Received September 30, 2017, accepted November 10, 2017, date of publication November 20, 2017,

date of current version June 26, 2018.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2017.2774143

A Survey of Self-Interference Management

Techniques for Single Frequency
Full Duplex Systems
CHINAEMEREM DAVID NWANKWO1 , (Student Member, IEEE), LEI ZHANG 2, (Member, IEEE),
ATTA QUDDUS1 , MUHAMMAD ALI IMRAN2 , (Senior Member, IEEE),
AND RAHIM TAFAZOLLI1 , (Senior Member, IEEE)
1 5G Innovation Centre, Institute for Communication Systems, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, U.K.
2 School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, U.K.
Corresponding author: Lei Zhang (lei.zhang@glasgow.ac.uk)

ABSTRACT This paper presents a comprehensive survey of the literature on self-interference management
schemes required to achieve a single frequency full duplex (FD) communication in wireless communication
networks. A single frequency FD system often referred to as in-band FD system has emerged as an
interesting solution for the next generation mobile networks, where the scarcity of available radio spectrum
is an important issue. Although studies on the mitigation of self-interference have been documented in
the literature, this is the first holistic attempt at presenting not just the various techniques available for
handling self-interference that arises when an FD device is enabled, as a survey, but it also discusses other
system impairments that significantly affect the self-interference management of the system, and not only
in terrestrial systems, but also on satellite communication systems. The survey provides a taxonomy of self-
interference management schemes and shows by means of comparisons the strengths and limitations of
various self-interference management schemes. It also quantifies the amount of self-interference cancellation
required for different access schemes from the first generation to the candidate fifth generation of mobile
cellular systems. Importantly, the survey summarizes the lessons learnt, identifies and presents open research
questions and key research areas for the future. This paper is intended to be a guide and take off point
for further work on self-interference management in order to achieve FD transmission in mobile networks,
including heterogeneous cellular networks, which is undeniably the network of the future wireless systems.

INDEX TERMS 5G, active interference cancellation, full duplex, passive interference mitigation, remote
radio heads, self-interference cancellation.

I. INTRODUCTION mode, Self-Interference (SI) will occur. SI here refers to the

The sustained advancement in the digital world economy and
the evolution of the mobile cellular and wireless networks has
led to increased global mobile traffic [1]–[3]. With the prolif-
eration of smart devices (e.g., smart phones, tablet computers,
and Internet of Things (IoT) devices) and the race for 5G at an
advanced stage, capacity issues on wireless communication
systems needs to be addressed [4]. A promising emergent
technology in this regard is the in-band Full Duplex (FD)
system which is capable of potentially doubling the capac-
ity or Spectral Efficiency (SE) of the current wireless com-
munication systems. FD operation entails enabling wireless
terminals to transmit and receive signals at the same time over
the same frequency band. Enabling FD operation in a wireless
network involves the radios operating in FD mode. In this
receive antennas capturing the interfering signals from their
own transmit antennas as well as receiving the interference,
noise and useful signals from other radios. Fig. 1 depicts
a single cell FD base station (BS) serving two HD user
equipment (UE), with both operating on same frequency -
one on the downlink (DL) designated as UE1 and the other
on the uplink (UL) designated as UE2. The SI leaking from
the transmit path to the receive path as well as the UL to DL
interference constitute nuisance to the users. The SI can be
several millions stronger than the desired signal due to the
short distance between transmit and receive antennas at the
BS [5]–[7].
Managing interference in current half duplex (HD) wire-
less networks is already a significant issue which becomes

