Condenser Performance Improvement

Through Innovative Cleaning and Leak

Detection Technologies
Condensers are one part of the power plant where the technology is well defined and
the benefits of keeping a clean condenser are easily determined. Condenser
maintenance is a "pay me now or pay me later" proposition.

The theory of condenser operation is reasonably straightforward. Condenser design

specifications define a maximum effective rate of removal of the latent heat in the
exhaust vapor entering the condenser, as well as its heat transfer into the circulating
water, determined by the condenser backpressure, cooling water flow rate, and inlet
temperature. Variations in the latter two parameters will change the backpressure
and also affect the heat rate for a given load. In order to minimize condensate
subcooling, caused by variations in inlet water temperature, some control over
backpressure (and heat rate) may be achieved by varying the cooling water flow
rate. However, the reduced tube velocities can cause silt to become deposited on
the tube surfaces and, thus, negatively affect heat rate.

To avoid these effects, it may be possible to allow some of the circulating water
returned from the condenser to bypass the cooling towers, thereby adjusting the inlet
temperature to maintain the backpressure, but without reducing the total water flow
rate or tube water velocity. These are the natural responses between these variables
for a clean condenser.

Unfortunately, condensers seldom operate under clean conditions for very long, and
the ills to which they are prone during normal service fall into five major categories:

 Fouling of the tube surfaces

 Tube or tube sheet fouling due to shellfish or debris
 Circulating water in-leakage
 Excess ambient air in-leakage
 Deficient air/noncondensable removal capability

The first two categories are related to fouling and tend to be cyclical in nature. They
may, therefore, be regarded as predictable, although the actual fouling impact will
vary from plant to plant, and even between units at the same plant. The last three
categories of problems, concerning water or air in-leakage, tend to occur randomly.
Both categories of leaks are likely to occur at some point, and a correction strategy
can be prepared. When a problem will occur can only be anticipated, not predicted.

Tube Surface Fouling

It’s only a matter of time until almost every condenser experiences some kind of tube
or tubesheet fouling. Most condenser circulating water sources contain dissolved
solids that can precipitate and become deposited on the inner surfaces of the tubes,
adversely affecting the unit heat rate and/or limiting generation capacity. These
deposits can also contribute to various types of corrosion and, if not removed
periodically, the corrosion may eventually penetrate the tube wall, allowing
circulating water to leak into and contaminate the condensate.

Fouling can affect not only unit heat rate but also the ability of the turbine to generate
its design load capacity. In fossil-fired plants, an increase in heat rate is reflected in
higher fuel costs for a given load, and increases of 2% are not uncommon. In both
fossil and nuclear plants, if the fouling becomes severe, it will cause the
backpressure to rise to its upper limit, forcing a reduction in generated power. There
are reports of up to 20 MW having been recovered by the removal of severe
accumulations of deposits.

Tube Fouling Characteristics

To effectively combat tube fouling, one must better understand the characteristics of
tube fouling and how it applies to site-specific conditions. Condenser tube fouling,
which is mostly a tube interior concern, generally falls into one of the following five
categories.

Microbiological Fouling. Microbiological fouling routinely occurs in natural waters,

as many bacterial species will naturally colonize and grow on inert substrates. The
temperature at the interior wall of condenser tubes is ideal for growth of some
bacteria. The resulting mass is frequently low in organic solids (10% to 30% after
drying), and the majority of constituents are inorganic particulates from the cooling
water that have become incorporated into the microbiological slime. Even a thin layer
of microbiological fouling can be particularly detrimental to heat transfer, as much of
the slime mass consists of water, which conducts heat poorly.

Scale Fouling. Scale (mineral crystallization) occurs on heat transfer surfaces under

a combination of dissolved mineral concentration and temperature effects. Scaling of
certain common constituents in natural waters (such as calcium carbonate and
calcium phosphate) is promoted by elevated temperatures, such as exist on the
interior wall of condenser tubes, particularly toward the outlet end. Other scale-
forming minerals (including calcium sulfate) are more likely to form at cooler
temperatures. Scale can drastically reduce heat transfer, depending on the specific
mineral formed and its thickness. Although scaling water chemistry is not normally
associated with corrosion, it is very possible that crevice corrosion will occur beneath
scale.

