Automated Generation of Construction Plans

from Primitive Geometries

Makoto Kataoka1
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Abstract: Current construction simulation systems need detailed architectural models and schedules in order to estimate costs and
visualize the construction process. However, the process of developing a building model, formulating a schedule, and eventually syn-
chronizing them is a time-consuming and laborious process. When changes occur, the model and schedule must be modified or rebuilt
using the same time-consuming and laborious process. Therefore, systems of this kind are used only for some demonstrations. This paper
describes a new way to automate construction simulations using simple architectural information and predefined “construction method
templates.” A number of construction method templates are computer readable and are stored as a knowledge base. The writer proves the
concept by implementing a computer system to process building models and construction methods. The concept allows designers and
construction engineers to build a model and simulate construction processes in a short period of time in the early stage of construction
projects.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0733-9364共2008兲134:8共592兲
CE Database subject headings: Construction methods; Scheduling; Estimation; Computer aided simulation; Three-dimensional
models; Knowledge-based systems; Automation.

Introduction
Problems of Current Simulation Technologies
Though designs are often elaborate in the early stages of
construction projects, architects are often unaware of the many
other construction methods that could be potentially applied. Con-
struction engineers create alternate construction plans for a single
project to help the project participants make the best decisions.
Software tools are often used for quick and efficient modeling,
simulation, and evaluation when alternate construction plans are
created. Four-dimensional 共4D兲 technology was introduced in the
construction industry in the 1990s 共e.g., Matsuzawa et al. 1994;
Collier and Fischer 1995兲. The 4D visualization technique helps
to identify potential problems and errors that could have serious
consequences if discovered later 共Koo and Fischer 2000兲.
The 4D visualization technique works well as a tool for pre-
construction engineering in the construction industry. However, it
takes construction engineers considerable time to build the three-
dimensional 共3D兲 geometries, plan out the schedule, and eventu-
ally build the 4D model by linking the 3D geometries with the
schedule. The time constraint has confined the use of 4D technol-
ogy chiefly to test cases 共Fischer and Kunz 2004兲. Some recent
case studies 共e.g., Chau et al. 2004; Hastings et al. 2003; Kam
1
Researcher, Institute of Technology, Shimizu Corporation, 3-4-17,
Etchujima, Koto-ku, Tokyo 135-8530, Japan. E-mail: kataoka@shimz.
co.jp
Note. Discussion open until January 1, 2009. Separate discussions
must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos-
sible publication on March 26, 2007; approved on January 24, 2008. This
paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Manage-
ment, Vol. 134, No. 8, August 1, 2008. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364/2008/
8-592–600/$25.00.
2002; Haymaker and Fischer 2001兲 demonstrate that project par-
ticipants understand the advantages of 4D visualization but others
共e.g., El-Mashaleh et al. 2005兲 question the effects of the tech-
nique relative to the time and cost expended.
Another problem is flexibility of simulation. Construction en-
gineers who want to simulate a project with different scenarios
need to prepare new 3D models and schedules. Having different
scenarios multiplies the time required to build 3D models and
schedules. Thus, construction engineers use the 4D systems not to
simulate undetermined scenarios but to visualize the determined
ones.
Hundreds of construction methods and structural systems are
available as options for a project, and new methods are being
developed all the time. Designers find it very difficult to keep up
with the latest construction methods and feedback from recent
projects. Given the range of options available, no designer can
select the best solution for a project based solely on his or her
professional knowledge and experience.
Objectives of the Research
To solve the above problems, new technologies are needed to
simulate a construction project with some different scenarios
within a short period of time. The objectives of this research are:
共1兲 to propose a system that can be used at the very early stages in
which even the structural system of the project is not specified;
共2兲 to propose a methodology to externalize and store construc-
tion method knowledge that is editable by the user; and 共3兲 to
implement a planning system that interprets the knowledge to
generate quantity takeoff, schedules, and 4D visualization with
practical precision within practical time from simple geometries.
Points of Departure
Many studies have searched for better ways to apply building
information models and have theorized various approaches.

