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10-Frequency Response Basic Concept X = 1/2πfc
10-Frequency Response Basic Concept X = 1/2πfc
Basic Concept
XC = 1/2πfc
This formula shows that the capacitive reactance varies inversely with frequency
At lower frequencies the reactance is greater and it decreases as the frequency increases, at
lower frequencies capacitively coupled amplifiers such as those in Fig10-1 have less voltage
gain than they have at higher frequencies. The reason is that at lower frequencies more signal
voltage is dropped across C1 and C3 because their reactances are higher. This higher signal
voltage drop at lower frequencies reduces the voltage gain..
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At lower frequencies, the internal capacitances have a very high reactance because of their
low capacitance value (usually only a few pf) and the low frequency value. Therefore, they look
like opens and have no effect on the transistor's performance. As the frequency goes up, the
internal capacitive reactance's go down, and at some point they begin to have a significant
effect on the transistor's gain.
When the reactance of Cbe (or Cgs) becomes small enough, a significant amount of the signal
voltage is lost due to a voltage-divider effect of the source resistance and the reactance of Cbe
Fig10-4(a).
When the reactance of Cbc (or Cgd ) becomes small enough, a significant amount of output
signal voltage is fed back out of phase with the input (negative feedback), thus effectively
reducing the voltage gain. Fig10-4(b)
Fig10-4 AC equivalent cct for BJT amp showing effects of the internal capacitance Cbe & Cbc
Miller's Theorem
Miller's theorem will be used later to simplify the analysis of inverting amplifiers at high -
frequencies where the internal transistor capacitances are important. The capacitance Cbc in
BJTs between the input B and the output C is shown in Figure 10-5(a) in a generalized form.
Av is the voltage gain of the amplifier at midrange frequencies, and C represents either Cbc
Fig10-5 General case of Miller input and output capacitance. C represents Cbc or Cgd
Miller theorems state that C effectively appears as a capacitance from input to ground as
shown in fig 10-5(b) that can be expressed as follows:
This formula shows that Cbc has a much greater impact on input capacitance than its actual
value.
Fig10-6 shows how this effective input capacitance appears in the actual equivalent circuit in
parallel with Cbe
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Fig10-6 Amp ac equivalent cct showing internal capacitance and effective Miller capacitances
Miller's theorems also state that C effectively appears as a capacitance from output to ground
as shown in fig 10-5(b) that can be expressed as follows:
[10-2]
This indicates that if the voltage gain is 10 or greater Cout(Miller) is approximately equal to Cbc
because (Av + 1) / Av is approximately equal to 1
Decibels
Decibel is a form of gain measurement and is commonly used to express amplifier response
The decibel unit important in amplifier measurements, the basis for the decibel unit stems from
the logarithmic response of the human ear to the intensity of sound. The decibel is a logarithm
measurement of the ratio of one power to another or one voltage to another.
If Av is greater than 1, the dB gain is positive. If Av is less than 1, the dB gain is negative and is
usually called attenuation.
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bel (B) was defined by the following equation to relate power levels P1 and P2
It was found, that the bel was too large a unit of measurement for practical purposes, so the
decibel (dB) was defined such that 10 decibels = 1= Therefore,
a, b, and x are the same in each equation. If a determined by taking the same base b to the x
power, the same x will result if the log of as is taken to the base b.
if b=10 and x=2,
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For the neutral, the base in the logarithmic is limited to the number e=2.71828…
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0 dB reference
It is often convenient in amplifiers to assign a certain value of gain as the 0 dB reference This
does not mean that the actual voltage gain is 1 (which is 0 dB); it means that the reference
gain, is used as a reference with which to compare other values of gain and is therefore
assigned a 0 dB value. The maximum gain is called the midrange gain and is assigned a 0 dB
value. Any value of gain below midrange can be referenced to 0 dB and expressed as a
negative dB value. For example, if the midrange voltage gain of a certain amplifier is 100 and
the gain at a certain frequency below midrange is 50, then this reduced voltage gain can be
expressed as:
20log (50/l 00) = 20 log (0.5) = -6 dB.
This indicates that it is 6 dB below the 0 dB reference. Halving the output voltage for a steady
input voltage is always a 6 dB reduction in the gain. Correspondingly, a doubling of the output
voltage is always a 6 dB increase in the gain. Fig10-7 illustrates a normalized gain-versus-
frequency showing several dB points, the term normalized means that the midrange voltage
gain is assigned a value of 1 or 0 dB.