Particle Deposition Fouling. Particle deposition generally occurs in condenser

tubes when the flow rate is inadequate to keep particulates in suspension. Design
flow through condenser tubes is often 7 to 10 ft/s, but this is an average (bulk flow),
and some tubes may experience much lower flow than others. This can be a
problem if the waterbox is not full and upper tubes receive intermittent flow.
Commonly, areas of low flow result from partial blockage on the tubesheet or
because an object is lodged within a tube. It is unlikely that particle deposition will
cause a significant loss of heat transfer for the condenser, but it may serve as an
initiation site for crevice corrosion. Common types of fouling particulates in
condensers include sediment/silt, diatoms, coal dust, and minerals precipitated from
the cooling water (calcium sulfate, calcium phosphate, silicates, etc.).

Corrosion Products Fouling. Corrosion products can grow relatively thick on the

surfaces of certain tubes, primarily copper alloys. Scale or deposition promotes
copper oxide growth, and in some cases a thin surface scale will enhance the growth
of a thick underlying copper oxide layer, which will inhibit heat transfer and establish
sites for crevice corrosion.

Tubesheet Pluggage. Macro fouling can include blockage at the tubesheet and

within the tubes by various materials and debris, including rocks, concrete pipe
debris, cooling tower materials (plastic fill/wood), chunks of ash or coal, pieces of
rust, paper trash, leaves and other vegetation, and aquatic animals (crayfish, fish,
and clams). The primary effect is reduced flow to certain tubes, which results in
particulate deposition and increased opportunity for microbiological growth.
Additionally, localized high velocities and tube wall erosion can occur as a result. If
major tube sheet blockage occurs, the condenser vacuum can be significantly
degraded.

Condenser Cleaning Methods

Regardless of the tube material, the most effective way to ensure that tubes achieve
their full life expectancy and heat transfer efficiency is to keep them clean. Ideally,
each time tube deposits, sedimentation, biofouling, and obstructions are effectively
removed, the tube surfaces are returned to bare metal, providing the most effective
heat transfer. The cleaned tube is given a new life as a result of the rebuilding of the
protective oxide coating.

Data obtained from an independent survey of 100 plants (two per state) found that
the majority of cleaning procedures are performed off-line, the most frequently
chosen being mechanical cleaning. Mechanical cleaning incorporates the use of
metal scrapers or brushes being shot through the tubes by water, air, or a
combination of the two.

Among other off-line methods is the use of very high pressure water. Because the jet
can only be moved along the tube slowly, the time taken to clean a condenser can
be become extended. Great care must be taken to avoid damaging any tubesheet or
tube coatings that may be present; otherwise, the successful removal of fouling
deposits maybe become associated with new tube leaks or increased tube sheet
corrosion that are only observable after the unit has been brought back online.

Chemicals are also used for off-line cleaning of condenser tubes. Several mildly
acidic products are available and will remove more deposit than most other methods;
but this option is expensive, takes longer, and the subsequent disposal of the
chemicals-an environmental hazard-creates its own set of problems. It has also been
found quite frequently that some residual material still needs to be removed by
mechanical cleaning methods.
Very few online methods are available to clean condenser tubes, but the best known
is the online ball-cleaning system, which uses recirculated sponge rubber balls as
the cleaning vehicle. These systems often operate for only a part of each day and,
rather than maintaining absolutely clean tube surfaces, tend to merely limit the
degree of tube fouling. Unfortunately, although the tubes may become cleaner if
abrasive balls are used, tube wear can become a problem.

There have been, on occasion, problems with the distribution of online sponge balls
and their ability to clean all of the condenser tubes. It is also not uncommon to find
that numerous sponge balls have become stuck in condenser tubes, and these
appear among the material removed during off-line mechanical cleaning operations.
For these reasons, the tubes of condensers equipped with online systems still have
to be cleaned off-line periodically, especially if loss of generation capacity is of
serious concern.

Tube Cleaning Innovations

Off-line mechanical cleaning is especially useful where fouling problems exist or are
too severe to be handled by any of the other methods. Obviously, the tool selected
has to be the most appropriate for removing a particular type of deposit. Molded
plastic cleaners (pigs) are quite popular for some light silt applications. Brushes can
also be used to remove these soft deposits as well as some microbiological
deposition. Brushes are also useful for cleaning tubes with enhanced surfaces (for
example, those that are spirally indented or finned) or tubes with thin wall metal
inserts or epoxy-type coatings. Spring-loaded metal cleaners have been designed to
remove all types of deposits, particularly from tubes that are fouled with hardened
deposits such as mineral scale. All of the aforementioned cleaners are propelled
through the tubes by means of a water pump at approximately 300 psig.

