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Structure Damage Due to Expansive Soils: a Case Study

Article  in  Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering · January 2010

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 Structure Damage Due to Expansive
Soils: a Case Study

Beni Lew
Agricultural Research Organization
P.O. Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
e-mail: benilew@agri.gov.il

ABSTRACT
Structure damages are becoming very common at Cuiaba/ Brazil, especially in case of
low structures, probably due to expansive soil behavior. This work analyzes a typical
problem where an expansive soil was found to be the cause of the problem. Soil samples
collected at different depths were tested according to the conventional geotechnical
investigation tests, swelling potential, x-ray diffraction analysis, scanning electron
microscopy and energy dispersive x-ray technique. Moreover, the wall cracks were dated
and studied together with a foundation structural analysis. All the analysis tests led to the
conclusion that the soil had an average to high swelling potential due to the presence of
expansive-clay minerals, like smectite and vermiculite.

KEYWORDS: Clays; Expansive soils; Soil/structure interaction

INTRODUCTION
Expansive soils are found in many parts of the world, particularly in semiarid regions
with alternating wet and dry seasons. The soils in these regions experience periodic swelling
and shrinkage during the alternating wet and dry seasons. Such cyclic swell-shrink
movements of the ground cause considerable damage to the structures founded on them. The
influence of cyclic wetting and drying on the swelling behavior of natural expansive soils is
well documented (Popesco, 1980; Chen and Ma, 1987; Subba and Satyadas, 1987; Dif and
Bluemel, 1991; and Day, 1994).

Expansive soils pose a problem where rapid urbanization and development are occurring.
As development extends into these areas, identification and quantification of the soil
properties that define shrink-swell potential are essential to properly evaluate the stability of a
soil as a foundation material.

Soil scientists recognize that shrink-swell behavior can best be predicted by examining a
combination of physical, chemical, and mineralogical soil properties (Davidson and Page,
1956; Holtz and Gibbs, 1956; Gill and Reaves, 1957; Holtz, 1959; Franzemeier and Ross,
1968; Carstea et al., 1970; Anderson et al., 1973; McCormack and Wilding, 1975; Shcafer
and Singer, 1976; Ross, 1978; Karathanasis and Hajek, 1985; Thomas et al., 2000; and
Sridharan and Prakash, 2000). However, no one property accurately predicts shrink-swell
potential. Often most expansive soils are clayey with high content of smectite minerals.

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 Vol. 15 [2010], Bund. M 1318

Studied soil properties and their proposed relation to degree of expansion are summarized in
Table 1.

Table 1: Swelling potential prediction in soils.

Degree of Expansion
Parameter Reference
Low Medium High Very High
LL (%) Chen, 1975 <30 30-40 40-60 >60
Chen, 1975 0-15 10-35 20-55 >55
PI (%) Holtz and Gibbs, <20 12-34 23-45 >45
1956
Clay Content (%) Holtz and Gibbs, <17 12-27 18-37 >27
1956
Clay Content (%) Holtz, 1959 - 13-23 20-31 >28
Swell Percent (%) Thomas et al., 2000 <3.0 3.0-6.0 6.0-9.0 >9.0
Swell Pressure Thomas et al., 2000 <81 81-153 153-225 >225
(kPa)
Activity Skempton, 1953 <0.75 0.75-1.25 >1.25

This paper deals with a 400 m2 residence built 1.00 meters above the natural soil located
in Cuiaba/ Brazil- a crawl space (void) was left below the residence floor. Cuiaba is a city in a
valley 15 degrees south of the equator and almost in the center (east to west) of the continent,
with a climate characterized by a rainy season with an average 28°C and 170 mm/month rain
(from November to April) and a dry season with an average 23°C and 30 mm/month rain
(from May to October).

The residence was composed of shallow foundations (around 2.5 meters below the natural
ground level) with bearing capacity around 20 kPa; and it presented wall damage
(longitudinal cracks of around 1.0 cm) at the end of the first wet season after the construction.
In the following year new foundations were added to reinforce the structure, however, again
the residence presented new wall damage at the end of the next wet season, mainly in the
central area and with some repercussion to the back area. The residence central area floor
level came up relative to the road during the wet season.

