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Economic Minerals of India

Technical Report · April 2017

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 ECONOMIC MINERALS OF INDIA
By
Prof A. Balasubramanian
Centre for Advanced Studies in Earth Science
University of Mysore
Mysore-6

1
Introduction:

Earth has innumerable variety of valuable natural resources. Air, Land, Soil, Water, Forests and wild
life resources, are to mention a few. There are two major and vital natural resources to be understood in
economic geography, because of their role in supporting human activities. They are the minerals and
mineral fuels. Like land and water, minerals are invaluable natural treasures of the earth. There is no
industrialization without the use of mineral resources. The development of a country’s economy and its
source of national income mainly depend on the available natural resources. Some of the natural
resources are renewable and many of them are practically lost once used. The non-renewable resources
are to be conserved and preserved for own future generation to survive.

Minerals and power resources support the industrial development and help to grow the national
economy. Many of these resources are not uniformly distributed, in horizontal space and vertical depth.
Their quantitative occurrences are also highly varied. Minerals are vital raw materials for many basic
industries and are major inputs in industrial development. The management of mineral resources, hence,
has to be closely integrated with the overall strategy of development and exploitation of minerals, which
is to be guided by the long-term national goals.

Minerals and Ores:

Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solids having distinct chemical compositions
and definite physical properties. They are usually solids. Minerals are classified based on chemical
composition and crystal structure. A 'Mineral Resource' is a concentration or occurrence of material of
intrinsic economic interest in or on the earth's crust in such form, quality and quantity that there are
reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction.

An Ore Deposit is a mineral deposit that can be mined at a profit, considering all geological and
economic factors including grade, tonnage, accessibility, infrastructure, ore processing, etc.
Geologists are involved in the study of ore deposits, which includes the study of ore genesis and the
processes within the Earth's crust that form and concentrate ore minerals into economically viable
quantities. Study of metallic ore deposits involves the use of structural geology, geochemistry, the
study of metamorphism and its processes, as well as understanding metasomatism and other processes
related to ore genesis

Categories of Economic Minerals:

Economic Mineral resources fall into four broad categories: metals and non-metals, mineral fuels,
gemstones, and industrial minerals. Coal, oil, and natural gas are treated as mineral fuels. Metals
include gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, and zinc. Rubies and diamonds are examples of gemstones. All
other minerals and rocks of economic significance, from river gravel to sheet mica, are classified as
industrial minerals. Industrial and metallic minerals, because of their physical and chemical properties,
provide materials that are essential for modern society. They furnish raw materials for construction and
agriculture, and for the ceramic, chemical, metallurgical, manufacturing, and energy-related industries.
Economic geology deals with the origin, occurrence, distribution and utility of all these mineral
resources.

Minerals are classified into 10 major categories, on economic point of view:

1. Metallic Minerals (Ferrous Group)
2. Metallic Minerals (Non-Ferrous Group)
3. Precious & Semi-precious Minerals
4. Strategic Minerals
5. Fertilizer Minerals
6. Refractory Minerals
7. Ceramic and Glass Minerals
8. Other Industrial Minerals

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 9. Minor Minerals
10. Mineral fuels ( Coal, Oil & Gas).

1.0 Metallic Minerals (Ferrous Group)

In the production of metallic minerals, Iron ore accounts for about 8.3%, lead(conc) and Zinc (conc)
together for 5%, chromites and manganese ore to 4% each, copper concentrate, primary gold, silver and
bauxite, all 1% each and the rest was fully shared by tin.

Metallic Minerals (Ferrous Group)

Iron Ore (Haematite)
Iron Ore (Magnetite)
Manganese Ore
Chromite.

The major types of Iron Ores are Haematite, Magnetite, Limonite & Siderite.

1.1 Iron Ore (Haematite):

Iron ores are the basic raw materials for iron and steel industries. Steel is the vital component of a
country's economy. Steel is considered as the crux of modernisation. Steel is environment-friendly and
recyclable.
Iron is the second most abundant metallic element in the Earth’s crust. The principal minerals of iron
are:
1. haematite and magnetite (oxides)
2. limonite and goethite (hydroxides)
3. siderite and pyrite(sulphides).

Haematite and magnetite are the two important iron ores from which iron is extracted. The finished
steel production in India was found to be at 66.01 million tonnes in 2010-11. The total resources of
Iron ores in India are about 28.52 Billion tonnes of hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4). India is
one among the leading producers as well as exporters of iron ore in the world. The total resources of
hematite alone are estimated at 17,882 million tonnes. About 59% hematite ore deposits are found in
the Eastern Sector. About 92% magnetite ore deposits occur in Southern Sector, especially in
Karnataka. The production of iron ore is about 218.6 million tonnes per year. About 27% of the total
production was shared by Public Sector. Companies like SAIL (including formerly IISCO), NMDC,
OMC, etc. The share of Private Sector was 73%. Almost entire production of iron ore (97%) is
obtained from Odisha, Karnataka, Goa, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand. The remaining 3% production was
reported from Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan.

Iron Ore (Magnetite)

Magnetite is a mineral and one of the main iron ores. With the chemical formula Fe3O4, it is one of
the oxides of iron. Magnetite is ferrimagnetic; it is attracted to a magnet and can be magnetized to
become a permanent magnet itself. In India, over 90% of magnetite is found in the southern states of
Karnataka (73%), Andhra Pradesh (14%) and Tamil Nadu (5%). Rajasthan in the west accounts for
another 5%. The balance is scattered over Goa, Kerela, Maharashtra, Odisha, Jharkhand, Assam,
Nagaland & Meghalaya.

1.2 Manganese Ore

Manganese is a vital component of steel and over 90% of manganese produced world over is used for
metallurgical purpose. The manganese ores are pyrolusite and Psylomelane.

3
The manganese provinces are in the Peninsular India which include the ore deposits of Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat and Bihar. Two states namely
Karnataka and Orissa dominate the ore reserve scenario accounting 40% and 25% of the national
endowment respectively. M. P. - Maharashtra manganese belt and Goa provide a substantial amount of
manganese ores. The important deposits lie in the States of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa,
Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Goa.

1.3 Chromite

Chromite is an oxide of chromium and iron. It is the only commercial source of chromium. It occurs
as a primary mineral of ultrabasic igneous rocks. It is normally associated with peridotite, pyroxenite,
dunite and serpentinite. Chromium is a hard, bluish metallic element (Cr. This was identified from a
mineral as chromium oxide (CrO3) by Louis-Nicholas Vauquelin. Shortly after Vauquelin's discovery,
Tassaert- a German chemist, discovered chromium in an ore. That was called by the geologists as
chromite (FeCr2O4.It is a Ferrous chromic oxide). Chromite forms in an igneous environment.
Chromite has a wide range of uses in metallurgical, chemical & refractory industries. In metallurgical
industry, chromite is used for manufacturing low-carbon and high-carbon ferro-chrome, in making
stainless steels and special alloy steels.