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C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems
FIGURE 1. Full duplex enabled BS showing effects of self-interference.
more pronounced and challenging heterogeneous cellular
deployment scenarios that involve multi-source and multi-
destination channels. Enabling FD operation in wireless com-
munication networks will make this problem even more
critically important due to SI.
Communication can either be simplex or duplex. A sim-
plex communication is simply a one-way communication.
Conversely, a duplex communication involves connected
parties capable of communicating with one another in both
forward and reverse directions [8], [9]. Duplex systems
are presented in two forms: HD communication and FD
communication. Depending on capabilities and configu-
rations, a Mobile Terminal (MT) – used interchangeably
with UE - is capable of either HD or FD operation in
some frequency bands [9]. Conventionally, most currently
deployed communication terminals operate in HD mode,
separating the transmission and reception in either fre-
quency or time domain [10], [11]. HD is a bidirectional trans-
mission based on two orthogonal channels typically using
time (i.e., Time Division Duplex (TDD)) or frequency (i.e.,
Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)) dimensions, to provide
separation between transmit and receive signals [11], [12].
This therefore means available communication resources are
not efficiently utilized leading to loss and inefficiency in
spectrum usage.
As service demand profiles evolve over the wireless net-
works, there is increased need to provide a far more efficient
and reliable mobile communication typified by higher data
rates and SE than is presently obtainable with HD systems.
A possibility for efficient spectrum management is devel-
oping a technique capable of enabling Simultaneous Trans-
mission and Reception (STR) of radio signals on the same
frequency and time resources [13]. This is called FD com-
munication. In literature, this concurrent transmission and
reception using same frequency is also referred to as in-band
full duplexing [14]–[18]. FD is defined in [19] as ‘‘the ability
of a wireless terminal to transmit and receive simultaneously
over non-orthogonal channels which could potentially double
the available spectrum and subsequently increase the data
rates.’’
Beyond potentially doubling the SE of current HD wire-
less communication systems; FD offers more flexibility in
VOLUME 6, 2018
spectrum usage. It is capable of improving security of data
during transmission and also able to reduce the air interface
latency and delays. In addition, FD systems are capable of
solving end-to-end delays in wireless networks [11] as well
as the hidden node problems [3], [6]. The implementation
of Medium Access Control (MAC) allows each node to
transmit simultaneously meaning the system is designed not
to permit hidden nodes. With instantaneous retransmission
without intermittent stoppages for either the transmission
duration or the reception duration, latency is improved. FD
can improve ad-hoc, mesh and relay networks and could
enable the introduction of novel, flexible and efficient chan-
nel access mechanisms. However, achieving these potentials
of FD is only possible if the threat posed by the catas-
trophic effects of SI is adequately managed. For improved
performance over other current HD technologies which also
have potential for huge capacity increases such as Multiple
Input Multiple Output (MIMO) techniques, SI needs to be
mitigated at least to the noise floor or reasonably close to
it [15], [20].
Several solutions for SI management1 have been proposed
and discussed in literature. Whereas some of these hinged on
the domain the mitigation takes place, others are more about
the mechanism employed. Current SI management tech-
niques involve passive methods followed by active analogue
and active digital mitigation schemes. The active analogue
schemes mainly eliminate SI by signals inversion using extra
hardware in generating the cancellation signals. The active
digital schemes are promising but linear distortion and noise
coupled with high complexities make the digital cancellation
costly. For this reasons, in addition to comprehensively exam-
ining current SI mitigation schemes, the paper shall identify
some open research questions and future research directions
in areas it believes require further evaluation and research
in a bid to realising a feasible, practical, cost-effective SI
management scheme that could enable FD for the future
wireless communication systems.
A number of FD-related projects have been launched
geared at realising the next generation of wireless com-
munication systems. These include: Adaptive, Heteroge-
neous, Incentive-Compatible, Localized and Secure Net-
working (AGILENET) [21] and Full-Duplex Radios for
Local Access (DUPLO) [22]. AGILENET was set up mainly
to coordinate research in the field of Cognitive Radio Net-
working (CRN). It benefited from some of the standardisation
work done by 5th Generation Non-Orthogonal Waveforms for
Asynchronous Signaling (5GNOW) and Mobile and wireless
communications Enablers for Twenty-twenty (2020) Infor-
mation Society (METIS) [21]. The programme concerned its
work particularly with FD operation and extended the state-
of-the-art in spectrum utilisation. DUPLO project is involved
with research on FD systems. The project focuses on the new
1 It is almost impossible to completely cancel self-interference, but for the
sake of this survey, we shall be using self-interference cancellation and self-
interference mitigation or management interchangeably to mean the same
thing.
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 C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems

TABLE 1. List of acronyms and definitions.

FD radio transmission paradigm which enables STR on same

carrier at the same time and aims at developing new systems
and technologies for future networks by introducing the FD
radio transmission model mostly focusing on small area radio
communication systems and networks such as femto cells,
pico cells, metro cells and micro cells.
The contributions of this paper includes the following:
1) Comparison of full duplex self-interference manage-
ment systems in terms of their potentials and limita-
tions/constraints.
2) The classifications / taxonomy of the self-interference
mitigation schemes in two different formats – domain-
based and non-domain-based.
3) The state of the art potential of SIC schemes as well as
comparison of different self-interference cancellation
schemes and their capabilities.
4) The paper also presents the required amount of cancel-
lation needed to enable full duplex in different tech-
nologies and access schemes from 1st to 5th generation
of wireless communication systems.
5) Discussions of self-interference mitigation schemes for
satellite communication systems.
6) Reviewing the plethora of literature available on
full duplex systems and self-interference mitiga-
tion schemes, the authors gleaned the lessons learnt
and appropriately suggested recommendations for
researching the subject further.
The rest of the paper is organised as follows:
In Section II the key points of published survey papers
relevant to FD and SI mitigation are reviewed and presented.
The aim is to highlight what has been studied in literature with
regards to different available techniques for SI management.
As an outcome of this exploration, it is found that key gap
in the available literature is the amount of SI cancellation

