:zpuntct pqyyara fpjLolt06 (crustal

~r??~hG
faults). W ~re"irxr<?x~crq
rxv51j pnopci vtr civcll eo crnurkh~cryrxpttr; fftrfipuxiri; ~ u v a ~ o i , ~
~ o ovopit;~,etn
oiLioO~lcrr)q u unsicrpw$ obivOqoq (rtwismic slip or creep) fl avtiOenr iftr
t r n o t ~ h e iTO .oiwoho nohi,thv tx~cpvifitoi'p ~ ~ p ttcruvr:xctht
hc (stick-slip) aov
o;ltnf)ficr~.wi~
n p r ? ~ t h b rrr:~opo&g
v ~ t autttnso6v
t ~ nlv a~tep~aci' oLi0Oq9 (seismic slip).
H p:rt~.rC,xlaq twv r~txsi.:pzof)nr~ : ) ; ~K<~OK0?~io@qcn1
rekt1q61~xot) X ~ O K ~ ~ K T pr: I-:it'ct,t
J U E ~ C I A O TcFr ~~~o~I:\:rpo~ q ent~p~xv~tcxc
; ~ o p~j?tCtttruc
v Kter petujifc;-cw.lnpc'S trr it~prxrot)

~ c rm
t y fitr:GAt,vnq ripJ rii,@crrlnpoi t q v (?hiuOrloq. \rli,txF~j 11 p~rtrsdniaqrmv ~ u t v b v
O I I ~ C ~ C O0 tYt 1 j o ~ ~ v Cvcl ctqt)txL~toluc$6:;a ~ ~ j nor)
E K U T ~ P ~ U R 5V ~ p M t al ~ r l p t ~ ~ iBeo,pqrth-ix pu
ijt~vOG~~~.ttl:t
~iflertxrnl-p' fit,:i~Qtj\vqzq; c>AioAr)o~l;.
'X'o pjrcr,; nl; pr:rtittiirtoq< TNV ~~tl;tkp(oO~:v
TE~QX~;)V K ~SX * D )o t q v
~I~Y~IITO

t;~tlph\'Cl(t50\L pfi~fltlT0;ct~~p<f<l:~cl:t
f ~ ~ t a t t ~ $ KfXI Il
~ ~ ) @€X~~i)l[k€Yq UI~MU
TI]<~ ICrtO
~
opri;Oa5sw K ~ X CTTO
L ~ r x " ~ ~ ~ ~ t jt:xinetio
p t , t p ~ 2.0
) t:-;~cixpatc,n t o ptjyycx o v o p i x j ~ r~r~vi ~ i a ~ o t ~ r
opii;itvzaa &libpa (heave) xttt ~cxzuairpl#po&Ly.ct (throw). E x i c q ~ q txv(thtjcr-rl t r \ q
npciy~~rxri~rjc
pt',tttr6ntot)q .nitvw nrrlii l:mrp&vt:ttx .ct~t)pri-;~pcxr~$
~ ( x t t j .z q v napit?:txGq Krrc

trl a' ri+icri] ~ o t pli clv~icrtctq o opt~uvttaperar6ntm

, y ptxro- ovo~t(t<iljt:~tic Krxt pcruritntoq
o t q rzIuicsq.
 x t o nwg pctaro.ni<ov.cui sa racrx~6prt18evzqc, rnttphvt:.tty zou pYj.gpaso$
h ~ k ? ~ o y e&tc:
z t - : p h ~ rta
l ~ p~jypasrx~ I U K P ~ V O L T ~fX~' Ie :
( I ) Kuvovt ~ t kfi G K Z U ~ Tyifypara
~ K ~ ~ [ (normal or extensional faults) 6ztnj r o \)xe:p~t:i!tcvo
csc: o"J,vq pt.:r o uxo~eipr:vor i : y t r ~ u ~M.t ; zcx M?'pce't.a our6
r i p r x ~ u q~rxrip~Ertxr
npocctdeirtrt C~rctcnl roc) n~.rpoijttrzug a m op1$5\.cto ~ n i n a 6 o ~ u ihktct\i~rnl
fflpiKptlvCJq)CTTO ) ; C ~ T I X K ( ~ ~ ~ U W~~i7%Eiio.
O

(2) Avilna~pyrapqyptaxrn 4 pilyprxtn spik-puvnq~(reverse or contracfiunai faults). m(a

crxoitr..t.a t~xt.:p~t:ipt:vt3
rCptaxo; u\li..p~ezatot: c;~Roqpe s o v x o ~ e i p ~ v~2ptxxoy
o xtrt
xyu~tn2~ciztxt
a p i ~ p u v o qtov c~ctjyts~ctca r o opl<i,\jztc) t:ni?rr:6o nix~~\vo.rl
oro
h-mtih-6puqo erine6o. Ttr ~ t i ~ p t -fc~)vicrc,
i; itiiicrq~uvirorpotper ptjypuru ovopd<ovrext
(thrusts). c v h tcr !icy 6JV31c youitrq si,icrtl;
~lptzx~i):i,at.x~ t a v i a ~ ~ p o q upfjypt~zu
C B G I ~ ~ ~ C P G(t~pthrusts).
t~voplxi;c)~~c~t ~~; Me zqtt c'ipbcnl zt?lv trv~ratpctrpcuvptl"~putovra
ntih(t~6tr:puunot;Eipevrt ~ e r p h p t ~tcrrxpi:po\~ztrt
x n(avu~tax6 ~t;btt:gctnet~~cb.utxzrr,
(3) t3qyputa up~~bvrtu;pc~ur6nraq; ij dtcbOuva.r1~-olio0q~t~q
(strike-slip faults). Ttr
pliypu~{x~ p t j i t ~ ~ ~(EtTq( I T U K L C F~I ~p~o ~ ( t h o ioptj0vrt1a
~v ~ I : T I X T ~ ~ T( ~~Gt rI p
~ S~hq?~q

~ p rqv
o ~ecxpia~cuS11
~ mrx ,:h-wCpwOcv zt:f.r.ijl^,',rl.ttr. oxoiu K I V ~ I ~ W T I LGIG:
t o ~ vpyypr~~et~v) I

avriO..:.cl:<~trtcu0tvnr:iq.H nlc:tovbrrltu sov pqypirrov a!,triv ri\jot p ~ ~ t j%?y(i)vita~

~~l
alLicrqq~ 4 x 1K ~ ~ T ( x K ~ ~ v (pi)~p(t.ct~.
P(I. T4 p j y p t ~ op<Sv~tuc,
~c~ pcrtrzi)rnnil< 8tclh-pivoitrni
a6 br<s6szpatpr1 (right-lateral or dextral) f j upxatcp6arpotpa (left-laterai or sinistral),
trvc'rhoyrx bte ~q npoq zrx &e<iri fj npa; stt rnptareph p,:zt~~t'~~tc.rq
t x v r i ~ ~ o t st~tl
~ti
txnivcint ~ i p q o u tog
; npog rov rcoptx~clptls~j
rot, pfiy;ttazoc.
(4) ~ l b i r y x pi1ypant.t
u (oblique faults). X~:?cr
xhixyur pqypcrra q okioOqat1 .cot\. ~utx~i:ptac)cv
~ ~ ~ t c r x ( ifi/ivt:nrl
)\i xhtayco. elq npog rrp ntrpdaattl rq; ~ ~ i ( p i x v l :to\)
~ t ~ iP ~ ~ ~ ~ I X T O C .
llcpiypircpovrrtr T I K ~rc~x
pcC TPitnll
C F ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ V ~ X pfjypuza ~3~laq;-pcrat6ntq (dip-stip
faults) f 611bz162i rta pi\ y pxzu not) ~tcttlronijuvsmt~ u r rqv
h sJviat) toug Kat civtxt ztr
utxvtzvtk-rk fj trx trvrimputptr. p.tj-~pcxttr,)
Kctr rrs op t<6t~tcx; pe~trrizn
tnqc;.

T(r pqypurn nnv h-hivot:v npuG t q v i6tu );ttzc6Ctut90r\ pr: r o s ycwAoy1~6nxqbttrrtn&ti,

ICOI?f i ~ ~ t p q y i ~o ~i lo~pti ~i < o v ~(~UVQETIK~
tr~ pfirpara (spthetic faults). ~ v t hrtr pfiygt.r.stx noc
ovc);cia<ovrtxi uv~tBcnicdrp i j y p r a (antithetic
ukivovv xpog rqv nvri0erll h-trrei?O~)i.n~l
hults). Tu pijy w n x xotj L ~ o t ~h-otvq
v ycvctth-il an6or) 0 v ~ ~ ~ i x j c toujoyij
~ ~ t x l pilypntu
(conjugate fauttsf,
Mc .tqv Gpitatl t s i , h ~ n & J ~ h ~ l hvt:<~);tii~
t~v (IMIF)I:zIK(O~~ KUI KIIVOJ~IKUIV
ot;s@ct.t~t$\~
pqybit'rtcr~v TU ti(iirqmfw. tqiqlj T ~ I K C L V ~ ~ V O V T ( Ipc
.I E T I K ~ oat
( S L ~ ~ ~ ( P O ~ p~I1pO zt~k~if
i x t ~th()ctt pt: r j t f l ( ~ o p t : ~ t ~pb~ t ( t < i ) rot); Tee
C T % & T ~ K ~t)y~Jpcrpo.
)

tl~cpuyropkvu.~':pci~rl(not) n ( ~ p ~ g k i ~ ( \~fq>~Orj:ptx)
?tt~. r ~ i ~ t o t . >~t i~pha f a
o~t~~Uj.(ttv~cxt
(horsts), evh m stme~vu,ykv(x~ r : t t i r ~(nou
q Ftusby~ovrat)ovopO~ovcctlrsrrov~ciii~
rirtpyot
(grabens).

Y ~ I PK~ ~Y J ~ ~ T O ~

Ttx pqyyrr~a. rc(~rn~aho6vp a ri\*twq mpa~dpcprofiq ~ t x t ctnu6~opytjtlwrs11 z o ~ j

nerpthptx~o~
,uc ouvi;.rtt;rtx vcr. n~qptxri<ctath-at& /nlj~o;TIIS mrqhvr-:t(x<TOIjG lj T ~ <6)1~lt$
S