Total resources of chromite in India

India has 203 million tonnes of Chromite. More than 93% resources of chromite are located in
Odisha, mostly in the Sukinda valley in Cuttack and Jajpur districts. Minor deposits are scattered over
Manipur, Nagaland, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

2.0 Metallic Minerals (Non-Ferrous Group)

2.1 Antimony

Antimony is a silvery-gray, brittle semi-metal. It rarely occurs in nature as a native element, but is
found in a number of different minerals, the most important of which is stibnite (SbS3). Antimony is
often called as a semi-metal, because in pure form it is not shiny and malleable like the other true
metals. Antimony is found in traces in silver, copper and lead ores. It is economically possible, and
environmentally desirable to extract antimony from these ores when they are smelted. The most
important use of antimony is in chemicals used to impregnate plastics, textiles, rubber, and other
materials.
It is also used as a flame retardant - that is, a form of fireproofing material.

2.2 Aluminium

Bauxite

Aluminium is a silver-white metal and is very light in weight but very strong. Bauxite is the essential
ore of aluminium. It contains over 99% of metallic aluminium. Because aluminium is ductile, it can be
drawn into wires or pressed into sheets or foil. Most bauxite is first processed to make alumina, or
aluminium oxide, a white granular material. Worldwide sources of bauxite are large enough to supply
the demand for aluminium for some time to come. Bauxite is a mixture of minerals. Bauxite is the
name for a mixture of similar minerals that contain hydrated aluminium oxides. These minerals are
gibbsite (Al(OH)3),
diaspore (AlO(OH)), and
boehmite (AlO(OH)).
Hence, bauxite is considered as a rock and not as a mineral. Bauxite is reddish-brown, white, tan, and
tan-yellow in color.

4
Aluminium has unique properties. Its resistance to corrosion is advantageous to use it in aircraft,
automobiles, beverage containers, and buildings. It is the most abundant metallic element, and the third
most abundant of all elements in the Earth's crust. This makes up 8% of the crust by weight; only
silicon and oxygen are more plentiful. It is one of the most important nonferrous metals used in the
modern industries. It is also an essential ore for refractory and chemical industries. India has abundant
resources of bauxite which can meet both domestic and export demands.

Bauxite in India

Resources of bauxite in the country are about 3,480 million tonnes. By States, Odisha alone accounts
for 52% of country's resources of bauxite followed by Andhra Pradesh (18%), Gujarat (7%),
Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra (5% each) and Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand (4% each). Major
bauxite resources are concentrated in the East Coast.

2.2 Copper

Copper is a well-known, pinkish and softer non-ferrous base metal. It occurs as a native metal. It is both
ductile and malleable. It can be made in to various shapes without fracturing. It can be beaten into thin
sheets. It is a soft metal. It has a high electrical and thermal conductivity( next to silver). It was used
prior to iron by mankind, since ancient past. Hence, copper has high cultural significance. On record,
this metal was known to the people of the oldest civilizations. Copper has a history of at least 10,000
years.

Copper Ores

Copper-bearing ores, in India, fall into three main classes i.e. oxides, carbonates and the sulfides.
There are more than 150 ore minerals of copper. The important oxide ores include cuprite (Cu2O) and
tenorite (CuO).

The carbonate ores are

1. malachite (Cu2CO3(OH)2) and
2. azurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2).
The common sulfides of copper include
1. chalcopyrite (CuFeS2),
2. covellite (CuS),
3. chalcocite (Cu2S) and
4. bornite (Cu5FeS4).

Copper in India

The total copper metal resources in India are about 12.29 million tonnes. The largest resources of
copper ore to a tune of 777.17 million tonnes (49.86%) are found in the state of Rajasthan. It is
followed by Madhya Pradesh with 377.19 million tonnes (24.2%) and Jharkhand with 288.12 million
tonnes (18.49%). The Copper resources in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Odisha, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and West Bengal accounted for
about 8% of the total all India resources.

2.3 Lead

Lead is a soft, heavy, toxic and highly malleable metal. It is usually found in ore form with zinc. Lead
is a very corrosion-resistant, dense and ductile element. It can be drawn into wires or pressed into thin
sheets. Lead has been used for at least 5,000 years. The most significant lead-bearing mineral is galena
(lead sulphide). More than three-fourths of lead produced in the world are is used by the transportation
industry, particularly in lead-acid batteries. The remaining uses include ammunition, electrical
appliances, electronic goods, and communication applications, and in radiation shields. Lead has been

5
used since antiquity. It is usually alloyed with other elements. Lead is toxic. It can cause damage to the
digestive and nervous systems. Its use in some applications has been discontinued. Lead poisoning is
monitored in children to prevent any permanent damage.

2.4 Zinc

Zinc is a silvery blue-grey metal with a relatively low melting and boiling point. Zinc is recovered
from a number of different zinc minerals. The most important of these minerals is sphalerite (zinc
sulfide). Such minerals as smithsonite (zinc carbonate) and zincite (zinc oxide) are also zinc ores. Zinc
has unique properties. It is resistant to corrosion. Due to this more than one-half of zinc metal is used
for galvanizing purposes. It is also used in the production of zinc-based alloys, brass, and bronze. Zinc
extraction gives a lot of co-products in the industry. The major co-products of zinc mining and smelting
processes are cadmium, germanium, gold, lead, silver, and sulfur. India produced zinc metal as early as
1200, by burning organic materials with smithsonite (ZnCO3, zinc carbonate). Zinc was used long
before. Brass is an alloy- a mixture, of copper and zinc, used for several thousand years. Many Brass
items have been discovered, dating back to as early as 1000 B.C, during archaeological excavations.

2.5 Lead and Zinc in India

The total resources of lead and zinc ores are estimated to be around 685.59 million tonnes. Rajasthan
is endowed with the largest resources of lead-zinc ore amounting to 607.53 million tonnes in India. It is
about 88.61%. It is followed by Andhra Pradesh 22.69 million tonnes (3.31%), Madhya Pradesh
14.84 million tonnes (2.16%), Bihar 11.43 million tonnes (1.67%) and Maharashtra 9.27 million
tonnes (1.35%). Lead and zinc resources are also established in Gujarat, Meghalaya, Odisha, Sikkim,
Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and West Bengal.

3.0 Platinum group of metals

Platinum is popularly known in the society as Rich Man's Gold. It is basically bright white and precious
metal which has got wide application to industry. Platinum Group of Elements comprises of a family of
six greyish to silver white metals Platinum (Pt), Palladium (Pd), Rhodium (Rh), Ruthenium (Ru),
Osmium (Os) and Iridium (Ir). These elements have extensive use in jewellery, pharmaceuticals,
telecommunications and fuel cell technologies. Because of the similar physical and chemical properties,
they tend to occur naturally together in the same mineral deposits. These are often associated with gold
and silver and are classically known as Noble Metals.

