BIOCHEMISTRY LABORATORY

BIOCHEMISTRY, ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS, CELL PROCESSES,

MOVEMENT IN AND OUT OF THE CELLS (1)
JAILOUISE A. PEREZ
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING

BIOCHEMISTRY

Biochemistry
 noun
o 1: chemistry that deals with the chemical
compounds and processes occurring in
organisms
o 2: the chemical characteristics and reactions
of a particular living organism or biological
substance
- Merriam Webster Dictionary
 its multidisciplinary nature allows it to use results from
many sciences to answer questions about the
molecular nature of life processes
- Biochemistry by Campbell, 7 th Ed.
ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS
The Cell Theory
1. Cells are basic units of life.
2. All living organisms made of cells.
3. All cells come from preexisting cells.
Specialized Cells
 Most plants and animals are multicellular. The human
body is made up of around 200 different types of cell,
all working together.
 Most cells are specialized, meaning that each type of
cell has a specific structure and function.
 All cells with a nucleus contain the same genes, but
different cells activate different genes so they only
produce the proteins they need.
 However, all cells have certain common features and
structures called organelles.
Organelles

What are Cells?

 A cell is the basic unit of life, from which larger
structures such as tissue and organs are made.
o Unicellular organisms, such as bacteria,
consist of just a single cell.
o Multicellular organisms consists of many
cells – humans are made from an estimated
50 trillion cells!

Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes
Nucleus

How Big is a Cell? Ribosomes

 Most plant and animal cells are between 0.025 µm and
60 µm in size – around half the diameter of a human
hair – and too small to see without a microscope.
 The largest cell in the human body is the female egg
cell, (ovum) at around 1,000 µm in diameter.
 The smallest human cell is the sperm cell – the head is
around 5 µm long.

Mitochondrion

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Endoplasmic Reticulum

Animal Cells
How do Animal Cells Specialize?
 In animals, the first type of cells in the developing
embryo are stem cells. These are unspecialized cells
that go on to form all the different cell types in the
adult.

Golgi Apparatus

Plant Cells
How do Plant Cells Specialize?
 Unlike animals, many plant cells retain the ability to
differentiate and specialize throughout their life. These
cells are found in tissues called meristems.

Lysosome

Cell Wall
 All plant cells have a cell wall –
a rigid layer that surrounds the cell membrane.
 The plant cell wall is made from cellulose, a
carbohydrate polymer. The purpose of the cell wall is
to:
o maintain the shape and structure of the cell
o protect the cell’s contents from pathogens
o prevent damage to the cell caused by excess
Peroxisomes water intake.
 Unlike the cell membrane, the cell wall is freely
permeable to water and other molecules.

Vacuole
 The vacuole is a fluid–filled sac found within plant cells
Centrosome and some bacteria.
 The vacuole has a range of functions, including:
o storing waste products

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 o maintaining the water and pH balance of the
cell
o regulating the turgor pressure of the cell.
 The site of vacuoles depend on how much water the
plant has absorbed.
Chloroplasts
 Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis in plant
cells.
 A green pigment in chloroplasts called chlorophyll
absorbs the energy in sunlight.
 This energy is used to convert carbon dioxide and
water into glucose and oxygen.
 Chlorophyll is embedded in disk-like structures called
thylakoids, which are arranged into stacks.
Cell Processes
How do Cells get their Energy?
 All organisms need energy to survive.
 Animals obtain their energy from the food they eat, but
plants can make their own food by photosynthesis.
 In both cases, however, energy must first be converted
into a form that can easily be used by cells. This
process is called respiration.
Where does respiration take place?
 Mitochondria are cellular organelles in which
respiration takes place.
 Mitochondria use enzymes to convert the energy from
glucose into ATP – the basic energy source for all
cells.
 Mitochondria have an inner membrane on which the
enzymes are embedded.
 This membrane is highly folded to increase the surface
area on which respiration can take place.
Aerobic Respiration
 Aerobic respiration is the process of releasing energy
through the oxidation of glucose molecules.
 Aerobic respiration is summarized by the equation:
 This reaction releases energy in the form of ATP – a
compound that can readily be used in cellular
processes.
Anaerobic Respiration
 Anaerobic respiration takes place without oxygen,
and releases less energy than aerobic respiration
because glucose molecules are only partially broken
down.
 During strenuous exercise, cells are deprived of
oxygen but still need energy to work. The body
responds by converting glucose into lactic acid and
energy, leading to an oxygen ‘debt’.
 Lactic acid causes muscle cramps. When exercise
stops, oxygen levels rise, paying off the oxygen debt
and oxidising the lactic acid.
How is Energy used?
 The chemical energy produced by respiration, ATP, is
used by cells to undertake work.
 Where might ATP be used?
o movement – enabling muscles to contract
o thermoregulation in mammals and birds
o biosynthesis – building new molecules, cells
and tissues
o active transport – moving molecules against a
concentration gradient.
Photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction where light
energy is used to convert carbon dioxide and water
into glucose and oxygen.
 This reaction can be summarized by the equation:
 The reaction uses light energy from the Sun and takes
place in chloroplasts of plant cells.
Using Energy from Photosynthesis
 The glucose produced by photosynthesis has many
uses in plants, such as for:
o energy release in respiration
o making cellulose for cell walls
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 o combining with minerals to make proteins and
other essential compounds
o an energy store in the form of insoluble
starch.
Function of the Cell Membrane
 Cell membrane separates the components of a cell
from its environment—surrounds the cell
 “Gatekeeper” of the cell—regulates the flow of
materials into and out of cell—selectively permeable
 Cell membrane helps cells maintain homeostasis—
stable internal balance