Table10-1Decibel voltage values corresponding to doubling and halving of the voltage gain
At the critical frequency, the voltage gain is down 3 dB or is 70.7% of its midrange value. At
this frequency, the power is one-half of its midrange value
dB power Measurement
A unit that is often used in measuring power is the dBm, the term dBm means decibels
referenced to 1 mW of power. when dBm is used, all power measurements are relative to a
reference level of 1 mW, a 3dBm increase corresponds to doubling of the power , and a 3 dBm
decrease corresponds to a halving of the power .
For example, +3 dBm corresponds to 2 mW(twice 1 mW), and -3dBm corresponds to 0.5 mW
(half of 1 mW)
Fig10-8 a capacitive coupled amp Fig10-9 the low-frequency ac equivalent cct of amp
The BJT amplifier in Fig10-8 has three high-pass RC circuits that affect its gain as the
frequency is reduced below midrange. These are shown in the low-frequency ac equivalent
circuit in Fig10-9. Which represented midrange response (XC ≈ 0Ω), the low-frequency
equivalent circuit retains the coupling and bypass capacitors because XC is not small enough
to neglect when the signal frequency is low
One RC circuit is formed by the input coupling capacitor Cl and the input resistance of the
amplifier. The second RC circuit is formed by the output coupling capacitor C3, the resistance
looking in at the collector, and the load resistance. The third RC circuit that affects the low-
frequency response is formed by the emitter-bypass capacitor C2 and the resistance looking in
at the emitter
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1-The input RC Circuit
The input RC circuit for the BJT amplifier in Fig10-8 is formed by Cl and the amplifier's input
resistance is shown in Fig10-10, as the signal frequency decreases, XC1 increase, This causes
less voltage across the input resistance of the amplifier at the base because more voltage is
dropped across Cl and because of this, the overall voltage gain of the amplifier is reduced.
The base voltage for the input RC circuit in Fig10-10 is:
A critical point in the amplifier's response occurs when the output voltage is 70.7 percent of its
midrange value. This condition occurs in the input RC circuit when XC1 = Rin
Example 1:for an input RC cct in a certain Amp, Rin=1KΩ & C1=1μF.Neglect the source
resistance(a) Determine the lower critical frequency(b) what is the attenuation of the RC circuit
at the lower critical frequency(c) if the midrange voltage gain of the Amp is 100, what is the
gain at the lower critical frequency?
Solution:
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Voltage gain roll-off at low frequencies
The input RC circuit reduces the overall voltage gain of an amplifier by 3 dB when the
frequency is reduced to the critical value fC. As the frequency continues to decrease below fC
the overall voltage gain also continues to decrease. The decrease in voltage gain with
frequency is called roll-off. For each ten times reduction in frequency below fC there is a 20dB
reduction in voltage gain. Let's take a frequency that is one-tenth of the critical frequency (f =
0.1fC). Since XC1 = Rin at fc, then XC1 =10 Rin at 0.1fc because of the inverse relationship of XC1
and f. the attenuation of the input RC circuit is, therefore,
dB/decade
A ten-time change in frequency is called a decade. So, for the input RC circuit, the attenuation
is reduced by 20 dB for each decade that the frequency decreases below the critical
frequency. This causes the overall voltage gain to drop 20 dB per decade.
For example, if the frequency is reduced to one-hundredth of fC (a two-decade decrease), the
amplifier voltage gain drops 20 dB for each decade, giving a total decrease in voltage gain of
-20 dB + (-20 dB) = -40 dB.
Example 2: the midrange voltage gain of a certain Amp is 100. the input RC cct has a lower
critical frequency of 1kHz. Determine the actual voltage gain at f=1 kHz. f=100Hz, and f=10Hz
Solution: when f = 1 kHz, Av is 3dB less than at midrange. At -3dB, Av reduced by 0.707
When f = 100 Hz = 0.1fc, Av is 20 dB less than at fc, Av at -20dB is one tenth (1/10) of that at
midrange frequencies
When f = 10Hz = 0.01fc, Av is 20 dB less than at f =0.1 fc or -40 dB. Av at -40 dB is one-tenth of
that at -20 dB or one-hundredth that at the midrange frequencies
The midrange voltage gain of an amp is 300. The lower critical frequency of the input RC
circuit is 400 Hz. Determine the actual voltage gain at 400 Hz, 40 Hz and 4 Hz.