Platinum

Platinum is basically a bright white metal. It is a precious metal. It has got a very wide range of
applications in industries. Platinum is popularly known as the Rich Man’s Gold. Platinum group of
metals bear certain uniqueness. Because of the similar physical and chemical properties, the platinum
group of metals tend to occur naturally together , in the same mineral deposits. These are often
associated with gold and silver. They are classically known as Noble Metals. India has very little of
these resources. At present three potential deposits of PGE mineralization have been identified in India,
viz. (i) Baula–Nausahi Complex in Orissa, (ii) Sittampundi anorthosite Complex in Tamil Nadu and (iii)
mafic–ultramafic Hanumalapur Complex in Karnataka1,2. Besides this, PGE occurrences have also
been reported from Kondapalli ultramafics of Andhra Pradesh3 , Manipur–Nagaland ophiolites, Nidar
ophiolites of Jammu and Kashmir, ophiolites of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, auriferous load in
Sakoli fold belt in Maharashtra4 , and Chitradurga schist belt in Karnataka. The Platinum group of
elements are explored at certain targets areas in Odisha: They are 1. Baula-Nuasahi, Keonjhar District 2.
Sukinda area, Jajpur District, 3. Singhbhum-Odisha Craton and 4.Amjori Hill, Keonjhar District. The
occurrence of platinum group minerals (PGMs) and gold is reported in association with Fe–Ni–Cu
sulphides and chromite in mafic–ultramafic rocks (gabbro–pyroxenite) of Gondpipri area in the Western
Bastar Craton.

6
4.0 Precious & Semi-precious Minerals

4.1 Corundum

Corundum is a crystalline form of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) with traces of iron, titanium and
chromium. It is a rock-forming mineral. Transparent specimens are used as gems, called ruby. Coloured
ones are called sapphire. Corundum is a mineral of metamorphosed crystalline limestones and
dolomites, as well as other metamorphic rock types such as gneiss and schist; also in igneous rocks such
as granite and nepheline syenite. Gem corundums are often found in placer deposits. Non-gem
corundum is abundant throughout the world, but gem material is more restricted in occurrence.

4.2 Diamond

The ancient Indians were the first, in the world, to take notice of the mineral diamond for its beauty and
hardness. Diamond was discovered by the Indians in the eighth century B.C. They used to collect
diamonds from its secondary sources i.e., the quaternary gravel beds and gravel bars in the sediments.
Despite this ancient tradition, the primary sources of diamonds are kimberlite, lamproite, and other
kimberlite clan rocks. They are all found in India and other countries. India is known for its diamond
cutting & polishing business especially for small sized diamonds. Most of the world's business on
diamond comes to India, particularly to Surat in Gujarat. Indian diamond industry handles about 80%
of the global polished diamond market. Diamond occurrences in India are quite widespread.The areas
of occurrences of source rocks of diamond are broadly grouped into three diamond provinces, namely
the South Indian Diamond Province (SIDP), the Central Indian Diamond Province (CIDP) and the East
Indian Diamond Province (EIDP).

Presently, diamond fields of India are grouped into four regions:

The South Indian tract of Andhra Pradesh, comprising parts of Anantapur, Cuddapah, Guntur, Krishna,
Mahaboobnagar and Kurnool districts;
The Central Indian tract of Madhya Pradesh, comprising Panna belt;
The Behradin-Kodawali area in Raipur district and Tokapal, Dugapal areas in Bastar district of
Chhattisgarh; and The Eastern Indian tract in Odisha, lying between Mahanadi and Godavari valleys.

4.3 Garnet

Garnet is a collective name for a group of minerals. Garnet is hard with sharp angular chisel-edged
fracture, containing small amounts of free silica and exhibits high resistance to physical and chemical
attacks. It is a resistant mineral and detritus grains are commonly found in sediments. It is used both as
semi-precious stone and also as an abrasive. In India, garnet deposits occur in Andhra Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Kerala, Odisha, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.

Gem variety of garnet occurs in Ajmer, Jaipur, Kishangarh, Tonk and Udaipur districts of Rajasthan;
Krishna, Nellore and Warangal districts of Andhra Pradesh; and Coimbatore, Nilgiri and Salem
districts of Tamil Nadu. Garnet is found to occur in the beach sands along with ilmenite, rutile,
sillimanite, etc. in the states of Kerala, Odisha and Tamil Nadu. The total resources of garnet in India,
are placed at 56.96 million tonnes. Tamil Nadu alone accounts for more than 59% of the total
resources, followed by Andhra Pradesh 33% and Odisha 6%. The remaining states together shared less
than 2%.

4.4 Gold

Gold is a noble metal. It is highly valued by the mankind since antiquity. It is used as an adornment for
cultural status and ornamental purposes. It symbolises wealth and used for coinage. Gold is a relatively
scarce metal in the world and a scarce commodity in India. The total resources of gold ore in the
country were estimated to be around 493.69 million tonnes. Gold occurs principally as a native metal.

7
Gold in India

By States, the largest resources in terms of gold ore (primary) are located in Bihar (45%) followed by
Rajasthan (23%) and Karnataka (22%), West Bengal (3%), and Andhra Pradesh & Madhya Pradesh
(2% each). Remaining 3% resources of gold are located in Chhatisgarh, Jharkhand, Kerala, Maharashtra
and Tamil Nadu. In terms of metal content, Karnataka remained on the top followed by Rajasthan,
Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Jharkhand.

4.5 Ruby

Since the earliest times, ruby and sapphire in India have ranked among the Maharatnani ('great gems').
India's ancient jewelers divided gems into two main groups: Maharatnani ('great gems')
and Uparatnani ('secondary gems'). In the former class was placed diamond, pearl, ruby, sapphire and
emerald. The Karur-Kangayam and Hole-Narsipur belts, in the southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu
and Karnataka, respectively, are famous throughout the subcontinent for their gemstones, including
sapphire, moonstone, iolite, aquamarine, garnet, sunstone and corundum. The city of Karur itself is well
known for rubies. Ruby is also found in Subramanya (also known as Red Hills), near Madikeri in
Karnataka. Channapatna roughly 280 km (117 miles) from Madikeri, is famous for its star rubies.

4.6 Sapphire

Sapphire ("oriental sapphire") is the name given to blue corundum. Sapphire differs from ruby most
essentially in color, it is in addition, however, slightly harder, being the hardest of all the varieties of
corundum. The famous sapphires of Kashmir are mined from a remote region high in the Great
Himalayan mountains of northwestern India.

4.7 Silver

Silver is one of the five noble metals. It has brilliant white colour, good malleability and resistance to
atmospheric oxidation. It has always been a highly desired precious metal and is used in more
industrial applications than any other metal, in the world. Apart from its monetary and decorative uses,
it is used for printed electric circuits, coating for electronic conductors and in alloys of gold and copper
for electrical contacts. Its chloride and iodide are light-sensitive and hence used in photographic
material. These two modern uses are responsible for contributing its supply as scrap. In India, there are
no native silver deposits except the small and unique Bharak deposit of silver in Rajasthan. Silver
occurs, generally, with lead, zinc, copper and gold ores. The total resources of silver ore in the country
are estimated to be around 466.98 million tonnes.