The Cell Membrane and Homeostasis

Homeostasis
 Balanced internal condition of cells
 Also called equilibrium
 Maintained by plasma membrane controlling what
enters & leaves the cell
 The cell membrane maintains homeostasis through
Glossary balancing the pH, temperature, glucose (sugar
 aerobic respiration – The process of releasing energy intake), water balance
through the oxidation of glucose molecules.  It does this through active and passive transport
 anaerobic respiration – The process of releasing
energy from glucose molecules in the absence of Cell Membrane
oxygen.
 ATP – Adenosine triphosphate, the major form of
energy used by cells.
 cell – The basic structural and functional unit of life.
 cell membrane – The partially-permeable barrier that
regulates substances entering and leaving a cell.  It’s a double layer (bilayer) of Fats/ Lipids
 cell wall – The rigid external coat that protects and  A single phospholipid has hydrophilic (water loving)
supports plant cells. phosphate heads AND hydrophobic (water hating)
 chlorophyll – The green pigment found in fatty acid tails
chloroplasts.  The cell membrane both repels and attracts water
 chloroplast – The site of photosynthesis in plant cells. through the membrane at the same time
 cytoplasm – The jelly-like material in which all a cell’s  The Cell Membrane in detail
organelles are found, and in which most cellular
processes and reactions occur.
 mitochondria – The site of energy release by
respiration.
 nucleus – The location of a cell’s DNA.
 photosynthesis – The chemical reaction in which light
energy is used to convert carbon dioxide and water
into glucose and oxygen.
 ribosome – The site of protein synthesis.
 vacuole – The fluid-filled cavity found in plant cells that
stores water and nutrients.
Membrane Transport Processes
CELL PROCESSES Types of Cell Transport: Passive and Active
CELL (PLASMA) MEMBRANE & CELL TRANSPORT Types of Transport

Cell Boundaries
 All cells are surrounded by a thin, flexible barrier
known as the cell membrane.
 Plant cells also produce a strong supporting layer
around the membrane known as a cell wall.

Active Transport
 Requires energy or ATP
The Cell Membrane: Homeostasis & Cell Transport
 Moves materials from LOW to HIGH concentration
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  Molecules move from area of HIGH to LOW
concentration

Diffusion

 Diffusion is a PASSIVE process which means no

 Example: Pumping Na+ (sodium ions) out and K+
(potassium ions) in—against concentration gradients.
o Called the Sodium-Potassium Pump.
energy is used to make the molecules move, they have
a natural KINETIC ENERGY
 A spontaneous process whereby particles move from a
region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration.
 Diffusion through a membrane

 Diffusion of Liquids

 3 Na+ pumped in for every 2 K+

pumped out; creates a membrane
potential.

Where is Active Transport Important?

 Simple Diffusion
o Example: Oxygen or water diffusing into a cell
and carbon dioxide diffusing out.

Passive Transport  Facilitated Diffusion

o Some compounds are unable to diffuse
through the membrane.
o They will be allowed to cross if the membrane
has proteins that can bind these compounds
and enable to cross toward the area of lower
solute concentration
 Requires NO energy o Cell Membrane Channels

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  Need to make “doors” through
membrane
 Protein channels allow
substances in & out

o Doesn’t require energy

o Uses transport proteins to move high to low
solute concentration
o Examples: Glucose or amino acids moving
from blood into a cell.