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 Aalami and Fischer focus on problems similar to those stated in
this paper and examine a way to generate 4D production models
共Aalami 1998; Fischer and Aalami 1996兲. They found a method
for automatically elaborating activities and eventually generating
4D models using the relationships among objects in the product
model. The theory is especially well considered as it applies to the
computer-interpretable construction method template and the
elaboration processes. The results are useful if the product model
has enough information when input. However, in most cases,
planners are not likely to have rich product models at the appro-
priate time to apply their theory.
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Akbas 共2003兲 reports on a method for the automatic schedul-
ing of the construction projects. He tries to decompose a construc-
tion project into small pieces of the workplace and then generate
discrete simulations. Each piece of the workplace is processed by
a certain type of crew. If a user selects a different strategy to alter
the direction of the workflow, the generated schedule differs. This
approach confers the ability to generate “what-if” simulations
more easily, but the strategy to be considered by the construction
engineers is so vast that it is almost impossible to implement all
of the conceivable options.
Some researchers have attempted to formalize the knowledge
and proposed different ways to express it 共Osawa and Kano
1997兲. At this stage, however, the knowledge written in na-
tural language still contains ambiguity that makes it difficult to
automate.
Scope of the Research
After the literature studies, some issues still exist. Aalami and
Fischer’s concept is well designed and sophisticated. The problem
to apply the concept in the real industry is that project participants
usually do not obtain rich building models enough to simulate by
the system. Akbas enabled some what-if simulations but the al-
ternatives are so vast that it is almost impossible to cover all of
them.
Founded on the previous works, the scope of this research is
defined by three features. One is that the system proposed in this
paper does not process rich building information models but
handles simple geometries without attributes. The research pro-
poses a method of processing simple 3D geometries to generate
construction components for automatic takeoff and scheduling
using the construction planning knowledge. The benefits are that
any kind of 3D computer-aided design 共CAD兲 system can be used
to build 3D geometries without undue difficulty and that it takes
less time to do it. The challenge is to recompose construction
components from the simple 3D geometries.
The second feature is, as mentioned in the objectives, that the
research proposes a methodology to describe construction method
knowledge. For easy editing, it is one of the best solutions that the
knowledge is expressed in a formal language, more specifically, a
“context-free” language. Therefore, the construction method defi-
nition illustrated in this paper looks like a computer program.
New construction method definitions are free to add into the
knowledge base. This research is based on this formal language
processing.
The last feature is that schedule is not an input but an output.
The existing systems are implemented on the premise that sched-
ule is given for simulation. However, the process to prepare some
schedules should be essentially based on simulation. Supposing
some schedules are produced according to project constraints, it is
more natural for practitioners to choose one construction method
from the produced options.
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The target of this paper is mainly building structures especially
of high-rise buildings. The construction of structural frames such
as columns, beams, floors, and curtain walls has a great impact
on the construction period of repetitive processes. Construction
processes for heavyweight structural elements require use of ma-
chinery and are often considered the critical path. Subsequent
activities for interior works are easier to accomplish within a
given time frame since the project managers may allocate suffi-
cient resources. This paper is expected for practical application as
well as academic contribution.
Automated Planning System
Requirements of the Planning System
The three requirements of the new system should be: 共1兲 the
system accepts geometrically simple building models that can be
obtained in the early stages of design; 共2兲 the system supports
multiple scenarios to perform what-if simulation; and 共3兲 the sys-
tem generates information crucial for practice, such as the re-
quired resources, as well as 4D visualization.
Given that the system is to be used before designs are com-
pletely finished, the design may not include specifications for ma-
terials, joints, and even shapes of the components. Because the
structural system is not specified, the only information that the
system can receive is allocation of the building elements. Thus,
the building models are expressed in geometrically simple ways.
The same 3D model must be used in changing scenarios if
many simulations are to be performed within a short period. Thus,
we need to develop a new technique to automatically reconfigure
the 3D model to match the scenarios. The system also has to add
new attributes to the new geometries. Construction methods
should be prepared to support multiple scenarios. Automation re-
quires a knowledge base of construction method definitions that
allows system users to select for the simulation. Construction en-
gineers may want to modify the definitions to cope with restric-
tions in availability and variations in productivity and cost. The
knowledge base, therefore, must be easily modifiable, as well as
easily interpreted by computers to automate the simulation.
In most applications of 3D geometry, there is no modeling
of temporary facilities, equipment, machinery, or labor. Construc-
tion engineers generally consider all of these factors to check
constructability and cost. The cost for resources may differ ac-
cording to the construction plan, while the same estimates can be
applied for the cost of the building using unit prices. The new
system should generate this information to support the total cost
estimation.
Separation of Building Models and Construction
Methods
The new system structural planning using interpretable templates
共SPLIT兲, proposed in this paper meets the requirements enumer-
ated above. By separating the building model and construction
method, SPLIT combines a model and a method to generate a
construction plan for the project 共Fig. 1兲. If the construction en-
gineers want to change or modify the method, they can pick an-
other method or modify the original method to generate a new
simulation in a different way again.
The process takes little time because the building model re-
quires only the simplest geometries, without detailed informa-
tion, and the construction methods are predefined using sets of
 Fig. 1. Outline of the construction planning system
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computer-readable rules that can be easily modified. SPLIT is a