Silver in India

By States, Rajasthan accounted for about 87% resources in terms of ore, Jharkhand 5%, Andhra
Pradesh 4% and Karnataka 2%. Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Odisha, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Tamil
Nadu and Maharashtra together shared 2% ore resources.

5.0 Strategic Minerals

5.1 Cobalt

Cobalt is an important strategic alloying metal having irreplaceable industrial applications. Cobalt is
associated mostly with copper, nickel and arsenic ores. The total resources of cobalt in India are about
44.91 million tonnes. About 69%, i.e. 30.91 million tonnes are estimated in Odisha. The remaining
31% resources are in Jharkhand (9 million tonnes) and Nagaland (5 million tonnes). Major use of
cobalt is in metallurgical applications, in special alloy/super alloy industry, in magnets and cutting
tools industries.

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5.2 Molybdenum

Molybdenum is a refractory metal. It is used mainly as an alloying agent in steel, cast iron & super
alloys manufacture to enhance their strength. It does not occur in nature in free state. It is found in
chemically combined form with other elements. Molybdenite (MoS2) is the principal ore of
molybdenum. In India, by-product concentrates of molybdenum are produced intermittently from
uranium ore of Jaduguda mine belonging to Uranium Corporation of India Ltd (UCIL) in Jharkhand. In
India, molybdenum is associated with copper, lead and zinc ores. It occurs in
1. Rakha copper deposit in Jharkhand
2. Malanjkhand copper deposit in Madhya Pradesh and
3. Dariba-Rajpura lead-zinc deposit in Rajasthan.
The multimetal deposit at in Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya is an important occurrence.
Molybdenum deposit also occurs in Karadikuttam in Madurai district, Tamil Nadu.

5.3 Nickel

Nickel, when added in small quantity to iron, increases its properties manifold and makes the product
hard and stainless. The demand of nickel lies in the production of stainless steel. It is also used in
plating. Nickel is not produced from primary sources. The entire demand is met through imports in
India. However, it is recovered as nickel sulphate crystals, a by-product obtained during copper
production. Nickeliferous limonite is found in the overburden of chromite in Sukinda Valley and
Jajpur district of Odisha. Nickel also occurs in sulphide form along with copper mineralisation in the
East Singhbhum district, Jharkhand. In addition, it is found associated with uranium deposits at
Jaduguda, Jharkhand. Other reported occurrences of nickel are from Karnataka, Kerala and Rajasthan.
Polymetallic nodules are yet another source of nickel.

5.4 Tin

Tin is one of the earliest known metals. It is used mainly in bronze implements. It is a very scarce
element. It is non-toxic. Highly malleability. It is chemically inert. It can form an amalgam. It can
form an alloy with other metals. Pure tin is a silvery-white metal which is soft and malleable. The
most important tin mineral is cassiterite (SnO2), which, in its purest form contains 78.6% tin. The less
common tin ore is stannite. Occurrences of tin in primary as well as secondary forms have been
reported from Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Odisha,
Rajasthan and West Bengal. The total resources of tin ore in the Country are about 83.73 million
tonnes.

5.5 Titanium Minerals

Titanium is very strong as steel, more durable than aluminium and has a higher fashion quotient than
platinum when it comes to avant garde jewellery. It's titanium, nicknamed the "space-age metal" for its
widespread use in airlines and defence because of its lightweight and durable nature. Titanium is
obtained from various ores that occur naturally on the Earth. Ilmenite (FeTiO3) and rutile (TiO2) are
the most important sources of titanium. India is part of the handful of nations around the world that
makes titanium sponge. Titanium ore is mined from beaches and the metal is known for its high
strength but low weight, making it an ideal material for aircraft manufacture, including fighter aircraft.
The material is also used in nuclear plants, and to make dental implants and mobile phones. “With
India’s long coast line, titanium reserves are abundant here. China dominates the production and use of
titanium. Over the past decade, many companies have set out to mine the metal.

5.6Tungsten

Tungsten is a vital metal of strategic importance. The chief sources of tungsten are minerals scheelite
(CaWO4) and wolframite [(Fe,Mn)WO4] which are deposited by hydrothermal solutions. Tungsten has

9
a high melting point and is resistant to all acids at ordinary temperatures. The total resources of
tungsten ore in India are about 87.4 million tonnes. Resources are mainly distributed in Karnataka
(42%), Rajasthan (27%), Andhra Pradesh (17%) and Maharashtra (9%). Remaining 5% resources are
in Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and West Bengal.

5.7Vanadium

Vanadium is a scarce element. It occurs in association with titaniferous magnetite. It is also recovered
as a by-product during iron & steel manufacture. In addition, vanadium present in bauxite can also be
recovered as vanadium sludge. In India, vanadium is associated with titaniferous magnetite. The total
estimated resources of vanadium ore are about 24.72 million tonnes.

6.0 Fertilizer Minerals

6.1 Gypsum

Gypsum (CaSO.2HO) is a hydrated calcium sulphate. Because of its special properties, it is widely
used in industries. It can be used as a cast or mould to any desired surface or form. On drying, it sets
into a hard rock-like form. Selenite is a colourless, transparent, crystalline variety of gypsum.
Alabaster is a fine grained, massive white variety. Silky and fibrous variety of gypsum is called satin
spar. The total resources of mineral gypsum in India are about 1,286 million tonnes. In India,
Rajasthan alone accounts for 82% resources and Jammu & Kashmir 14% resources. The remaining
4% resources are in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Uttarakhand, Andhra Pradesh
and Madhya Pradesh.

6.2 Phosphate (Apatite)

Apatite is the most abundant crystalline phosphate mineral. It is found as an accessory mineral in all
kinds of igneous rocks. Fluorapatite is the most common variety of apatite and also a secondary
source of fluorine. Collophane is apparently a cryptocrystalline or amorphous calcium phosphate
complex. Apatite & rock phosphate containing 3 to 4% CaF2 are useful for recovery of fluorite. The
total resources of apatite in India are about 24.23 million tonnes. Of the total resources, the bulk
(57%) are located in Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal followed by Jharkhand (30%) and Meghalaya
(5%). The remaining 8% resources are available in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Tamil
Nadu.

6.3 Rock Phosphate (Phosphorite)

Posphate rock is also a source of byproduct for fluorine. Rock phosphates are called as phosphorites.
These are sedimentary phosphatic deposits comprising fine-grained mixture of various calcium
phosphates. The most important minerals are hydroxyl-apatite, carbonate-apatite and fluor-apatite.
About 80% phosphate production in the world is derived from phosphate rocks. Phosphate rock is
used primarily as a plant nutrient. Elemental phosphorus and phosphoric chemicals derived from
phosphate rock are also used in detergents, insecticides, matches, fireworks, military smoke screens,
incendiary bombs, and many other products. The total resources of rock phosphate, in India, are about
296.3 million tonnes. Of the total resources, 36% are in Jharkhand, 30% in Rajasthan, 17% in
Madhya Pradesh, 9% in Uttar Pradesh and 8% in Uttarakhand. Meagre amount of rock phosphate
resources are located in Gujarat and Meghalaya.