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C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems
required (and the corresponding SI mitigation methods) to
enable FD for different access schemes (for terrestrial as well
as satellite communication). In this Section we also present
the trend for SI management in early FD systems.
Section III reviews and presents the different classification
of SI mitigation schemes and their capabilities, including
mitigation schemes for satellite communication (SatCom).
It also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of the
schemes.
In section IV, we discuss the effects of transceiver impair-
ments on the SI cancellation abilities of the various SI mitiga-
tion schemes as well as model the analogue circuit distortions
caused by these impairments.
Section V discusses the SI issues with MIMO systems
starting with identifying extra interferences on the systems
as a result of FD operations, then progressing to a simple
modelling perspective of the multi-antenna systems before
calculating and presenting the amount of SI cancellation
needed to enable FD operations for various technologies.
The section concludes by discussing some MIMO-assisted SI
mitigation schemes.
In Section VI, the highlights of the possible challenges of
SI mitigation in multi-cell wireless communication systems
citing examples with full- duplex relay networks as well as
cellular Heterogeneous Networks (HetNets) is presented.
Finally in Section VII is the summary of the lessons leant
and subsequently some open research issues and future direc-
tion as well as conclusion of the survey are presented.
Notation: Standard notations are employed in this paper.
Non-bold variables denote scalars, bold lower case variables
represent vectors while bold upper case variables represent
matrices. For any general matrix H, H† refers to the conju-
gate transpose. INR is the NxR Identity matrix. Furthermore,
we shall use MT, UE and Users interchangeably to refer to
mobile devices throughout the paper.
II. RELATED WORK
It is probably correct to say that FD system is a new topic of
interest among researchers. However, the principles of full
duplexing in wireless communication have been available
since the 1940s and have been implemented in a range of
communication systems. Currently, there is a rapidly growing
and significant literature on in-band SI mitigation reported
in various surveys. This section presents some survey work
around FD including SI suppression / mitigation as well as SI
cancellation in the earlier days of FD systems.
A. RELATED SURVEYS
Some surveys and tutorials have been carried out regarding
FD systems, mainly focusing on the array of technologies that
have been proposed in literature for in-band FD, the eval-
uation of the performance capabilities of the FD network,
the challenges for implementing FD systems; including SI,
FD relay systems, opportunities, applications, as well as the
perspective of FD from the physical and MAC layers. The
context of SI as a major challenge for enabling FD operation
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have also been either partially mentioned in these surveys or
treated in some reasonable depth. Some of these works are
presented below, with their contributions and research topics
reviewed and presented in Table II.
Sabharwal et al. [10] review the main concepts of in-band
FD wireless systems by giving an overview of the historical
developments including the research advances in in-band FD
wireless systems. They mirror three basic wireless commu-
nications topologies which could leverage the opportunities
of FD operation. These topologies are the relay topology,
the bidirectional topology and the base station topology.
Recognising SI as the singular biggest practical impedi-
ment to the operation of FD, the survey considers several
techniques for SI reduction while also discussing numerous
research challenges, such as antenna and circuit design as
well as opportunities in the design and analysis of in-band
FD wireless systems. Some of the research opportunities
the paper identifies include: effective channel modelling of
the FD system, optimal resource allocation and optimisation
as well as performance limits for the in-band FD wireless
network.
Alves et al. [23] discuss the importance of FD communi-
cations while highlighting the major drawback - SI. SI mit-
igation techniques which covered antenna design techniques
through to digital SI cancellation are provided. The paper
further identifies passive techniques, e.g., antenna separation
as a technique capable of isolating and shielding the reception
from transmission as well as the active techniques, e.g., ana-
logue and digital domain SI suppression techniques capable
of SI cancellation in the analogue receive-chain circuitry
before the ADC and SI cancellation after the ADC using
signal processing schemes, respectively. The performance
analysis of FD relay so far carried out as well as assess-
ment of current developments in FD relaying is presented
while discussing a couple of promising protocols namely:
FD Multi-Hop (FDMH) and FD Block Markov (FDBM), and
how they are encoded and decoded. Whereas the former relies
on multi-hopping and seen as the simplest protocol, the latter
is considered as the best performance achieving FD relaying
scheme. It concludes by discussing the importance of FD
relaying on 5G networks.
Liu et al. [3] examine in-band FD Relaying (FDR)
as a promising technology that shall integrate the advan-
tages of FD wireless and relaying technology. The paper
identifies interference management, small-size FD device
design, security, cross-layer resource management, chan-
nel modelling and estimation as some of the many chal-
lenges and research issues that need to be addressed before
widespread deployment of FDR can be implemented. In addi-
tion to the basics and enabling technologies of in-band
FDR, the paper also presents SI cancellation in differ-
ent domains; theoretical information performance analy-
sis incorporating capacity analysis, outage probability and
diversity-multiplexing trade off; key design issues including
power allocation, antenna selection and challenges of in-band
FDR.
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 C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems
TABLE 2. Survey papers that have studied self-interference cancellation for full duplex systems.
Kim et al. [5] present three topologies for in-band FD
transmission which includes bi-directional, relay and cellular
topologies. To achieve FD in these topologies they recognise
the need for both passive and active forms of SI management.
The paper evaluated capacities for FD in the given topologies
as well as SI schemes and challenges associated with each
topology. In the same vein, the authors also provide compre-
hensive survey of MAC layer issues related to these three
topologies and also present research challenges associated
with MAC protocols for the in-band FD systems including
the need for the development of advanced MAC protocol
for ultra-low latency for 5G networks which needs to be
backward compatible with the traditional HD networks.
Amjad et al. [24] studied specifically the FD communi-
cation in Cognitive Radio Networks (CRNs) – a deviance
from the conventional wireless networks – and considered
SI mitigation in the CRNs. The paper took a narrow scope
and limited its discourse on the architecture, MAC protocols,
spectrum sensing and security requirements for FD-CRNs
only.
Perhaps [25] is the most comprehensive survey around FD
wireless communications. In this paper, the authors review
the state of the art on FD communications highlighting the
benefits of FD communications; investigate critical tech-