kind of interpreter that reads a model and a method to process.

Building Model
A building model consists of many building elements. SPLIT
adopts the cuboid to express each building element. Each element
may be decomposed later to create construction components
when a construction method is applied. Accordingly, an element
has to be expressed in a form that can also be applied for the
decomposed elements. The cuboid is one of the simplest geo-
metrical representations for this purpose. Each cuboid consists of
Fig. 3. Definition to process building elements 共part兲
the location and three directions 共Fig. 2兲. Any building elements
are expressed in this mode of expression. This simplest model is
easy to build using 3D CAD systems. The only attribute required Definition of Elements and Joints
is the type of element, that is, an optional attribute that helps to This part of the template describes how to make components. A
declare that the element is a column, girder, floor, etc. steel column, for example, may or may not have brackets of gird-
ers, depending upon whether the connection is welding or bolting.
Construction Method Definitions The columns may be three or two stories, as required for limita-
tion of transportation. In any case, the column has a connection
A construction method definition describes how to generate con-
every two or three floors. To define this structural frame, the
struction components and a schedule. The file that defines a con-
template says “an element column is to be decomposed in every
struction method is called the construction method template. Each
three floors” and “an element girder is to be decomposed into two
element in the building model is to be decomposed and recom-
ends and one middle part in between.” In these cases, columns
posed to form a component to which attributes are added. Every
and girders are decomposed with the direction of length.
component is finally assigned to one or more activities to calcu-
To satisfy this requirement, this part of the construction
late the duration of the schedule. The construction method tem-
method template is implemented as follows. Each rule has condi-
plates are independent from specific designs, and thus, should be
tions and processes. The condition part can contain the type of
described in a parametric and relative manner when referring, for
element 共column, girder, wall, etc.兲, the floor number, and other
example, to the stories. It also accepts mathematical formulas to
attributes retained by the building elements such as the dimen-
show the arithmetic logic instead of actual numbers. The con-
sion, volume, and direction. The process part is a set of processes
struction method templates are written in extensible markup lan-
executed by SPLIT, such as “decompose as a nonbracket beam.”
guage 共XML兲 for easy editing and automation. The writer details
The process part can also have a section configuration and
the description of methods in another report, too 共Kataoka 2007兲.
attribute additions. If the template is customized for a particular
project, it may have specific sections for each element. A material
is also set as an attribute if necessary. Fig. 3 shows an example.

Fig. 2. Simplified building model
Definition of Components
Individual components are identified after the elements are de-
composed. For example, a three-story column at a convex corner
of the building is a set consisting of a column body and six short
brackets in two perpendicular directions. Each actual component
is unique but the components of the same type are handled as a
group, particularly when planning the schedule. Some examples
of definitions could be: “the component containing a column el-
ement should be a column” 共Fig. 4兲.
Finally, the components are defined as a set of cuboids. The
defined components should have attributes to calculate the dura-
tion of activity afterwards. The length of welding, number of