Osmosis
 Osmosis is the movement of water through a
selectively permeable membrane like the cell
membrane
 Water moves across the cell membrane from an area
of lower solute concentration to an area of higher
solute concentration.

o Molecules will randomly move through the  Water is highly permeable to water.
pores in Channel Proteins.  The permeability of the membrane to water could be
harmful or fatal to the cells if the CELLS ARE
SUSPENDED IN THE FF. SOLUTIONS:
o HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
o HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
 Types of Solutions Based on Concentration in Relation
to Osmotic Pressure
o Isotonic - A solution
o Some carrier proteins do not extend through whose solute
the membrane. concentration is the
 They bond and drag molecules same as the solute
through the lipid bilayer and release concentration inside
them on the opposite side. the cell.
o Hypotonic - A
solution whose solute
concentration is
lower than the solute
concentration inside
a cell
o Hypertonic - A
solution whose solute
concentration is
higher than the solute
concentration inside
a cell.

Where is Facilitated Transport Important

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 o Normal elodea plant cell

o Plasmolysis in elodea

Cells in Isotonic Solution

 There is no net movement of water
 The cell neither gains nor lose water
 The amount of solute are the same inside and outside
the cell.

Cells in Hypotonic Solution  Interactive Red Blood Cell

 The amount of solute is lower outside the cell than
inside , therefore water will flow from the outside to the
inside of the cell.

Where is Osmosis Important?

Cells in Hypertonic Solution
 The amount of solute is greater outside the cell,
therefore water will flow from the inside to the outside
of the cell.

Dialysis
 The separation of substances in solution by means of
their unequal diffusion through a semi permeable
membrane.

Cells in Solutions

Surface Tension
 Caused by the difference between the intermolecular
forces experienced by molecules at the surface of
 Cytolysis - Cells swell and burst liquid and those experience by the molecules in the
 Plasmolysis - Cells shrink interior
o Cytolysis in elodea