niques for SI cancellation and MAC layer protocols design
for FD communications. The paper also investigates the
hardware imperfections associated with wireless commu-
nications as well as discuss the advantages, disadvantages
and design challenges of an FD system including its appli-
cations. More important, the authors present analysis of
passive SI suppressing schemes that took into cognisance
antenna separation, antenna cancellation and directional
passive suppression; analogue SI cancellation and digital
SI cancellation.
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Whereas all these surveys have done a good work on
identifying SI as the major drawback to commercial imple-
mentation of FD systems, none of them focused solely on
discussing the SI management of FD systems and the amount
of SI mitigation required to achieve FD communications.
We have bridged this gap by calculating and presenting
in Table VI the minimum required amount of SI cancellation
needed to enable FD for different access schemes from the
1st to the 5th generation of wireless communication systems.
It is important to note that all the SI mitigation scheme so
far studied and presented discuss only terrestrial wireless
networks. As a further contribution, we study and present SI
mitigation schemes in satellite communication systems. We
also present the modelling aspects of SI signals, especially for
multi-antenna systems which before now, to the best of our
knowledge, are not presented in any of the existing surveys
that have studied SI mitigation.
B. SELF-INTERFERENCE MANAGEMENT IN EARLY FULL
DUPLEX SYSTEMS
Radio SI cancellation being the most critical enabler for FD
radios has been an age long technological challenge whose
history transcends over a century [3]. Incidentally, the even-
tual success of radio SI cancellation may well depend on
not only improved hardware technology but also innovative
signal processing schemes. From the times, several efforts
have been made in trying to cancel SI in an FD system.
Though FD has not been widespread until recently due to the
devastating effects of SI that a transmitting FD node causes
to itself, FD concepts however have been an old paradigm
with a reasonably long history. Interestingly, researches in
this area include those from radar systems and the traditional
telephony systems. FD models date back to the 1940s with
the Continuous Wave (CW) radar systems [26], [27], which
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C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems
uses either shared antenna systems (mono-static) or separate
(bi-static) antenna system for simultaneous transmission and
reception of signals [28]. In a shared antenna architecture,
each transmit and receive chain pair share a common antenna
whereas in a separate antenna architecture, each transmit-
chain as well as each receive-chain uses a dedicated radiating
antenna. Transmitter leakage [29], [30] as SI was termed
in those days posed the primary challenge to the design of
CW radars. Isolation in CW radars of the mid-20th century
between the incoming and outgoing signals was achieved
through the use of circulators in the mono-static antenna
systems by exploiting the nonlinear propagation in magnetic
materials [31]. For the bi-static antenna systems, transmitter
to receiver (TX-RX) isolation is achieved through antenna
based path loss. Due to the slight isolation achieved using
these two techniques, keeping SI levels within satisfactory
levels meant intensely limiting transmit power and conse-
quently limiting the range of these radars to short-range
targets.
Following up to the techniques of the 1940s was an ana-
logue circuit-based SI canceller known as the feed-through
nulling aimed at increasing the dynamic range of CW
radars [29]. This solution, which was capable of a 60 dB
cancellation, came with a very expensive and heavy leak-
age canceller which made it unfeasible. An improved can-
celler capable of adapting to varying channel conditions
was however proposed in 1990 [20]. This provided further
improvement on the mono-static CW radars by reducing the
weight of the leakage canceller and consequently reducing
the price [29]–[33].
Apart from the CW radars, earliest recorded use of FD in
cellular networks was as repeaters in the 1980s for extending
cellular coverage [29], [32]–[36]. After then, wireless com-
munications have not implemented much of FD technology
until recently when the technology have been used
In relay systems where repeaters receive, amplify and
re-transmit signals on the same frequency. Wireless relays
are basically used for boosting coverage in difficult terrain
where it is not cost effective to deploy wire line backhaul
technologies. Just like in the bi-static CW radars, earlier
technologies for SI cancellation in relays employed physical
separation of transmit and receive transmitters [35]. These
passive techniques have recently been taken over by active
analogue and digital techniques [14], [37].
More recently, beamforming-based interference nulling
techniques [13], [34], [38]–[45], [115] have been made
possible by using antenna arrays. Though rich history
exists on enabling single frequency wireless communi-
cation in relays, there has just been surge in research
activities demonstrating the feasibility of enabling FD
communications in other wireless and cellular systems
recently [6], [16], [37], [42], [43], [46]–[48].
Some demonstrations reported in [16], [21], and [49] using
improved SI cancellation schemes have achieved levels suffi-
cient enough for enabling FD in WiFi systems, with few bot-
tlenecks identified. These bottlenecks point to impairments
VOLUME 6, 2018
FIGURE 2. Taxonomy of Self-Interference Management.
introduced by the transmit radio chain [49]–[55]. Whereas
successes have been recorded in some wireless technologies,
the SI cancellation so far achieved even with the proposed
advanced schemes that take into account the transmit radio
chain impairments [7], [11], [46], [56], still fall short of levels
required for the practical implementation of FD system in
wireless networks.
C. TAXONOMY OF SELF-INTERFERENCE MANAGEMENT
IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
All the works done around the implementation of FD systems
identify SI mitigation as the key to achieving FD commu-
nication. To properly study SI management, we present a
taxonomy as shown in Fig. 2. In doing so, we have identified
four broad classification regimes as explained below:
1) DOMAIN-BASED CLASSIFICATION
Here consideration is made for the domain under which
the cancellation takes place in classifying the techniques.
The domains include: propagation domain, analogue-circuit
domain as well as digital circuit domain.
2) NON-DOMAIN BASED CLASSIFICATION
Under this category, we consider whether mitigation leads
to suppression of SI signals or cancellation. While the for-
mer presents schemes collectively referred to as passive sup-
pression schemes, the later considers active cancellation /
mitigation schemes. Whereas the active schemes are further
sub-grouped under active and digital cancellation, some of the
techniques criss-cross the several domains as mention under
domain based classification.
3) MIMO-AIDED CLASSIFICATION
With the benefits of MIMO technology in mind, it is imper-
ative to think of enabling FD for MIMO systems. To achieve
this, solutions for SI cancellation schemes suitable for the
MIMO systems is suggested in literature. These schemes
include natural isolation between the transmit and receive
antennas of a MIMO system antenna array [15] as well as
time-domain cancellation [57] and spatial-domain suppres-
sion schemes [58].
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 C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems