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Fig. 4. Definition to set attributes to components 共part兲

bolts, and volume of concrete are essential, but any other type of
attribute can be added. These attributes are workload to some
activities. Other attributes such as CO2 emission can also be used
to facilitate estimations of the environmental impact. The com-
plete set of components is defined by rules of this kind.
Categorizing components is also important. Every component
is unique, but the number of components or the amount of work-
load of the same kind should be specified. When construction
engineers calculate the duration of activities, they need the work-
load of the same type of components, such as girders over 10 m
in length and columns heavier than 12 tons. Through this ap-
proach, SPLIT allows components to take attributes for categori-
zation. The most important attribute is the type of component,
such as “column in perimeter” or “floor deck unit.” The zone and
the floor are automatically assigned to each component on the
basis of its location.

Definition of Activities
An individual activity consists of a name, target component, re-
quired resources, and production rate 共Fig. 5兲. The target compo-
nent is the name defined in the definition of components. Rather
than indicating a unique component, the target component indi-
cates a component category.
The required resources consist of a name and amount. The
resources defined in activities are usually workforce, machinery,
equipment, tools, or something used to perform the activities. The
production rate in this system is defined as the time it takes for a
unit resource to complete the activity of the unit workload. The
production rate, therefore, is a combination of a time, resource Fig. 5. Definition of activities 共part兲
name, and workload. The workload can be the number of parts,

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 Fig. 6. Simulation processes
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welding length, floor area, concrete volume, or some other factor.
No start, finish, or duration time is assigned to the activity: all of
these numbers depend on the amounts, and thus on the projects,
and the projects should not be included in the method definition.
The duration is calculated by the production rates, workload, and
amount of resources in the process of simulation. The start and
finish times, consequently, are calculated by the durations and
connections between successors and predecessors.
The key point here is that each activity may contain plural
production rates. This means that each activity may have more
than one duration. Here, the writer assumes that the duration is
the longest between the choices calculated by each workload and
each resource amount.
The duration of a steel erection procedure, for instance, is
calculated by the capacity of the assigned tower crane or the
ability of the ironworker crew. If the cycle to transfer beams to
their designated places by a crane is 10 min on average and the
average time to set the beams by an ironworker team is 15 min,
the actual production rate is 15 min a piece. If the planner puts
two teams under the same condition, the workers are expected to
wait idly for 5 min on average for each beam since the tower
crane can transfer a beam every 20 min to each team. The pro-
duction rate in the latter case is 10 min a piece. This is the key
concept of having plural production rates for a given activity.
Sequence of Activities
The sequence between activities in the method definition is de-
fined as a combination of a successor and several predecessors.
Generally speaking, predecessors are activities that must be
completed before a given activity. There are four types of
predecessor–successor pair relations: finish to start 共FS兲 in normal
consecutive cases; start to start 共SS兲 when the successor starts by
a certain time or percentage after the predecessor starts; finish to
finish 共FF兲 when, for example, the successor is not allowed to
finish before the predecessor does; and start to finish 共SF兲 in
several rare cases. A lag can also be added between these two
activities, such as “FS+ 1 day” to cure concrete and “SS+ 50%”
for welding joints following the erection of steel components.
As the construction methods are independent from any product
model, it is impossible to assign specific floor or zone information
to an activity. The construction method templates have no knowl-
edge of the number of stories or the area of the project. The floors
and the zones are to be referred to in relative expressions. SPLIT
applies the relative expressions into particular floor relationships.

Fig. 7. Building model created by a 3D CAD

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 Table 1. Features of Two Construction Methods
Structure Elements and joints
Column Girder Column Girder Main activities
共a兲 Method A

Reinforced concrete H-shaped steel • Decomposed on every floor • Bracket joint 1. Cast floor concrete
formed by steel tube • Decomposed on every bottom • Bolting 2. Set steel forms 共columns兲
face of girders 3. Install panel zones
4. Install girders
5. Deck, rebar work
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6. Cast the next floor concrete

共b兲 Method B

Box-shaped steel H-shaped steel • Two-story long • Nonbracket joint 1. Cast floor concrete
• Welding at 1 m above the floor • Welding 2. Erect columns of the current floor
• Joints on random floors 3. Install girders only of the next floor
4. Deck, rebar work
5. Cast the next floor concrete