KC^6 O L * O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ : kS Ut IP$Y~(LTO<
rouc, kvu ~ h t ~ ~ 6 (fault rock). H yuarl h;ul o ~ 6 x 0 srou
eAt.r;ui, uvroil cgcrptthtii. Kf:ptr tin6 zav rime ~ o upqtplfioil ~i~tpttil-trxt~c;,
c ~ TI;
~ b
rn~veljh-s;~ o t cx~h-ptrroO\~
i K ~ I T C ~TI)\' n(~papi)pq~(t)~q
KC([ ~ i v t rw~p i m ~
11 O ~ p p o F t y t ~11~ i ~ ,
nict.sr) Ktr.1 q GnupEr) ~ ~ I X ~ I ~ I J ~ [)IT U T) jV3 R. l j trt)~oixtfp(x?~t't~;mk$tv~t)t'
htf)ou~rxrt~fi pf-:
r o f3Oso. K ~ &MI
I e \ ~ f i t : t h - ~pnopt)i~p~,
~~~h vu t~vtxtpiPtp~t~)t~ L S i x f l ~p
~ T GF. i k ~ p 1i k m to

I J X I K ~T ~ J ~pfppllto;
J ci\w ~ K T I K ~ ti pmpli \$ti xottcihht:t c~n6
kcnzunoxuyi~(fet~ltbreccia) h k ~ ~oviufia
p~ (gouge).16 r) rrrrb 4- 10kn1 q ~trrpq.~6prpoloq
~ u O o pj ~i t c t i~ ~txx0
l ~1111
i iinuptq 5(n\1 c i t d u p ~ r ~ wpr:v rtnor6hr:rspt~r o v k t ~ (Tor?
t pliypttrt~;
V ~ I t:ivtr~ 6vtr nrm ovopixi;crtrt rcuzatcAuai~q~
tuhls;d, titrrti~?.,ctcr~l<
(cntactnsifc) rj h*tj ntiv~tczik-6 iLtnrt)aoauy &vOht\liqg (crash breccia). Xi-: ijrik9q
i . ~ cm6
~ c y u ? ~ pet r 1Okm r o t ) h ~ 6rot) pr\ ypmog yuptni~m<r,rcn~rrrix KO-
~ ~ j r r r i t . h ~ ~ c o ~ ~ T xC AI X~ Or ~x ~ ~ O, Y
KILL ~ O ~~I P <~E Tf~ I ~i
~ u l o v i t (mylonite).
q~

X~taptrirKnt Ev~pyljlPijyita~a
, .
itr. pfiybtcrtrx a x tr~tcrlpc TU (ptt,wt~px~'o
rot) ~etcr~tt)O
~nopot'ivV ~ Lhttih-ptOoljv 'JEVLK&
nttkxvti. evi-:pyhh-rwt tt.v$:~r:p.jitpri-yp'xrtr.m?&ioytt
ccc: ~ s I . : I c Y ; ~ ~ Kf-:v~.:pp'i.
&. pe ~ q At)i*rrri,rqzu
v
m o tipxc7c.t pkhhov vtt &ptiu~qptonc,lq@obt~
~ t x vl t .repoh-rthkatstiv
~ GF.ICT~&.
'X"tx nt:tnp.t~ti. prj-ypnrt t:i\:ctl.r utm't y tcx ztx o~oirt.tmtipxotw ~ ~ o ~ ~ r TI
: i r ix; ~ t t t l
npo~cl.).j:o~lfi o u v 2 k o ~ ~ ckte
r t m~yti~wp~ktCvcwi Tu t:vepyit p ~ j y p r t ~r:ivtx~
nr:~rrpoir~. n trr~rix
nou Cxo~jt:Gpttv~~lptrmotqSt:ii:it.ti\:cth&rlpCvct csto ~ e p C l ~ v ~
yewhoyt~b
~i> nripcke0v
(l't:ztrptoy t:\~kq)fiat civtx t iitlt'ext.6~tlu G ~ r ~ ~ s . e q ~ ~ ( s x o m
tqO
t ~pChhov.
t~i~v

Avuy vblttaq pqypix~

wv
T'rr ~uptfAtcpti~ g ? t ~ f l r ) l l x - t : \ ~ 8 t ; i < f ; t~r\~t~-;jv~Gpmq;
; TCOV pq*/~titta,v~txrtr.rqv t;x<xi@p~cx

~ t x p t t ~ l i p qi: ivirl:
~q
(i ) H cxi*tr-yi*lp~crq
"cq; ~rtronrptafi; r:atcpcivt:ttx; rot) p~jyprx~o;~ i crl; pr1ityc\*ei<
ohto8nyptrpprhc~i:t~.
(1) H St t n r j p r l ~ i ~ ~ ~ 0 1 1 T E K T O ~ ~ ~ K O Cnptr\*nii; I c r ~ q ~ t t " r i ~ ~ : tpt:
u t rqv
8pcom?~
171ox~ri11n11
? t p?i~prb~oq.
~
 (3) rl ncrparfipqcrrl w.nbropq~G t u ~ o n q ctj/rtxt txnbrokt~lqpcttrt6rctn~q~trOodqy.rlrt~4jv
cnpopt"c~avfirlhufifi m p o p h r o v lie n~,yucuptpkvtxc u ~ p t v f~i a p t t ~ z q p ~ m ii ~f ~i xji ~, j
n.x. ~ c b p c t~tjrsrrxarl,
, K.u,,,

(4) 11 u x d ~ o p qunouaiex fotxissiunf I\ (douhlication) rot, y~&~;?nyik;-ci~v

&~n~~rxcrttwcrpO<
apl p n r np611,
~
(5) 1.1 ct\ftx:/\lC6$lt~T)T a u t)hfK06 TO,\; pq~~id?<ilt'( ~ t K: T O \ ~1 ~ 0 6 ~ L ( X T ~ T I ~ ~ X C I11~ I O ~ <
~ov~iepttro;,k-artwr;i?trtrizq. ~tiA(ovirqK.(x),
16) q uvcryvebpln~lcv6O?ptrppwv pupcpohoy~tccbvypcrgtkjG~oefov-t~vh.
r:h-cr;t~~u~Uc\~
rov
oxoio~v ii~u~copijovrcnctn6~opa ~ n h p i o ~ ko~i . OXOIC; ~txptinr)pijo\fzut( L K ~
r~heicoqd w t p o p z r l j~ ppcpoILoy itr atrt t ~ i r y ? ~ v q(r tn . t~x m ~ n u p ~ r O ~>v~(p<i)6~\);
nq ij
c\pc~ve;ncplo~fj; yl: stx nsdtvh r p i p c t ~ a fTkrotu
. etrOii:~pcryytx poyyto),ctytuh ixvq
trvtny\?copi<o~v.xt xt:pi(q~~ cr-rtx K , c . I ) I ~ ) ~ ~ L (x~X>~eifv
x p 1 1 ~ t y f ; ~ O t ~?it:~uv(ilv
(=re rrovl tccbv rutppcj'tv) K ~ I I 0(p~:i?~ovt~1
on/.11cptQtop1a~h fi ~panne6trbpqyliaru
(boundary ur marginat huits) ~ o toptoOsro6v
j c~.v.ckqrt; ~r'ttppot,~;,
( 7 ) TI tt3+)+ufifl\
rjltctxt C i r o i ~ c i(~x) .~~~hif.dix
T ) (~t)~ilnyp(~(p~ui;)V
~ R S ~ ~ E I SS(DY . lt~~~tpl(il\~)
yjh-a< r:~;tl?i)yptx~t!tco~r
~txil popqctii,oyt~t6\:qvritj.

y
Llgn~iihae
01(SLIL)~J.$OEI$ tjoints) civtrl ol 61txppj<ctg. xtr~ix! ~ ~ K O Cro\ oxoiov hi' ~ o p e vi t ~
e r i ~ t t y ~ ~ c r ~ ppt:rtnhntnq
~mci Ymv t:arxrtpw@,:v ~ q s r i ; b vsou nerpdprto{;. A n t ~ ~ e h o i st;
w
rtepmn0tt:po nohunhrlt3ci~ ~ e , t t atmq(ft:~; prl;~yr:vei; Fopi; xou ~pqcpct\~i<uuvzct
?'&t-:Tp&)p~~fl
K t i t C ~ ~ ~ X L ' ~ < C ? L Z C ~0L ~ ~ 6 6 1~' ( ~ ~ 5 0
~ ~6 L. ~ K ~ [ V O Gli ~ (ntf.Ftq$I~lT~K&$
M C IJlq

~rn~khaeicj
(nunsystematir joittts), ot u n n i ~ ;L ~ o v vr v ~ t x i onponci\~tirohlcrpdr u t ktyirre po
~ ~ p r o a b r s p a~cxpxt~3Lciyptx~tpo17 ~r.ty;~oetGC~
y ) : ~ ~ t f : ~ p t r Ci , T X ~ ~ LKat
. ntt;
(systematic joints), oi o n o i ~ ; t;ptpuvii;ovstn nr:
awrqguzr~ii; Gw~l~&iroci~ (TIIYI;CEC)LCI~\?U

17 i ~ x m e i p ~ x h h qC Xh~ T C & O S 6 tappfj~

aG\tolra Gita~hiktrsov(joint set) n(xp&?~hq?~(!)v E N OR
V

uuvovttc~jps.cc/<i) rot,; txxoartim~ fi cv&ocmAnstiaq. Aim I\ ~ ~ p ~ a o u r a rqtV6psvcr

pct
crbvofLcxSttx~Jtcrco\'rr~rlpci~ijouv
i;vtx a~ptacrijtspox ~ ? ~ i i n X oyawycsprh-S
~o is"fvi:iito h-*t
c i x o ~ ~ h o Gdv a nimrqpn Sta~Xriatxuv(joint system).

neptyparplw&atoi~~ia
Xupa~sqptu~tah swv Gta~1,h~ernv
X ~ i p a ~ t t l p ~ c~txpixpr:spo~
~n~t< m q v pchbrq n t ~ vovcr~rlpct~ucbv
6tctrJ.,ixcrerov aiv~xt:
(orientation). W ~ 6 p e o qrwv c r r o ~ ; y ~ i unciptx~rxkq.
( I ) 0 rrpoau.va.tohccy6~ ~v ;/w\qitt ~ i l i 0 . r ) ~
xu[ iitc6ftuvrs1j ~ A i n q ; fi~or;lircreo\~
not) sivrxc cntcpcxv<:ttrxCs y eoAoy t x i : ~6opd5.
Wet ravr;acpfipo\qtc i,rt ot n<:ptnai,rt:pcc t3vcrrqpa~ttcri; 6ux~hiwcre~c
ntwp(is~lpabvrtxtvtx
ota otpwp&vune~pcbpxtu~ i t f l ~xpuc
npnct.\~trtohi~ot"cttt t t ~s q v nrp6tq.
(2) To ptys0ag (dtc). 018tt~KJ~kTt:tih>Lu~vs o v rt~ntav nupoval&<o~:.rwl pe ,ucyiZq
xoucihi(l. ~ G Y ~ $ C ) U Xoti
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fipcx~&&~;
t)n@fizrOpc?(t)yt C i ~Crpcopri)cruiinepiptpov~cti1roh0 ~rxi,Srr.putrxbvttvsi n ~ o
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t(3C. ~ & t k ( l ) ~ \ j $ X ~ V ~ Xr)I 20%)
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Jbcporg (liquefaction). Ortrv r o t6~tpoqf j L ~ ~ r i ) ~k)tyo; c'kto GiY

o ~ ~ ilr jI?&;) ei~exth.t?p~(~p~''
~ c p h t63:
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ticcpvitiul obQrlatl rq; t,&pomtxtlvi;
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6.4 xov n ~ ~ i ; P f :TO
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n p o ~ h h ~ -coil
cnjvCfll:i r u 1991 nrct Los Angcles xpcttcirhcot; rov Oirvtrro p6vo 55 crvOp<i)acuv.H G~ctcpopix
( 1 ~ Q~( P4E ~ ~ E T Uor0
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01nopccrryt&; a n o r ~ ) ~ o i ri:t:{rt~
v tmci rotjj p~ycll~iitr:po\l;~tv8ljt.ucjq.I ; j t ~ . i r ~ pCTTI;
tl
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~ivcttno% c 6 ~ ~ vtr ~o nuprcuy~i:;. H xushcr~{rcr?~
~ )npo~hrlbroljv tx~6pqx ~ ;ii,ntiohq
yiv~rm o
F,KF.I&I~ to k p ~ orot! xupufifkmgi)~Gt,o~t..ptxi\~cztrt
txx0 zq v j:h?ul:tyq vcpoii h6ya t o ~
crxttcripcx~aqr t ixyctlydjv
~ w yt&.
Tu BaAiramu ~ripura papi,rqru~ Q agtaptttir Bui,~z~:uw.~6paltu.ra (tsunami)
brlptoupyoGt9rcrt6rt.t~cru~peiuxoOt~?~itufi~c~
Cvtt; crretcj.it5. firlhufffi piou asov Ntrhdtocrto
~ t b p oh-111
, rp~iptxr o n~,Opr',\fta
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0x11 ptir ~<OVT<X

t m q t*aiw L X T I ~Oi~htt~~rnx
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O nctu onhvun y ivotzu.~utlr~l~rlxri~.
YO j i -3 rn rtir q p~ra:i) rou; uxcicrrtxcq pnope i vtx civtx~
tr\j~ixCXOOV i)
Z~wrjOto;r u ~i)purtx
~ t x t p~ytthirr:pq trn6 100-150 ktn. Tcx HaAimtct O E I C T ~ ~ L K~( l~j p t t ~ (~(x<t31:60uv
x
rcr"ic,~r~lrqnot; ,uxopctiw vtx ipriv.fiat~vk-tx~ztx 750 kmlh. Ottrv 6pwc .xhqoiiursou-\~
rqv c s t ~ p ~ i r
~tir1:nuv ttx~btq~er,
rx.rrc,k-zo6v Oyctq. TO ct~rtio pnopci vej jc,x~pc'an,:t re1 30 rn, ~ t x i

c;ttr~topotiv!ti:crrx mrpq~ ~ e p t cerjvo

i , , x o pnopei
~ \let rrpok^AqOf:i nhqppGptx St<xp~t:t(t~;
5-10
min. Ttr Otxhitcmur fierrip! ~ i ctvtt'r
r FXOVV~ ~ ~ p t i e pKz~eLiIws nukl P P O ? K ~ X
K ~ ~ I X TpoOh~v()~i
~X.

ri+~txrtr6r:v k~ct\wlctrppitx n ~ F m 1pc TQ cpmvup~vor q i aai,ippo~cq.

r~wypacptuil~azavopfi~ z o voctap&~v
~ c rcr~wpt~Eg
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m u 6prtn s w t * h10ofitpctrpt~61vrri,truti)v fi oc kucr
01xeptrr0~c:poinctcrpoi ~1)~/3uivc)r}\~
ntc cvpcirr, <G~vqK C ~ V To~' ~tiuriX ccg-i,~ xp01~txj;oi~tf"ifit ~ n hT I ~ In~t:~th-Q
~ tub< k - i t * q ~ r ~ .
~ o r i l c r ; ~~ntctyp~1!tl,rtv~cwi
, KUI p c p t ~ ~
( ~iC T ~ ~ V ~ $ L C Tut:
T O pr-:y<thc)
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~ n i n ~ e p rrtoi* ~~T t:ir Ci~v;lj.ctjex'wp~
rrlv nttptrp6ptpoaq r a t f opituv r w v h t i l o c s i p c x r nLtth-Giv. 01 ~<:?~r:r)rt~iot,
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K ~ ~ x K ( : ) \ Tfi
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pfurnc~).
Oi crsinyoi yevv r oijv~tit pkcrtx.m ~ l?~t@cincptxtjxx
\~ Krxt C T T O(ivw
~~ TO p ~ p i , > ~ i i ~ ~ ~ ) i >
p1~'1~6ljtr+
Pti4r,s cr~tnpoi,\~noi,ij-;~icrtrlr;r:
n ~ t x460 krtr Krnt zrff(iv(i,a i g e i h ~ ~ t crnlv
rt tilep-ytrcrict ~111;
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x ~iterapohfi< tq; y r l ~ a v t ~ I atrp.neptcpoph:
j5 zcov op\}~rchv
n' txtjrix t c t
pt:y&ha P&871. 6.nou ~ a - v o t s t ~Oi~r Ji-xprnt: va ntxpnrpoprpchvov~tx1.rrhc~x~rtrciw.
p p i c 6qhtx6~j
p p i c o,.:l.upotj~.
W at;rcrpttcfi iiptx.(rtqp16tqta 6 r v rivat op.ottiyoprp~lFsa hha ztx prx011 ~ r x tat at:topoi
Sictrpivot~rulp.8 puc~qTO [3itCjo<ykveoq; rotiq GK:
I . E n i c p x v i crercrpoij~fah8og <7lSkrn),
3. X E ~ G ~ Oev6ttxpiiao\:)
~CJ paC3ou; (@h60s;>60ktn xu1 <cl.Sf)ktn),
3. Z ~ t c r y o 6f3ixOov;
~ ii xhourchi~~otj;
(P<x"lOo;>350km).

1.I xpbyvtoaq .twif cretcrpchv Strx~piv~rtrt 660 ~ikctu;:

I . Bpu~eiu ~ np6-ptuq (shurt-tenn prediction).
dthplrcta~
H p p r ~ ~ c i u6tiXplcCltkj
; np6yvwc~qttqopir t o v npoaSioptnph "1; trtcprpflc ycoypucp~h-4j
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t pc:ytt\c)vq rou nclapoi,. 0 1 npocsnix0et~~
X O ~ );livw~txtfit tm~11t 1 1 ~K ~ X ~ C ~ ~ ~ P(mi<c11tt(tt
~ I I ~ C F T ~ C T ' C ? ] ~c~n t a t i l p o i ' t ~ ~~ X
j T C Q 11
~ Io~ m
. ir~

crrqpii;etrs~oc yr-:coqvalwk<.y ~ < r ~ ~ ~ )Kp~tL~I? i~ ?m<$ t t i ~ t ~ i ~: <B E ) ~ I I Z ~ KP ~~X~OC~ IKTG( C

X ~at;
%
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t r nponuprxa~t:r~tt.cc'~:x~:ij
orh6ro not)
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t r l r o yovr i : h St ti,ortxhrt~brqrtxq~ t x TO
t con0 ic, rrr:pthuit@it,vr:1yc~cx/3cthrjq

ag gq~"vt'i'i:<.~ ~ K J L K Ctcrxt
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o ovopi1,rc>\.rtri
npitlipopu tpatvupcvu (precursory phennmena). \'r+uptovtt: p w puvri:?,o TT~S

tittro~tr~~tth-4r11
t{s;? u ~ t t v71 ~ h u qR O ~ ncrii~
) irtrt mtr ~[~zpc;~ptit(x
TO\) r : m t t t ~ ~ l~(bpott
" ~ t t i ) ;

rretcrpo0 yivet inq x,:pirt.ot) p,: z o pta6 r q r~h c r l ~Optrt'toq; zoti X I C : Z ~ & ~TO~ T EC
I) xchpo;
~,
iu~popoypucuschveri~t
G~ttn~l:.A>~r:rtr~. Ktrl xt0trst'l vcph t x a k p y , ~ n xpimx
~ crro p5po tnjru.
f l tluroi}
~ rou ciciov; n p u f i p n p ~qrtti'~i~ic\ftr (1) ot x~t)utpk; ui,hcx-ii; xou
Aoyijo\~tx~:
pnnpo6v jiti atjpfir)i)ifwtsrri. p ~ j ~ c11
, crct~vzt'xrr' 6vtt o~.rct-pt~6
p-ilyptr, xptv rrn6 zuv ~ b p i r )
crl:~~pb.
O t xtxptxr q p f p t : ~tott
~ pcttrpcktth lru~61fyivov~crt lie ,:I Sixti Op?txvcr. trhh(x Krrr pt:
TqV P O V ~ O F ~TO\-' ZOt? (gk0106 Zl); r q ~ (3)
C X ifOl;)lr(j)~f)fr)i',(3) 01 ~ ( t ~ ( ~ & l ~ ) l ) ~ t . h c ' i-f!:~th-'h
i.:t< . 01
p~rtxpohk;T I ~ Gni..tcrbunj; fipixcrrl;. (1)ut pr:rctpoAl:.i qcocpunt~chvxcrpuprizpc.1~(rlvchptL>+r-:;
pt:r(r[+ohi:s to\: ~tt~.yvrjtt.~;~)Ct
m:ljiott. ~ F , & ~f3cxpi:~q~ti;
'~011 ou K(LI TO\) q ~ > v ~ x!:Sio\)
~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ i >
ztl; Tqi. r?.j; Oeppo~pccnicr~;TOI) 1 ~ ~ 6 ? ~ i Vr jGt J) ~ O K~ ~, T T . ) . (5) LJI 'yj;o)~rfptlckqp:ttxPohiS<
f p ~ r t t p u h i ;rq< nxptt:h-rt~Onl~ct;
rot) t~nbyerotj~ ~ e p o~i , tpct&twto.
; prOtiv~ctKXE).
M t ~ p crr'jpt:ptr.
t 11 xprjyvwarj (6prxp:icxq bitip~~ic.x(;),:vci< p0vrt n ~ i a p o i xot} ) nul'ifkt
azqv Kivcr!ro 1975 ye pkyc0oq 7.3 ky pe rntrtqirn txxri TO\); KIV~:,'=,OL~<
01:tcr~~t3hilyot}q,
~ v r htrvri0xscr mhl,oi i~l->~<,o~
~$-txvQtxcry&vot
ax>\jex:ii:plioi. t t x u r k k ~ n phti0otj;
~ nphy\jatcrtl;.
i ~ r . 1 ~~
1 ,i \ ' c cnn6
t rot,; i8tuilc.
2. h l a ~ p i y6thp~cga$npiry c*waq(Long-term prediction).
pc~lclspitj6ricpKclui xpirji~oc11p~xai<firzccrmcl m)h>Lc?ytnpOb6.rt or rrc~apoicivur
e n n ~ c x ? ~ ~ \ ~fit ~p o~i x h i ~c fp iq ;~ ( P i t ~ l6xm;
~ q ~ ,u ~ a t p 6 5Erot ot cr~tayoiOtr spcpavi<ovrtn
Kca ttu ~ ~ n ~ u c p g u v i j o v rc urr ~C F U ~ K E K ~ I ~ ~f Il Jk E~G~ y~t m
~ iq civm
. nc)hir e \ , ~ o h i ) r c ~r ~o o

xr;p~o~cbv.TO\: ~ p i r n o ~ ~ 6 l j h m n r lrg ( i ~crr-:~trpG~cl

xat. yf-,vtuir o ~ t k f l n o ~ rprtopci
; ila
a<tono~q0ci a t U r t ~ ~ i ~n rbo nponGzoptcqt6 rrlq c v 6 ~ ~ 6 l r ~ v , ,trchh~\~ih.fiq
~l$
Gpamrlp~oxoi~lcrrl< Purrrl rqv unb0~oqtcov o c t a p ~ l o vK~.Ev~;)v
(seismic gap hypothesis).
fd np@yvrr>wlu t ~ f i ,oczrjao, 6ev qrziverai vu G l j ~ ~ i ( ~ v 6(Tt.r)v
p ~ 1 ~IXKP{I.$
S~~pxc~(:tr
xpciyvwotl ge cntz1)pj yt{tri
~~TCOTE~~(T~ LUTU >b(xbt@i~v~t
~ E V t j f t i ) ~ , q rqi? ei?kpyet~~
xov
~xchcu8epLjvctcrtaxci rooq pu~pbzcpou<aetapoir~.X~,wjflwgrrtpoph peyhha ~ p o v t r i x
G~.umfilla.~cr~ c l tr:nopkvog uv(x.cpi;pertri fit: nphyvctwq pe ct.rro~?~icrc~g
mq yewypucpt~~j
OC.,nq,crzo ycpcivo qtcpkviaqc, rrrr nzo ptycBoq rou octcrpo6.
 H EnlcphL~zItr,Tqi r q < 6 ~ Fv, ~ v ( LER~EESI>+
~ ukkh ~ L ( p a ~ S q p i < £an6
~ a in?d%ylt?q( K ~ I T E ~ ~ )
KUI npavfi. Mc Pitcrq sq poptpohoyu~fisou; d i c r q , o~ ~3~wcly~C;
epcpavi<o\*ra~
w: opahCg,
, ~a T [ ~ u v Q , m u
~ E r p r ~fj ;a n 6 ~ p r i p v ~ ;E\~G TO 6 ~ o zoug
g n o t ~ i h ~Xl ,U ~ ~ ~ K T I ~ P ~~j
~ O V T ~ L

opnh0-pksptu-a~6rpq~~t~a-~~1r:a~i,pt1tpa~ ahhit rcaI npavfi pe apvqtth-& ~ h i o j.~ k

Mohovbr t , QI rtcpta~6~epr-:.; nhu-pkj h-txt npavlj ~ i v urakupp&\'a
~ an6 Cvcc pavS6a
e6Oqou; rat ph&rnrlcnqg rat c p a i v o ~ c lva ~ ~ i v sru.Oepi~,
u~ 6 ~ ~ivcrt
v n(lvra krcr~.yturi
en16pir nixvw a e aura q GCvaiiol rrl; f3api}rrlrc&;(rl 8Cvapq ~ q f3(xpfirqtrrg ; ~ n t z p hnirvw n e
w 8 r : U ) L L I C ~~ 3 ~ r:ntcpitv~.ta
11~ rq; I'qs raj t o a \ l a y ~ u i e tva rtvq8ei npog ~upql,u.repu
oqpeia). Erol, a ~ 6 p r lh-at 11 flpa~ukrh& (so pp(x~bG~.t; unb@rrQpo,uve5irprqru ax6
?L100hoy1~6 5 6 ~ 0 )4 fip&u$ xou ( ~ a i i ' e ~va a i ~ i v u cnruB~p6i
i orqv BCciq sob pnopri vn
nkaet ~ 7 ~ ~ 6 f l ri:lpvu u ohto01joet cse iska ~ a p q ? ~ u . r e pOkarl.
q Zrt; ncp~nrhoctgnou p~
~ b r fTqV
i 6tu6t~utrin~ s p k t ~~I P<( L x o ~ AK ~ ~U<TEO~~ ~ O N ~ ~T&&
O O UTO.V ,a ~ o r e h k ~ p ~ ~ a
pxopei va eivm rato*npolplh-& ytu ~ q jofj v rm T I ~ Vn ~ p ~ o u n ~i u o crv8pd)noi~
v nou j ~ u v
0s: n 6 h e t ~I\ ~ w p xou ~ d p p i c ~ ~ u v roc
u t sttotc; amaBcig n c p t o ~ khno; ~ , eivrrt 01 opet\$i:<,
6nou o~ rwohw8Jloe1; cturE; eivai 18i(li~&pct E~~K~V~UI'ES.

Ttu rqv iitu61rcroin cxuti w-rcxp~~,~ o Opo; anuppryrq p 6 j a ~(mass wasting) nou eivai q
npo: ra ~ & o ~ivrlorlrwv u h t ~ h vtq; Tq.; (ppcx~ou,pr:yr6htBov-a6hcpovS) ),6yo TI^$;
~niGpuoq; rll j p~ty6rqruc;.pohov6~tot nepicrous~po~. pctcxkir tt.usd;,v K ~ L Iot Ehhq veg
Y E ~ B ~ ~ Y~O~Lq m p ~ x ~ TOV l i ~rtaroLia01~aq(iandslide) pc ~ q y~vih-fl
t o i6p0 v ~ V S O I U ROU

6 e i ~ v c 1rqv )rr:s(xrivqnq p<x<txj xpog zcr ~ i t r r r ~Llo~Aoo. , o upo; litt~c~hioOqor~ pe T ~ V

arevrj Evvoto. nepiypucp~i piu ouyscsptpts11 St~pycraiactnhpptytq;, cthku ~ u TO t
n u y r ~ r p ~ p b i xpuptpouvixyXvqto
j ipuptpQ ~Ghtpouq(landform) nou Sqpio~jpyei.E T ~ 11I
~pqcr~poltoiqcrp tutl 6pou rrrrohioftqnq Btr *{ive.rut p6vo pa t q v eupciu kvvo~unou
SE~XV T ~E I~unupplyrl
? r rl; p w i .
 zbre q ~ o w r e p r ~m}vo.frrj
rj (p&ra,<i)ZC?N K ~ K K ~ ~ctra.o't:pktpcrat
V) 11
tca1 m~pPai.vf-;t

pezrx:t:) sot?<t?hicrftqa?l.Eral. 6tav 11 clrppo~eivrxt t:harpph; t!ypq. ol ~ b ~ t c~aot h h { x v ~

~ F Z W ; rot,;
~ a , ~ o p r n r c o&
cep~czarttxhdr. A v ~ i B ~ z&r%v i vep6 $1 r%ppo~
8 t ~ p p t ? &To
~,
~ t : p 6 atccipg het~ctt)ay~i
oi; ? b t ~ ~ x ~~ . r, h~t ~ ~b6i c \ j h ~ . ~ ~
t io t l &tfjlxtmcqtkvt:~
cru~txep~qipovtcxi~haarlrt(r. ci;nwc x . ~ .eivar 11 (~pythht,;. To
orqv pix$ tou n ~ z p t i ~ p a rjo)~TUU cS<ttpati~xou Gtaxorijcr
mj~Ctvo~-;cr;
rqv ~xiGpcmrl~ q Pupi~zqrct;,
i clh3,ix ~ c t zl e i v ~ lvcr

i6rcr.TO ~ , d c r p uXtrc6.
6 To txpb axoze%lt:;iiva Gputcrzt~dGtrr.ktctrt6 pino,
y mti 6 ~ j~6vo
t X P O K ~c X c q opt'~rr!iv.txhkh
t ~~o (~J :' ,~~ @.tat5
Z ( r i . ~ t l i . Tot! ~ c x l~ m p pet
k tte ick~crgtllc, nrn!a~ljc;.rot, xt:tpci~pcxroc;,t o
onoio r3upxt:ptcpkpcrat aav prn ~uhap.fi1u't.ja. Tihoi;, He z.rlv
vtjtr
o~'tjvoe~.ljot:!q
0 -r & i ~ ~ ~ t ~ { ; t ~ ~ t f VQQX; t rfj ~ TUV-
t ~ g , : ~ ((16o~i
t?7~173~,i~(f~Tft<
ZllV ~ ~ i f i p Tq<
f . ~Pt.Xp6't~Tc~~.
~~]
3, M e.rci&pu<rqT H
~ ~3.iirtr.crjaq~.
S @hr'xcrrqcrq
rcov n ~ u v h v f-;nf-;
ntqv muocpci~~lra e i rat.
, tGri r o y titrt6 cri>m~j rov cpurOv ~ t qyo
.npaaSrjvt:1 rr! 66apa< tcat pey~tihr8o pc%;<i.E T ~ G
xht.xytd< p p i ~IIJh~xorqaq,q
r;tUavi,trvtr tix6pptufq< piX<t~; civut ~ t a > ~p~ya>~Crepq,
tj ehv 11 tchihsrl ~ o u ;
~Gttii~cptr
rcqw ~htnci6cvGpovnou
~ivtxtp~$x%q tcat r o vcp6 ~ivtxtixytflovo. I-# unt~c~rixoruorl
i;y,orw Ptr.Otk< pi$; yc yttpi)tptxhhrw.08: .rr>..rryii;~ovrit.arc, Mentan rq; l'h>..hirrc , : i ~ r :
(0; unozk&catlc~
~ q Gtofi
v 1 1 tiv@pli)x~!~t'
exx0 t t ~~t ~ t o h ~ t ~ $ l j o : : ~ ~ ,
4. H eaidpaaij ~ c u viiov.ilaetuv. 0 1 ntwO1jKC; cmtp
.rrt~~ , 6p0r)v tmlipp~ I w pix<ttjo; p n t ~
p ~ vct
i

trurfj, ;Scopiq 6 p o q vrz xtxptrrrqpcizat ~ a p p i atcivqay. Avzb rstlygtxivt:t yttxzt iiicv rixt:r
tinr:pvth-qf)~-,i. o xtrpiryovttr5 n t~n~xijA , ~wJ ~/,rfj!&- ('fi i c l i ~ t ~rc:si,vfrmcr./
l r ~ j jptijuj,
. TO iucxt:)aprr.ytcx .rqv kvaptq zq-; k-ivqoqc. N 66vqn.q ptrxi;
xlfo>, , f ,p qr?pki;)~,pr:th.cctut
ti:tortr< xepr.o~f& k-h.noto a i ~ t o 6xwg
uCT7i6 , siwxr rl natrioq c v 0 ~p c ~ e o p i r ~(mrtpczia
l
ol ~exvtlrC5~ ~ p ? j , j$ eor:
nepinrt~,nqf~ filjpu:pt?j. r)y(ip~t),;tj o p t i ~ ~ i tor.
t ht.rz~psi~t, r.
6ovljnac (1x6 pla y ctzovt~fipt:,-yhhq crt: c;i.,ht.Ql wrxrahia@qa~l,q qytrlcrre i a ~ ~ j
;ipricrq xro crqprxt~taktin6 bhouc j
i v ivctr~nuurrcr rqv kvtx~:~~
~ m n r ~ . h oro tiwitgglv~cuifctx;.
I

3, Enitipuaq H qilnrl
trj; >wtBui9uyitx~. rou ncrpcbparo; r:xqpt:ir<t:~trlv t:pyit.tf~crrl.rob
tpcxtvoyhctv. Trx nctpc6pcxzta. reoi, civtxr po1ypoi6q. nop66q at t ) p o x p r u ~ i v u t
~ x t p p ~ ncfciq ~y{pt%vtcc?l
txx6pprylqc p&jrr$;,Ttr x~~ptitprazrx
xot) 7e~ptiq01)i~
op~~tti
not) {txapoiw tta t~xox2~t)f)cti:v
trxi, r0 V E ~ Ocit'rrt miaq; ~:xipp~:~l?j
mu pt~tv6pc
t'o.
 pititxg (1x6 m n u ~ t ) c r t p o p ~ r i ~ tMtcl
i q . cc~ohovOitxn e t p o ~ ~ x r onot)
v unoscheinrt ulrh
cvtxhhrxyt; h ~ x r d w . , u ~ ~ > ~ ( j ~rxn0):vtliCi)v
ti-v, ~ I( V~ I 7tct~lj~l:pcov
F T ~ C ) W ~ M ~ TK cru~ix~~chv
mp<!~pu~tov
civti~c h t c u v ~ t ~mr ju cpa~vbyc~~o.
6. H a-:lti&ptr.a;q zmv yxwkoyt~tbv &up&v. O 7cpocrtx\fti~u>~trr1iij~
ttl< erzpherqq. r q ~
op"rr6trltrx~~ r x y~vltih
t tont cxa~n~exr~tbv
.tot) .wl:rpCryara; ~ i v u r~txOop~cr.ct~@c
ytcw r o
v ~ opOppnlrq pc r?pf) L O P ( P O ~ O ~tikioll
cptxtvbp~vo.Orlrv q ~ L i a q~ o civc~l K~~ T ~ V

xptrvt.li,; ttirc S q p t o ~ ~ p y o f n1~v8ljtcr:;

i ~ ~ t ~ ~ rxm(r8cttxc. Atccipq ?tent c,t rxcruvi~ctr:~
r-;x~rpknavvt r p i tctih6tt:prj k-uk-hotpopictrot) vepoi),
7. I.! s n i i i j ~ u qrnu 9rtv$j)61t.col). f'rohkig tpoyi:~o ~tvUpcuxo; t;m!tf3tii~'t:l m q qtjcrr) pt;
Gtti.(pop~; Gpacrrgptikqrei; not) pnrtpc,6v vtt. npok-rrkkoouv tircopy ivq pci<tq. H
cmuyihoml puig rrhuy tits ctrtitin; ntiph-uyI&; ,ihnvOtimcaykv~l;6teutfArqcrrl~rot) vepo6
K r ~ rr q i jShiXmq~q~,
q txiict~fitlrqq t(Linq< ~ \ ~ f~)pir ~ v o iyitx
) ; rlpfK U ~ Z X O K C . \X.X.
)~ ~ v i ) ~

6p61.wt). ot >bc~vUrxo!tCvrzt 1)lrt~hoy1o1.toior: c t o p i l t e t ~ tctir rcxvrl~t; iiclt5ric;r:rq

r-:x~lpi:pcr~lv
r~?~>,,riyi
crtq cst;pnr;picyopci: rot) nprx\to6~ pe DVY,~OOJC t t x p o i J h ~ ~ ~ t x
txxorrk4':a~m.

Tut~vbpqml~ o &cpyaau.bv
v ancippiyqq pixjag-~azo>.idqtq~
Y xixyxe r peycikog ctpiOpOg Gtcrtpopcrttccbv dlcpyrmtti~v t rt; ont~icg
11 txrrcippyq yti.<tr~-~cxtohirsOr~~q.
npcry,u~x~onotci.r(f~ X ^ ' t : ~ ~ori e Gtt~t.popcti~oi~11lrcc:,1
5tcpycraiCrt9 r t t ~ t v u p o i : ~ ~h-at
r u ~~ ~ , p t y p p~
h ~fiI1aq
o ~ T~& ~~L +t ~i ) ~ & TUI,
2 \)httioi) no\)
~trsoh1fi0uiv~1.
rol) ci;io\,; ~ i v q m l ;~ t x rqi;
TI~G l zrx~ij~qrei;
rqq ~ i v q c q i .
Mr; f3krl tc3v ttirrcr t(llr v h t ~ 0 6K(N ~ t ~ . t ~ > ~ t c rt @ t ~ , i vS OeI ~ T ( Xm:
6iatcpI ~

1 . ~ a r o i ~ t d f l t~
j o p~ q. ~ u v l ~ l cdrtcpljv
jv (enginwring soifs), 00og not, ~pllcrt p o ? t tc~i~r t i ~
trxt', rr?tjg .re~t*t~t~-yacctkI'j~yc)t);
y r x rt; pq atlvctcrltci:~~ r x J ~ w p,uh;jc<
k (yctir:~).b.rcs~~
p c y t c ~ ~ ~ ~ t C ) u ~ - k 6 1 ~ ~ ( ~ ~ - 1 ~ 7 1 ~-,q
O ~FIXTfi
t ~ . f tK~t tJt ~ b ~ ~ ~ t t i - t c ~ , f
3. a c ~trcnh~aOilneig
l$pEr~ot)(meli) fi f%pn~ctp$<nr~:
frock mass). c i ~ t r i ,ro i d ~ civtti
0
r p j p{xrnv itptxp$5()i \mophOpo\) ftxve;upttlttr txx0 J-tHohoyt~<~
+
' 7
;$ ti:no ) .

ME jShoq nl" +uxiirllrrx rq? ~ t x r o h i o 0 t l ni)itrk-pitvov.ctrl