FIGURE 3. Classification of self-interference cancellation schemes.

TABLE 3. Domain-based SIC schemes classification: advantages and disadvantages.

4) CHALLENGES POSED BY IMPAIRMENTS ON SI
MANAGEMENT
non-idealities, especially on the RF analogue front-end pose
a great challenge to the SI cancellation capability of FD
systems. The main impairments of concern are the transceiver
phase and quantization noise, I/Q imbalance as well as non-
linearities [5], [25] which also results in channel estimation
errors.
III. SELF-INTERFERENCE CANCELLATION TECHNIQUES
Since FD became a hot research topic in wireless commu-
nications, several attempts have been made at SI mitigation.
Studies are not lacking in SI management techniques which
could be broadly classified using several indices. Whereas
some taxonomical classification consider the domain under
which SI mitigation is performed, others consider whether
SI is passively suppressed or actively cancelled. For the
former, we classify the techniques that make use of a com-
bination of propagation domain, analogue circuit domain
and digital circuit domain while for the later we consider
passive and active cancellation grouping. In Fig. 3 we
show the various schemes and how they fit under the
domain of cancellation and also present the advantages
and disadvantages of SI cancellation under these domains
in Table III. Classification for passive and active mitiga-
tion schemes are shown in Fig. 4 while a comparison of