Our study was undertaken with the hypothesis that expansive soil was responsible for the
problem. It is known that no one soil property or expansive soil test can precisely predict
shrink-swell potential. However, a set of properties and tests can determine shrink-swell
behavior. With these premises in mind, the main objective of this study was to establish the
causes of a residence crack walls before and after the addition of reinforcing structures in the
Cuiaba region in Brazil.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Representative disturbed and undisturbed samples were collected every 0.5 m from three
boreholes drilled up to 2.5 m depth under the residence at the end of the dry season. During
sample collection the standard penetration number (SPT) was determined, according to the
American Society for Testing and Materials, Designation D-1586-67 (ASTM, 1986).
Laboratory analyses included particle-size distribution, liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL),
clay content, natural moisture content, dry unit weight, degree of saturation (S), expansibility
potential and clay mineralogy. Particle size distribution, LL, PL, clay content, natural
moisture content, S and dry unit weight tests were also accomplished according to the
standards of the American Society for Testing and Materials.
 Vol. 15 [2010], Bund. M 1319

The swelling potential (swell percent and swell pressure) of each sample was measured
using the "Load-Swell Method" and the "Constant Volume Method" proposed by Al-Rawas
(1993) in undisturbed samples. Mineral composition was determined by x-ray diffraction
(XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive x-ray method (EDX).
Clay minerals were identified with a Scintag XDS 2000 x-ray diffractometer with Cu-K
radiation. After conducting the tests, the diffraction pattern for each sample was matched with
the standard patterns prepared by the Joint Committee of Powder Diffraction Data Service
(JCPDS) for a both qualitative and quantitative evaluation.

The SEM analysis was carried out using a JEOL (JSM-840), which performs
morphological and micro-structural assessment and gives a full elemental description using
the EDX analyzer.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

According to geotechnical tests the soil is composed of silt with increasing N values with
depth. At each borehole similar values of SPT were measured at each depth, from around N
value of 5 at surface to around an N value of 45 at 5.0 m depth.

Samples at different depths (from 0.5 to 2.5 meters) in the three boreholes were collected
and the liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), plasticity index (PI), clay content (C), natural
moisture content (w), degree of saturation (S) and dry unit weight ( d) values were
determined. Soil samples presented a brown-red color with silt-clay strata.

Similar physical soil parameter values were observed at the three different boreholes at
each depth and the average values for the three boreholes at different depths are shown in
Table 2. An average value of 53.6% was obtained for the LL and mean value found for PI
was of 24.5% for all the samples collected. Similar values have been reported by other
researchers for expansive soils (Al-Rawas, 1999; Sridharan and Prakash, 2000; Azam et al.,
1998 and Thomas et al., 2000). A comparison between Atterberg's limits (Table 1) and the
studied soil samples shows that this soil can be classified as highly expandable.

Table 2: Average basic geotechnical properties of the samples tested at different depths.
LL (liquid limit), PL (plastic limit), PI (plastic index), C (clay content, <2 μm), W (natural
moisture content) and γd (dry unit weight).
Depth LL PL PI C S W γd
(m) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (g/cm3)
0.5 54.4 34.3 22.1 22.7 0.44 12.2 1.576
1.0 54.4 26.5 27.9 25.0 0.75 15.8 1.693
1.5 55.0 30.5 24.5 21.0 0.92 15.2 1.714
2.0 52.5 27.7 24.8 21.1 0.80 14.7 1.820
2.5 51.5 28.5 23.0 19.8 0.71 14.9 1.821

According to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) the studied soil is classified
as an inorganic fat clay (CH) and/or elastic silt (MH) with high plasticity (Figure 1a), which is
an indication of its expansive nature, since most expansive soils are often clayey. In Figure 1a
all experimental data are found to be around the "A Line" and right of the vertical line
crossing LL=50%, which is an indication of expansive soil according to Van der Merwe
(1964) and Dakshanamurthy and Raman (1973). Moreover, according to the indirect method
to identify expansive soils proposed by Van der Merwe (1964) in figure 1b, all samples tested
can be classified as highly expansive.

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 Vol. 15 [2
2010], Bun
nd. M 1320

Figure 1: (aa) Unified Sooil Classificaation System chart and; (bb) chart propposed by Van
n der
Merwee (1964) for identification n of expansivve soil.

The Van deer Merwe (1964) limits and the clay y content cann be combinned into a siingle
paraameter calledd activity (SSkempton, 19954) and sho own in Tablle 3, which iis defined as the
plastic index divvided by weiight percentaage finer than n 2 m clayy. According to the calcu ulated
activvity of the saamples (arouund 1.15), thhis soil has a medium acttivity, howevver, in the hiigher
rangge, close to high
h activity values.
v
T
Table 3: Averrage swellingg potential properties of the
t samples tested.

Depth (m
m) Actiivity Sw
well Percent (%)
( S
Swell Pressuree (kPa)
0.5 1.05 2.1 45.0
1.0 1.12 12.7 38.3
1.5 1.17 10.1 35.2
2.0 1.17 7.4 28.5
2.5 1.16 6.2 24.4

Direct estimmation of the swelling pottential (swelll percent andd swell pressuure) of expan
nsive
soilss in the labooratory is immportant for the predictiion of grounnd heave. Thhe average swells
perccent and sweell pressure of o the samplles collected at different depths in thhe three diffe
ferent
boreeholes are shhown in Table 3. At 0.500 m depth th he swell perccent of the ssamples was low,
arouund 2.1%. According
A t soil has as low sweell potential. However, swell
to this value the s
perccent increasees to 12.7% at 1.0 m (vvery high sw well potentiall) and slowlyy decreases with
a 2.5 m (higgh swell poteential). On avverage the sooil showed a high
deptth, until it reaaches 6.2% at
swelll percent vaalue indicatinng a highly tot very highhly expansivee soil. The loow swell perrcent
obseerved at 0.5 m depth was probably noot accurate.