The predecessor–successor connections are expressed as
“girder installation for the 共n兲th floor follows column erection for
the 共n − 1兲th floor.” This idea fits the actual planning by the prac-
titioners, especially when scheduling multistory building projects.
Curtain walls should be installed on floors several stories below
when the planner needs to avoid conflicts among plural trades on
floors in close proximity. Another construction method calls for
the installation of curtain walls on the very top floor to reduce
some temporary equipment. There are many other methods com-
posing different sequences of activities. Zones are also referred to
in relative expressions, but the sequence of the zones is not al-
ways unidirectional. If every two zones are coupled, the 共2n兲th
zones are synchronized and followed by the 共2n − 1兲th zones of
the next floor.
The activities defined in the construction method templates are
not specific activities. They are completely separated from the
building model. This relative expression is useful to define the
essential sequence of activities and to enable automated genera-
tion of repetitive schedules.
Planning Processes
SPLIT translates a set of primitive geometries into multiple con-
struction plans in compliance with the construction method defi-
nitions. The geometries are created as input data with a 3D CAD
system. SPLIT interprets construction method templates and in-
vokes the assigned commands to create actual components and
attach attributes. The processes are sequenced with normalization,
decomposition, attribute assignment, and scheduling, as shown in
Fig. 6 before exporting results. The following sections present the
process of translation from geometries into construction plans
with the construction method definitions discussed in the previous
sections.
Normalization
CAD operators may enter objects in different ways. The views of
the architect and construction engineers differ. Hence, SPLIT first
normalizes the input data in order to generate the same outcomes
from the semantically same models. This section describes the
column–girder frame for simplification.
Columns are normalized into cuboids between two consecu-
tive floors. If the original shape of a column is a box from the
bottom to the top of the building, SPLIT decomposes the column
into shorter objects. If two shapes or more are mistakenly created
at the same column position, SPLIT integrates them into a single
object.
The beam has two categories: the first is girders, which are
connected to columns; the second is beams 共in a narrow sense兲,
which are not connected to columns. Girders are normalized into
cuboids between two columns. An exception is cantilever girders,

Fig. 8. 4D visualization for Method A Fig. 9. 4D visualization for Method B

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Fig. 10. Quantity takeoff
which have free ends. The beams are more difficult. If two beams
intersect each other, only one of them should be decomposed.
SPLIT judges which should be decomposed by looking at the
position, relationship, and size of these two beams.
The next step is connecting the normalized cuboids. Columns,
girders, and beams are connected at their intersections. Some
cuboids, however, may only touch others on the surface, just as
they may, presumably, in reality. SPLIT evaluates the distance
between them and creates a connection.
SPLIT generates a virtual point at the best position between
the two cuboids and links the point and each cuboid. If a point is
already placed, the existing point is used to link the cuboids. The
best position depends on the combination of building elements.
The point is located at the intersection of the top face of the girder
and the centerline of the column for a combination of columns
and girders. The point is located on the girder for a combination
of girders and beams. This virtual point is helpful for the efficient
tracing of the connectivity of elements.
Evaluation of Construction Templates
Normalized data are processed according to the construction
method that the user selects. SPLIT decomposes the cuboids and
assigns them attributes. The rules are interpreted and executed
one by one. Hence, the latter rules can refer to the attributes that
the earlier rules attached or modified.
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The main purpose of the decomposition process is to create
joints between actual construction parts. SPLIT dispatches proper
functions to process the commands in the method template. The
cutting plane is the only information needed to decompose
cuboids. The cutting plane is defined by a point on the plane and
the normal vector, which is one of the three directional vectors of
cuboids. When the command is “decompose at the center” for
girders, for example, SPLIT creates joints at the centers of the
longest dimension of each girder so that the cutting planes are
defined.
After decomposition, SPLIT recognizes construction compo-
nents consisting of geometries connected at their intersections.
SPLIT attaches attributes to these components by reading the con-
struction method definitions.
Scheduling
As discussed earlier, the activities defined in the construction
method templates consist of names, target components, produc-
tion rates, required resources, and predecessor–successor relation-
ships. Specific floors and zones are left undefined but described in
relative terms. Since SPLIT generates activities for all the pos-
sible floors and zones, some activities have no workload. Three-
story-long columns, for example, need welding every three floors.
The duration of the activity “weld columns” is null for two floors
out of three, if all the joints are on the same floors.
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Fig. 11. Schedule