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Summary
Types of Transport
 Passive Transport
o Molecules move from area of high
concentration to area of low concentration
o Movement is down the concentration gradient
o No energy needed
o Small molecules such as H2O, O2 and CO2
 Active Transport
o Molecules move from area of low
concentration to area of high concentration
o Movement is up the concentration gradient
o Energy is required (ATP)
o Large molecules, ions
MOVEMENT IN AND OUT OF CELLS
What is Diffusion?
Diffusion and Concentration
 Why can the student smell the sock from a distance?
o The sock can be smelt because sweat and
other molecules are moving away from it and
spreading out in the air. This is called
diffusion.
 Where is the smell strongest?
o The smell is strongest at the sock. The smell
becomes weaker further away from the sock.
Moving Molecules
 In which states are molecules able to diffuse?
 Molecules in liquids and gases are constantly moving
and bumping into each other. This means that they
tend to spread out.
Changing Concentrations
 During diffusion molecules move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration. They are
said to move down a concentration gradient.
 Diffusion is a passive process which means that no
energy is needed.
 Molecules diffuse until they are evenly spaced apart
and equilibrium is reached.
 The rate of diffusion depends on several factors, such
as the distance the particles have to travel and the
difference in concentration.
Diffusion and Life
Why is Diffusion Important to Life?
 Diffusion is the main way in which substances move
over short distances in organisms. What substances
need to move?
o Oxygen, food and waste products are some
of the substances that move by diffusion.
 In animals, how do these vital substances get to where
they are needed?
o The substances are transported in the
bloodstream, from where they can diffuse in
and out of cells.
Diffusion and Breathing
 Breathing involves the exchange of gases in the lungs;
a process that occurs by diffusion. What happens
when you breathe in?
o Oxygen in inhaled air diffuses
through the lungs and into the
bloodstream. The oxygen is
then transported throughout the
body.
 Carbon dioxide is the waste gas produced by
respiration. Carbon dioxide diffuses from body tissues
into the bloodstream and is exhaled via the lungs.
 Where does gas exchange take place in the lungs?
Structures of the Respiratory System
Respiratory System
 The respiratory system is the collection of organs that
are involved in exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide.
 Organs include the nose, throat, larynx, trachea and
lungs.
Cross-section through an Alveolus
 Alveoli are the tiny air sacs at the end of the
bronchioles, in which gas exchange occurs.
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 How are Alveoli Adapted?
 Alveoli have several adaptations that help to make gas
exchange very efficient:
o They are very thin – only one cell thick.
o They are covered by a network of fine
capillaries, enabling gases to pass almost
directly between the lungs and bloodstream.
o They are moist, encouraging gas molecules
to easily dissolve.
o They have a large combined surface area,
allowing large amounts of gases to be
exchanged with each breath.
What happens in the Alveoli during Gas Exchange?
 Gas exchange takes place within the alveoli by
diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between
inhaled air and the bloodstream.
Diffusion and Digestion
 Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are made up of large
molecules that cannot be readily absorbed by the
body.
 Digestion breaks down large food molecules into
smaller molecules such as glucose, amino acids and
fatty acids that can be easily absorbed.
 In which part of the digestive system is most food
absorbed?
 Small food molecules are usually absorbed in the small
intestine, diffusing across the intestine wall and into the
bloodstream.
How is the Small Intestine adapted?
 The wall of the small intestine is lined with many tiny
finger-like projections called villi. These are very thin
and increase the surface area of the small intestine,
both of
Diffusion and the Small Intestine
 How does the initial concentration of dissolved food
molecules in the small intestine compare with the
concentration of the blood in the villi?
 The concentration of dissolved food molecules is
higher in the small intestine than in the blood entering
the villus.
 This means that the dissolved
food molecules diffuse from the
small intestine into the blood,
moving from higher to lower
concentration.
Diffusion and the Placenta
 The placenta is an organ that develops in the uterus of
female mammals during pregnancy. The umbilical
cord connects the placenta to the fetus.
 The placenta enables nutrients and
oxygen to pass from the mother to the
fetus by diffusion, and waste substances
to diffuse from the fetus back to the
mother.
 The placenta can filter out certain molecules and
bacteria, but is unable to stop many harmful
substances such as alcohol, chemicals and some
types of virus from reaching the fetus.
How does the Placenta work?
Diffusion and Nerve Impulses
 A synapse is a junction between two neurones across
which electrical signals must pass.
 Neurotransmitter molecules diffuse from vesicles
towards the neurotransmitter receptors, moving from
an area of high concentration to low concentration.
Osmosis and Life
What is Osmosis?
 Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules from a low
concentration solution to high concentration solution,
across a partially-permeable membrane.
 A partially-permeable membrane has holes in it that
permit water molecules through but are too small to
allow larger molecules through. Osmosis can be
demonstrated using visking tubing filled with a solution
and placed in a beaker of pure water.
Dilute vs Concentrated
 During osmosis, water molecules diffuse from pure
water or dilute solution to more concentrated solutions.
o Dilute solutions have a high concentration of
water molecules.
o Concentrated solutions have a low
concentration of water molecules.
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Osmosis and Cells
 Plant and animal cells are surrounded by a partially-
permeable plasma membrane. This allows water and
other small molecules to diffuse across.
 Plant cells additionally have a strong cell wall
surrounding the membrane which offers support and
protection.
Osmosis and Animal Cells
 Animal cells do not have a cell wall.
This means they respond differently to
plant cells to the gain and loss of water.
 In dilute solutions, osmosis can cause
animals cells, such as red blood cells,
to swell up and burst. This is called lysis.
 In concentrated solutions, water loss
causes the cells to shrink. When this
happens to red blood cells, it is called
crenation.
 In order to remain healthy, animal cells need to
maintain an isotonic water balance. This means that
the water concentration both inside and outside the cell
are equal.
 The concentration of water and salt in the blood are
controlled by the kidneys.
 The kidneys are controlled by the portion of the brain
called the hypothalamus.
Active Transport
 Substances can move passively in and out of cells by
diffusion until the concentration on both sides of the
cell membrane reaches an equilibrium.
 Substances can continue to move in and out of a cell
using a process called active transport.
 During active transport, protein carriers in the cell
membrane ‘pick up’ particles and move them against
the concentration gradient.
 As the name suggests, active transport requires
energy from the cell, which is made available by
respiration.
Active Transport in Plants
 Plants need to absorb mineral elements such as
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium from the soil for
healthy growth.
 When the concentration of minerals in soil is lower than
inside the plant, active transport is used to absorb the
minerals against the concentration gradient.
 What would happen if the plant relied
on diffusion to absorb minerals?
o The cells would become
drained of minerals because
they would travel down the
concentration gradient.
Active Transport in Humans
 During digestion, the villi in the small intestine absorb
the soluble nutrients. Over time, the concentration of
nutrients in the villi reach an equilibrium with the
concentration in the gut.
 Active transport is used to continue the transport of the
small amounts of remaining nutrients against the
concentration gradient.
Glossary
 active transport – The movement of molecules
against a concentration gradient, and which requires
energy.
 alveoli – The tiny air sacs at the end of the bronchioles
in which gas exchange takes place in mammals.
 concentration gradient – The difference in
concentration across a given area.
 crenation – The shrinking of animal cells in response
to water loss by osmosis.
 diffusion – The movement of molecules from an area
of high concentration to low concentration.
 osmosis – The diffusion of water molecules from a
dilute solution to a more concentrated solution.
 partially-permeable membrane – A membrane that
allows only certain sized molecules to pass through it.
 placenta – The organ that transports oxygen, nutrients
and waste products to and from the developing fetus.
 turgid – The state caused by high water uptake in
plant cells.
 villi – Tiny finger-like projections on the inner surface
of the small intestine, across which nutrients diffuse.
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