An advantage of using 300 psig water pressures for tube cleaner propulsion is that
the fouling material can be safely collected in a plastic container for later drying, then
weighing, to establish the deposit density. That is followed in many cases by X-ray
fluorescent analysis of the deposit cake. This method of deposit analysis is unique to
mechanical cleaning.

Water pressure of 300 psig is very effective for propelling cleaning tools through the
tubes while preventing their exit velocity from rising above a safe level. Some other
cleaning systems use air or a mixture of air and water to propel the cleaner, but air
pressure is compressible and dangerous to use.

Case Study No. 1: South Texas Project

As a result of an innovative research program organized to resolve problems
encountered in the field and to develop new products where existing equipment was
found to be inadequate, new tube cleaners were developed. One notable example
involves South Texas Project (STP) nuclear power station, which experienced a
serious buildup of calcium carbonate scale in more than 96,000 of its condensers’
titanium tubes. Conventional cleaning methods proved to be unsuccessful in
removing scale from the inner diameter of the tubes. Upon further examination, tests
revealed that scale thickness ranged from 7.6 mils to 31.2 mils and averaged 19.06
mils. Approximately 50% of the top 20 rows in waterbox four were completely
blocked with scale.

An innovative scale removal tube cleaner was utilized to restore the tubes to
operational cleanliness. The tube cleaner known as the Cal-Buster (Figure 1)
consists of a Teflon body on which are mounted a number of carbide rotary cutting
wheels. These are placed at different angles around the body. The carbide cutting
wheels on the Cal-Buster fracture the crystalline structure of the calcium carbonate,
effectively breaking the bond to the tube wall as the cleaner travels down the tube. A
subsequent pass of a standard C4S cleaner forces the loosened calcium out in long
strips.

1. The Cal-Buster removes scale on the inside of condenser tubes. Courtesy: Conco

Systems Inc.

Working in teams of eight operators per 12-hour shift, around the clock, it took
approximately five and a half days to clean each waterbox. Each team used four
two-gun portable water pump systems that shot the tube cleaners with 200 to 300 psi
water. Three pumps were used on the inlet side and one was used on the outlet side
when back-and-forth shooting was required to free the occasionally stuck cleaner.

In all, seven and a half cubic yards of calcium carbonate, weighing more than 5,000
pounds, were removed from the 96,234 condenser tubes in Unit 1. Shortly thereafter,
the same number of condenser tubes in Unit 2 were cleaned using the same
method, and more than four cubic yards of calcium carbonate, weighing a little more
than 3,000 pounds, was removed. STP personnel believe the tubes in Unit 2 were
less fouled because it had been cleaned with metal-bladed mechanical tube cleaners
in 2001, whereas the tubes in Unit 1 had been cleaned with nylon brushes that left
ridges inside the tubes, promoting faster build-up of debris and scale.

As a result of the condenser tube cleaning and removal of the calcium carbonate
scale, STP plans to establish a preventive maintenance cleaning regimen utilizing
one pass of standard metal-bladed tube cleaners to prevent the severe fouling that
was observed and slow the buildup of scale.

Case Study No. 2: Ratcliffe-on-Soar

Another innovation was the development of the stainless steel tube-cleaning brush.
The brush is made from stainless steel and has more than 1,000 contact points per
cleaner (Figure 2). The stainless brush was successfully utilized at the 2,034-MW
Ratcliffe-on-Soar power station in the United Kingdom to remove accumulated macro
fouling that consisted mostly of stones that had entered the cooling water intake due
to a breach in a retaining wall. The stones created a low-flow situation that had in
turn rendered the online ball-cleaning system ineffective. In addition to macro fouling,
the condenser tubes had been fitted with thin-walled brass inserts in both the inlet
and outlet ends and were in varying degrees of disrepair.

2. Another tube cleaning option is the stainless steel brush. Courtesy: Conco

Systems Inc.

The stainless brush performed exceptionally well due to the inherent flexibility of its
design. The cleaning contractor utilized cleaners that were custom fit with smaller-
than-normal trailing end caps that allowed the cleaner to pass through the inserts
and open fully to provide a full 360 degree cleaning of the inner tube wall.

Following the four-day cleaning at Ratcliffe, performance engineers realized a 3- to

4-mbar improvement in backpressure at full load, which meant the unit had hit its
target vacuum for the first time in many years. A 3-mbar improvement equates to
approximately $200,000 a year savings in efficiency/fuel costs alone (based on 60%
utilization), which is extraordinary, as the unit cleaned hadn’t been considered a bad
performer.