~~~ nc:
5 I crnlb
1. ttp-ykq (slow) pc t t ~ ~ i ~ t rici\~lcr~fi
ltu
2. ktCn~;(model-zte) pt: ttqi,.rq~ri2 I krn lhr k-ttl

3. ypflyopr:; (fast) pr:rtxy;istlrtx 2 Sk~nihr.

 p...
,%$ A%c!,Y:,:~~>
$,.:XI 9.3;

oh(eeiiz $ R?Pfl X?>f

! Ana <-
Pg-~ri

FIGURE 1.2 A l~ndslidcrcsuitmg f'rotn I ~ e a v yrains destroys buildings in Hung Kcrrrg. Thc
Servilfi, X.filr;q Kmx,
need for gcnlo~aclidv~cuand city piarzning is iluar. Dirfr.t:>rof%~&rto~tiirn
 I . m q v ohi~i3qaq(=:slide), orqv onoia t o o6voho rrg ~463.q~tvr:ittxtevtcritr nhtr!, or,
f ~ uEr X 4
~ X E ~ ?~ ~o i h q
npoi;
r'.

r(il $;&lo ~~tq<xvettx

ohi(~I)q~qq,
3. arll pofjf= flow), ~ r q onoirx
v t o t,htk-I, ~ti~t:irtxl
h w ; dvcr yt:tm~ri,
3. ti^ u t 1 1 (~tir(x)xrt0~~11
~ (falI, ravel ling), m q v onoia t o ~Ltlci,7tt5cpoel r;ht;i,O~ptrxpu;
m ~ < i t w~ht:i@t:~)tx
K(LI utqil ~ X V ~ X T ~ floppling).
OXI~ i-4 uvttrpnn,j nnpcxtqpcirui m q
f3prx~nkuitjra.
n ~ q pq~txv#trtbvr:%txtptbv rrvv@og ~ i v u inro trpykq tmu n g
Ot ~ c x t o ? ~ ~ o H f ircov
rr~plrso6r~pt:c~utQ>,tCYCfjO~tjppti;fopir;a<. Entni,tov, ~ v t h p ~ p t ~ i~rc ~ i s r p ii)hktii~
r
nav ~vlcvirep&i;ei. u3-hrx prioutl, 6 n w ~rcr. uyyti,.
pctati~vt~i~vrtr,~ N kt~tcptl).t-t;p~l
rtx.fiOrqrti
~ i v m~ l ~ p i m( I; X O T ~ ? , Cr01) ~ ~ ijlttot) tivtkyk~quv~ 0 1~)c f p u ~ t t jl p~iyic v t ~ hrtr ~uhctpci.
( T 1110
t~httrh.T a ~aktxpirrlht~C1st:pii:~ouvcrc trvirpcicq Eiicrcpo;. rrntxupivtt h-opptxrlci pph~ol).
61:,\-cpcl~ t w t q v q v ' t t ~ > , t ~rpewypkvt~
<t 4 . ~ ~to^
6 tir~0pomo.
Ercrt pr: p6crrl t o r:i&t?$t q c h.ivquq j hti~f)i\~i)\~pE:
Potj
lia~iippeuuq I)paxolc&<q fi Bpa~oart@Bu(rock avalanche). Eivctt yttt c5tx1p ~ t i ~ t ' i
yp fj yopq fi t(x&t~txrri(xttnbppiyqi. nap6iroto rqq x ~ovom~PixGrxc.nou crupPtrivt:l ur:
nncitojtc~nktxytti fopc~vk;). AnorciLei. p{~J,ho\~,~ ; E ~~ Ax o ~ 7~c~pir
ohiofir1~tl~.
TO
~nroXlaOtj,ivovv h 1 ~ 6ttnorchci~ert (in6 pcykAtt h-oktbtintt~ [ipix~ov. st/ tmoitr k ~ o ~ i ~
( I . ~ ~ O ~ E V ~ ( S T ~I t~t !h IoSe t qfi cAi~)"Cfq~~r:t<
n.nt'xnf:t nr-: ~ I M ~ ~ Z I : Pcxltfj K Q ~pt: tqv ~ t r t ~ x p p f : t ~ ~ q

pkouv txh-6prl yapqk;~tr:ytx [u:noh6 pc:yixi,q rtr~Onlrtxfrnd$.b; 200kmA1).

I~;';vR~wFJL~)~
(creep). Erwfittx~fj. rcoL0 aupyt) ~ u ic;t.\fcxQ; p x c t ~ i v q u q npog ~ t r
~ctpqhittcpcxuqpt:iti rou .':&iupor:i K C ~ Lrou peyu5XiOot). Anorcht:i rtlv nlu upyj cfitxtpt~j
~.tczetKivrloqpr: ptlepoi~ctxrcr', I-l(tmmfy txv<xhoytx 11: rrj ~ i i i o cT ~ I \:hl~oi:,
I t o r;hiprx xtxr
.cqv ~ h i r r qrov xprxvoil:. O r:i~nuv,w5; ~ p o ~ i u x runi?
c t t q v noAi ctpy\ ntrptiphicipcponq rctl)

pcylcOl,tHou. m q v onrjitx td clvtivcxpo ~ o rpij

t ~pet K tvcirctt r3p:ririx xcr~ilrcpntrnb rtj
rrt-c&~epotpfiptr. Acv pxopci vtx -yivc~iipcutt. cxv~~hqnti,j
n ~ q vttcrpxrfjpq~q.uhhir
r ni txxorehkopc~tdctou Sno,c n.X uxu rq\j xhinq xot) ?rtxpo~intitjo~~v~ o p ~ m i
k ~ e o t trz6
oi tppixxr..:; xilo; vt xtxptlhtjr~puc~rlpeitxK.
rwv fiE\$tptuv.ot m?kti~vc.j. tr.

Po@yaac;>v(earthflow) k-at poh uaaau8pwfrrfrra1v-~opqp&zct)1~

(debris flow). Eivtu po'i~k;
yxzrxtccvijnr-:1<. trx~i)rr-:pc$rxxi ~ o vr:pnuayh (zcxpjtqxrx ~ t i : ~~pt~r thiytr km/t?) tt~lt,

rnq.tftcrivot~v.xl:l~i(~); x # p ~ ~ p i , r r : pH~ poi)

t:zt:lijtj 11 tti1timtx~tlm q pofl F . ~ v ~nohi) ~ . ?(tths
~ u p u m r l p i i c lh-upitoc poC5 n ~ c t t r t ' rkcmt)pt:pti~v~ i ~ ~ l r t itj.rrobi
~ i . . eivtxi r u eiiciorl scxi nr
h c ~ z 0 ~ 0 ~i;tjptcclm
~ti (hpythko~. iX6c). H pofi ~oprlpix~ctnf~ ~ ( p x ~ ~ q i c i p pok;
i<m
ncptncrbscpo ct8popepo0i 11J~clc06( c ~ k p o ~ ~ ~rrlq
p i i :r p~p .~ ~ )npu~*Ai~Cvttxt
. 01:

nsptt?l;oti; ?~t-ovcitt:Ppo~onzt;,nz:tat::ct
ut: n c p t o ~ k gpr:uypFci tihipti.
 ~iaarcopo* (mudflow). Eivat ptu crxes ttcix T ~ X icl
E poq c t v c t ~ Iq
y ktCvor~
~~ uhtltoi, (rs6
hb.csnq-.rcqhti fxqhbs-ia~l xepixotl s ~ ~ p p e r oti~por,,
~ l j ~,hGog,rxpy ihhot,) xot) y ivczlxt. ycl;
pc.;ddL6sey.rl .rtxjCijzq.rrx and aur-ij tqc ~Scxqt~fiq
p)fiq liai ~ q po+;
q ~op,rtp.u,tcov.
Kt auT6,
y tcrti 7a uhl K&. ~ L U Z & k ~ ~ l j l~?p o ~ f p u l l ) f i~
~Ef ~' ?~( .; ~ ; ~ ~ ~~TCEOPGF~ ,TSI ] T ~VI-;I)Q~
C:~ C;COI!\J
~ o p ~ a r~ ~e ri lTC~II)OUG~(I<C)~JI+
) on] po4. E~8.rljh6~0cz~tl
xokt') ktt~ph.rt-:pquvzicrzao~~ oe

nt~px{xprta6pouv,~~eyti)~ot<
oy~ith1001ti.Skvrpcj UII a ~ c i p q~ t x csnirltx.
l

ficazkppewq fi a.tiBkda unoaa~pc~puzc~~v-tlopq~tiRzct)v

(debris avalartclae). Ana.erA~irqv
nlo t a x c i a uxu 6hcj a;pot?; rtov y u ? ~ t ; c i(~~\u~J , u p 6 ~X i~~~ L K ~h-nt
~ W~) ~ G t ~ h t b vmiv,i0o~
~rln
rre uypki opctvk; ~ ~ p t c l ~ kI;I. scty,t")r~lstrsqq civejl tmot.EA~.crpct TO\) t,yql,oi,
~ c p t ~ ~ o ! t C v ovcpoi)
t) K ~ X zI q pc-yctX11
~ h-kiaq ~ w npctvibv.
v Kopcopiva ere yep6 ~opfipttra
~ o p o i t vvtt. ~t t5r180ijv pr: ra~ittrltrr,KOU (PT~XYEI 5a 7Okrnlt1. Ot ~ra.rtxp~t;n~t;
ru~rli:;
ztx nixmu.
pxopoi)\l vcj crt,~tnetptrcrOpo~~v
Eiiaipt~fi pufi (Soliflt~ction). Eivat ivtrq t i ) n o ~apyrjc poi'#?\; h-ivrtnq~ xou
ntrptrrqpeirat ,u6vo n c xcrhtj y v ~ p t ?rtcplo~iq.
~ Oroit ~ m i x p ~ cpbvt~tlr
r kvtl arpti~,ptx
ntryct~p,':vc)t) ~ij[x(pt)l)g (permafrost). Clrr~~f
o nt'rycz< r(11v ct.\:cit~t:po~v t:xtcptav~~rutiv

Oiirrtqm/ crrinciiq rj ~cplarpoqux~i

nc h ~ t i qi ~ o tc
;n nd t ~ wi:rrqxivcrri !
C)biai)qq Pph~oiril fipa~o)i&@t~
(rwkstide), Zrq v o?,ia(j rlorl. cj P p i q o s ~j fiptr~ohti~5tr
n v y n ~ p ~ r p i p ~ rcrc~v
c r ? pox ~,vtr~iej
pk&. 11 ~ x o i l cAtcr0ttivm
t xij\sclt ~ f p :t i fi ~ t : p t ~ c r h t . ~ ~ t ~ q
~ x t c p i rtcc
. ~ ~ uLinOqml;, ot I J X O ~ ~ :G\)VI~GWC
~ zi t'(tl n~)c)ijxif.pp~t~oc;
r:xrtpix\t~lc~
tx~~wt:~t:tcitv KPUS rv K Q ~ X V L ~ .
nou ~ h i \ f @ lop6ppt~mx
r\~
I.)kiarBqtril yutlizv (Slump). f-f 0kicrl)qoq yctlchv ~'tvtrrpier txp-yq 0;~io9qcrll jCcti,trpr,i~

W r;ll~rpievt:ui .rue ojLi&r)Cirf;, nr;pa~c;i,rr:pcqcpoptg, e i i w ~ ' o i ? ~xr pl ~ qt { x xhvto, hxfi)~

eit9cits o ~ o i X nykpo; rot, xowuA.~ni;.0 1 h-opktolui rrov ijkvi)pn~vxctptxpC:vot,v ptjtfiktE\wt.
f debris slide). Ei vcli
Clkia8rfcq u3curpu@pw~iia~wv-~~~pqpir,~ct)v kt t rx ~ c tcrcrbtc.;pa
p
ypfiyopq oJ-io$qsrt or; o~~.Cirl TI^' ~hi~f?r]Cir]
-ytf.ltGv X O ~ :~ ~ C X Y ~ ( L ~ O X ntkvtt)
~ ) I C6~1
T~~:~ I

R E ~ L O ( S ~ ) T E~~ C ~ )ILC(
i Cl X I ( ~ & \ . C I K C ohicrtfq~tlq.KUICJ T ~ 6 1 i Z p ~ ~ 1TI]<
V t r ~)>~icrOf~m]
j

p c l ~ t ~k-apJS~ttx~rx
<r nt~pnr:ptvi:povrrr.1~ t t o s t ~ r x .
17rchml-A~a.rpomj
Ehc.it0~pq (~uztEr)ltza~qpp&r,cov (rrtckkll, ravelling). X ~ q v E ~ E I ~ U F . K~XT~XXTWCYI~
~I~
pp6t~oua7cona0p~t1pdvw~oppttzrw,p p t i ~ o unktptouv ~uxptxrctihutjv rhrti6eprr. npoq xu
K ~ T D )mxr. C T \ ? ~ K F : ~ ~ ~ ~ In~ 11(~pq?~bt*~.pt.x
;IV P&CST\I\ x66a T ~
O V T U ~ u11tic ia ~ O U V + ~ O S (3211 G

xLunftik).W auy~thyrpwrs,rltuu u h t ~ o 6m ~ o 0oilap&<r;ztxi~ b p q p u(talus 3 scree debris).