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Phase shift in the input RC circuit
In addition to reducing the voltage gain, the input RC circuit also cause an increasing phase
shift through an amplifier as the frequency decreases. At midrange frequencies the phase shift
through the input RC circuit is approximately zero because XC1 ≈ 0Ω, at lower frequencies,
higher values of XC1 cause a phase shift to be introduced, and the output voltage of the RC
circuit leads the input voltage, the phase angle in an input RC circuit is expressed as:
Xc1
tan 1
Rin
0
tan 1 1
tan (0) 0
Rin
At the critical frequency, XC1 = Rin , so
Rin
tan 1 1
tan (1) 45
Rin
A decade below the critical frequency, XC1 =10 Rin , so
10 Rin
tan 1 1
tan (10) 84.3
Rin
A continuation of this analysis will show that the phase shift through the input RC circuit
approaches 90º as the frequency approaches zero. The result is that the voltage at the base of
the transistor leads the input signal voltage in phase below midrange, as shown in fig10-13
Fig10-12 phase angle versus f for IP- RC cct Fig10-13 base voltage lead ip voltage by θ
(a) (b) (c )
Fig10-14 Development of the equivalent low-frequency output RC circuit
Thevenizing the circuit to the left of capacitor C3 produces an equivalent voltage source equal
to the collector voltage and a series resistance equal to RC, as shown in fig10-14(c ).
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[10-8]
At the signal frequency decreases, XC3 increases. This causes less voltage across the load
resistance because more voltage is dropped across C3. The signal voltage is reduced by a
factor of 0.707 when frequency is reduced to the lower critical value, fC , for the circuit . This
corresponds to a 3 dB reduction in voltage gain
(b) For the midrange frequencies, XC3≈ 0Ω, thus the attenuation of the circuit
Or in dB, Vout / Vcollector =20log(0.5)= -6dB,this shows that, in this case, the midrange voltage
gain is reduced by 6 dB because of the load resistor. At the critical frequency, XC3=RC+RL and
the attenuation is
Or in dB, Vout / Vcollector =20log (0.354) = -9dB. As you can see, the gain at fc is 3db less than the
gain at midrange
[10-9]
θ ≈ 0 for the midrange frequency and approaches 90º as the frequency approaches zero (XC3
approaches infinity). At the critical frequency fC , the phase shift is 45º
[10-10]
Looking from capacitor C2 , Rth / βac+ re is in parallel with RE, fig10-16(e), thevenizing again, we
get the equivalent RC circuit fig10-16(f), the fc for this equivalent bypass RC circuit is
[10-11]
Fig10-17 Example:
Solution: Thevenize the base circuit (looking from the base toward the input source)
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Fig 10-19 identifying the numerical values of the marks on the log scale
A generalize bode plot for an RC circuit like that shown in Fig10-20(a) appears in part (b) of
the figure. The ideal response curve is shown in upper. Notice that it is flat (0 dB) down to the
critical frequency, at which point the gain drops at -20 dB/decade as shown. The actual
response curve is shown in lower. Notice that it decreases gradually in midrange and is down
to - 3 dB at the critical frequency, the critical frequency at which the curve "breaks" into a -20
dB/decade drop is some times called the lower break frequency.
192
Fig10-21 Bode plot of a BJT amp response for three low-frequency RC circuits
If all RC circuits have the same critical frequency, the response curve has one break point at
that value of fc , and the voltage gain rolls off at -60 dB/decade below that value, as shown by
10-22. Actually, the midrange voltage gain does not extend down to the dominant critical
frequency but is really at -9dB below the midrange voltage gain at that (-3 dB for each RC
circuit),
Fig10-22 Composite Bode plot of an amplifier response where all RC circuits have the same fc
Example 5: Determine the total low-frequency response of the BJT amplifier in Fig10-23,
βac=100 and re=16Ω
Fig10-23
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Solution: Each RC circuit is analyzed to determine its critical frequency. For the input RC
circuit with the source resistance, RS , taken into account
The ideal Bode plot of the low frequency response is shown in fig10-24. As a practical matter,
fc(input) and fc(bypass) are close in value that the difference would be difficult to measure
194
Fig 10-25 capacitively coupled amplifier and its high-frequency equivalent circuit
These two capacitances create a high-frequency input RC circuit and a high-frequency output
RC circuit. These two circuits differ from the low-frequency input and output circuit, which act
as high-pass filters, because the capacitances go to ground and therefore act as low -pass
filters.