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C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems
FIGURE 4. Self-interference cancellation schemes.
the performance capabilities of these schemes is presented
in Table IV.
A. CLASSIFICATION OF SELF-INTERFERENCE
MANAGEMENT SCHEMES BASED ON DOMAIN OF
CANCELLATION
1) PROPAGATION DOMAIN SELF-INTERFERENCE
MANAGEMENT SCHEMES
Propagation-domain SI cancellation schemes seek to
separate the transmit chain and the receive chain using
electromagnetic properties. It achieves this by suppressing
the SI before it shows up in the receive chain circuitry.
It is accomplished mostly by a combination of passive
schemes including antenna directionality [18], [36], cross-
polarisation [10], [37], [42], [59], path loss resulting from
antenna separation [6], [16], [29], [37], [47], [58] and
an active scheme in the form of transmit beamform-
ing [3], [10], [60]. The propagation-domain SI suppression
suffers from the possible problem of having the desired
signals also suppressed in the process of trying to suppress the
SI [10]. This is because the SI at the receiver of an FD terminal
is usually very high and could easily exceed the capability of
the receiver circuitry thus overwhelming it in the process.
2) ANALOGUE CIRCUIT-DOMAIN SELF-INTERFERENCE
MANAGEMENT SCHEMES
In the analogue-circuit domain SI cancellation schemes,
a copy of the transmitted signal is tapped from the transmitter
and subtracted from the receive feed after appropriate delay,
phase and gain adjustments have been made. This tapped
signal from the transmitter could be described as auxiliary
transmit signal whereas the transmitted signal is described
VOLUME 6, 2018
as the primary transmit signal. The auxiliary transmit signal
is pre-filtered by adding pre-weighting coefficients to the
Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM) tones
and Radio Frequency (RF) modulated [12] then added to
the received signal in the RF domain before the Low Noise
Amplifier (LNA) or it can be added in the analogue base-
band before the Analogue-to-Digital Converter (ADC). These
schemes aim to suppress SI just before the ADC within the
analogue-receive chain circuitry by using both adaptive (e.g.,
Balun) and non-adaptive (e.g., QHx220 chip) SI cancellers.
The schemes within the analogue-domain circuitry are how-
ever affected by environmental factors such as reflections and
refractions which could not be predicted and modelled in the
design stage. Again, Channel State Information (CSI) cannot
be exploited in the analogue domain making it practically
impossible to implement a dynamic scheme in this domain.
For these imperfections and challenges obtainable within the
analogue circuitry at present, cancellation in digital domain
becomes imperative.
3) DIGITAL-DOMAIN SELF-INTERFERENCE
MANAGEMENT SCHEMES
Digital-domain SI mitigation takes place after the ADC
by means of Digital Signal Processing (DSP) techniques
applied on the receive signal. In the digital domain, CSI
can be exploited and used in SI cancellation and also in
resource allocation for learning and determining, for instance,
the appropriate power allocation required across the net-
work resources (time, frequency, bandwidth) [20], [36], [43].
However the ADC limits the dynamic range of the amount of
SI that can be mitigated in the digital domain circuitry [10].
The DSP that goes along with digital domain SIC can also be
a complex and costly process.
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 C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems
TABLE 4. Comparison of different self-interference cancellation schemes.
B. PASSIVE SUPPRESSION SCHEMES
Passive SI mitigation schemes rely on separating the trans-
mit RF chain from the receive RF chain. There have been
proposals for passive cancellation techniques which rely on
antenna directivity in combination with physical separation
of the antennas, polarisation and use of additional RF absorb-
ing materials [37], [61]. When each of these techniques are
employed either as standalone solution or in conjunction with
one or two other passive techniques, the primary idea is isolat-
ing the transmit RF chain from the receive RF chain as much
as is possible. We present below the passive suppression
schemes available in literature for SI mitigation.
1) ANTENNA SEPARATION
is the most common technique for achieving SI suppres-
sion at antenna level. This technique requires large distances
between antennas for sufficient SI suppression. It employs the
idea of increasing the pathloss between transmit and receive
antennas and exploiting surrounding obstacles (e.g., build-
ings and shielding plates) in blocking direct paths [3], [62].
This approach has been applied in traditional in-band
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repeaters [37], [63], [64] to suppress SI by increasing the
physical distance of separation between transmit and receive
antennas. Antenna separation technique has also been used in
some recent test beds [7], [16], [58].
2) ANTENNA PLACEMENT
is a cancellation technique (sometimes classified as analogue-
domain scheme [68]) based on antenna placement [6], [9],
reported in [6] as antenna cancellation. This technique as
reported in literature [5], [7], [68], involves two transmit
antennas spaced apart with the receiving antenna placed in
between at distances d and d+λ/2, respectively so that the
transmit antennas are able to superimpose a null at the receive
antenna (λ is the wavelength of the operational frequency)
and hence cancel each other at the receive antenna. The
technique uses the fact that the distance between transmit
and receive antennas naturally reduces the SI due to signal
attenuation. The cancellation is achieved by means of phase
offset. In a simple implementation scenario, the transmission
signal is split between two transmit antennas sandwiching a
receive antenna as described above resulting in destructive
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TABLE 5. Reference form factor values for Full duplex devices [68].
and constructive interference patterns over space [6], [11].
Antenna placement suffers bandwidth constraints due to large
range of signal wavelength [6], [9]. Employing separate trans-
mit and receive antennas has potential for better SI suppres-
sion but this multi-antenna system comes at a cost to the
spatial domain which includes degrading the antenna radia-
tion pattern and spoiling the far field coverage. For example,
the three antenna architecture of one receive antenna and
two transmit antennas with 180 degrees phase shift proposed
in [7] causes transmit signals to add constructively while
cancelling out the receiver. Again, for this technique to work,
the distance between antennas must be large enough in order
to achieve an acceptable value of cancellation. This is not
always possible, especially given the small form factor of
compact radio nature (Table V shows some reference form
factor values for some FD devices ) of most wireless commu-
nication devices such as Smart phones, Netbook, femto cells,
etc.
Antenna placement is useful especially for narrowband
cases but would suffer SI cancellation performance degra-
dation in cases of wideband signals where null regions of
destructive interference is created in the far-field region in
effect destroying the far field coverage [5], unless used for
larger form-factors where system size constraints may be
limited. The technique does not adapt to environment con-
ditions as it requires manual tuning and needs three antennas
which represents extra cost for hardware. It could also suffer
severe amplitude mismatch between the two transmit anten-
nas. This is because the technique work for antennas opti-
mally positioned only in the line-of-sight (LOS). If antennas
are off LOS the reflected signals may not cancel out, thereby
limiting the capability of antenna placement. The technique
is only capable of 60 dB cancellation [6]. However, pair-
wise symmetric antenna technique [14] can help overcome
the bandwidth constraints inherent in the antenna placement
procedure. Pair-wise symmetric antennas theoretically have
zero coupling over entire frequency range. This implies that
symmetrical transmit and receive antennas can be positioned
in such a way that SI is reduced. The cancellation is achieved
by means of phase offset, and has been classified by some
authors as an active SI cancellation technique.
3) CROSS-POLARISATION
is another passive SI mitigation technique that electro-
magnetically increases the isolation between transmit and
VOLUME 6, 2018
receive antennas [3]. Polarisation of an antenna dictates
and determines the direction and sense of the electric field
vector radiated by the antenna. Ideally, the energy radiated
between two orthogonal polarisations is zero indicating that
maximum energy will occur between two antennas if their
polarisations are the same but will reduce when there is
polarisation mismatch. When the transmit signal of an FD