The actual duration of each activity is calculated with the pro-
duction rate, amount of workload, and resources. When an activ-
ity is generated for a certain floor and zone, SPLIT accumulates
the workload in the area and then calculates the duration with the
production rates. Finally, SPLIT calculates the activity start time
to track back to the predecessors.
Output
Thus far, all the construction components are generated and
the schedule is ready. The final process is to show the out-
comes. The major outputs are quantity takeoff, schedule, and 4D
visualization.
Fig. 7 is a sample 3D model with structural frames and exte-
rior walls. As shown in Fig. 7, the columns are only long cuboids
from the bottom to the top of the building, and the walls are four
thin planes. Actual projects have much more complexity, but it
will only take 2 – 3 h to build a model for a midsize building. Two
construction methods are prepared for the sample project. Table 1
outlines some characteristic features of the two methods; both of
them are used in reality. SPLIT reads each template and processes
the 3D model.
Sequentially, first the construction components are identified,
and then the schedule is determined before SPLIT generates an
animation of the construction processes. Here, for quick under-
standing, visualization should be explained. Figs. 8 and 9 are
snapshots of animations for Methods A and B, which are outlined
in Table 1. Fig. 8 shows that each component has a section; col-
umns are round and girders are H shaped. The most distinctive
feature is that panel zones are newly created on the top of all
columns. The components, including wall panels, are sequentially
installed. Fig. 9 is almost the same as the conventional steel struc-
ture. These completely different plans are generated from the
same 3D model.
Components are allocated to a floor and zone, and contain
attributes such as workload, resources, and CO2 emission. The
amount of each attribute is to be tallied cumulatively for each

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 floor and zone to enable the construction engineers to predict the
necessary amount of equipment based on the number of times
they plan to reuse them.
Labor and machinery are linked to activities. The time spent
using these resources is important. These types of resources are
listed alongside the timeline, enabling the construction engineers
to see the amount and the occupied period. Almost the same ap-
proach is used for resources, such as the shoring attached to the
components. The period for the use of these resources can be
calculated through component–activity relations. Fig. 10 is a
sample summary sheet of quantity takeoff.
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After scheduling a process, the activities have a start time,
finish time, duration, predecessors, etc. They can be displayed in
both a Gantt chart and a network chart using a spreadsheet and
project management systems such as MS Excel and MS Project.
As mentioned, certain types of resources are displayed alongside
the charts. Fig. 11 is an example displayed on MS Excel.
Conclusions
This paper proposes a new method of the simulation of construc-
tion projects and has implemented an automation system. The
building model and the construction method are separated in this
concept. The construction methods can be predefined and com-
puter readable, and consequently, building models can be made in
the very early stages of design. The efficacy of generating mul-
tiple construction plans using predefined construction method
templates and simple design information were proven.
In addition, the construction method templates compose a con-
struction method knowledge base of schedules, required re-
sources, productivity, and so forth. The user easily can add some
new construction method knowledge into the knowledge base be-
cause it is described in a formal language. Feedback from real
projects may be recorded in the same manner and be cited for
new projects.
Finally, in terms of practical effects, the system provides many
types of practically useful information, such as resources and
schedules, when simple 3D geometries are ready. It demands less
time to check numerous alternatives and select the best plan.
Practitioners are reluctant to use 4D technologies because of the
considerable time required to build and maintain a model. Less
effort to receive more practical information may enable practitio-
ners to break through the barriers.
Acknowledgments
The writer acknowledges the support of the Shimizu Corporation,
which funded the research and development, and the Center for
600 / JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT © ASCE / AUGUST 2008
J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2008, 134(8): 592-600
Integrated Facility Engineering at Stanford University, which
provided the writer with the best research environment from 2003
to 2005. The writer appreciates the thoughtful feedback from
Professor Martin Fischer and his laboratory friends.
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