195
Fig10-27 Development of the equivalent high-frequency input RC circuit
[10-12]
Where Rs is the resistance of the signal source and Ctot = Cbe + Cin(Miller)
As the frequency goes above in the input RC circuit causes the gain to roll off at a rate of -20
dB/decade just as with the low-frequency response.
Example 6: Derive the input RC circuit for the BJT amplifier in fig10-28, also determine the
critical frequency. The transistor's data sheet provides the following: βas =125, Cbe = 20 pF, and
Cbc = 2.4pF
Fig10-28
Solution: First, find re as follows:
Next, in order to determine the capacitance, you must calculate the midrange gain of the
amplifier so that you can apply Miller's theorem
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The resulting high-frequency input RC circuit is shown in fig10-29. The critical frequency is
[10-13]
At the critical frequency, the phase angle is 45° with the signal voltage at the base of the
transistor lagging the input signal. As the frequency increases above fc , the phase angle
increases above 45° and approaches 90° when the frequency is sufficiently high
The critical frequency is determine with the following equation, where RC=RC║RL
[10-14]
The output RC circuit reduces the gain by 3 dB at the critical frequency. When the frequency
goes above the critical value, the gain drops at a -20dB/decade rate. The phase shift
introduced by the output RC circuit is:
[10-15]
197
Fig10-30 Development of the equivalent high-frequency output RC circuit
Example 7: Determine the critical frequency of the amplifier in Example 6:(fig 10-28) due to its
output RC circuit
Solution: The Miller output capacitance is calculated as follows:
The equivalent output RC circuit is shown in fig10-31, and the fc is determined as follows
Fig10-31
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Fig10-32 High Frequency Bode plots
Fig 10-33 a BJT amplifier and its generalized ideal response curve (Bode plot)
Band width
An amplifier normally operates with signal frequencies between fcL and fcu .
If the signal frequency drops below fcL , the gain and thus the output signal level drops at 20
dB/decade until the next critical frequency is reached. The same occurs when the signal
frequency goes above fcu . The range (band) of frequencies lying between fcL and fcu is defined
as the bandwidth of the amplifier, Only the dominant critical frequencies appear in the
response curve because they determine the bandwidth. The amplifier's bandwidth is expressed
in units of hertz as
[10-16]
Ideally, all signal frequencies lying in an amplifier's bandwidth are amplified equally. For -
example: if a 10 mV rms signal is applied to an amplifier with a voltage gain of 20, it is
amplified to 200 mV rms for all frequencies in the bandwidth.
Actually, the gain is down 3 dB at fcL and fcu .
199
Fig10-34 BW curve of the amplifier
Example 8: What is the bandwidth of an amplifier having an fcL of 200Hz and fcu of 2 KHz?
Solution
If fcL is increased, does the bandwidth increase or decrease? If fcu is increased, does the
bandwidth increase or decrease?
Gain-Bandwidth Product
One characteristic of amplifiers is that the product of the voltage gain and the bandwidth is
always constant when the roll-off is -20dB/decade. This characteristic is called the gain-
bandwidth product. Let's assume that the lower critical frequency of a particular amplifier is
much less than the upper critical frequency.
Unity-Gain Frequency
The simplified Bode plot for this condition is shown in Fig10-35. Notice that fcL is neglected
because it is so much smaller than fcu and the band-width approximately equals fcu . Beginning
at fcu , the gain rolls off until unity gain (0 dB) is reached. The frequency at which the amplifier's
gain is 1 is called the unity-gain frequency, fT .
[10-17]
Half-Power Point
The upper and lower critical frequencies are sometimes called the half-power frequencies, this
term is derived from the fact that the output power of an amplifier at its critical frequencies is
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one-half of its midrange power, as previously mentioned. This can be shown of follows, starting
with the fact that the output voltage is 0.707 of its midrange value at the critical frequencies
Multistage Amplifier
One of the advantages of the logarithmic relationship is the manner in which is can be applied
to cascaded stages, for example, the magnitude of the overall voltage gain of a cascaded
system is given by:
i.e. the gain of a cascaded system is simply the sum of the decibel gains of each stage
1-Cascade Amplifier
A cascade connection is a series connection it has one on top of anther, for a cascade
connection, amplification is the product of the stage gains, a cascade connection provides a
high input impedance with low voltage gain to ensure that the miller capacitance is at a
minimum with the CB stage providing good high-frequency operation and a low output
impedance
201
The bandwidth of a multistage amplifier is the difference between the dominant lower critical
frequency and the dominant upper critical frequency.