node is horizontally polarised for instance, it can only receive
vertically polarized signals with the aim of avoiding interfer-
ence between the antennas. Cross-polarisation can be applied
to both separate antenna systems [69] and shared antenna
systems [70]. Shared antenna deployment uses less space.
The technique is promising for small form-factor device
deployment and is recently gaining prominence following the
work of Bhardia et al. [7] which have shown the feasibility
of deploying shared antenna systems in a Single Input Single
Output (SISO) scenario. In this scenario, isolation is achieved
within the shared antenna system by the means of duplex-
ers [7], [14], [71]. FD antennas stand to benefit by utilizing
orthogonal polarisations in order to increase antenna energy
isolation.
However, as effective as the current passive SI management
schemes are in mitigating SI resulting from direct paths,
it is bedeviled with some problems. Some of these include
not being feasible for small-form-factor devices [7], [61],
and being adversely limited by environmental factors since
the techniques are unaware of the system characteristics and
do not take them into account. There is also a possibility
of inadvertently suppressing the desired signal while trying
to adjust transmit and receive patterns in passive SI mit-
igation [10], [61]. For instance, some impractical antenna
separation distances can actually thin out the desired signals.
Similar situation is also possible if the angular separation
using antenna directionality is totally out of phase or not
implemented correctly.
C. ACTIVE SELF-INTERFERENCE CANCELLATION SCHEMES
Most active cancellation schemes are done in the active ana-
logue circuit-domain as described in Section III-A. Active
cancellation techniques use active components and exploit
the knowledge of a node’s own SI Signal in generating a
cancellation signal that can be subtracted from the received
signal [26], [61], [70]. The family of active mitigation tech-
niques can be subdivided into active analogue cancellation
and active digital cancellation and mixed active analogue /
active digital techniques [62]. The active cancellation method
employed before the digitization of the received signal is
called active analogue cancellation whereas the active can-
cellation methods employed to cancel the residual SI within
the received signal after digitization is called digital cancel-
lation [16], [40], [72]–[74].
1) ACTIVE ANALOGUE CANCELLATION SCHEMES
Analogue cancellation schemes generally cancel SI in the
analogue-receive chain / circuitry by subtracting a copy of
the predicted SI from the received signal before it enters
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the digital circuit, just before the ADC. As already stated,
the scheme involves mirroring the primary transmit signal
and obtaining the auxiliary transmit signal which is pre-
weighted and RF modulated before adding it to the receive
signal just before the ADC. These schemes can be classified
as either adaptive or non-adaptive depending on their abilities
to respond to changing effects of the environment [46], [60],
and [71].
The adaptive active analogue cancellation techniques
dynamically adjust their parameters according to the reflected
channel and are able to mitigate both direct-path and reflected
SI signals. An example of the adaptive analogue scheme
is the use of RF Balun. This scheme uses signal inversion
technique for SI mitigation [46]. The mechanism employed
by the active analogue cancellation circuitry is for generating
a cancellation signal which simply makes use of balanced-
to-unbalanced converter to generate the inverse of the SI
signal which it uses to cancel the SI. The SI generated by the
transmitting node is met with the slightly modified (modified
by applying a variable delay and attenuation) inverted SI
(auxiliary transmit) signal applied by the means of a noise
cancelling integrated circuit. This scheme involves tuning
algorithm which controls the gain and delay that the chip
applies to input. The Balun cancellation technique is theoret-
ically capable of providing SI cancellation of 45 dB and has
no power or bandwidth limitations [6], [65]. However, on the
flip side, its capabilities still fall short of the required SI can-
cellation to enable FD. It also incurs additional nonlinearities
from the imperfections inherent with the RF Balun and the
noise cancelling circuit.
The non-adaptive schemes are not environment aware.
They are sensitive to reflected paths of SI because
they are not aware of the changes in the environ-
ments [15], [16], [78], [81]. They require manual tuning
and use fixed parameters such as gain, delay and phase in
predicting SI. An example is the use of the noise canceller
chip, QHx220 as depicted in Fig. 5a. QHx220 chip is used
to introduce an extra circuit. This circuit generates an extra
RF suppressing signal which is subtracted from the receivers’
chain a known analogue SI signal from the received sig-
nal [65]. The idea in using an extra transmit RF chain is
to estimate channel and design an extra inverted RF chain
by means of off-the-shelf radios which adds to the transmit
signal at the receive chain as shown in Fig. 5b.
The DUPLO project also proposed another non-adaptive
active analogue SI cancellation scheme that uses a tun-
able cancellation network combined with a dual-polarised
antenna [62] as depicted in Fig. 6. It has similar working
operation to the RF Balun set up. The network is designed
to copy a portion of the transmit signal with the in-band
impairments using a directional coupler which it adds back
to the receive path before the LNA after phase rotation and
attenuation. The main advantage of performing the active
cancellation close to the antenna ports is that transmitter
impairments are maximally included in the cancellation loop,
thereby improving the cancellation and reducing the potential
30252
FIGURE 5. The non-adaptive extra RF chain circuitry for SIC [37].
FIGURE 6. Tunable analogue cancellation network with dual-polarized
antenna [70].
of saturating the first receiver components. After the modifi-
cation and 180 degrees phase-shifting (inversion as in Balun),
the addition is achieved by means of an RF combiner. This
addition is made before the LNA because the losses added
to the network at that stage are very minimal. A result of
simulation done with the active cancellation network using
discrete components and the dual-polarised antenna shows an
SI cancellation of 15 dB over 10 MHz [70], [81].
Furthermore, the tunable cancellation network described
above is not so different from the Electrical Balance
Duplexer (EBD) [80]. A hybrid transformer-based EBD pro-
vides both Differential Mode (DM) and Common Mode (CM)
signals at the receiver input. The DM is to provide SI reduc-
tion and protect the receiver from CM signals which are
capable of causing breakdown of the LNA due to large
voltage swing at the input of the LNA. EBD demonstrates
the usage of a conventional single-port antenna in achiev-
ing FD operations by exploiting the electrical balance in
hybrid junctions to provide high TX-RX isolation over wide
bandwidth [78]. The concept of EBD is the balancing of
the antenna impedance with balanced network impedance at
ports of a hybrid junction. An EBD can pass signals between
the transmitter and the receiver of the antenna while also
providing cancellation of SI originating from the local trans-
mitter at the same frequency. Using multiple antennas as is
obtainable with antenna separation and antenna placement
introduces null in the antenna beam pattern which in turn
degrades coverage. The strength of EBD which is capable
of providing up to 60 dB of isolation at 20 MHz bandwidth,
50 dB at 40 MHz and 30 dB at 200 MHz [80] lies in its
suitability for implementation in small form-factor devices
because of its usage of a single antenna while ensuring good
far-field coverage. Unlike antenna separation, the capability
of the EBD is not limited by physical separation. It is tunable
over wide range of frequencies and can be implemented using
integrated circuits. However, the TX-RX isolation can only
be obtained when the balancing impedance closely matches
the antenna impedance. This limits the isolation bandwidth.
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C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems
Again, EBD is susceptible to in-band distortions produced by
nonlinear components of the duplexer causing difficulties in
subsequent SI cancellation in the transceiver.
Similarly, [7] and [16] reported an experiment set up that
used Wireless Open-Access Research Platform (WARP) in
providing an extra transmit chain which generates an inverted
cancellation signal that was subtracted from the receive chain.
The primary difference with this scheme and the Balun is
that whereas this technique performs SI cancellation by phase
offset, the Balun performs SI cancellation by signal inver-