6.4 Potash

Potassium is one of the three essential plant nutrients. It is supplied commercially as potash, i.e.,
potassium-bearing minerals, ores and processed products. The principal ore is sylvinite. It is a mixture
of sylvite (KCl) and rock salt (NaCl). In India, potash mineral resources exist mainly as polyhalite,
sylvite and glauconite. The total resources of potash, in India, are about 21,816 million tonnes.

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Rajasthan alone contributes 94% resources, followed by Madhya Pradesh 5% and Uttar Pradesh the
remaining 1%. Glauconitic sandstones/greensands deposits which are available in plenty can be used as
an alternative indigenous resource for potash.

6.5 Pyrite & Sulphur(native)

In India, there are no mineable elemental sulphur reserves. Pyrites was used as a substitute for sulphur
in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. The domestic production of elemental sulphur is limited to the
by-product recoveries from petroleum refineries. The limited resources, located in Jammu & Kashmir,
are about 0.21 million tonnes.

7.0 Refractory Minerals

7.1 Andalusite

Kyanite, sillimanite and andalusite are three aluminium silicate minerals having the same chemical
composition (Al2O3 .SiO2 ) but differing in physical properties. Andalusite (Al2SiO5) is an aluminium
nesosilicate mineral belonging to the Kyanite group of minerals. Andalusite is a polymorph with two
other minerals: Kyanite and Sillimanite. These minerals are also known as 'super-refractories' in view
of their special refractory properties. The total resources of andalusite in the country as on 1.4.2010 as
per UNFC system are placed at 18.5 million tonnes. There are no reserves. The resources are of inferred
category located in Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand. Production is very limited in India.

7.2 Fireclay

A group of refractory clays used in the manufacture of refractory bricks. India possesses a substantial
reserve of fireclay. The best deposits occur in Lower Gondwana Coalfields of Andhra Pradesh,
Jharkhand, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh and Neyveli lignite fields in Tamil Nadu. Notable
occurrences of fireclay, not associated with coal measures, are reported in Gujarat, Jabalpur region of
Madhya Pradesh and Belpahar-Sundergarh areas of Odisha.

7.3 Graphite

Graphite, also known as black lead, is a variety of naturally occurring carbon. It has a grey- to-black
metallic lustre and greasy feel. Natural graphite is divisible into two commercial varieties: crystalline
(flaky) graphite and amorphous graphite. Graphite occurrences are reported from various states. The
deposits of economic importance are located in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Odisha,
Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. The total resources of graphite in India are about 174.85 million tonnes.

7.4 Kyanite

The total resources of kyanite as per UNFC system (as on 1.4.2010) in the country are placed at 103.24
million tonnes. Statewise, share of Andhra Pradesh alone is more than 78% of total resources followed
by Karnataka 13% and Jharkhand 6%. Remaining 3% resources are in Kerala, Maharashtra, Rajasthan,
Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

7.5 Magnesite

Magnesite (MgCO3) is a carbonate of magnesium. It is usually found as irregular veins in serpentine

and formed by replacement of dolomite and limestone. It is a very important mineral for the
manufacture of basic refractories, which are largely used in the steel industry. The total resources of
magnesite, in India, are about 335 million tonnes. Substantial quantities of magnesite resources are
established in Uttarakhand (69%), followed by Rajasthan (16%) and Tamil Nadu (12%). Resources
are also located in Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka and Kerala.

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7.6 Pyrophyllite

Pyrophyllite (Al2O3 . 4SiO2 . H2O) is a hydrous silicate of aluminium. It resembles closely with talc in
many physical and optical properties but differs in chemical composition with talc which contains
magnesia instead of alumina. Pyrophyllite finds application in high grade ceramics & refractories and
also as a filler in pesticide industry. In India, the production of pyrophyllite is mainly reported from
Chhatarpur, Tikamgarh and Shivpuri districts of Madhya Pradesh, Mahoba and Lalitpur districts of
Uttar Pradesh and Keonjhar district of Odisha. Pyrophyllite Powder are easily machined and have
excellent thermal stability. Therefore, Pyrophyllite Powder are added to clay to reduce thermal
expansion when firing.

7.7 Sillimanite

Sillimanite mines are also worked by opencast method. Pohra mine of Maharashtra State Mining
Corporation Ltd is semi-mechanised. Granular sillimanite is obtained from beach sands in Kerala,
Odisha and Tamil Nadu as a by-product along with ilmenite, rutile, zircon, garnet, etc. while recovering
monazite. Kyanite, sillimanite and andalusite are mainly used in refractories because of their ability to
form mullite phase at high temperature. These are used to manufacture refractory products like dense
bricks, insulating bricks, monolithic & castables. Sillimanite refractory bricks are extensively used in
steel and glass industries and also in ceramics, cement kilns, heat treatment furnaces and petrochemical
industries.

8.0 Ceramic and Glass Minerals

8.1 Clays

The term clay refers to a number of earthy materials. They are composed of minerals rich in alumina,
silica and water. Clay is not a single mineral, but includes a number of minerals. Clay is commonly
found in all parts of the world. Since ancient civilizations, clay has been used for everything from
bricks to pottery. All vessels were made be the ancient people using clays.

Clay Minerals

The clay minerals are not easily identifiable. After the invention of X-ray diffraction analysis, clay
minerals have been studied in detail. Clays can also contain other materials such as iron oxide (rust),
silica, and rock fragments. Mostly, the impurities makes the change in the characteristics of the clay.
For example, presence of iron oxide makes a clay to become red. The presence of silica increases the
plasticity of the clay. Clays are categorized into 6 types in industries. These categories are
ball clay, bentonite, common clay, fire clay, fuller's earth, and kaolin.

8.2 Ball Clay

Ball clays are sedimentary, plastic, refractory clays, which fire white or nearly so. They are used chiefly
as one of the ingredients of whiteware and for other purposes where a refractory clay of good bonding
power is required. Ball clays are good quality clays used mostly in pottery industries. They are also
added to other clays to improve their plasticity. Ball clays are not occurring as common as other
varieties of clay. Ball clays are used to make floor and wall tiles. They are also used to make sanitary
ware, pottery, and other uses.

8.3 Common clay and fire clay

Common clay is used to make construction materials such as bricks, cement, and lightweight
aggregates. Fire clays are used to make items that are resistant to extreme heat. These products are
called refractory clay products. Nearly all of fire clays are used to make refractory products.

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8.4 Fuller’s Earth & Kaolinite

Fuller's earth is composed of the mineral palygorskite or attapulgite. Fuller's earth is used mostly as an
absorbent. It is also used for pesticides and pesticide-related products. Kaolinite is another variety of
clay. It is composed of the mineral kaolin. It is an essential ingredient in the production of high quality
paper and some refractory items including porcelains.