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6 nr-:rpci~)urro;r:iatxt
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.;t.irvw trn6 so O R L ) ~ Ot, t j K R V ~nhqpc!ivanrxt pt.: v ~ p tirrtlfi
h pr-: rlkpcr npocslitopijcti~sugt q v
<&vq ucpropoLoi, (xnne of atration). To txvti~rc
po tlu~it ..:ninc8o - 6pro. ovopix<erai
a.rii0j.q i j sbe60zpq ~ntcphvstu.
iJpo@po; opijttrtuq (table rater) fj tyE,Litijq tdt~pncr~urt~ij
r:.netciq ecrqv ~xtcpitvr;t*axrrrj 11xixn13 rot) v~,poi)
~ivtttiuq g~ T I ~ Yt ) ~ r ~ t o m p t i tTO
p i ~V~C ~ S
~il ri~
rq; <ci~vrlq~ o p ~ e r pr;ivtr.l utcbyzto vsp6 (groundwater), Osuv 31 crzGtfpq r t tjSpug6potj
~
~ P ~ < C > V Tt ;vtrt
{.Xi ~ctkib~ t ~ vmq\'
~ t iem ryir.vr:ur ~ t t cgiuplsi
i xrc t pe T T t'~ rr~(il).tll tot, V C Q O ~ !G T ~ X
nqyix6~a~ u Ti5
l y~otpiloct;, r i k c o u6pocp6po~opii;ov~cicovopit;ercr.r h-at cppcittta
catcphvc\a fphreatic surface), uur t o tlnCtyr;to vt:pri pnopci vu ~ u r p t ~ ~ z q p t r co;
n c itppsktto
vsp6 (phrcatic water).
0 uiipocpepog opi<t3vrct; fj u6pc)crrurtsfj ~ ~ O f f ctxorr:Aci
pq Cvu cm6 rc~nw crqb4u.1~~
t rri:

a p m o cnjotqptusott t ~ n h y ~ l o v\[~:yoG. yrcrri ~ t x f i o p i t ~ .(~1 ): TI~V

trxt)Eir)t-~h-h~rlru ~ (2) rrz t~hhtiyi.,$xou ~rrptrrqpa6vrrxt

.rrttv ~cr~:!lxiithv Ktrr r t y~torprj~cwv,
t t l (3)
net; 7Tl'l-;jk, 1CCI.I TCS ~ ~ ~ ( i & tKtX1 , ?I5 8 l ( l ~ ~ l k h ~ 0CKI)
E f $C X ~ ? X < ; ~ @ TlW htpl'thl'.
Mo?L~fvhrr..
q 1 ) 8 ~ ) o ~ t t f rTtS~T Cf ~lO ~ I ISF.Vpnt>pt:i vtx ~upmqpqf)f:iQt<:~ia,BF, x ~ . p r o x i : ~
pcyWog cxptOkthc y~torpljnt;wvh-ul nqycx&ttbv,s o i y o i rili n s o~Car)
cinou t~nixp~cl
tqji cxrcpixvr-:tcx rqS t l i t h t x n ~ ~ pxopti
~~c 11O&i
V ~ X) ~ ~ T I ) Y P ~ x ~ K(EI vrx ) t c k ~ . r t ~ dpF,
~i
y t t ~ 11i oru8pq re!}\ ~ ~ ppohi x~ vet5 ycarpfimtg u x t
h~:~ropi:petci, ~ t xqyddt(~
x fit)pxixr~t
PC T I ~ V\)i5pc)m(i~t~fj
usitffpq. An0 T I ~ Y~txprcqp&tp~l(rq
ST)j ~ ) & ~ J U G T ~ X T Lrnc'fipl)~
K~~; st:
:.~ OTL TO q f j p u 515 ~ F I V~ i \ ~ tI;x~T[c&~~.
nuMiq h-at ; ~ L U ( ~ O ~ I : T nI Kt :~p; ~t ~ ~ I~potiitait-:~ r. (J~?L~J

ptri optr)sdti,cl~tryphC ~ I ~ J C OrlA ~ ~ t c p i t vXOI,

~ t t ~I I X ~ J T U I ~n I( ~~~~ ~ ~ r ~ o ? ~ t ~ t ) O ~ : i7qv
-t~,~~i~~~pirq
arlpcicx tqq [Jpicrfco~jzrwt~ t t t exnci
sx~tpuvstcrtcfiytopcpohoyirr. T ~t)yqh6~c:ptt
J r ~ rot); hbqot,;,
EV~;)C(~T!:PXIC:TIXI711)C); TO K ~ V X P L )TCOV ~ ~ - : K ( x v z ~ v .

To 1m0yt:to vt:p0 p 6 ~ likcru

t xpog m ~txp1li.6tt:pacrq!i~ictcztnlsirx<
(in6 ru (S~tifucvtx
rqq i;ittg tot) rqg ptxpirrrlrctc. Erat pCct tin(> st<xeptcqi:i. 6nou 11 uliponrtfith-il cnht)prl
t;ivm y.qE-(i, xpog i r c p ~ c q , i6~~ o t rl) u 6 p o m t t ~ t ~nrirf)yq
j ~ivtxl~txprlh6s~prrpe
trxfit~lrr:; p o f j ~tnnb mmly p,C:~pt
K ~ I Ikr.r.r/y tr~f{ri~o+fcx
PC z t cruvthjk-r:c,
~
Xqpcxv.etrck<xtqx'xpr:zpot nrqv i)ntnp<.rl,~ 1~o
1 n0
~ t - ~ l r~ trr x rqv
t Kivqcr11 ctm ~n6yf:lov
vepot5 t ~ x { ~ r ~ hTO~ xopi)8t:;
t'x ~ O x
U c ~ p ~ i f y ~fj ~rot;
t ~ )r:fiix(~ot)~
g C ~ Lq
I (61tx)nt:pzi~O~tlt~~.
r .

io nopb&k~(porosity) sivrrt TO nt>nomi) rq; xupot~tiiex;501~KI;V(;JV VTO ~ k ~ p t t ~ i)p ttxo

tfitrvt); rtrt cscppri<ettr~txptt&~qrtuix~ t rov
c a u ~ ~ e h s onoptbciuuq,
tj ciqhtd~jrov hbyo tou
byuou .eott7h-cvthv xpoG rov 01wctht~C36 y ~ rot)
o I T C T Q ~ ~ ~ X S fCj )rot)
S eSixqxpaug. To noph6cq
~txptr~~rlpi;t:rt,u
circ I!,? xt~ozoy~vt;,
i,t-av ~ t 81ix~t;trn
n K(LI 01 ~ O C ) I )Sqp~ot,p:~~i,vrtn
I k-trtiJ.
rov n " ~ , p f i t t q t br01) x~~p(t'fptrc~<,
t:ir~. 032 ; j ~ t ~ r ~ p ~ j y xdt ,t kt <~c~~ t : ~~Yi ~~~ ~ L E T ~ I O C S O L Z ~ X ~
pr:rtr~evi:or~.po.
t:Cuttitrj tt;ctto\fc~z&v
rj cpt)n~fco~q~ttcu',v
d~~.pytl(~lti)v
not) 08qy0i)ij & t i : ~ p ~
K ~ L Im q xjLlip11 )r^t'tv~~r(lr~)tpfj v<t i p ~ t ~ ?tlqi\q
j$ Goyqs rot) nr;rpti~purog( R , X or.
~txro\~tr;i:<
St,i*tiprt; irxopoi;v vrj ~:nttpi:potri~crro n k ~ p t o p Ijijtt
~ ps:j(i)lo tr.prt3prj
cwou~~:xe
tchv).
T o npctrroyr:vl; no? J d s . npcxfcri~irtrnujzix p 6 ~ 0cJrtt ijqpott-t~gt:\~
j xerpcbp~rtx~ r i l
bno~cn.X
uOpt(r ~ x o u q~uAcipoitio~qptr~tnpo6;. ttx ~trAih-triK ~ L i~pp01.
I F SEV
. V trlv~iOt:~t~
~

ilupcr~-cqpi<r:rrcr. nrlpt-p:v~i fctrr rrx y~ttyropqxsitivrr xetpzbfzrx~tx. TUV opec.rirr~v .to

npreroycvi:j xoptbdt;; 1 p t ~ p h r s p ottxb 3 '!it KC(^ fit:vfi$eo~~ I K ~ U ~ E Ce )t O~ 0I ';::,
M{xi,lmtx c>t Liyor xisp131xot 1 t;x~rC~~~pat:v
lit:\' ot}:!~ott'w~wiwI L ~ : T (~xo~t~~, ; .
 To 6Evcepq~vkgx o p 6 6 ~anavrh ~ cre xoMb oupoyi xrcpchpma ( ~ ~ q p t r u y ~ ~ ,
xuptywfj rat )resu)lopcpoMvo) rcou napouot&<ouv p y M o aprBp6 turuve~eujv rat
X ~ U K am ~ 5 En;~aouvkyeurg am&.
To xop&~ a z m ~ k ri o tiCIpouq~~ (1) roo xopGdoug rataxpcitqaq5, to oxoio
xpoaStopi<et q v xocrhqxa roo p e w 0 6 nou easa~poseisat@oa m o u ~icbpoy too
p.&uoural8ev p a p e i va rtvqoei Myo r q s Bap-a;, wat (2) rou tvepyoS ~op66aug,ro
wroio xpooGmpil;et q v reepcrrtkqta iCranepimmsa. Me sov bpo rtpazbrqrtl fi
iiwsrpa~drqra @emenbiiity) voeitaa q tuavt5qsa noo L ~ e tiva xopojkg pkou va
enttpEmt q v p ~ a ' t z i v q ~(~v&ocpopio)
q peoartSv @era DTOUS 1 6 9 0 TOU ~ ~ 6 q M i $era
ax6 q v iriri;asou rat q e ~ y e r a p
e to ~vepy6xoph6q.
K eravckq~aaunj ~ ~ a p t i r r aax6 t ro pi yet lo^, t o q i p a rat q v emrocvwvia
(dvijetsrlf sav rrcipov. cA2.k a ~ 6 p qax6 t o 150Se5sou peuosoG waO&qrat ng rckaey xou
avsxoitvtai o ~ peuorb.
o Tta q v x i v q q rou vspo6 Bev anatrei~arAotnbv pbvo q tixap6q
rov xbpov, &A& xupicog vu extxotvmvoGv c1p:ta56 r o u ~kol hm8 r o peuotu va popei
va ~cveirat@aa ax6 awo0~.r e v l ~ hxapaqpeirat t h e p q v ~ i o sou q peyiOog tw
r6m;luv so rroph6eg aucirvst (atitqoq rou nopcbbaug xasarpkrqaqb, 6 p q~
61axeput-a pihvstat. Tta so Abyo am6 r a upytMixri xerp&pcrca, .cav oxoicuv or
xupoc ro15 ptrpomomwoi Kat Myo tqg xolb caXfj~ ra@vitpr(oq~ 6ev
~rnrotvovo6v C L F ; ~ ruq, ~ &OUY mlD ~ E Y ~ A xop66eg
D Kai p~opo6v v a
rma~panjaouv p ~ y b k xoah vapo8, &A& napouotErjoov napa xoX6 gxpij
o6polreparhta. To cqfipu iuat q popcpi twv r i ~ x o vexqpeqoov q p u ~ ~ t TO r6
nop66y rat tqv Giampastjrqsa, aMa 6ev &ouv ~u0optmeix o r s o ~ ~ rqbaat,l~. b~ 0
xpwavwo)rta)Lfy rov rci~~lcwv pika m o nb~popcr ~xqpedri;et ~ p a m ~q h
6 r u m p a t m r a ytmi puepibt n\ 6r&6@ovoq lrat ra;lirrr(~apais tov peumhv p&oa a'

U U T (opt[;uvna-~asa~6poqa).
~

Tkkq q m ~ a y o n o i q o q rat rot)~~norcoiqoqrov nerp&pasog ( 6 r a ~ a a i a

ItOonoiqoq~rrat GtoyCveaqq ~lrqpeh jovv apvqnrru ro xopb6a; rat tq Stampus&nlsa.
AvriBera, 7 6tamparcitqta bqptoupy ~ i r altat ~ 6ewepoycv65 an6 Swpyaohg
xapcjpoer; autki nau 6qp~oupyobvro 6eosepoysvk; xop68~g.H Sel~spoyevfiqawctj
6taz~pasmz"a ecaps6tac an6 q v rcurv6qra ~ o 6ut ~ ~ i i orov u aouve~eriv-poyjubv,t o
eitpog tous rat so u h r 6 xAepoo,ip;roug.
~ I K Q Q Yt " l O P c ~ O f & 3 E T P 2 W A T A
 y os vcp6 ~ u kisut
~ o p e nCvo c ubpocpbpu atpcitpa il rjiipc~cp6po(aquifer). A\reiOatcc. or pq
61ctnr:ptrtoi rrohC pc~pi);61trxaptItcrcir?l~t$c r ~ t l p r r i o p o i~ u crtivcn6;
i p?. xok6 j t t ~ p f i
t rrroiozth-Or1l.cc1GE 8 upertt.h%ci)fiq.mve pi, ovopi<u vstx c greyuvoi (aquiciudes or uquifuges).
O t C & C ~ ~ E P OfiI (. P ~ ~ ~ T U
I US IP O V ) ~(uncunftned
~)I or phreatie aquifers) civui t:tiei~fol.TW v
onr>itov $1 nrti.9p.tl 3w ~ Y P O ~eivtri
, 11 ~A~.:i)Ocpq<;?iip31tei(n. 61lhctCjri 0 tsiSpt~abpoq
o p i<a~rr~-. l ehcijf3t;pct ret,t~{trq\*~ I ( X Q K F , I UTQI? t:,tot}$g~ hvot_;io
Krnr prt.rspri vet &icx~r,ucti~feru

.
rzltix
x
6 n~ti:crra>;yarij n l v ncpiodo rtnv f i p c q u r n d a ~ t t ~gut
v , ~ i t f f o 6urnit
qpurri%. M { t i r:t8t~fixepinrtoo~lei\.ctiitt:pwv \ ) i i p o ~ t i p otrxorchaGij
~\~
~zpepn.orui t~dpocpbpoc(perched aquifers). o t o m i n &qy t o r ) p y o i } ~ ~h-tx
o r11\7 r ~ p i o f i otq;
(31 atwpo&psvot 4

~ tt t ~epqtt~~i<o\fttxl
~ q h 6 r c p c am5
t zqv art'x8y r) rot) y ~ vuh~t;pc.rt,
r f ~ i q x ot ~, 8 1 ~ ~ t p < C)F~~<OI'TQ,
t ) )p~~j F ? T E I & I ~K~XZDI

m-c6 cctttoiq t~nitpxctu x o w i yt:i~o; nrcyctv6q cs~qbtti~tcrphc,

rroc~6r:v cn~tpCxccTO v ~ p 6vtr
K Lt q f )xi ~ p o ; x ~ L ~ I ~ A ~ ~ T Okac
R ~ I ; t;c m.tr o\)i*r-:xrrj$o 1rto~po0jievt?; tjl;polp6paq vtr
svonolqAsi I ~ E yr:v~x6r~.po
(rbplo) uhputpijpc, o p i o v ~ u .
X u ~ ~6yo;,
c i mot)j uijpoqhpot, j, q che6tlcptl ~;nttpitvstrxppin~~:rtlc lctn ~IT~?L~TF.P(X

ax6 ' E ) O Y ) ~TOVG

T ~ LO ~ H 61(tlp0poxoi't1n11 ~ X U Z Ixpoxila~ct
~ ifnit TO yr:yu\:tj~ Ost, o
t)fipc>cpGpo; nap~opi,t:rcct mx5 Rvu vnt:prcipr;vo nrr:?ctvG c r ~ q ~ ~ ~ n lXOV
n p <6t:tj
i I:K~TP~RE~

I ~ BCorl fv6ponnxrt~rj
t r p l mi~Opqtlotj v c p ~ iV)( X?\.h[3x1r t l (~P U O ~ Lrqq crrh0b~q)gut vct yiitei
11 E?~~:\;Bc~JI~ uhAiX. ( T U ~ ~ I . ~ < ~K T~ X~ I~X ~I f t ~ o p i j t : t ~t xi tx t wtinh tr1\7 f3(xnq zoti
c~rtpixv~itj,
mr:yctvoi ay,tlgtrrtn)tc)i). cirrov zn 1.c p3 G T ~tlriml ciut fi k x m t?Kpc?rnt~s~ xir:crrl
pt:;/txh',znpq rq; ~ x ~ ~ ~ t ) n q t ~ 0t l1j )t}Spo(~(\po~
l ~ ~ i ~ . rxtmi ~ \ J O ~ ~ ~ < OIV~TyI tX~ k t t @ t ~ ~ J t(ij
d;v~~
aptecrtu\?oi fi 1jn6 n i c q ) odpucpbpui (confined or artesian nr pressure aquifers). Xr:
xt:pinwcrtl xau tltr yivt:~p a *{etbrpqn~t..rl oxoiu ( f t j rpt;nfiot:r TO nrf;*ytn}tj
xkzpct~iitth-at.Orx
ntfiar:i rov t:8po~6po.stir<:cs!zhptx~tro11 crrirctprl rot) vt-:poC mq yr:ispqaq Hrc )whpzlnliT
crri/ltyq rq; r:i.ciiOepqi t;ntqhv~cly. H cstpcivr:ur ct.t)rtj ovo)rirjcrtut ~ l c $ p a ~ p t w j
cntcpcivcga (piexometric or potentiontetric stirface).
H rpocyo3onict r:v6<t}tipncpOpou jmtjpei i9ttyivr:~:( I f trn6 rtt r:nrlptrvcttrrix v,:pit. (2) tmij
sot?<nAxt,p~u~)6;ij vweprtcip~vcw~
v6pocpitpc)t)q. ;ir; n h ~ t , ~ t t ; i'tiJ C(XT~XUOO~I(PII
):topo~j
tl,~,poi)+
wxt (3) pe T C ~ V I I Trpo<po&o~itx.
~~ f;tsti~hixc%pt;ivtr npoc
u x o ~ r e i :( I ) tintisAx~e~ .irx