A swell presssure (Table 3) value of 45.0

4 kPa wass observed att 0.5 m, whicch is classifieed as
a loww degree of swelling pottential. Moreeover, the sw well pressuree decreases wwith the deptth up
to 24.4 kPa at 2.5
2 m. This decrease
d wass probably caused
c by thee increase inn dry unit weeight
withh the depth, an
a indicationn of soil resisstance to swwelling with increasing
i deepth. All sam
mples
havee a low degrree of swellinng accordingg to the valu ues of Table 3. However,, these valuees are
highher than the bearing
b capaccity of the reesidential fou
undations (arround 20 kPaa).

Expansive soils are well w knownn to contain expansivve clay miinerals such h as
monntmorillonite, vermiculitee, halloysitee and sepioliite. Moreovver, besides the existencce of
these minerals twwo alternatee seasons aree necessary trough
t out thhe year: a weet and a dry one,
like the one in Cuiaba.
C

Mineralogy compositionn of samples was determiined by x-rayy diffractionn analysis (XR

RD),
scannning electroon microscoppy (SEM) annd energy diispersive x-raay techniquee (EDX). Reesults
 Vol. 15 [2
2010], Bun
nd. M 1321

of XRD
X test shhowed the presence off kaolinite, goethite, sm mectite (a mmineral from m the
monntmorillonite group), verm miculite andd illite in all the
t samples. A typical reesult of XRD
D test
mple collecteed at 1.5 m depth.
is shhown in Figuure 2 of a sam

Figure 2: X-ray
X diffracction result of
o natural sam
mple. Illite (IIL), kaolinitee (KA), goeth
hite
(G
GO), smectitte (S) and veermiculite (VV).

Kaolinite annd goethite haaving a stablle structure (due to the sttrong book bonds) reacts with
wateer to a minimmum extent, by contrast with smectitte and vermiiculite, whichh are regardeed as
veryy hydrophilicc due to theirr mobile struucture, makinng them highhly expansivee. Illite, in tu
urn is
a mineral
m that reacts
r with water
w to a limited exten nt. Quantitattive analysis of XRD reesults
reveealed that thhe average percentages
p o different clay mineraals in the saamples are: 51%
of
smectite, 32% illite, 9% verm miculite, 4% kaolinite an nd 3% goethitte.

The high sm mectite conteent was conffirmed by th he SEM anallyses (Figuree 3) of a sam mple
colleected at 1.500 m depth. Figure
F 3 shoows the SEM
M micrographh for the exppansive clay y and
depiicts thin sheeets of smectiite stacked on
o one to oth
her, which iss supported bby the crenuulated
morrphology of thet specimenn. The wholee structure ofo the clay apppears as a tthin webby crust.
c
The EDX spectrrum, as show wn in Figuree 3 also, presents typicall relative peaak heights of
o the
majoor elements ofo smectite liike Si, Al, Mg,
M Fe, Na, Ca,
C and K.

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 Vol. 15 [2
2010], Bun
nd. M 1322

Figure 3: Scanning
S elecctron microsscopy and energy dispersive x-ray ressult of a smecctite
rich sample..

Figure 4: Scanning electron microoscopy and energy disperrsive x-ray reesult of an illlite
rich sample..

Figure 4 shoows the SEM M micrographh of illite fro

om a sample collected at 2.0 m depth h and
depiicts thin secction as a pore-filling matrix con nsisting of thin
t flakes with ribbon n-like
projections of illlite. The ED DX spectrum
m presents ty ypical relativve peak heigghts of the major
m
elem
ments of illitee like Si, Al and
a K; with a minor amo ount of Mg, C and Fe.

CON
NCLUSIONS
Based on the results of this
t investigaation, it can be concludeed that the crrack walls, which
w
are generally caaused by struucture moveements, weree caused by an expansivve soil behaavior.
Stanndard laborattory analysess of soil charracteristics in
ndicated a meedium to higghly expansib
bility
and direct estimation of the swelling pottential (swelll percent andd swell presssure) showed d that
the soil is highhly expansivee. Mineral composition
c of samples revealed a high conten nt of
expaansive minerrals such as smectite
s and vermiculite.. Moreover, minerals succh as illite, which
w
reaccts with water to a limitedd extent, werre also foundd.
Vol. 15 [2010], Bund. M 1323

REFERENCES
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3. Carstea, D.D., Harward, M.E. & Knox, E.G. (1970) Comparison of iron and
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