Determining Circulating Water In-leakage

In addition to innovations in tube cleaning, an awareness of best available
technology for the resolution of circulating water and air in-leakage is also
necessary.

Circulating water in-leakage can result from penetrations through the tube walls,
from joints between the tubes and tube sheet that have developed leaks, or from
other penetrations between the waterbox and condenser shell that have lost their
integrity. The contaminants in the circulating water change condensate chemistry
and/or pH, tending to increase boiler or steam generator corrosion. They may also
result in increased consumption of water treatment chemicals in an attempt to
compensate for the change in water chemistry. Poor water chemistry can also cause
stress corrosion cracking of steam turbine components.

Even a small circulating water in-leakage into the condensate can be damaging to
the unit as a whole and is often the cause of an unscheduled outage. The length of
that outage will depend on the means adopted to locate the source of the leak
quickly; the online and off-line use of tracer gas (SF6) is the preferred method.
The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Condenser In-Leakage Guideline
(Condenser In-Leakage Guideline, EPRI Technical Report TR-112819, 2000)
explores these problems in detail and shows how tracer gas can be used to rapidly
locate the source of either water or air in-leakage, allowing the problem to be
corrected quickly.

Methods of In-leakage Detection

The condenser is designed to form a barrier between the cooling water, which flows
between the waterboxes through the condenser tubes, and the shell side of the
condenser, in which the exhaust vapor is collected as condensate. However, even
small circulating water leaks will quickly find their way into the condensate,
contaminating it with undesirable dissolved solids, which tend to cause corrosion in
the feedwater heaters, boilers, or steam generators. Online conductivity or salinity
instruments are used to indicate the presence of a leak, and steps should be taken
to rectify the problem as soon as possible. Unfortunately, this usually means taking
the unit out of service, which translates into a loss of revenue, which increases with
the length of the outage. Thus, the time taken to locate and correct the problem can
be economically significant. This time can be reduced dramatically if the waterbox
associated with the leak can be identified while the unit is still online.

Among the leak detection methods commonly employed in the past were smoke
generators, foam or plastic wrap applied to the tube sheet, tube pressure testing,
and membrane-type rubber stoppers. These earlier techniques could not confirm
whether the leak was confined to only one tube, so adjacent tubes were often
plugged as well (often unnecessarily) as a form of "insurance plugging." All these
methods require that the shell side of the condenser be under vacuum, provided
either by the air removal system or, if the waterbox is divided, by running the unit at
low load, taking each waterbox out of service in turn and checking it for leaks.

Original investigations incorporated the use of helium as a tracer gas. This not only
reduced the time required to locate a leak but also eliminated much of the former
uncertainty about whether the actual source of the leak had been found. However,
the lowest detectible concentration of helium is one part per million above the
background level, and helium was often unable to detect small water in-leaks. Thus,
a tracer gas with greater sensitivity was sought, and a technique using SF6 was
developed. It was found that SF6 in concentrations as low as one part per 10 billion
(0.1 ppb) can be detected, so small leaks now can be located with confidence.

The tracer gas method is illustrated in Figure 3, in which a tracer gas monitor, the
Fluorotracer Analyzer (Figure 4), is connected to the off-gas stream leaving the air
removal system. A technician is stationed at the monitor to observe the shape of the
trace on the strip chart recorder. A typical response time is  30 to 45 seconds (Figure
5). Another technician is stationed in the waterbox and dispenses the tracer. The two
technicians communicate through two-way sound-powered radios, chosen to avoid
RF interference with other equipment.
3. How to use a tracer gas to inspect a condenser for water in-leakage. Source:
Conco Systems Inc.

4. A Fluorotracer Analyzer can be used to determine the concentration of the tracer
gas. Courtesy: Conco Systems Inc.

5. The response time for sensing a tracer gas in the cooling water is usually 30 to 45
seconds. Source: Conco Systems Inc.
Once the waterbox is open and the tube sheet is exposed, a series of plenums is
placed over a section of the tube sheet, each sized to cover an ever-smaller group of
tubes. The technician in the waterbox injects the tracer gas into the plenum using a
portable dispenser (Figure 6). The vacuum within the condenser allows the tracer
gas to pass through any leaks that may be present and eventually appear in the off-
gas stream leaving the air removal system. The technician watching the tracer gas
detector monitor warns the other technician when the presence of the gas is
observed. A smaller plenum is then used, and so on. By using this systematic
process of elimination, the problem tube can be rapidly identified.