E T ~ vcpix.: (2) nkxtlptk-kg t : ~ ~ . r i , ) C'tj~ k-rt~ti~t'?pvqc;

sStaqt)yk< t
x rrh,:t,ptt;oG; ti
vn~~xipct!ou;udpotptipot,<. ~ t (3)
x ~ zeavqtt:.~ c.trct5haicg. c<tn.citx; tq; t t v f ~ p i n i v q ~
Gpctcrrqprcisqrai.
Y&pocpiipo a6a~qg.meivui aci~po;-rr,':pw~311 rsplh-Aetijp~vqus6 6pttxAro oxoict
nuv~mofivr:pxcidio nc ~ i l B r :!u:stidonq ztli tiSycnvF.tr4; enifiptxoqi cttl t q c urroitq 6 1 ~ ~u
1
tyqptxrrr ~picrravrtxl08: c n : ~ f q t~(iprn)l~rk-lj
tj Gtcra6v6,:crll.
 X'~EXC)AF,& ~ i q p ~ iTcTt ~ <F . X I V ) [ ~ V C I ( I ~~ q I'll;
i ~ p ~ t xji~j ir t t l8tnpliti); fl I C ~ J fTi~t t x n r q ! ~ ~ ~ ~
tmbyt-:tu i $ ~ p i i .tcrnl pkh~crzrx ota crqpzitr. E B C C ~ V ~ I 6x01,
, (3 ~tjpotj)fip~i;opi<m>rej;
Sta1~6xtctetta x 6 T ~ x~tt.phv):ta
V TT(; Tq;. 010f:nt:t~e ~ p o ~rou
i ; u.rr6;rctou v ~ p o ixnv
} pier
F.;Lc\:'HcPu oov ctvtx ~FOC((IV I : ~ O ~oJv o ~ ~ r L ~ ~nqyE;
i ~ ( x (springs).
t 0 1 nrp~cjcrArc~t:q
xqyk~
x t t p t i i St~x~iyovrrq
trl; n a p o ~ ~ toug.
i; 01Gtct~v!t{ivnt;1; ciusi; cxvr~xvctrhoCvrt;
1

!~c~txfiSt)~t:q
C K I ~ L ?nr(iUp~1T C ) ~ri,Sl~oqbpovopi<uv~tfK U I fpu~t~Cj:
2

~ I at
I V~;YT~Lc.~?? 331v
l ~ o t ' jkit-: \:ep6. Otu\*q r-:icpo?jTOIJ urrbye lol: 1*t:p06 r-:ivtzl
i"tlkpti'ct ( ~Toti ~ p x > ~ o . ~ ) t t oZOI,;
f-t6\)1p?1.ri~rr: q lrqy j o\:c)phjertx~ p6vgpq lcqy6 fperrenial springs). ervri0t:rcx ~~rsqt'

&luhcino~manqyil (intermitte~jt
ncpimoarl xoli 12 c:~pohiicv ~ivtxtpbvtpl ovo~t<1j~ttrt
spri~g),
0 t 7ctl'~kqanott:Ac~6ijbtttt trcrqcxhlj f:vSt;~Erlrot, ~:iKcm;rrj< t,iipoqwpilr< k1tt.t; n e p ~ r y ~ j ; .
Mt.:.jtihu; u p t f I p 6 ~pt~prhvnq'jt;)~( ~ rx(tpv(11k;
t ~ p u ~otJ~(~F<ry'
~ K ~ L ICTTO~JS~p6~[06c:$
tcov
rtov kilqc~~\'.
y,c,~ll;iX. ,kllJp~l)pt~
T??V 6lrap;q p?]3(,ou ehr:i&kpob t)fiprxpbp~~:
clpi<ovtta, ,.:vcc
ct\:riNcrrx pxyitkcc ntlyLq n t , y ~ c i ~ r p t r t k i o
C ~~~ ok-kvrpo rqq tcothitcitri blcrpttlpobv r q v
rjxtxptq nrl ptx\~t~c?il
i:hetif)t..por)t)Spt~cpbpnv.
E6& npkrrci vtt nvcxcpcp0r:i Orl, ar: t/ifriOccrq pc sqv c ~ y o l 1rot, unuysiolj v c ~ o Gpt:
itopcp~jpciyctro; n t q v xqyo. 11 Giclppofi (seepap) c:iwrt pttt rcr:ptacshsepc) *pyq ~ i ~ l l a y
unciy~tovvr;pob xpoc tr)v r-:n~rgirvc:turou 1':iithpo15. q oxczitx pnc,pt-:i vrr. ny,rtpririnc~f - t t ~ p t i
xov ovof-irirjo\~ti~
-rk)~pex~cx (wetlands), t;rrrfi$:pp1~6poi< fi ~
~jypbru~ot t e:<(xt!~t~t~ci.
f t lttz

H 1~6po~tilfl~~.1)(51\
cii'tti 11 c ( x ~ ~ ? ] vt oI )t ) V R P O < ) tflfb ~ t 1jii~~um6ptr
1 rrx;nrtjporrx 11 rt;
x r l ~ t ipt: r r ) ~
K ~ ~ c ~ I ~~t~t(ih),l$t)u
K c I ~ ~ ~r e ~ v t ~ o~ Pi Y~O O ,Tt1 i ( l y t x U U T ~O V O ~ ~ ~ < ~ O Y T U ~

kpytt. 3'ct cppk~ra

r~iipoprx~~~rer)rlw'x qtye6r1a 4 xr(yk6ia (welfs) civtxt l;anr~bpt)tptr
udpopcjnrt;t)rt~(xkpyrr. r;tt.t 1nxoscho6v rt:~x"tlzC.,qoxk; pkmx n z ~TI]-
l 01t~6poy~o3tgijtrq
(dritling setis) c ivcn i3cttf~ti:; oxC~-?cy-yixfiltrnoli cti'oiyovnx~ btc yewrptscnvtt. KOL

npt~nrtr..rt:ilot-crwf-tc: nwLt\vatnq. H crto>,~jvr?.ltnl

~ I ~ ~ > c T " c ~ M IT: GI ~~ ;Vt~ij~)u?fc61~pqnt1
~ Q X CT
~ ~ V

xrcbcrrl rot) t r ) , t ~ ~ OT O I ~~ot~top(xtt1)~'.

~ txxb T ~ C gin060
' toy t:ntcpctv~ttt~ci~v
vep6is xtx~
~ t }rriq
p ~ccx~cpa?+ij~:l
kvr1 f:t~BSyptxp~to
iipRpa mt~otvo~virrq
avir.!il-:utr s ~ u uiipafphpu
v ~rti
rtlt9cx~q~U)i(vt;t(x
~ q l"'~ls.
; H 0tr>?i1i\'t:)~r1 y i i j ~ ~t:i~r-: rsa~j~.JIsc;
t ~ t jlt: ~t)q~j,oljj (atal,~jvc;~ o p i :
c y ~ o n t ;4 ctifoiypi~crtr)e i t c pe q t ~ v ~ p o o t ! W ' p(nm>wfjvr:;
q, pc: c-;j)ic)nd<4 rtvoi-yprtt). 0 t

c p l ? > ~ ~ p o n o ~ ~rono@r:so6\-rtx!
fii~eg nrtx dpoqhpct m p i p x r r t . t:v& ot tt)cpkui crrct mt:yctijdc
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ttxb u(nxttc(r nt)ptyc;vrjnetp&ycp.zcx.

XE :.I~":IK& r:pcpnvi<ovrnt Hcplcts nqy& (hc~tsprings). an; onoir-:; Z K X I ~ Y ~ X ~ C L

ttCn..:~~.
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x t ~ > ~ o m i pAvriOsrct
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MI: /D<tt~qTO k-rrrir.nhco q pc)p(pohrtyitn TO\, y,li,puu soug xrlptopi<ci fj TOUS enrsphnei vex
~ i v t l f f o icic68r:pcx.
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sfi~i?\i

1. A l n r ~ o nuycr6irs;
i (alpine glaciers). r ~ pfr;~;ttvart
q nr: hi\-tt rtr YR~I)~PU(PIKGK?,<xT~.
fl

cihhrl ne yr:y<rktr ~)\ybkir;zptn

(t?.ryrl>,i-:$
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0 K I : ~ I O ~ I C LFK~T ~L ~V~ JT(<St).OOOkm?).
I~
Attttrpivcn-rcn crc upcpi0cutptroi~qn u y c ~ i j v y(cirqta glaciers). or: auyertiwr:q tiorlirriov
(valle? glaciers) mxi cczcr. ~uLOpptttrxij iiunElct xixyot~(ice caps). Ot rtp.prlkcx~ptk-Oi
xe~-yr-:~t;~\:r:; ~ r ( ~x pt q t t t c r p k t q~ l p t x \ > ~ ? ~~ tt -~dth$ f i )n: ~
o ~ q ~ i { r ~ i < o \ asc t l ~~hfr+?tk<
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KOI~[I$~C:$

~atciptijt'u x t s(t K ~ . ~ X ~ :'liil.you

>~AIR D X I ) ~ ~ I S ~ < ( vtl<
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axqclrtri5~i htr, exxtt~pljgtracrxt:iiC?v ~cx~tnrci,putpc)
7tpct~8;. TU O X O ~ ~XS~ O K ~ ~ X Tcxxh
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v n&yaat a x 6
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tx pt: r q v
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trxb t o i~)topi.voijrpi, zot} n(;l*~~~(i)t*ii

xeptaob~eptt8ti:tjptivnvrrxt Krrt Op~,!ttx~ijov~trl XUIJ

f f l cta6tim ~ ~ C T a'
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r~nottAcajitrV ~ LT ~ ~~KO$I:.\~OUV
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oibtoOoyptxpphcrm!)~. o I orroieg ovop&Cr;ov-ccx~aaycr<obcy nb~o8ttypuppt;tnc
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r~ E x i f f ~ ftxxh
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zov KUYI.:Z~;~VC~
~ Z I I T ,~tr-:~t~<i)
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t t!rro/3t'x0pot; cq~l~trri<r:zrxt
kvrx ht':'lt~@~ctk'~t3
t,htti"tj not)
(wck Boar).
nrzzyQi3r:q ~uviapa
polir.j e ~pc tiAt:Op 1 ~ n . 1~ci?~ei.rrat

Tolcia fi nr&i*8iixPpomq~uLncr6~vauya~cltvov
'To acdic, i$rixppcl>crtl;t u , ~uAxtchv i;~~ertOvtrtv
xepthtrpphsr:~:
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~olhiabeqf LTahaped glacier valkys): Zr avriOccrq yc: .t.t c

~hr:lnri.qP t t O ~ l k(KIi~15~t3i)
~ V - ~ ~ t i $ t t i ~~@th(~i$1:$,
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t~ n ~ q ~ u n i < ~ \ ~TC;?IK<X
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nAqpq; ~ i i k ~ w qrq; ~ t r c6x1 pOvo zou K~:\Tc)~KoI': TI];

5k17i!lfKf 3;.

(cirqw valleys): 0 I crpq tplffr,trr(tt~oi

AptptOca~plrEcj ~otj~kcjldr:~ irtx*?l:rl;~ur.:~Gpiticrvnxi or:
ttp.pi@ecx~pl~t':q
(h"~~ptxupkv~.;S)
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(k~; t opf.:tvj;C,xhcx"~ti:~
h-tri
8 ~ o u \~r:~tr;L,oriiii~
f Ot ~orh(x6s; atlrk; npo-r;i)ntouv tmh t o G t t ~ t p o p ~ t pttOpci:
o~-ij)ui. t~u
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Ot rtxprrrtori,.p~o~ntryc.rc&v~; civtxt
ptXpbTt~:pOIZOtr K ~ ~ I OX(%Y~;TC;)VU
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pt)f)pbtrxu zov rilpto xtry~rhvtr.o o n o i o ~rrwcxict; t vu S~ciJ-lpchvr;
t xat vtr T ~ ~ T ~ ~ : I L ~ OTIP:
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t KC){k(i8r:; tojif I E ~ ~ ~ L I L O T ~ R~~~XL? (I :OT ~S~~V' W.;rot!
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r~[ivrC)bxtpu pc:
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t <jpti tccit 4 xpt:yunpCvc; rrtjy atrhhr:~;
71' u\jrb ovopri jovrtrt tt!t~t@~(~Tpih-k<
KO th&&~q.
I'sternoster lakes: Eivnt fitctc'joput r hipw; xou a ~ t l p r t rjuvrtr~
i picrct crrrlv ritr;~~ttitiiq
rtLIbtx~t1.U K 6 TI{; EO\:
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' , S K C ) U K ~ X Z D ~CTTO rfR6CY?T(i0?]~t.:'jrhI~vt?f\'
h-op!aJ~ich11 zov. E\Y&pO\fq rqs !ttn rktoi t i iitpvobAtr o v o p ( f ? ~ mt:mt.
t
l lorn (Kipas). Anc);c:bci ~ I ~L~ ) p t t ~ i o e o<l;i.~~z?l
iG~\ ycyxpoAo-yt ~ f k~crpcrrl-tm6h1l~q
j

trtw ~ ~ , ~ l p i i ~ i { s z~ tWr lI ,V :!ijprt~ trxtj TO f~~fpt:io

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t:ivtr t t o Mart erlrorn mt; Ei,IJattk-k<AAWIC.
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'Tonia i j ns6ia Gtli$pu~rnqj qnctpw~rwcitvarpwgixzwv niryou

Ttx rlnstpeoti~t?crrp[i~ytictxnhyoti, poAovcirr pxop~i,\lvci ctfiqyrjcrot!~!as cspl[ux.r~opO
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q
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T ~ tSx n i ~ t ~ a q q -

G ~ctt rrncimantl;. H rxuili.eq h-i.1~6 sovq epqtxvijr:rcxt OL(L~,I~.

cmtlcstpuyt 1khr:1j.tC1~~1*
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K O ~ I L Utthv ~ I I ~

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3v t;tatrirrx; rq; xit'rlcrq; tot) ~,nt(:p~t;ip~vou
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t o trnotJtzt~tlt'crtlq ~.6ar:icrrot: ;?!)6)!.ctt:v. Ttr. ~r~pu'{":fl r'lrxunk vhr~t'r,c'itrr;iopcp(hvot,v at:
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I Jo ~ i ) t t.i ' z~ ~ ~ ~ C T I ~ O K ~ct I E ~ Z ( I , ~

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6r1 s o tlkth-6
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1. nk(;up~~Cr;
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rov xtxyczcbvlt, uni, t t , 1 1 h i ~7~01)
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ro~y,~;~pwztx ~ t t l

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TO

~i:piirjtov ntxy t;rcbvcr T ~ t: T ovo p4;ov~tr.t p o p i v e ~rcpjiuttnpo6 f terminal moraines),

t;vh rajrL; nou oyqptr;i<ovr{x~ p2: TQV mt~fi~tx~q
UXOX(;)O~(T~JPOI) )tt;~Ojxnti 501)

nccyertb~ttovfipixjovrca pupaivc~oso~bprjaqq(recmsjontll moraines).

4. Buaticis popaivf;~i t vopuivcq bckeq~(grornrrd moraines): ~ y * t l icr, v ~ fo xrizq P<tcsq zov
~ f f " / t ~ i t K(Xt
h ~ ( X~ P. ~ > K ' ~ ) ~ E T~FX(?
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~ K ~ D x u B50ti ti. 0

xtxyc~ci~vtxc
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IJtr,cri~fipopttivc? fi pupttivrl
t:xttp'tvf.:i(~{EKO trht~(itiLhq not: av~)pli<~zcxt
Kt,prl~<ti?ihIj
c&bqot:$.
fledlo ulrcirrbvtrq< (oetwash plain): lTe6ic3 itxtJxhunqi gc~pcxtisqpi,csctt q ctt.rr:vfi~.
in~ltxhfittcxr g t ~ p fpoptpoho*y
i~ KX ioq; 7~t;ptqtj j l ~ l p o ~(YXS
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tir.lhu8rj ~wporix<j
txxb ai; ,uc-'~cjit":$ts,p~trrtlofioi~,
TO tmoio xlstntti~nrc~
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pkovzo< vt:poi,. t o ctxoio x p o k p ~ ~ z t rctnli
t TO ht..&rj.ip*t TO\) xri.yt>tj nro yt';rt?,nct rot:
Cro mtJi~cx~ltjn>,t~~tl;~IKC~()~:CSKI;nut} t:ivcxl L C ~ U K O K m
xcxy~~4~vtt. K ,o. :00~0hcj
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tn pa
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on' X01' CTUXVI?
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a St;\' vx~p(ftri\jovvrtn 2krn a e Gthysrpo t;ut
t o ~ t ~ x t xTOUS
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ciisul ~ I K P ~ T Etxnb
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tc m n ' x nl\' y~qlrMpt:6ptno~,opcxhoi hocpin~otnoti

Drunliins: cxcrtjppmp~o~ent~tjh-r
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~hril;
016opb; drurnliils
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npcttcfixrouv rtlrh TO k ~ ~ f l j f ~rot,
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(r7t6 TO \'t:p6 x o ~npokp~ercy~
) rrxb tt? ht)tbatpo to11 netyt:~rhvtu,nctj
zknjpct xqq 6ltxhvri~.rj;Siti.[$pwuy<.

l Enoxks tov nhywv (Ice Age)

l l ~ p i o S oij
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6
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eivtrl noh6 crrirvux 4 fir:\+ utlbpilet. o t Olvrq rrg/~ll.ttrricotwnr:tpCi trxS peyirl,ou jujuovi
I C\ )~~ ;C I T O F : ~ ~pit~2:i
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cuf)t'yprx~ipq
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cwtfhj.trttb. ot ciztnv r l rpijoo6ctaiu nc: ckybto eivtu nt:prt.$pirrykvq.
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(star) B i v e ~ .ncptopi jovwt h-tjpims arci p~yix7~ct
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nrtpovoitr tirxttnli6pvrpct1v Gtn~kttcsro~v.
01 p x y c r k i i ~ ~ p q;ctl c~qp(xv~itc6tr:pc;f..ocss trxofjicrcl; ixct\tv n~rlpxttnt.r:i u r
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rikur~rr rrls f)Ohwncrrx; xrit tr15 e ~ h t j h o r n qrob
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urroypappfi (shctreline) (q yptryM fituyoptcrqoG nrr:pitij-fftihtrnerrx< pe rlpf nrr:v~j
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(sralnruergent coasts),

Kitpctrn
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t:nttqt'tvc:ur rctl, vcpot't. ot;y.rrtrptnntjpotx t o i~r-:pOxptrti-tr X d t t ~ t r ~~upttzti~net;no\:
clvn yti<ct\~rxl~i,paau(~vnves).
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rxvc'xhoycl p zqv rivzrioq rcov ~ X V C ~ W LKO\:

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v . t b y ~ ~p~ip\i ~C M ~ Vt f \ : o r x ~ ~ j
tWWtracrtr.r o pky r;fSoitctw rt~it<xtc~ij
c<~rprilr(~t
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' ncplypixtpcrat pe rov tipa fetch).
r t t r nrxp<xlicty!tct. ivtx; i c i ~ ~ p opr:g ru~0rqst.t2Skrnfil now q~tcrhy1(x 2-311 ai: pttx nrtptAicr
y j ~ o v ;15km wopt:i vu nputcr~?~knm
~i)prxrrxOyot~q0.5m. cvti, p~cmarutyiiiu(storm) ye
VOkrnlh rut 8ttrvi~utivtrnumnnll
txvLpou; not) tp\in(tO\* p:pth-B< ktttpes pt: r*~<~rtlrcr
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i
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nrl pcio ovoy h j ~ r t r rruOpuh
t (rave length) r:ivtn rl t r z h n r a a ~ j
(tmugh). TLJpfilto$ ~Iipuru~
uuityrficx n c 660 i i ~ t r i i o x ~ ~cct~pt~cpric
f; t i nuffptjitx. t:wL r o 6yo5 ~ B p a t u ~ height) civrit
(wave
 Open cceaq -
ti\ C L ) ~ I S ~ Z ----
;+. .......... v?aves O~- A-...
! WZVfiS : O U C ~rjkre
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t)0?tscf; Su:i
1 wavehngih j (wdveier:yth scartens) jbreakers form) -"-- I
11 rirBxrq ctnitcrtuoq pr(xt$ rq5 ~opuqnj<at TOU n118p1iou.Z T ~ avol~zq
V O@mmx ~cx
~ 6 p t n acpqavi;ouv cruvrjftc; Oyo~2-Sm, evth nzy rnrcr~yiticgro 6yog sou6 paopci va
rptiro~t~ c rT(X
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notrihha am5 40-600111.Ti?,o~,11 n ~ p i u h~Gptxro~ ~ (wave's period) ~ i v u ol ~ p 6 v onou
~
antt~seiral7ttt va axphuouv 660 GlaSo~r~C5 ~ o p u q k jfi n118pctitx ctn6 C.va usa0sp6
nqpio.
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cruppaivct rat ~saccivqcrq-npoC;)Ot~cr~l r~lgp & j q sou vspoi,, yeyovitc no!) yiv~rac
avrlhqnsir ye Bva uwtkkovw cp~hhh.0 cpt:h;~cjg gc rqv 61Rhevuq TCUV r)~a6o~t)iti1v
~~~,u&rf.ov x~ptorpktpcra~ K ~ K A J K ~ (mo
~ ~ K U T C ~ W ~ ~ I I (~xinE80)
PO pe U V ~ ~ W Bvnof%6@10q
~ .

)iai na2btv8pbp~loqcplcp6~niuw ~cltpijbpwq va xpooO~irurue o~ErrqCte rqv OCoq

tlpcpiug m u . Mnopoi nr6pq va yivel avrthtlnt.6 Gdvttvscl; Cvcl cr~oiviOE kvu crruQep0
aqpcio Kur raAa~~tSvovrag rqv ~1,~OBepq hrpq sou nhvco cct'iso. KaOis q ruydcrct~crqBa
6taljiB~tm(la6 ro ~ L pnpoi
t to oru0cp6 o q p i o . ru 61ulpop~suc6crqp:ia tot, cr~oivloGBu
avcBoccutcpuivouv. bgw~6ev Oa npooBotvral npctq ro osa8cpit a q p i o . 0t rurhlrkq
s p o ~ d gnou Gtuypixy~ouvt u pbpirr rot) vcpo6 C~ouvGlirpespo icrq px ro C y o ~sou
1c6j..l,Q~~g.
H evfipy~tusou ctvbpc~ufisv p;z*cpCpczat kthc*omqv ~n~cpixvsia rou vepo5, cxkhir, mt
npog ro f3ixOos. Etat q K U K ~ ~I CK ~~ V I 51tW ~ O ~p o p i ~ vC T ~ J V E X ~ ~ Eh-at
T U Lo#3ivel OE pkBo$

ioo pt: so p ~ a 6sou pfih-ougzou rtir~a~oi. Evu a~b,ut1u r o ~ ~ elcov i o ucpopix tqv popcpfj swv
I C ~ , ~ ~~ i O
v aVro
l y~yov62itrt w i r p ~ eCvu ~ avtbrepo rptrtrr6 Gyro< ~ 6 p c ~ antpa j . an6 ro
onoio m pbplu sou vcpo6 ~ E pnop06v V Y C 8~xyphyc.~auv
~ ahqpq ccurkl~fi~ p o ~ x~ti i h~rqv
xepinrmoq trt~rfiT ~ rrjpasa
X nnir<ouv (ntppo~Cpasn,whitecaps).
TCb;, erelGfi 01 kvepot pnopoiv vex nvt':ot)vxl>ojutarpoperirclg ~ureuOdval-:tc, 4 vn
ahhirjouv ~ursbffovcrq, rtx ri~pmaoyq )urt icouv nohinkolca ~ ~ X I T R K T ~ V OXS,SIC~ ~C~X

nrrppohjs.
Orav su ~6plrraaxqyurigovrul ( r ~ q vfxvot;grfi 8Mcaucra 6&ifenqpsKoijttx~tm6 t a
Bh8o~zq; 81jihcxnrru5 ccut hc.~toupy<ov.rac; o< unACq rdwrtvrBocyovopiP?ovtcrt ~ 6 w r a
.ruk&vzaq~ (wave of ma8tion).Oruv 6p05 ra ~ i ~ p a t*us& ( x n p o ~ ~ y y i u a lrqv
~ v uksfj.
unou o xut)pkvag rqS Uixhaocsag yivetw n ~ ~ v e K(XI ~ l nlo
g pq~ugxnt r ~ i . 1 ~TO6 Ph0os sot)
vcpolj cpt&vet vu civar pucprisepa cm6 ro p~oitrot) piroug ~bparogtmv wuph~wv,ctt
rvrktrri~ K I V I ~ G E ~ Sstov popiav so11 VF)PO~, xeptopi<o\nai an6 ~ o vsuOpkvcr.
pe~u~irhh~vstxi I C X C ~ V ~TO~ FV; ~ ~ O I J IGWO:
(TI.. ehkt;iv~v; K ~ Z < O pkmr mo oxoio pmpotv
vcr Graypciyovv nAipq ncpcorpocpfi. T(t ~i,pcx~f~ ~ X U Z ~CJ~ O U V perarputt~iat.: ~6paza

pzaqa* (waves of translattioln) ~ o vc; u porj nou npooee irat npoc TO ecrort:pir6 zpi))ux t qg
1x~fi;. I ; q v nepinrwoq nou sa rchparu av~itsgtpuvijovzut oc .ro~p@Li5ttt~& 611f..a61j
u~po@li\,h8q~ t x r ~ t r . ~ r t ~r;\aiziwq
O. ztov cl\foprxhih\: zou .rrvOpi:\:tr o v o p i ~ j a v ~ surf
t~t
~lipatu. I I GtOvq xou ~~I~
C K X ~ > \ J O V TT(X 6 p a ~ot~oph<cnxr
u C ~ ~ u n(swrtsh).
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I~ stoi:p~t:r(xtB T C ~pnX
I:,tv &q.mtot! tci~~ttx~o; i KUI nplivt:r. C V O ~SO
vxhhnlno (iniJbok p o ) ~,ivmtntchpq crt: /Mjfo- tcu~auvr:~iiervtj U ~ C O K ~
T l~ i j l i , z ~ fErn1
t~. t o
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~ X I\ ) q J i a ~ a ~6tht)Iba~q
tft
2~111~ c l ! ) \ ~X O ~ L ~C )I ~ U 4.
Ijxto ~ i i l p 6 .I) 6pimij T ~ O V~ \ ~ ~ t i x r civ(11 P .4vtiOer(l. 5U h.i)puT(tTWV
: ~ ktcytihq litu@po.rtrdcvkpyr:tu. W dlc~epcnnqsrl; ttlcrij; gkatu tonp
tcixsrtiyi6cilv i ~ n txoiLi:
k-l)y<xro\lt q O<~iioanrw;
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fL r q v -6~ijlnq fiqhtxd j rqtSnrriioi,~tcvrln i ~ o r lux6 sqv id~rrsqv g i ~ < u
rou vt;poi, auv ~ p o n t c p o i l mrpf
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(2) n l t f oxitr-fab@ xnou i~~iimtrrtrinxb ra Optrirrktrxrct rwv

x~zptupOro,vEC)V ~ ~ t r p a t ~ ppo\frm
t ~ u i , !it: TO ~ i : p ~t i~1 1rrr 0 ~iu p c f i l r ~fttx
0X ~ O U W ~ tf(r1
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(3) r q v x,u-ir 6qAt161j T ~ V; L I ~ X ( I V L Kq~ ~t t o ~ iTON
~ L&I(UV TWY

1) pra\)aptizo,\j

11) t q l f U t l c i j Aiijwoan (cr,trosion). rqv 61iribuor1 txlin s q v X ~ J ~ I 6~ixrr1l

K I ~ TO\)

i)dtnoq, f 1 St xpycncria trt)M t:ivtu yr:vlrri: nt:ptoptapk~t~l~

crqptraitq, i-:tczO<nn6 t ~ p '
mpilt-rt,trnl nuu 11 ~ X K T&
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C)i e; n::pro~i:;
x~plcf.nOtrpxq xtxpritc~~ !:xqpe<x<o\~rrxt cu7t.h TO ~trtvlipr:vtt T1.l

ntrkipyulu~(tide). ro orcvio ~ltptrccrqpijr:ri~

ttas puOpt~i.,; rxvi~ymnr:tg rtrnr:nfchcict;
rl?g cszh8pqj ti)< O~xLtioatr~
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f . 2 ,t~~ ~c i eAti!)\'Op~itI\* T ~ VX ~ P I C F ~ ~ C ~r lJ l .~ Ui
~ C U ~ ~

ntrkipporcg notriibovv (1x6 rr~efihvuvr:~nio1hlre; r n j h-tn pcrtrf!d~k; pr:ptrcht pritpcov. W

t:n;iZyricrrl T T ~ GnrltRippottr~eitprri ttjtso bteyr~Ai!tr;p~lorqv &~tylcipcpttIallt r j c roxoypttpitn;
~ w Xv ~ X ~ & K T ~K~$O: ~VI Q X ~ ; ) Vi)oo
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11 61111poplj. ~ 1 1 ;ari10pr)~r q < BkJuuacrtxq
pr.ttrti; ?q< yky~cnrlqatsirircaaq; ~ c 5114
r ~pkyturil; t ~ n t : i v w n y ~~ .\ f t Ocnt&pir urtjprl crrqv
Glri.f3yo)otl Ktrr risqv pr:rticpopti -cc!~vi~rlp(rrcov.01xtrAippoie; xtri:ouv oqpt~c/\$tixb
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~ v s p ~ e m l tnpitcg
0 6po.; o p t i ~ n jnpri~rq6krl xcpthtxy~3irvectcixBr: cktcpuvtcrrl rr:;rpchp~~~oi
21 optih-roi~

xp'rjoapov x p o ~rot: c%vflpcoxa. I6rai.cspt.x p r % k t ~ r aG, ~ V mpixtocrrl

J no\? bit(% vtio~tc~j
6kr]< (xeap(t'qrc;r.zug ,ri y ~ w h o y i ~ oflfhptxf~q
~ycph.vin11?'cpr?i.~l-].; i? fi cpv~t~(x.
P;~X~UI~TICY~~VI~Z

~ r \ . j y ~ r i t : ~op~irirtbvj
p ~ r i ~ ~ynapt:i vrx anoz~Akoettx11tt~eijtt;vob7~1Kf-:f784?6~
f.:~pi.:riXjLh~~,jm
t h t~ ~fi,~ir,~j ~ ~ ~ % t (mineral deposit). AliziO~ratrkv !tau
t ~ ~ ( . ? p r . i <h-uiga(~p(w. fi
~ P ~KG I~ p q & tv ~ i Ij
)

csv;~~C:vrpc!.mqh 6 p naer6zq.ra; 4 nr:p t r ~ ~ c ~ c i rSev

l ~ qp.nopr:i v a unozr:hr",ne~.
x v i c o ri,~t; ovcq~ci!keztr~axk6 oq epqhvioq
) l ; ~ t ~ ~ p i j o~xjtct(~h>~evcrtl~;,
6~;
f occurrencej,

0puw.rC~xphreg irkei
0t t ~ p ~ i ~ tXi :~;A T K~))LI(:s
S i j ~ ~ x ~ i p i ~C
o ~Tt~r r: i
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s c (ntmetatlic resource), rrri; ctnoisq
11 ~@'?pt1;13 ~ h tK f X Q I ~ G!.I,OU
nf-:pri;trp~3civc:tt>:'~ I fi O
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I~K& ~ t x iIfio~~r~;fn~~itcix

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(2) % I . I E T U ~ > op€)h;si<
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r u !.~,r:axI~i,ih-ti
~ 1 3 p t ~ 1rnul*xsitr
1 sou pn.mopuOv ~ r ; y ~ r t x i ~ ~ ~ 21r : c~cic~xo~qt)oiv.
u~nC~
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uxh uwrj rot! ~ p t i n o iTgt
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j X P O ~ ~ X ~ tV T ~ X

trxJ y pri\*irtl, urrpemitht8u. cr~tos5ktffot)c.

vty~pircglcat phpprpcr, 0 t ~6pot ~<6p1)<11;
PWY ja~l~rri
nc.rptt)p&rw~ovopi~ Llrrttpciu (quarries) titi1 me ~ $ O I d!ct)l~p(~tb~~L'~rl.l
1ix6 PO
i61r1 TO ~ c i y t p ozw17 x~tpct~~uito,v,
Tct npcti'dtvrrl T ~ hmoyr;irtlv
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~ ~ l ~ ~ f l p . t ,t xr .tnor<~ z ~ h TO
o 6p~t&i,k~tffiu
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M c rov cipo nao8kpuru (reserves) rrvrrvc:phptxmr; o t o oCvo?,o TIG noo6rqrt r$ rtm

y\lwcrtci~'c~K ~ ~ tL c<~~ Lt ( ~ ~ { ~ L ~
. O ~ T ~ Y C Y ~ c Tp~c)poi)'c~
7101, I.;ov vt) ~ 1 ~ 0 ' t c : k i ~m
~ t: ~ t ~ evi j f x v o
csCgpoi97l; ti O tjpo;
peAhomrtcrjq r:~~tr:ttii,lmcrr~q. pnopt:i v u txvtrcpkpr:srxt nt;
~ I ~ Q ~ J ( , C T I K - ~ ~ ~; h i ; k ( l ~ ( rCKT~XOTI
i 6x0); E.X ~ i kt4i
' OPI.X~:~O
OII-;IECK~~II&V O I\ L(ITO~E/O.

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01 LVE()YI:~(~K~'.; XP(;)TC; ith~: ~
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9fi,atie, p ~ r t r ~ o p t k - u i I<ijl,>,ot)i:pyt)t! k-cxt 6ltx~pit~0vta1
rf~ri)~ctyi
1 1 P~ ~ nY
puik~tinq:
( 1) ottr cmnlr0wpi:vu vtiilalpu (fossil furls), Onc.o< ~ i \ i atto n a ~ p t ~ ~ r oi ttivltptrrtxg
t~. ~(f.1

to ~ I ) c ~ ~ Ktikp~o
<I t r t~( x ~~ U P ~ K <t i fYt t jl?ti~('w.
xotj n~rjptxti ~ ~ q utxxb ~rxu?~A.[-;iptr~(x,
( 2 ) nTrx x!)ptfvt~u~fti)mpf~ fnwiear fuels). T( x oxc?itx r:iv~xtt t x pcx&tsvr:py0 zn6rt?xri xou
ntrpixyotj\. ,.:vkpyt:ttr~ t Tc r p t ptr&~r:'c~,.:pyti
TCW; i ! i ~ < i ~ x t i ~ l l ,

f 3) oa l~ rvcpysrcl~iqnqpkj f alterlraative energy rt.sources). <men< ,:ivtxz q

~vaiLi+aurtk-iq
rxx6 T U L ~rjkto. TO\); txvtpov<. rqv fI,:p,~td,.tq.rrr r q s ~ q ; .~ c r a1
~t~,i:p~t:zex t oxe?i::; civtxt
rxvtxvt;L;Jcsr~t~g,
Ylaypu~oycvfiizotrhopa~afi ~utzixopamtrnti pay par L K ~ GGrepytxnir.5
X T ~ Vh-<x~q~i)piu
a u n j un&ra\w.xr clthrx ~ t t;i-,tt<tcrl;-tct~a
x xot? ~q~d.:ij?itt)\'
Z Q V Y ~ V F CTOUS
T~

wrg puypu~ttii; fi~~pyctcric;.01Gicpyucrie; n,jr$i crcpopoiw cihtr. ~u w661u a15 cxvofith-qs

17 OX? K ~ V I ~ G ITO\:)
~S pkypatr3~KG!. ~11.2~ 5 5 ~ p o 'toti
i qc i - t ~CTTO f3G0os citt; crtll t5
r;nt@k\fettx~ t r tTO K O ~ T ~ , C S ~ ~ not!
I T ( X XPOK~!XT@~,I: ~(.xpah.t~lpijot'rcr!
(1x6 ~c$,.ijhl~y<lhq
rco t ~ ~ k i a . .

Xqut~+tnxDdcr;d o t , rwtjkt:; i h j v r c d phr tot ls i

Mr:zrxii..ho~tjptr ~ o t ~ i r q t r r t np~opotjt* tp(t f i ~ ~ j p r r t ~ n r o i ;mu
i. rrpx ~ K U ci~ci.610
tcpve;tt~,hhwurjqRYO; t?.rrcpf3ucrt~oitQ I_ltursr~oi~
~tc'r.ypt.~ro;,.
Xzo cr~ti.610tfivri, nOpvtlavtr pe
I r ' Gtucpopolroirjcrq ~ p ~ m r c d ~ h i v o v r uycjcpi~it
l opu~r6 iq~tlh~i
t),:ppo~pnaitrg,rtl unoicj ~tctl~itx;
TO\)t:t&tr06 sox)<plipot); 6trr~wpiovru.r(uxof3irhA+ovrtti

9 cl,cpijt~o~rrt?
xi fit^)) (1x6 TO ( ~ ~ ~ p ~ C l ppifyptx
; t l c ? ~ ( 1 1trWj.Ao*!u pt; TO c q r ; t ? ~ i )TOI, flhpo~
f f i t c t ~ m p l n p ipuptiq~t:'x~f
~~ cruontopefiolrtx~nt: S t r x ~ o p c t l ~~l tj p ( ; ) . ~ ( lHOU
t ( t ovopi~<ovt{xt
crcupeirc; (cumufafesf fc.urnuiztte rocks). M ~ p t ~ rtw~cti
ampt:r.rrtc& ~rc~phpcx~tr. i trx
l ; ftupt)tt~if:C T I ~ ~ C T ( O ~ C U O I I CE ~ V ~ XE ~{ X > ~ O I I - C I C I ~ CET~~~; ~ X
ncrptiqux~rt t r ~ i r i x?Li)ytt) a ~ . ~ iTI);
~ t c ~ t l h h i ~Ct 'TrT O I ~ i(x t6;tuto [3tXf?pt5 XOI)
I : GI-: ~ L X C ) T C ~ O ~F, ILEFT ( I ? ~ ~ o ~p~ )t~ ' JK Q ~ T ~ I Q ~ ( ~ , T ( X .

fltxpt'~portip q p ( t ; t t ~ l Strxtpo~)c)xoii~u~~
j vqi~~cxttrr
K ~ ~ix8f;
I atr'xarpo; ~ ( X Y ~ ~ I T II K
j y~~~t ;~ q .
o orcoiac nt!vflGto; ~pt~oztt?~kh\~c-:~txt
rtx6 r ~ j vf t i ~ a qrcpo; zrpf opocpq n~qytr~i<ovtrx$
kitx

rn~mpcr.ztb&q xhc,t~tcuvirrl. K trt azqv ~epixtcltcrq ~xt,zfj. y~ nrrpripo ttx iitcw6rtcrmitx

Guqo~ptcrpoij )briyci~ f3rxpimlro.;, a~qytszi<ok~rjrrxvrihayrx ~tcttr)lhorpCt(xt e7.cpwpCt:u
KO rtixaptx~trflisrl i,fj(fxcr)
TOV O ( X ~ ~ ~ O'X'tht)~.
p(x*fytltt1~06 I.L 11 \myp<xtrK ~j t rv<x~tt~:l;ll
p:; i\:(~
&if:ttyktt~i j i t x t p t ~ p t : z t ~ q p ~ l fli0azfxnt);
j; ~ t x tkJt:ppc)~~ftrsitx~
yxttpci vtt 061l~40crvt:
n ~ q p t r z t o p sotpfopritt\,v tmr5 rqt' [fti.c;q npo; ~ q t opotplj
l ~ t cS~cwtpr?pc;tt~i,
X I ~ ~ K(IL
~ L O
x p h t o y t : ~ ~ ~ c rMcpth-ti
qq unG ru atptblrtxrrr trr,rix pxopr;i vtx ~:ivtritpuoim'~E ~ J I ~ O I I T L C T ~ ~ V ~ I
nr &tc:~f~h?~lk.('X
of?t,xtil.G T ~ C ~ ~ ( X~ KT~(TYC : > ~ ~ ~ I ~V Tt pc~akhofpi,l~rr
~rI ; k"t~~~<~~~tt~trx.
To pr:?tr;trj't~po p~rtxhJ~r~wOpo
~oirtxcrptr rroli vpi01lh-c nc ptrtptxir cnpc+)harrci)8rj
~ h o u ~ c ! ~ v icit.cr.i
.e~l TO ~ o i ~ f t a p~pwpim,)
i .tor: Busl~veld fir11 Kbrtrr.
~ r x t ht:1)~6xf?\)fit~u

~ 375krn x 3OOkm
A Q P I K Ifi~rxrn<~~ctt)t' n i t ~ o ~ !ihm.
g Tu crxnttkytrru ~ o t~)( 1 t ~ 0 s j ~ t t z o ;
tit)rtri! xt:ptC~etl\- ncpiaat~tepn t~.rrit 208 Gtc;s~rr,~o~piljft(i
rtivtvt); ~popictt: lcrxl
rtr:ptcrourepu txx6 10 ;frrrc~txrc3pptpu1
rdvttcjt t i ?5-~t)~6~p~~u.

Kiprt;pjircg i k it>therli~s
i

nt,pt*y'.:ailjxe.ep(hprrstr.at)\) xpokp~sttxtux6 n t s p s n ~ t ~ i t l ctou

Eivrit nntivttr q~;~t;Bt~k i.~~
ptxv81;trh-oiohrroC. TO oxnio txvkpxcrcti pr: noA.6 pr:yOh~lrcrp')rqrcc (t)rt:pr~~qsr"rfi!)
npoi
.trt txv&~a:prwry~ipmrnrox) tpkortti}~ttntxcxnci oii~>*t-p~ripr~pytq
iphif5a;c rj unhfi crwhrjvee.
 Axorr-:hoi,\: r q v a q yuvxr t c . 6 ~ ~ pxq? ~ " J~I ~o t t u a p k u w8raprxvtt61v. ucpo6 t o &r.aph\~?.
ur,6 t s p 9 tf:r~~lc:irxtcpr,nt{ihiiscrrl tot! bvOpu~(xnot) f3pics~c:ztztpkntx m o
o x 7 bicxei<~~al
pts\!ccjtmx'i t!ht~O.T'rw Gttsp(x\~ta~p.rlatyo7cotol:i1?zci:.~
w~ ~on,Lt~iptrru
K a t crt.qv Qioprlp.~>i.a

(.ob; 0 k 6 ~bpnQ1q~crrlriu;~ q nohi!

< ycyit?cq~rou cr~i~rlpbrrlrcrg.
ficrruno nfj pepa ntqv
/3 lopq xtrviu l i p c 'i?t?.h-mcr.nroHciso cpucrtr6 6rapitvtr ux6 st1 c s t i v f ) t ' ~ i!ircxpi~\~tt~.
~~ti
~ jlcrv6uu~o6hlix'J,~uxtr~c
Otav bpti15 TI h w 6 o tov ei~~txk
r-r.pet.fipr':~1xcrzo 9hot6, t6rc pinrx
mt.; acohqv6popcpc: cpALfiei o ~ ~ l p c ~ r i j a ryptrtpitqc.
rxl cnctBtj ma txuojtcpu rp~jp(x~tr
tot?
oc ;,yc~,vizq.
cpkotot:, o 6 v O p t n ~ ak-~j~t~mrxhhhvsrul

Korr~i~uir.zc..t~rpc~intctrrrcti ~ r b p c ~i ~ po!!,uv~cii.co~
.
:jrj j ro(c:~~riit.r3cc.tlt or fianarok
dq?" its ,I
r.1 pi)~::rrt~iyttl~t i t v tdi ~ l i KC)
, tr(i~ipr~~(;1,
6qk.f/srj ~olr<i~kuita
no11 nj)c)~~7%00tj
t' t.1~6 rqtp

xaffijrlaq-tln6flau11 tx~irocptioG; Wt:ioti fj Oc~i'lccirvc~A~uauv

rfxb r u ttbp~onot) 8 r t u p ~ i : ~ u t ~ ~
m q v trspOncporpt~ctnb rr5 r:<b&ox};r o v qqut~~xc.~txh-ci)v
aitpci~vtctxt Tti tpttu!ic~p(~Le.To
cnurorp~)i-.g yctx rqv nctptmh-cutj Cteii~ot0 3 0 5 . t o
Ctt:io (risptvo Actricpt) ~pqn~pnxotcirtnr
oxcrio 13piu~ercr~rxpyoyfjfir11 bltopq~tn\jiu.T-r t:ne$~p-;~txcriu ~ctr-rtmy<xrov
t t a v tk to<~-~,ctllv
~ w p kneprfIJt~i~+2~ovtt~fj
tirtrv yivcrtx~ t~t?r:tk?~c.j~trt, pekkzq. btxopt:i \:ti rxxe#3ci
K l f t ( X t ~ t l ? ~ ( p l ?tU
~ l i tl)\* LlC ttl I' txxeX.':\~Wkpt~)(~q
fiI$~llt~]
pt(i)6% U ~ ~ S O E(fdaS)
~ O I K~t t i