8.5 China clay

China Clay / Kaolin Clay is naturally occurring hydrated Aluminium Silicate. It mainly has oil
absorbing properties, reduced shine and translucent properties. It also provides hiding effect and
reduces the usage of TiO2 to a great extent.

8.6 Bentonite - clay

Bentonite is a kind of clay. It is formed from the alteration of volcanic ash. Bentonite is a sedimentary
clay in which the mineral montmorillonite is an important constituent. It has high plasticity and bonding
power. It is widely used as a bonding agent in synthetic foundry sands, in drilling muds, and for other
purposes. Bentonite is used in pet litter to absorb liquids. It is used as a mud in drilling applications. It
is also used in industrial applications like the "pelletizing process while extracting iron from its ore.

8.7 Feldspar

Feldspars are one of the most abundant rock-forming minerals in the earth's crust. The feldspar group of
minerals includes a complex series of alumino-silicates with varying amounts of potassium, sodium,
calcium and sometime barium. Common amongst these are the potash feldspars called orthoclase and
microcline, sodium feldspar called albite and calcium feldspar called anorthite. The total resources of
feldspar in the country are estimated to be around 132 million tonnes. By States, Rajasthan alone
accounts for about 66% of the total resources followed by Andhra Pradesh (16%), Tamil Nadu (7%),
Bihar (4%) and West Bengal (3%).

8.8 Quartz & Silica Sand

The term 'quartz' is often used as a synonym to silica. Silica (SiO2) is one of the common materials
present in the earth's crust. Quartz, quartzite and silica sand are all coined together in one generic name
'silica minerals'. This is because all these commodities are essentially crystalline silicon dioxide (SiO2).
The important varieties of crystalline quartz are vein quartz (massive crystalline quartz); milky quartz
(white, translucent to opaque); ferruginous quartz, amethyst, transparent quartz; rose quartz and
smoky quartz. The total resources of quartz and silica sand in the country are estimated to be around
3,499 million tonnes. Haryana alone accounts for about 52% resources, followed by Rajasthan (9.5%),
Tamil Nadu (6.5%), Andhra Pradesh (6%), Maharashtra (5%), Jharkhand (4.5%) and Karnataka and
Gujarat (3% each).

8.9 Wollastonite

Wollastonite is a metasilicate of calcium. It contains 48.3% CaO and 51.7% SiO2. It occurs as
aggregates of bladed or needle-like crystals. Ceramic industry uses wollastonite, as a filler. It is also
used in ceramic floor and wall tiles, marine wallboard, paint, plastic and in refractory liners in steel
mills. Major deposits of wollastonite have been found in Dungarpur, Pali, Sirohi and Udaipur
districts in Rajasthan. in Ghoda area, Banaskantha district in Gujarat and In Dharmapuri and
Tirunelveli districts in Tamil Nadu. The resources of wollastonite, are found to be around 16.57
million tonnes.

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9.0 Other Industrial Minerals & Rocks

9.1 Asbestos

Asbestos is a group of fibrous minerals. The physical properties, besides fibrous character, such as,
fineness, flexibility, tensile strength & length of fibres, infusibility, low heat conductivity and high
resistance to electricity & sound as also to corrosion by acids, make asbestos commercially important.
Commercial asbestos is classified into two main mineralogical groups: serpentine asbestos(chrysotile
asbestos ) and amphibole asbestos. The latter includes asbestos minerals, such as, tremolite, actinolite,
anthophyllite, amosite and crocidolite. Commercially, chrysotile asbestos is far superior in physical
properties and hence more valuable. The total resources of asbestos in the country are about 22.17
million tonnes. Out of the total resources, Rajasthan accounts for 13.6 million tonnes (61%) and
Karnataka 8.28 million tonnes (37%. The remaining two percent resources are found in Jharkhand,
Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and Uttarakhand.

9.2 Barytes

Baryte or barite is a moderately soft crystalline mineral form of barium sulphate (BaSO4 ). The total
resources of baryte in India are about 73 million tonnes. The Mangampet deposit in Cuddapah district
of Andhra Pradesh is the single largest baryte deposit in the world. India is one of the leading
producers and exporters of baryte in the world. Andhra Pradesh alone accounts for 94% of the
country's baryte resources. Approximately, 85% barytes produced worldwide, are used for oil and gas
drilling , as well as weighting agent in drilling. Another application after its conversion to barium
carbonate is in the manufacture of ceramic and glass. The total resources of baryte in India are about 73
million tonnes. The Mangampet deposit in Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh is the single largest
baryte deposit in the world. India is one of the leading producers and exporters of baryte in the
world. Andhra Pradesh alone accounts for 94% of the country's baryte resources.

9.3 Borax

Borax, also known as sodium borate, sodium tetraborate, or disodium tetraborate, is an important boron
compound, a mineral, and a salt of boric acid. Powdered borax is white, consisting of soft colorless
crystals that dissolve easily in water. A boron compound in nature, these are used in the manufacturing
process of detergents, cosmetics and enamel glazes. Further, these can also be used for the production
of buffer solutions in biochemistry, as a fire retardant, as an anti-fungal compound for fiberglass, as an
insecticide, as a flux in metallurgy and as a precursor for other boron compounds. Also known as
sodium borate, sodium tetraborate or disodium tetraborate, these are important boron compound, a
mineral, and a salt of boric acid. Usually offered as a white powder, it consists of soft colorless
crystals which dissolve easily in water.

9.4 Calcite

Calcite is a carbonate of calcium (CaCO3) containing 56% CaO and 44% CO2. It is one of the
important industrial minerals popularly known as 'Calc Spar'. Pure and transparent variety of calcite
is known as 'Iceland Spar' which is used as Nicol prism in microscopes. The availability of calcite is
abundant. The total resources of calcite are estimated to be around 20.94 million tonnes, in India.
Rajasthan has the largest share (50%) of calcite resources, followed by Andhra Pradesh (42%) and
Madhya Pradesh (6%). The remaining resources are located in Karnataka, Gujarat, Haryana, Tamil
Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.

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9.5 Chalk

Chalk mineral is a form of limestone mainly composed of calcite mineral. Chalk mineral is a soft, white
and porous sedimentary rock. Chalks are widely used for writing on black-board and small amount is
also used in toothpastes.

9.6 Diaspore

Diaspore is is an important constituent of bauxite. It is used mainly for making high-alumina refractory
bricks. It is also used as a filler in plastic industry. The total resources of diaspore, in India, are about
5.98 million tonnes. Of these about 63% are located in Madhya Pradesh, 37% in Uttar Pradesh and a
nominal quantity in Jammu & Kashmir.

9.7Diatomite

Diatomite is extremely fine grained and highly absorbent. There is no workable diatomite deposit in
India. Almost the entire domestic requirement of diatomite is met through imports.