6. A technician injects SF6 into the condenser tube bundle prior to a tube leak
test. Courtesy: Conco Systems Inc.

Excess Ambient Air In-leakage

The design of condensers routinely allows for a normally acceptable level of air in-
leakage, often considered to be 1 scfm (2.13 kg/h) per 100 MW, although a new
ASME standard (ASME Performance Test Code on Steam Surface Condensers,
PTC.12.2-1988) shows the limit to vary with the number of condenser compartments
and exhaust flow rate. The sources of such leaks can be labyrinth glands on steam
turbine shafts, as well as packing and seals that are less than leak-tight.

As with fouling, air in-leakage affects the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the
hotwell, which can cause corrosion damage to other parts of the unit. Of course, high
dissolved oxygen levels can also be caused by a change in the performance of the
air removal equipment, and this should be checked before undertaking the search for
leaks. In many cases, the increased reliance on deaeration taking place within the
condenser makes minimizing air in-leakage even more important.

Air In-Leakage Detection Methods

As mentioned, condensers are designed to perform correctly with the unavoidable
and low level of air in-leakage that is always present. However, greater air in-leakage
than this low normal value will increase the concentration of noncondensables in the
shell side of the condenser and cause the thermal resistance to heat transfer to
increase. An increase in backpressure and unit heat rate will result. Air in-leakage
may even rise to the point where the backpressure approaches its operating limit,
forcing a reduction in load.

Another effect of high air in-leakage is often an increase in the concentration of

dissolved oxygen in the condensate, a concentration that will tend to increase with
lower condensate temperatures. The consequences are increased corrosion of
feedheaters, boilers, and steam generators and/or an increase in the consumption of
water treatment chemicals. Such consequences can create very complex issues
involving the transport of corrosion products. Sometimes the result is accelerated
corrosion in carbon steel high-pressure feedwater heaters and copper alloy
feedwater heaters and excessive deposits in boiler waterwall tubes, superheater,
and reheaters as well as in the steam turbine path (published work in this area is
extensive). All of these consequences have a negative impact on unit profitability
and performance.

Using the tracer gas technique, the source of most air in-leaks can be located with
the unit online. Once again, a tracer gas monitor is installed in the off-gas line from
the air removal system and the technician utilizing a handheld tracer gas dispenser
roams around the unit in a methodical manner until the technician at the monitor
observes a response. The leak detection survey starts at the turbine deck level and
proceeds from top to bottom of the unit, one deck at a time. Care must be taken
when dispensing the tracer gas so that only one potential source is sprayed at a
time; otherwise, the ability to associate a response with a particular source may
become impaired.

Enfield Power Station Air Ingress Survey

An excellent example of how systematic leak detection principles can return
significant performance gains was demonstrated at the E.ON UK Enfield power
station, a 400-MW combined-cycle plant with an air-cooled condenser located just
north of London. Enfield had experienced problems related to air in-leakage dating
back to 2000. An increase in steam turbine air ejector discharge rates since
November 2005 as well as a gradual loss in vacuum resulted in numerous online
leak investigations across the affected plant areas. Enfield performance engineers
conducted vacuum drop tests and noted a leakage rate greater than 1.55 mbar/min.
In addition to the increased leakage rate, feedwater dissolved oxygen levels were
averaging 60 µg/kg.

Enfield retained an experienced leak detection contractor, who systematically tested

the vacuum boundary utilizing helium as the tracer gas. After only two days of
testing, the contractor located numerous leaks, including a sizeable 670-mm crack in
an intermediate-pressure bypass pipe. This crack was located under a considerable
amount of lagging and, once exposed, was corrected that day. Upon sealing the
crack, considerable improvement in vacuum was seen (Figure 7).
7. Vacuum improvement occurred almost instantly once a crack was
repaired. Source: Conco Systems Inc.

Following the leak survey, vacuum loss was reduced from 1.55 mbar/min to 0.43
mbar/min, a 72% improvement. Feedwater dissolved oxygen dropped from 60 µg/kg
to 5 µg/kg, an improvement of 91%. As a result of the efficiency improvements,
Enfield estimates that the cost of the leak detection survey will pay for itself in only
two weeks, and the overall yearly savings would be significant.