ff{:((~&i.'i3ChJi9.

Kotttjlaputu uni) unocrh8poatt

Tci ~ ~ t t ~ x t ~ yixtil;{x kit: zrc 6tt:pymi~rrrlq txxrwht.)pc,to~l
( ~ ' tot)\*Si;ovrrnr
tn ~ r w tStit.f3yors.rtg
rcav n c ~ p o p i n w
v . X c t p c t ~I~ r (residual
~ni~irnbturu
1 , unoi,Astp~rrrt& mirierat deposits)
r:ivtri u >,.cnrpinlq &(it o BroCIrq; x 4 ~n~~lpcxrrri<uv.rut h 4
or: Nt:pph+ f j p o ~ ~ prpr37~1~0
 7 ~7qv 6lepyuoia nx razl vcbquqg
IIpou~mmye ~ iwj rz d u p ~ pu
Tu oqyavtt~6rcprxt<qparoyc;vfi ~ o t t h ~ p u~~i vnu tza ~ p ~ ~ 0 3 p t wtcot~hopaza-
~'t~h
anoBEacq (placer deposits), ra; onoiu c r rlpa~i<ovtnt ~ aqpcict rqG ~ o iq~
GT~X s rov pepcirmv
K U ~nozaphv, 6xou p~thvezaian6aoyca q pezaytopt~-iqt~cit6trltatou vepu6 hbyo

arr6zopq.; mpoqfis m q ~oizrlrmv acotapobv 4 rsa\! 6ncapC.rl rr;ldnorcq a~fopahia; fi

cpnoGiou mov nu8pAvtx rq; tioirq~.Xz:x h-otrbpura uvrh 7.0 ~ 1 6 1 ~P(Ipos 6 K U ~q

ra$tvtipqaq cmorehei rot7~aOoptazitt6nupiryoi~apt: tot#onoio tpuoltck Ftrx~wpi<oimxt

r a l)apEa opum& an6 r a ~hacppC+epa.Ta orlpcavzitt6repa ~o~rircrparu auto6 roo rGnou
~ i v arta xn t t t i ~ ~ u r c xc yc oo;lcuputtx.o6 ~pucrai}.

Ko~~~iupcxrucxrro' ~cnt?ii+wf
Tu tiovrhcrpclru u v ~ h~p~tifirnuvv
ax6 rqv 1~cx6l~tl(l?l
at CIK~~EG
TWV
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t6t~wvnou ~xxocmOl zo ux6ysto vep6 unu .ta nerphptlra nou Gtuppris~.T k ~ u t a
~ortiu~yulzaeiuat TW ef3anopttt~d nou rr~qputi<ovzctt oc p q ~ &Brxhticcroiu tcul
htpifo8ahh~u~a
ne pt PMAona.
Xctpct~zqptmttiix ttq pcxtoysvij ~ o t r ~ x ~ f ian6
~ x ~~ctOijqaq
u elvat ol ta~vtwtol
o&&tlpoit;lot
a ~ q p a r t ~(banded
pi iron formatiurn). 0 1 o~qpartopoiauroi o~q~aztozqtccxv
crav peAav6recppeg zutvtonE~ ev6~aorp&uelc; otii.qpo6~wif o5e1Siov pkou ma
w o t ~ ~ 6 ~ p wazpci,ptxta
pcr rcuv 6uhhao1cuv 1.1pokf pfip1~1)v
~ & p t r t ~ h t O tjqpfjlr~v
~ ~ ~ i f v xptv
an6 2.6-1.9 By. Tqv nepio6o e ~ e i t qttl ~ a k f j l 0 ~~P1G ~K I anih't~lcrav
~ nohi, peyhiq
rghnhmoq icat napiyayav aohi, p e y h k ~noobtrlr~q
~ o$uyuvou pe trlt} 5tcp~cx~ia trig

cpunoduB~uq<, au$6isoi~cy +o oSuy6vo cnqv azp6ocpatpa ~ ami a ~xccpuv~~atch vepir. To

psyitho aocroosb zwv EY Btahtjaet f i e ~ a h l L ~L ~~V6T W~ VROU q611 U R I ~ (~&F ~ ~ t ( t~i u0j 1 ~
c~vucpbp~ou ncpif3irhho~.roc,mu cuiyoci rrlv Gthhuoq zot9 ~ET~~AAIKL;)v I ~ V T W V ) , at

~iera(~Cpoi~ mt; a v Oahduoreg herhv~g,pe zrlv aG';rjorl trls noobrrltag too otvyuuot,
mrlv atp6wpcpa1pa rut m a ~ n t c p a v ~ t av~~bp 6o8fjyqot: mqv ~CtOi<qGllzwv y ~ t a h h ~ ~ d t v
tbvcwv p&T T 'J ~I O ~ ( PO<EISIWV
~ roij payv~jritqx ~sou t utywi~q.

Kots&trliutuun6 jkztupopcpt~k~
Bspyuoi~~
T a ~upicSz~pa
~ont-i:qtaranou npo~finrou~f
an6 pe~ayopyt1~6c;
S t e p y a o i ~~~i v a rt a
r o n & o ~ u ryayp6.pou
a lcul rot, ypacpirq. To pdppapo 1 r y o ~ 6 x tan6
~ 1 rqv ystcxp6pcpooq
i l n ~ > ~ i @ o p k~a6crrpa
va
A ~f*ct/ir~;
0 hv8pcntcuq (coal) frxvrrqi:i,e~ttc~ u t )b~tlta\fOptixa;,~ c ~ t h \ j O p ( ~fi~ r K~ .~; ~ ~ J ~ O ~ V U )

txrcot<:hsi ~lrro>,tOtupkvo ~ a O o t jrrei)

~~ bnti); uvu~Cp8rlm rrro xcycilkcxto nav
tCrlpa.eo*ycicii xxspttl~lti.zwr,o ~ q ~ u x r l j ~ , sctxi,
t r z zru v x o h h ~ i p xt u~ ~~vq ~ z t i ~CTE
v khq I$

r6hputtx 9t:p~sthv tih~ytirerlv, Sztx~ t o O P Y ( ~ V ~ i~xi&L<:tpti

K~ 8 c ~xpoh~xpciivt:t va
I X X O ~ ~ ~ ~ \ T E px
O E ~z q r cni6pttoq sot) o < 1 ~ y 6 v o tysrxti
~ ~txhilfire~t;ltI X vitx arphyrxrtr
opyuvixthv t>sokctpkiixtmv r'j t ,~i,wurcoic. E~ctpt<xttr~
ax6 r o (Ip~ I KS c i60; t ~ j qf9d1fir13n q ~
K ~ Ysq
I y f : ( u h ~ y l ~B
k j~ ) v ~ ) ~ ~( fK. ~6ti I L : I htyviz~)fl (1vOplt~ir11.
c I ;~ X X ~ T F ~ C C Friqxp11,

Esnc. orrlv x ~ p i m o n q ettu a l p @ t i v ~pnltttcfi

~ ~ d v occnuai~\fOenqstov Y)IILLKO~V

vno3i,~typif.sotv (1x6 zo o$vytivo. r o cpljrltc6 vsr6hhr-:iytx e r ~ ~ltxri

q j ~ xayk
l j y ( h p t ~ ~~ljp41q
t>~
(peat). Xv\fljt)wg q ~ilpcprlna,u a~vptx.tiZe.ettie r ~ uChrj Krir zcx sfihptj~rx~ciXI'~nrt:trxttmti
nqhoi,~(xl<~jpetrtsf?Ltinny).Eit.if r j ratp~jfi Oiry~~pt)
sov cgt~rtxoilv h ~ ~ o inttu
, . rxno-cr:?,i.:iscsl
~vpita;oxh civC)pcx~ti,
r~b;poyciiinrctl vt:pit, nuuc~corr:ir 6 t c ttxS ~ q avu v c ~ t b ;c f ~ t t i + ~ ~ c v q
crtlprcl~aq not, t~cpimtirtt.i. ~ t t vr;yG 6icccp~i)yel xtn ot x q p ~ k crvr~Gpircrcr;
~
ct.rr~h!:uB1:pr8vtttjv t)6po?civo Krxt o$vyhvo. pr: txno~k>~r:c;,ut-'.
r o xoaorrrit zt~t:<ivtfp(xr;rfvtr
rt.uccivt:t, To ntjgixtcspkvo ~ p x i , o t ~ ~ r o , uar;
t ~(rv0pa~et
~o t , j , i ~ brfv(iht?y(i pt: TO ciSo$ ~ 1 1 ~

f31bt't.fi~qoq<~ t T ~I < t~twfftj

~ l ; ;f j t ~ v i , u t i ' ~
p ~x )o~p i Z'IX ~iwxt CTKC)~:J)Q~ ~(stpk~pt;~~tctz()

L t y v i r q ~(lignite), i j {stripo~. yrrAo~o0 p x r u u ~ c v u i ~ ouvOpusa

t~ (hitumenaus coal) 31

rj~htlpoij I ' p i t IICT~IMIU?~

htikttllq. xot, ttvopiij~~tt.tav0pu~itqs
f anthracite),
To yr;yovbj cjr t q n~pt:tti..hAt:tq rot) Ot4pct.xrr r: ijjrit ~ : 6 ~ o Imr.1
~ q -yivctttc j i ~

I X K ~ ( OPUXE~F((surface
F . E ~ ~ ~ ~ V R I (I.VOLKT& mines) I\ onuycta opw~ciu.(underground mines), crt:
kit: so ycyovh; S t i hmopci vtr h-uiy~rtx~
cri~viit~ctnp0 m q v Ca~pcplinot1 s~ophacrcrtxl)(my iq
t xpcrit%~zui exrxpSaHcr~j r,x~$t:pymirj, TO ~XUIIV (~tj-ftiYet OF, O~PU\Z~K~?

txi*cohrtloyfiiw ~ ( x i l t ~ i p o .
I.1 h-cxi>nq tot} 011~1; 6qpt>vpyr:i crrlpcttrvtt~ci ~ e p r ~ t d ~ h t ~ v r t hnpollh$ptrrtr
-ix xtrl
~;ninto'tar;q&{rsireprx bnxv yiverrti u v c ~ t io
l i~v@prx~;ct<
m p ~ k p x~qkitx\j~i~;kq
x o a b ~ t l r ~ ;f; f ~ i o t jroktrcit.
. u~otileitiK t r i r:vJar:t;, Pctprict vknxMu (txoc n.X. iduciAt:PGt).
(iitijpio. v~t;fiixp-;jupotitrt a y t r ~ v t r 6 .
t O U tl,tWt'cl pa;,
I'o apyi, lcarprtkuto (crude oil), i i ~ c f qtxvri,~i~txt
rrxci sqv I3-j. ~ i t ' ~t 1t ~ 1~ t ~ o i l p o ,
h-okhtb6cg ~ ( x tf3tcr~cbcit:; uy (36. ro olroic, ~ivtri Cvcx ntji,Cnho~oy c i y ycr !ii&3oyovtx0pixaov
xotl ~ e ~ j ? l i : ~~ IoK ~P Cv; x c l ~ ; h ~ q ~ot~ly&t$ot},
):< (t;(.;)t~j-,, KUI O K~ d y ~ ~t ~~ ~v{ i ~ ~K(I[
f : (i t~lvt r~l
cxJc(xtmv. To erp76 nerpkhtxro Ite ~ctrirhh~lhq
pen,iLIL~xiv r:nc<r:p-yrrcsin psopei 1.n 6[5(r~1
nponirvio, flc~Ci\~rl,
xs~pCAtcio0tp;utvntl; K ( I ~ ir).htr ~ctbotptn.EvB noi,JvO ~ l ~ o a p t ~ ~ i ~ i x
.rrpo'i6vrcx TO\: n,.:z~.t~hcxio~i
~pqatpoxuro6vtu.rt3zrpi ~a.etx~wevfi
nl~ucr-ci~ci>tj.
v(xr~hr~v
Krnr

tZX;to/l ~ p f i a l p o v
~)kir;ihtt.
To cprwi~Qakpto (naturai gas) fi ,~tr:@ixvio (CHI) cr~rlpuri j t : ~ t ~ tp~oih-it
t 6ztt19 TO trpyh
~srpbhtxct3 fi~ppxvoei nl: B C P ~ O E ~ ( Z O K~ ~~ VX ( O (LRU IUO'C ~txtit z r p j t 6 p ~ ~ 1 cstr j ~
&I ep-!rarritr< ~{icp~j;.
zt: nuJ"h6; y t:wtp?jassr$ cpvnih-nil xerp t;haic?t,.t t r~p u c r r ~ btt2p10 J ~ ~ ~ ~ K VE ~TZt:mnj,i~t
~ I I

~i&l'fi) CPZO X I ~ K V ~ S P ; K~ ~~ L~ I)[<(~~OTI:PC)uyph nt:~pi:k(t1~9,

EIJ(;I (rf: hiLhee xl:plnzr?iar:t~t o
~ I trip 10
( P I ~ CKO j l t ~ ( x v ( x ~ ~ cor:
i~Ut ; t~ ~ O T E~O
p ~I X
j p t i r bxo\)
u . KW ~ t i - y t & ~ G t : t t nay,~jpf~ri<cw~c'q
r

cr; w p rorotjc taictcvr 3pcg (reservoirs).

To tpvalw'? t ~ i to
p ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ n t ~ t t , x c"t/t t r( :Z~i I~~cVf3i:t r pp<tvasqTMV O ~ I T(hv, K J ~ it..
I O I : ~ [ ~ ~ Jnitr)~',

Onto< c:d?csct~ rrnh TO t;ot!~tt::(~t);b rq<.To {ti:g~to

Y)I)G~K ~ r:nctciq n~:ptC~ei
iLi.yc<
n p o a p i t ~ t ;6ev yt,kOl.r:l orlytrv~r~tit
rqv tiqthn~tr~ptr
kt$; t i l l 9 ~ c ~ i , c ; rTOV
t wxt t:rrtx?>-kovq
.rev cr: cr~kml&u:t o netpi;Attro t;ivri~3l ty6~,1:pctiitxxcavqp~j.
t:~;tt:otiJ~i,~~)nq

-u
TO nerpkibtxwgcvv~krticnr: y q ~ i tQlpersoyr:vci;
:~ ~ ~ x e ~ p w ~i,crcixvc<
i a i ; xotl nrrpol;t~ci
~eri..bnrot~sci~
cmh Htxktxncrtvit tscpb pq~i:<.(tlrAit
at: ()cxl;.i~(~~iil-:q ktt.t~piil.(1xit nlji er~mj,
A~:K(~VK;
OTTI jt;))*~l
t l j q q ~ ~ t p o f t ~ ht~~)cx)L~)~pqxiStxc;,
-fi<
Ot Ar:ccirv~.q txvri; k x o ~ ~xoAG
v pcy6hq L ~ r n c r r lrrnc nXq p c b ~ ~ ot w
pe c jjptrrcr spt J v
-ci,mv:11) k-htrnrt~~t
i<?&x-cex not) tio~h-o!ierprrctie~txixroi~v
txvtiycau c-cor:G blt!iov; WII
 (1) Exla { L L K ~
~0~ 0 0 0 5 6 ,h l y 6 t ~ p o a s 6 iO'sb, xporGmek ~ a t e u O ~ i uax6
v ~oug
u6poyovuOpu~ej nou axqptxsi<otzm art6 zn tishljcpq twv B a h h ~ a w vctpyuvtophv.
(2) Ta pcyrrhljt~punoaoaz6, aepinuu 9Q4;t,a x q p u t i < ~ t aaau
t zoug b6puyov~x8pa1~~;
xou ( ~ z q p aj o~ni a t ax6 rqv axod1v0eov at geza~pon-ijrou Hapkvou opyavtirot
U ~ I K O GQE P a O l j ~ ~ p o ~p;i < o x ~ ~ ~ .
W oacp4 m u 660 nphru pkrptr., pczarrpi.,nc.,tt u upytit't~6uhtti6 GR uSp~y~v{~@ptx~t;;
~ ; . t o phoo; au@h~~tat,a?& ot t)cpporpaai~;citJut
hbya zqg P r o ~ q p t ~j r&j p & a r ~F;a@hi
p ~ ~ p kcr~qgctri(o\~at
i, u6poyovCc0pare; pe tqv Gtacpuyq o5uyuvov, O~iouxat a&brou
(ur6 .ra ctnhh rrnaalpum lrou cyqfia.ri(oi~at.Otuv zcl tCq;liya.ra OatptoGv 0 6 pheq 500-
700rn, a~qpcxci(ovrtr~u6poyuvirt)pm~g rtou ~ i \ . ~ r nr~trvoi vu unotekknuuv Cvu
~ ~ p ~ z a h k ~xt~a6~i onezpekaiou.
yo 0 o ~ q p a ~ ~ rwv ~ p b1~6poyovatlph~wv
; C I U V F X ~ ~va
FI

a o t a v a pe tq\>aCICq(~11t q ta(~iq ~ o e yeya.kCrepa PiLD11. K C ~ Io e PttOq p~yah6rcpaanb

2km, n~qpcxzi~ovrcri nok6 peyhheg nocriurqre; ~htrcppacbvu6poyovciOpir~wv.
C2muao, TO peyrxh6-ccpo PiaOog npetctahci ycyahajzapq crupxlj~tlozaq a t o pqzpuru
nktpwpa fi azphpa y t v ~ a q(source ~ rock), trot O w e ~ i v a t nokC GCIolto&q q
pera.vClcstsuoq rwv v6poyowOphrov an6 zo pqrp1r6 ngrpwpa npoS ra nerphpara-
.ra;liylewfipe~.Ynohoyij&tt7:tut6tt o j p e p a ulr~xp~ouv 6000 x 109 ton lrerpekaiou mu
~s,zphptxsa-trxpa~:ut~pt:g, CVLI touhir~tazov fOO rpopk~ neprarrutcpo unrl, aurq sqv
~ t o a h q ~ c.seupapCtp~r
r, a ~ d p qm u p q z p t ~ urcetphyma.
T a ~ a h f ~ r p~vpr ap t ~ knerp6tpaza ylu rv y6ifcoq xcrpehaiou eivat ok ~ E I C T ~ K O W K O I
itpyihhot ( o ~ ~ m hpythhot)oi j u~Gpuwo6xotsqhai nou urtoz~iOov~tcaa rrc. hah-be; y~
rr~ptopttrykvq~b~hotpspfra a~uy6vou.flarurro, cu nctgCknao 6cv pnopr-:i vrx umkqOei
and ra 11qzpt~61nerpltpaza, ah&& p6vo an6 ra nerphpura-rayt~vrqpe~,6nou
anof)qtcr.6e.ra1~3x0t q v a p y i p~ruvuussvcrfjsou un6 .ra yqspttiit rteepcbpu~a.
To nctp&htatoK ~ X tI o p u r r t ~ 6aakplu TON xt:tpropixcwti-tay~~:ut~po~t~ ftpo~tjmckan6 ttqv
u p y j pcravtkoreucrq auro6 ax6 r a pqrplra xsrpthparct.
"I'an e r p h p a ~ u ; r u p ~ ~ w f~i pi ~vslar e~ ~ p h p a ~p~a g ~ y 9 . o~0pci)6e(;icat 81tmepatbxq~ct,
nou entzpi;xouv ru n~tpkhaautctlla cu tpurrr~haakpro vu C T U ~ K E L " ~ ~ W~@~ CEC~T Ia* X , IXUT& OE
cgnopr~<a txyer~ihh~6rrrpt:~ noodtqteg xat va anot~hkaouv ktar ~ottixcrpa~a
nerpshaiou.
l " p e ~eivul
i ol xpoijno0ka~lgyla t o o p l ~ t a s i ~ pm6v .rapteu.r,Tipci~v:f l f sivtxt nophiiq,
(2) elvat fitcmeptx~~x, Knr 13) npknsa vcr hettoupyci o~ ~uyilitr.yru su n,:rpChctio h-ut t o
cpvotx6 uEpto yqv EX~T~ETCOLZUC; t q v napankpu avoStrfj ~ i v r p q roug. T E r o ~ a
X E . I . ~ ~ @ . . ~ U T ~ - ~p~ e~ I~eivat ~ vuppirei Kat za avOpa~tritnsrpd&itt~a, 6nog ok
E I J T ~01

uofkozclpevls~~ (tikw-wcoi aapecnbhr8otf.

 ExctGlj TO .rrezpCLtrrt~r i t w ajtacppik-~po(jm6 t o vr-:pO crvEp~t-:zat6ur pkcruu so\$
f i ~ x 7 t ~ f ? ' X T (~b t~: r p c ~ p 6 t wcJrrl\?
v r:xlpir.v::trx Ti Tll;- ~ ~ K ~ , ( ~ p l ~ t ~ i - ~ (OT.
ECT~); (-.&I' lytff~~ti~~i

. ovupixjo~~txt nuyibce uxttt)$lc~\wq~fresscrvoir frays)

ouy~rtcpr,ui;ve; O r j n ~ t ~nou
nay%e~nezpd.aiou (oil traps). 01BEcrct; G ~ ~ K T . M ~ W ~ B~V~O~ p k k ( t r l )
ct.ut& REPI k ~ ~ \ i \ 'TO
I? tp~jouci,crCplo nou 6 ~ 1 pxopei
. vcr ;clpi)-ys~. To rxwhrr-:po ipro-opocprj sq; xtryificr; ci~jcct
p n or cap rock).
kvct ix61rrrriptxto ai:.rpopu ?rob ovoyit;ertxr xCrpwpu opocpij~$1 ~ i r A ~ ~ p(rcmf
H pdoq Tlli X ( L ~ ~ &? [<P OXC$T ~ ~ O P ~ < E(1x0
T ~ I I 00 b ~ ~ ~ Tl # ? ~~ > + t l i ~ l j - L ' I :fi~ (7t0i U, ( ~ E P ~ o ~ ) - v E I ) o ~ .
0 t asuyiiit;; .rce~pc>~tric~u
T~IK~II
t p v ~ t ~(i):piot)
~ i ) G t t x ~ p i l ~ ~ ~OTI;
v t ( ~t~tp~t)p~toypa(~)iKES
t
(stratigraphic traps). on< TEKTOVIKQ~ (structural trapsf ~ t x l mtc cCvO~tc5 tmyi&r:c
tlru.c4ucxopoG(combhatinn traps).
01 nrtqt':~liat .crl pfi;dktrr~u.c:ivrrr uxe<)ffl)vtiyitr z l y ~Fqptoupyirl TOW TEKTUVKOV
ncryi6o1u. 01 tin~)pqw~vic;
ctrr ot niiatjp t rk{; uhhrryi: cnq ?LtOokoyitr eivtrt t~nci~t)uvc-:<
y lo
ttq rrrp(tq.icrtoyptrcpt~k; ~clyiGei.c:vth ot d ~ c m u p t ~ 6cipo1
oi rtw clltxnvprrchv (uhil~cov)
eivtrt
t)rr~fi@u\~ot
y t r rig t36vt~~xeg
?rtryi&r:$avv8uncrjlc?ij (a>bCxr:Y I : ~ : I ? ~ @ ~E?I~L(PR;).
IK~;

cip;ivib;.ctr ( oi/ sltclk ,I h-*, m~pG{xct~-tijqr

I!czpGt~rn-~~ioz~i; or ~j nim-rip~cttri oil strrld
or tut' ,wr?rl)
Mep t ~ i ' . ir r p n c ) i i~pytA;~oiK t r t ir?,iLu ijqpciroycvij nnrpcb,ucrrtx xapii:~ouvpic2 MI] p(;)i511
rrz~pr:(x~ ( j 6 ~ ~ tOj ~l lYl( X ' I ' I Ct)uBic~
T~ rcqpoi;Cvq (kerogen). (Xqp: H ~ l l p o < i v q
7tcw c~voh~ij<t:zcr~

6t:v ci\'ut so xctptiyon~c)

rut, upyo6 nt;spxAciio~),t o oxoio L ) ) V ~ ) ~ ~ ; C T fitppojivq).
(A~

H ~ ~ l p t ~ r~i i~vruqprtr
t o p j l u ~ ~ t~)tjni(r
~ l j not, &CV i p . 1 ( t ~ 6 p qpt:r(r~pem:iCS~; ne.spRh(itrl.
Eti,v q pzfip~loc ~cttpkm ~ p ~ h r r t o - n ~ t(xpythho;
r r ~ ~ i e~oytj~t.ltli
xtxt f3t;pttctvO~incrpo~~niex
w:pni), T~JTI.:11 xqp~tLivllgr:~cr~pint:rctt
err-:?~e~pRh(ito.
N ~~sjtkht~co-ixpp%
i) R~CTCTO-ilpgo;
4:i wi ~(rktxifi)l i p ~ 1 ~fj; I ~ ~ ~ ~ T U V ~
~ t; K
q i~q;.
.~LK~J~
y
rj, xoh6 lu~(if6q7ic)t~t~s+itr
q tzxct itx f: ivrjt c;~txo.stnykvqCte 11p~cr~cpc; @roupkvtfi~t
(bitumw).
rrnv uvo yh<~ttr.tniaocn f tar) Gtaqalrog f asphalt). W Gtsq~trJ~~tl;
pxe,pci pt: ~rwrti.khrli~q
$:~Gf:p"ftl.CTifl VfX & I I KO1 6?bh~tt$ ~pX{3(5i~<lI:~p::trfhkf:!~~~t)Lt3V<
~8po*~ovci.Bpc~~cg.

Uvpqv w i j E V E ~ ~ E C U
01cti)yxpovoi n~)pqvtxctirx\~t?iprxcrr?\pr:<~ p q c r t k t o x o r ~ ?n 6l v~ ~R I ~ I ~ V Qtkixanao~
~ K ~ 4
a ~ k a q(nuclear fissioa) ytu r v v xcxpoqtayj Hcpkttitqnr: r u t ql\.elcrptnpoO. W n~~yqvth-fi
6 tiL~7ctmr)f:~ttpe~vi<l;t<ii<?T(XY ~vpTjvt; t:;L,~~.cppO')\.GTO t~f-:iftn' ~ } I ~ U U < ~ ~ O I TMU~ LLZ
n ; ? q ~ t c r t i prrp6~epou;
t X ~ ~ J T ~ I J K ; r, i u ~cxpr'x.;i,:~yjur.
q r:t:i;pyr trr. Tilt j I f h ~ o t ?) r t i p h ~ ! : ~ c t ~
[md totj; K V ~ ~ ' ) V F , SY Kp0~6\.011?IOU GI, ~ r ) t ~ i ~ < c ? ~Y' ~t(r
t x IYX
t t ~ ~ ~ j p r r ~ i nXUP
o b vV L 10)
~ 1 fi
[3upGs,.:pr~lMhio~;.
 Evu ypapp6pto r r t ~ p ~ l n t c ut;;.uuui.pou
~j pxopei vu xap&-yr-:t r-:vkpyc~rx,icsq ps 9400 It
plvgvll,;.
To k'uptf;)rcpo m i p q v t ~ bK Q ~ C T ~civa
~ O t TO I..:-235; yo onoio 6 r a v f30pfltxp8ij~~at
ILE

Cvtr v~,rp5v1.o,Gtcxrrrcixrtxt 660

ux~i+ev0~pc~1vovrtt; fi rpiu v~rpdt'ttr.Kc'xf3r. vezpbvio no11

ti rl ,urouphphv~txcksot pt tr abucst6wz1javti8pusq f britilctgag chain reaction).

EvuhZ.autx~$qcrspyziurks ilhc;
A\.ri$r:ni tnr6 DL ttn~>~kt~cirpkvtr
Ktrl n u p q v t ~ i )~cxi)n~ptx.
~ t c~tr?~~h,ctlctt~fi;
t RVC~~Y~:~(~K$$
nqyi; civcrr cxv~x~~ehntpt:~.
x p o t i i ~ x ~ o vunri
t ' tp\,nwt':q 8lf:pyctcri~qKtrl &:I! C U J ~ ~ V O U V

nt:prpitA+i,o\. Tkrotog nqyk; eivoii q q i t i r ~ ~ j q. trini,t~q. rl g e m O ~ p p r ~ 4 11

.
t6poqhel;zpt~rj.ra ~cti!tr~pct
:i,lbt,cl r m p~u,rir'~<a
~ f i o (jb ~ ( 1 rtx ~6ptr~tt.
1 t)~db<~c;ott6

I 1 i . t ctjipyt:~:rrx
~~~
M n 6 y ~ p o v q~t:pjoAoyi l x p r j m1~pi;x):tliu ( t ~ 1 0 ~i0j 1~ o t j T~ t~ qY h l ( t ~ 4) . : v ~ Q ~ F , I ( VF
L