9.8 Dolomite

Dolomite theoretically contains CaCO3 54.35% and MgCO3 45.65%. In nature, dolomite is not
available in this exact proportion. Hence, the rock containing 40-45% MgCO3 is usually called as
dolomite. It is grouped under flux and construction minerals. It is important for iron & steel and ferro-
alloys industries. Dolomite occurrences are widespread in the country. The total resources of dolomite
are about 7,730 million tonnes. Major share of about 91% resources are distributed in eight states:
Madhya Pradesh (29%), Andhra Pradesh (15%), Chhattisgarh (11%) , Odisha and Karnataka (9% each),
Gujarat (7%), Rajasthan (6%) and Maharashtra (5%). The remaining 9% resources are distributed in
Arunachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Haryana, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and West
Bengal.

9.9 Dunite

Dunite is a monomineralic ultrabasic rock consisting of more or less pure olivine. Dunite typically
contains 36 to 42% MgO and 36 to 39% SiO2. It is used in sintering and as a fluxing agent in blast
furnace in place of dolomite. In India, occurrences of dunite are reported in Jharkhand, Karnataka;
Odisha, Nagaland and Tamil Nadu.

9.10 Fluorite

Fluorite or fluorspar is the mineral containing calcium fluoride (CaF2). It is an important commercial
source of fluorine. Fluorite plays a vital role in the manufacture of aluminium, gasoline, insulating
foams, refrigerants, steel and uranium fuel. The total resources of fluorite in the country are estimated
to be around 18.2 million tonnes. Gujarat accounts for 66% of the total resources having 12 million
tonnes, followed by Rajasthan with 5.24 million tonnes (29%), Chhattisgarh 0.55 million tonnes (3%)
and Maharashtra 0.42 million tonnes (2%).

9.11 Laterite

Laterite is a residual ferruginous rock. It is commonly found in tropical regions in close genetic
association with bauxite. The term ‘laterite’ was originally used for highly ferruginous deposits first
observed in Malabar Region of coastal Kerala and Dakshin Karnataka & other parts of Karnataka. It is
a highly weathered material, rich in secondary oxides of iron, aluminium or both. Laterite and bauxite
show a tendency to occur together. Aluminous laterites and ferruginous bauxites are quite common.
Laterite occurrences are reported from all over the country. Almost all Indian bauxite deposits are

15
associated with laterite, except those in Jammu & Kashmir. Laterites occur in M.P, A.P,
Chhattishgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, T.N., U.P.,
Manipur and Andaman and Nicobar islands.

9.12 Limestone

The term limestone is applied to any calcareous sedimentary rock consisting essentially of carbonates.
The two most important constituents are calcite and dolomite. Limestone often contains magnesium
carbonate, either as dolomite CaMg (CO3)2 or magnesite (MgCO3) mixed with calcite. The
dimensional limestone is used as building and ornamental stone. The total resources of limestone are
estimated to be around 184,935 million tonnes. Karnataka is the leading state having 28% of the total
resources followed by Andhra Pradesh (20%), Rajasthan (12%), Gujarat (11%), Meghalaya (9%)
and Chhattisgarh (5%).

9.13 Marl

Limestones altered by dynamic or contact metamorphism become coarsely crystalline and are referred
to as 'marbles' and 'crystalline limestones'. Other common varieties of limestones are 'marl', 'oolite'
(oolitic limestone), shelly limestone, algal limestone, coral limestone, pisolitic limestone, crinoidal
limestone, travertine, onyx, hydraulic limestone, lithographic limestone, etc. Marl, old term used to
refer to an earthy mixture of fine-grained minerals. Marl or marlstone is a calcium carbonate or lime-
rich mud or mudstone which contains variable amounts of clays and silt. The dominant carbonate
mineral in most marls is calcite, but other carbonate minerals such as aragonite, dolomite,
and siderite may be present.

9.14 Mica

The mica group represents 34 phyllosilicate minerals that exhibits a layered or platy structure.
Commercially important mica minerals are muscovite (potash or white mica) and phlogopite
(magnesium or amber mica). The total resources of mica in the country are estimated to be around
532,237 tonnes. Andhra Pradesh leads with 41% share in country's total resources followed by
Rajasthan (21%), Odisha (20%), Maharashtra (15%), Bihar (2%) and balance ( less than 1%) in
Jharkhand.

9.15 Ochre

Ochre is a natural earth pigment containing hydrated iron oxide, which ranges in colour from yellow to
deep orange or brown. The pigmentary quality is mainly due to the presence of iron oxide; hydrated
iron oxide imparts yellow colour and anhydrous iron oxide red. A mixture of ferrous and ferric oxide
imparts mainly brown besides other shades. Ochres are non-toxic and can be used to make paints that
dries quickly and covers surfaces thoroughly. Occurences of ochre have been reported from several
states in the country. Deposits of red ochre are found chiefly in West Godavari and Visakhapatnam
districts in Andhra Pradesh; Banaskantha district in Gujarat; Bidar district in Karnataka; Satna and
Gwalior districts in Madhya Pradesh; Nagpur district in Maharashtra; and Chittorgarh and Udaipur
districts in Rajasthan. Deposits of yellow ochre are found in Guntur and Kurnool districts in Andhra
Pradesh; Jabalpur, Mandla, Satna and Shahdol districts in Madhya Pradesh and Nagpur district in
Maharashtra.

9.16 Perlite

Perlite is a type of volcanic glass with pearly lustre. It expands and becomes porous when heated.
Colour of crude perlite is light grey to glossy black whereas, the colour of expanded perlite ranges from
snowy white to greyish white. Perlite is used in industry in both the forms as Crude Perlite and
Expanded Perlite. Most perlite is expanded to produce ultra light perlite by heating. Crude perlite is

16
prepared by crushing and screening to various size fractions. The only deposit of perlite is located in
the Village Patanvav, district Rajkot , Gujarat.

9.17 Quartzite

Quartzite is a rock containing metamorphosed quartz. The total quartzite resources are estimated to be
around 1,251 million tonnes. Bulk resources of about 50% are located in Haryana followed by Bihar
(22%), Maharashtra (7%), Punjab (6.5%), Odisha (5%) and Jharkhand (3%).

9.18 Rock Salt

O ccurrence of rock salt in India is scanty. The only producer, Hindustan Salt Ltd, Jaipur produced salt
from its mines located in district Mandi, Himachal Pradesh. The main source of common salt is sea
water (about 82%). It is also being obtained from sub soil brines, after evaporation due to solar heat.
Salt (common) is manufactured mainly by Solar evaporation of Sea water in vast coastal states. Gujarat
was the leading state followed by Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha,
Karnataka, West Bengal, Goa and Diu Daman.

9.19 Shale

Shale is a fine grained, clastic sedimentary rock comprised of mud that is a mixture of flakes of clay
minerals and tiny fragments of minerals like quartz and calcite. As regards to statewise production,
Himachal Pradesh contributed 46% of the total production of shale followed by Karnataka (24%),
Madhya Pradesh (16%), Maharashtra (11%) and Andhra Pradesh (3%).