Example 10: In a certain 2-stage amplifier, one stage has a lower critical frequency of 850 Hz
and an upper critical frequency of 100 kHz. The other has a lower critical frequency of 1 kHz
and an upper critical frequency of 230 kHz. Determine the overall bandwidth of the 2-stage
amplifier.
Solution:
[10-18]
When the upper critical frequencies of each stage are all the same, the dominant upper critical
frequency is reduced by a factor of √21/n - 1, as shown by the following formula:
[10-19]
Example 11: Both stages in a certain 2-stage amplifier have a lower critical frequency of
500Hz and an upper critical frequency of 80 kHz. Determine the overall bandwidth
Example12: Calculate the voltage gain for the cascade amplifier of fig10-37
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2-Capacitor coupling (RC coupling)
Capacitor coupling, also called RC Coupling because the inter stage circuitry is equivalent to a
high-pass RC network. RC coupling is used to prevent dc current from flowing between the
output of one amplifier stage and the input of the next stage, The capacitor connected in the
path between amplifier stages makes it possible to have a dc bias voltage at the output of one
stage that is different from the dc bias voltage at the input to the next stage. This idea is
illustrated in Fig10-38
Fig10-38
Example 13: Fig10-39 shows an amplifier consisting of a CE stage driving an E-follower stage;
the transistors have the following parameter values:
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Fig10-41Bode plot for the gain
C1 =Cout(stage 1) + Cin(stage 2)
204
The important point to note is that VC1 = VB2 , The voltage gain of the first stage is
If a load resistance RL is direct-coupled between the output (collector of Q2) and ground, then
the ac load resistance on the second stage is rL = RC2 ║ RL
It is important to realize that direct-coupling an output load resistance changes the dc value of
VC2 and VCE2, to demonstrate this fact, let us regard the transistor as a constant-current
source, as shown in fig10-43(b). We can then apply VL (=VC) due to each source in the circuit,
as shown in fig10-43(c) and (d)
(a) Output stage with direct-connected load RL (b) the dc equivalent circuit of (a)
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Fig10-44 network for Ex14:
(1)Find the quiescent values of VCE1, IC2, IT VC2, VCE2 (2) find Av (3) Repeat (1) & (2) is a 10-kΩ
load is direct-coupled between the collector of Q2 & ground
Solution:
206
Fig10-45
The voltage drop across the emitter resistor is :
Example15: The Si transistor in fig 10-46 has the following parameters:Q1: β1 =100,re1 ≈ ∞
,Cbc= 4pF, Cbe = 10pF, Q2: α2 ≈ 1 , re2 ≈ ∞. (1) find dc current & voltages IC1, IC2, VC1, VC2 (2)
the small signal voltage gain vL l vs (3) the break frequency f2(CA) due to shunt capacitance at
the input of Q1
207
Example 16: (a) Determine the lower cutoff frequency for the network of fig10-47 using the
following parameters: Cs = 10μF, CE = 20μF, Cc = 1μF, Rs = 1 kΩ, R1 = 40 kΩ, R2 = 10 kΩ, RE
= 2 kΩ, Rc= 4 kΩ, RL = 2.2 kΩ, = 100, ro = ∞Ω, Vcc = 20V(b) Sketch the frequency response
using a log plot
Fig 10-47
Solution:(a) Determining re for dc condition
Midband Gain:
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Fig10-48 the effect of RS on the gain Av
CS
CC
CE
210
11-Feedback Amplifiers
Feedback Theory
A typical feedback connection is shown in Fig11-1, the input signal, Vs is applied to a mixer
network, where it is combined with a feedback signal, Vf . Vi the difference of these signals is
then the input voltage to the amplifier. Vo the amplifier output is connected to the feedback
network (β), which provides a reduced portion of the output as feedback signal to the input
mixer network
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1. Voltage- Series Amplifiers
If Vf = 0 (there is no feedback) , Fig11-2(a)
[11-1]
If feedback signal is connected, Vf is connected in series with the input, then
[11-2]
The overall gain of the circuit is reduced by a factor (1 + βA)
Input Impedance with Voltage- Series Feedback
In fig 11-3 the input impedance can be determined as follows
[11- 3]
The input impedance with series feedback is seen to be the value of the input impedance