rpei; ditrlpapt-;~th-oi)j~pO7i;t)t!~:( 1 ) nutjq.tt~.tj Okp~rxvcrq. (2) r-:vt.:pyfi Bkppcavn~l. (3)

rctrpti-~t+).y~j
q h e ~ p l ~ l t:vipycttrc.
ig
If ntrOqs~rfiHkppl\*crrlcx~opirztr rinirtcl not, ~ r i 6 o i ~ nyttx
i t vtr cxnoppctcpoiv zqv il?,toth-rj
t:vl:.pyt:t r i K(Xt o~*tup(~"tr
VII 6lC:pp~iivovtt~t.

M 5;;vt:pyq Ukpluxvcs~l Ptmi(g.ttr t v"t~}; ql%wt(l~~>t;;

~ i t 2 ~ h i : ~ pf:
~ ~ tot>;
;. C.)XO~C)I!<

avi,hk*f~rtxlq ~ l h t l ~ ~~vkpyeit)
ifi ~ t r lycpqni poxor E ~ T { L I<j/rtr t q v @t?pyr~vrsrl
zot ifcprzi). r o
onoio ~ u ~ k o v o p~c4i x 1O~pptxi\~r:tTO orcitt 17 ~p?1cnponotr:irc;11ytu TO nhicrcpo ~ u r iu
&1~~iC'tr),

M nuptqcoytj qhxrpttcrj; c:vF,p,pxtr; rutct>O~:it~v

t~'ltt.3 t q i 9 q > b l f x ~t ~
x ti c ~ ~ v ~ f J , o[if:~ ~ i t r
q i;..xm~&.~tjrupcnf salar cell).
W rx;tor,oi~lcrq TII; qktu.~tjsc:vCyy).:rtwcyirr T I ~ Ynripttyt~tyrjq ~ + ~ t i ~ pf i~t ti ;~i ~j , <~ ~aE ~ ~q ~ X I

BraGt~rxcriaat:t x m i k n q pr: r q v nctffqtt~fik-txl e~f:~ljr~ltlk;lj

rip~etri.riuntrt'~lp~j ffkpptrvnq
xot} 50 K ~ ) C T ; S O~ljr~tfriXm(1~~11~;
~ CXI:~ pt:tttfQ~;i~ ~ r ) l t ( K<X.
tv~i
IiSpo~ji~t'~r/rr?cij
c t~Q15crcr
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Ikoyyacpur& XuozQpara nlqpucpup.thv (Geographical information

System, GIS)

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, r q v "/,xjcr?l yqc, TI; iiiir.9opcc otjtyc.tt~ir:;, K.(L.
AYTOmTlMZ, Z. . (1969). Eyprpi610v ~ E V I . K ~ ST E W ~ O ~ ! ~I.
Mepoq
~eopoptpoloyia,Er6ooc~E.M.II., 290 oeh.
B A B A W Z , E. (1985). Ma0.rjpata J3xoypacpic-q. Aprm. Ilavere. @~cf;c~doviicqg, 193
sea.
CHERNICOFF, S. & VEMKATAKRISHNAN, R. (1995). Geology, Worth Publishers,
New York, p. 593.
GORSHOV, G . & YAKUSHQVA, A. (1967). Physical Geology, Mir Publishers, Moscow,
p. 596.
DAVIS, G. £3. 8( REYNOLDS, S. Y. (1 996). Structural Geology of Rocks and Regions, 2nd
edition, John Willey & Sons,New York, p. 776.
2, 114. A. (1986). Etcraymyi a q yawhoyla zwv I'l~~pehniwv, Er66oeq
Emdrhocpug, 640 crsh.
AEiPMITZAXIIZ, M. A. & OEOACiPOY, r. E. (1994). n o c r ~ & p r o~eohoytadv
Ewolhv, Etc8ooq Maupoygh~qA., ABqva, 1094 aeh.
AEPMITWZ, M. A. & AEMW, zn. n. (19821. Atepsuvrivzag rq rq, E t a a y o y ~ j
a q r e v t ~ f ~eohoyia,
j T6p05 A', Afhjva, 350 aeh.
AHMHTPLZAHX, Z. 0.(1 985) Etuayoytj m q v xsrpobfia zov pe.capupcpcup&vutv
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QE~ @eocf;&oviq,189 ceh.
AOWTOX, O.Etcraywyfj a q v T E K ~ U ~sothoyia,V ~ K ~ ErGoaq Qoipo~,249 GEL
HOBBS, B. E., MEANS, W. D. & WLLLAMS, P.F. (1976). An Outline of' Structural
Geology, John Willey 8r Sons, New York, p. 571.
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\YIAOBIKOX, A. (1 984). Ma04 p a ~ aI<qpmohoyiq, Aptm. IIavex. O~aoahovitcqq,131
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BIBNOTPA(DIA 229

nEPIEXOMENA 231