9.20 Slate

Slate is a low-cost decorative stone used for exterior and interior decoration of buildings. It is
significantly used in roofing. Slate is a fine grained, very low-to-low grade metamorphic rock. Slate has
emerged as a low cost alternative to granite and marble which are comparatively expensive. The
availability of slates has also been reported from Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Bihar and Gujarat.

9.21 Talc/Steatite/Soapstone

T alc is a hydrous magnesium silicate. In trade parlance, talc often includes: (i) the mineral talc in the
form of flakes and fibres; (ii) steatite, the massive compact cryptocrystalline variety of high-grade talc;
and (iii) soapstone, the massive talcose rock containing variable talc (usually 50%), which is soft and
soapy in nature. The properties of talc that enables its use in a wide variety of applications.
Substantial quantities of resources are established in Rajasthan (49%) and Uttarakhand (29%). The
remaining 22% resources are in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka,
Kerala, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Sikkim and Tamil Nadu. Talc, in pulverised form, is
mostly used as a filler in paper, textile, rubber, insecticides and fertilizer industries. Soapstone powder
is also used as parting agent in Foundry Industry. Parting agents are used for easy release of moulds and
cores from pattern equipment and core boxes.

9.22 Vermiculite

Vermiculite are micaceous minerals (essentially hydrated silicates of Al, Mg and Fe), usually alteration
products of biotite or phlogopite micas. Resources are located in Tamil Nadu (75%), Andhra Pradesh
(14%), Karnataka (8%), Rajasthan (2%) and Jharkhand (1%). Minor resources are located in Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal. Vermiculite is known for its horticultural applications. It is a
common component in potting soils.

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9.23 Zircon

Zircon (ZrSiO4 ) is found usually as a constituent in heavy mineral sand assemblages, which include
ilmenite, rutile, leucoxene, monazite and garnet in varying proportions. Zircon occurs in close
association with other heavy minerals, such as ilmenite, rutile and monazite, along the coastal tracts of
the country. Occurrences are in parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
Odisha and West Bengal.

10.0 Minor Minerals/Rocks

10.1 Bentonite

Bentonite is essentially highly plastic clay containing not less than 85% clay mineral, montmorillonite.
A great commercial importance is attached with Bentonite which possess inherent bleaching properties
like fuller's earth. Bhavnagar and Kachchh districts of Gujarat and Barmer district of Rajasthan are the
major producers of bentonite. Bulk of the resources i.e., 424 million tonnes (76%) are in Rajasthan, 134
million tonnes (24%) in Gujarat and the remaining in Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand and Jammu & Kashmir.

10.2 Fuller's Earth

Fuller’s earth, like bentonite, is also known as 'bleaching clay' because of its inherent bleaching
properties. Fuller's earth is non plastic clay that can be used to decolorise, filter and purify animal,
mineral and vegetable oils and greases. About 74% resources are located in Rajasthan. The remaining
resources are in Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.

10.3 Granite (Dimension Stone)

Granite is a light-coloured granulose plutonic rock composed of felspars, plagioclase, quartz (35%
approx.) and minor amounts (45% approx.) of mafic minerals, such as biotite, hornblende, pyroxene
and iron oxides. India is one of the largestproducers of dimension stones in the world. India is
endowed with abundant resources of a wide variety of granite comprising over 200 shades.

Karnataka specialises in the production of Ruby red, chilly red and cera grey granites. The Himalayan
blue and Sira grey varieties of granite are also famous products. Andhra Pradesh is famous for Black
Galaxy, Srikakulam blue and black varieties of granite while Tamil Nadu is abundant in Jet-black and
Tippu-white, Kashmir-white and Paradiso sea green varieties of granite. Odisha specialises in pink
granite, silver grey, sea weed green, chilka blue, grey wave varieties of granite.

10.4 Marble

Marble is known for its pleasant colours, smooth and uniform texture, moderate hardness, amenability
to be quarried into big blocks, smooth & shiny polished surface and silky feel. Marble occupies a
unique position among other dimension stones because of its aesthetic value. The occurrences of
marble have been reported from many states, viz, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Maharashtra, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Among the
above states, marble deposits of economic importance are localised in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana,
Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

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 11.0 Mineral Fuel Sector

11.1 Coal & lignite

Coal plays a pivotal role in sustainable development. It is the most widely used energy source for
electricity generation and an essential input for steel production. Coal is an essential resource for
meeting the challenges facing the modern world. India has long history of commercial coal mining
since 1774. In India, about 80% coal output is consumed in power sector. In addition, other industries
like cement, fertilizer, chemical, paper and thousands of medium and small-scale industries are
dependent on coal for their process and energy requirements. The coal deposits in India are primarily
concentrated in the Gondwana sediments occurring mainly in the eastern and central parts of Peninsular
India, although Gondwana coal deposits also occur in Assam and Sikkim in north eastern part of the
country. The Tertiary coal-bearing sediments are found in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and
Meghalaya.

Indian lignite deposits occur in the Tertiary sediments in the southern and western parts of peninsular
shield particularly in Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Kerala, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Jammu & Kashmir.
Other states where lignite deposits have been located are Gujarat, Jammu & Kashmir, Kerala,
Rajasthan, West Bengal and the Union Territory of Puducherry.

11.2 Petroleum and Natural Gas

The oil and gas sector is among the six core industries in India and plays a major role in influencing
decision making for all the other important sections of the economy. India has total reserves of 763.476
MMT of Crude Oil and 1488.73 BCM of Natural Gas as on 01.04.2015. In 2014-15, the share of
offshore crude oil production was about 50.2%. The remaining crude oil production was from 6 States
viz., Andhra Pradesh (0.7%), Arunachal Pradesh (0.2%), Assam (12.1%), Gujarat (12.5%), Rajasthan
(23.7%) and Tamil Nadu (0.6%). Natural Gas Production Natural gas production in 2014-15 upto
December 2014 is about 25.319 Billion Cubic Metre (BCM) or 92.1 MMSCMD by ONGC, OIL and
Private/ JV Companies. The prognosticated conventional hydrocarbon resources in 15 sedimentary
basins and deepwater areas of the country are of the order of 28.1 billion tonnes (oil and oil equivalent
of gas).

11.3 Coal Bed Methane (CBM): The CBM blocks are in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam,
Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra, Odisha Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and
West Bengal.

11.4 Shale Gas : Shale Gas can emerge as an important new source of energy in the country. India has
several Shale formations which seem to hold Shale Gas and oil. The Shale Gas formations are spread
over several sedimentary basins such as Cambay, Gondwana, Krishna-Godavari and Cauvery on land.

12.0 Conclusion:

Minerals play an indispensable role in the progress and development of human society. The living
standard of a nation is measured by its per capita consumption of minerals/metals. The industrial
development of a country needs an uninterrupted supply of raw materials. Therefore, endowment of the
mineral resources not only provides strength but also ensures sustainable supply required to keep the
wheels of industries running. These resources are built by concerted efforts put in exploring the mineral
bearing prospects. The application of geology to the practical problems of the industries and the arts
constitutes economic geology.

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