without feedback multiplied by the factor (1 + βA) and applies to both voltage-series (Fig11-2a)
and current-series (Fig11-2c) configuration
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determined by applying a voltage, V, resulting in a current, I , with Vs shorted out ( Vs = 0) the
voltage V is then :
[11-4]
With voltage series feedback the output impedance is reduced from that without feedback by
the factor (1 + βA)
[11-5]
Input Impedance with Voltage- Shunt Feedback
A more detailed voltage-shunt feedback connection is shown in Fig11-4. The input impedance
can be determined to be
[11-6]
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impedance (Fig11-5). For the output part of a current-series feedback connection (Fig11-5)the
resulting output impedance is determined as follows with Vs = 0
[11-7]
Example 1: Determine the voltage gain, input, and output impedance with feedback for voltage
series feedback having A=-100, R1=20kΩ for feedback of (a) β=-0.1 and (b) β = -0.5
Solution;
215
For a practical amplifier the open-loop gain drops off at high frequency due to the active device
and circuit capacitance. Gain may also drop off at low frequencies for capacitively coupled
amplifier stages. Once the open-loop gain A drops low enough and the factor βA is much
larger than 1, the Eq. above Af ≈ 1/ β be true. Fig 11-6 shows that the amplifier with negative
feedback has more bandwidth (βf) than the amplifier without feedback (β), the feedback
amplifier has a higher upper 3-dB frequency and smaller lower 3-dB frequency
[11-8]
[11-9]
dA f
This shows that magnitude of the relative change in gain is reduced by the factor |βA|
Af
dA
compared to that without feedback
A
Example 2: If an amplifier with gain of -1000 and feedback of β =-0.1 has a gain change of
20% due to temperature, calculate the change in gain of the feedback amplifier
Solution: Using Eq11-9
The improvement is 100 times. Thus, while the amplifier gain change from |A| = 1000 by 20%,
the gain with feedback change from| Af | = 100 by only 0.2%
[11-10]
Where RL is the parallel combination of resistors
216
Fig11-7 FET Amp with voltage-series feedback
[11-11]
The feedback network provides a feedback factor of
[11 -12]
Using the value of A & β above in Eq11-2, the gain with negative feedback to be
[11-13]
[11-14]
Example 3: Calculate the gain without and with feedback for the FET Amp circuit of fig11-7
and the following circuit values: R1=80KΩ, R2=20KΩ, RO=10KΩ, RD=10KΩ, gm=4000μS
Solution:
The emitter-follower circuit of Fig11-8 provides voltage-series feedback. The signal voltage, Vs,
is the input voltage, Vi, the output voltage, Vo, is also the feedback voltage in series with the
input voltage
217
Fig11-8 Voltage-series feedback circuit(emitter-follower)
Without feedback Vf = 0 so that
With feedback
Current-series feedback
Fig11-9, the current through resistance RE results in a feedback voltage that opposes the
source signal applied so that the output voltage Vo is reduced. To remove the current-series
feedback, the emitter resistor must be either removed or bypassed by a capacitor
Fig11-9 transistor Amp with unbypassed emitter resistor (RE) for the current-series feedback
(a) Amp circuit, (b) ac equivalent circuit without feedback
Without feedback
[11-15]
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[11-16]
The input & output impedance are
[11-17]
[11-18]
With feedback
[11-19]
The input & output impedance
[11-20]
[11-21]
The voltage gain (A( with feedback is
[11-22]
Example 4: Calculate the voltage gain of Fig11-10
219
Voltage-shunt feedback
The circuit of fig 11-11 is a voltage-shunt feedback amplifier using an FET with feedback, Vf = 0
.
Fig11-11 Voltage-shunt feedback amplifier using an FET (a) circuit (b) equivalent circuit
[11-23]
The feedback is
[11-24]
With feedback, the gain of the circuit is
[11-25]
The voltage gain of the circuit with feedback is then
[11-26]
Example 5: Calculate the voltage gain with and without feedback for the circuit of fig11-12 with
values of gm = 5mS, RD = 5.1 kΩ , RS = 1 kΩ , and RF = 20 kΩ
Solution: Without feedback, the voltage gain is
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