sion. Not so long ago, Stanford university researchers [7],
reported impressive results showing FD operations based
on a SI cancellation technique that utilises a 10×10 cm
Printed Circuit Board (PCB) circulator equipped with several
adjustable attenuators, each of varying length capable of
introducing varying delays. The design was made to repro-
duce the antenna mismatch reflection and the circulator leak-
age. Though there are promising results with the work as
reported, especially SI cancellation up to WiFi noise floor
of about 110 dB, some other issues with real life application
including nearby obstacles are yet unresolved. Moreover,
their prototype is frequency dependent and targeted WiFi fre-
quencies in the 2.4 GHz band. It also targets SISO scenarios
making the cross talk you get with MIMO systems still an
issue of concern and thus open for further investigations. The
10×10 cm prototype board is suitable for mid-sized form-
factor devices and the technique might not be applicable to
larger cells and very small portable devices.
2) ACTIVE DIGITAL CANCELLATION SCHEMES
Current mitigation schemes presented by the passive and ana-
logue circuit technologies have shown impressive promise.
Nonetheless, though they may be able to provide enough
SI cancellation for repeaters (relay systems) [3] which only
receive-amplify and forward, they do not present sufficient
suppression for some other cases and scenarios, for instance
cellular networks which need to also decode the receive
signals. For this reason, active digital cancellation technolo-
gies become handy. It is identified in Literature that Digital
SI Canceller (DSC) and transmit beamforming are schemes
which could be adopted in digital domain to actively suppress
residual SI which might have escaped the passive and ana-
logue circuitry. Digital cancellation makes use of complex
and advance DSP techniques in mitigating SI. The DSC esti-
mates the residual SI after passive and analogue cancellation
and subtracts this predicted or estimated signal from the
received baseband samples in digital domain [15], [16], [37].
In the receive beamforming technique [18], a MIMO scenario
is considered in which case SI is suppressed by adaptively
adjusting per-antenna weight according to the SI channel
condition. Receive beamforming can also be implemented in
analogue domain, but is commonly implemented in digital
domain owing to complexity and power consumption issues.
Digital cancellation suffers from transmitter distortion
due to non-ideality of amplifiers, oscillators, ADCs and
DACs. The active digital cancellation techniques would be
VOLUME 6, 2018
successful only if an equivalent discrete time baseband model
that is able to capture all the distortions of the FD terminals is
built. To solve this problem, [7] proposed and experimentally
demonstrated a hybrid joint analogue-digital design capable
of modelling all linear, nonlinear and transmitter noise dis-
tortions and cancelling SI up to the noise floor. Their work
is credited with presenting the first realistic demonstration of
using a combination of SI mitigation schemes in realising FD.
Though the size of the board used for implementing the cir-
culator fits well with BSs for cellular networks, the work was
implemented on the 2.4GHz band. Besides, the components
of the circuit are frequency dependent, making it unadaptable
to varying frequency scenarios. Besides, the targeted scenar-
ios were SISO leaving a huge challenge for implementing
the solution on MIMO where cross-talk between antenna
elements presents a challenge.
With these challenges in mind, coupled with the com-
plexities of the active cancellation schemes, the expectations
are that there is need for further research into more cost
effective, less complex solutions capable of modelling not
just signals from a single antenna but also the distortions
from multiple antennas. We discuss impact of impairments on
SI cancellation in the following sections while possibilities
for overcoming these challenges, especially for the MIMO
scenarios are presented under the section for open research
questions and future directions.
D. SELF-INTERFERENCE MITIGATION SCHEMES
FOR SATCOM
Historically, Satellite Communication (SatCom) has always
served as an effective medium of coverage infrastruc-
ture mainly in areas that are not adequately covered by
the terrestrial communication infrastructure. Though sev-
eral technologies have been suggested and implemented to
improve spectral efficiency in SatCom such as reducing the
guard bands with improved waveforms, however the avail-
ability of satellite spectrum has always been a big challenge.
Just like cost is of big concern to terrestrial wireless systems,
high cost of multiple transponders on-board a satellite fuels
the interest in FD for SatCom. If FD is achieved in this envi-
ronment, it will save money and increase the number of users
that can be served within a given RF #band [81]. Achieving
this though is still a significant challenge given the large
distance and large power transmission required for SatCom.
Whereas FD communication has made a significant head
way in terrestrial communication, owing to its low power
transmissions and short distances, its application to SatCom
is still in its early days. The difficulty in implementing an
FD system increases with the distance between the radios;
the larger the difference between the TX and RX power,
the more challenging the problem becomes [83]. In SatCom,
the distance of separation between the TX and RX antennas
are enormous when compared with terrestrial networks. In the
following subsections, we present the techniques for SI miti-
gation in satellite systems when enabling FD communication.
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FIGURE 7. SatCom Full-duplex forward path relaying showing SI [84].
1) ON-BOARD FD RELAY SYSTEM
Fig.7 describes a satellite system operating in the FD mode.
This technique involves the use of same frequency band
on the feeder uplink represented by the Gateway (GW) to
Satellite link and the downlink represented by the User Ter-
minal (UT) to satellite link. To access the feasibility of the
solution, [84] carried out a rigorous analysis of the impact
of SI. In their feasibility work, they demonstrated the use
of FD relaying principles on-board the satellite systems,
and show, from a technical point of view, that satellite FD
communication can be a promising solution for the efficient
use of satellite spectrum. First, the authors identified differ-
ent sources of interference on the on-board relay system to
include: high power amplifier (HPA) non-linearities, memory
effects and on-board noise components. The SI comprises
of the linear and the non-linear terms and is induced by
the SI channel; the non-linear components of SI, are due
to the transponder characteristic and can be modelled as a
non-linear function without memory. The noise component
is broken down into the Uplink noise component (which
is generated by the transponder and unaffected by the SI),
the Downlink and Receiver noise (due to the transponder and
the UT), and the Full-Duplexing noise (which arises as a
result of the SI). The SI component and transmit noise are
mitigated by non-adaptive analogue cancellation by tapping
a line from the transmit antenna to the receive antenna.
However, there remains the challenge of accurately esti-
mating the on-board SI channel. Whereas, as earlier men-
tioned, existing works have discussed the techniques for mit-
igating these impairments in terrestrial communication via a
mix of analogue and digital techniques, for the on-board relay
system, only RF cancellation can be implemented. Lack of
processing capabilities impede the on-board digital cancella-
tion. Furthermore, on-ground predistortion and equalisation
at the GW and UT, respectively, can be introduced to augment
the on-board analogue interference mitigation [84], [85].
2) DOUBLE TALK
Double Talk is a kind of an echo canceller for satellite sig-
nals [82]. Each end of the link sees a modified ‘‘echo’’ of its
own transmitted signal in the downlink it receives. Whereas
the concept of using echo cancellation in terrestrial networks
30254
FIGURE 8. Block diagram showing the double talk implementation [82].
is simple, to meet the requirements for using it in challeng-
ing satellite environments require significant enhancements.
These enhancements are required because:
• Non-static frequency offsets are imposed by the uplink
and downlink conversions and the frequency translation
of the transponder.
• A Doppler shift due to satellite motion is present as the
motion of the satellite(specifically for low and medium
earth orbit satellites) causes the round trip delay between
the earth stations to be time varying.
• Non-Linearities in the RF electronics throughout the
processing cause distortion and sometimes introduce
interference between carriers.
Each of these effects has to be compensated in the canceller
architecture. Collins and Treichler [82] were able to use
digital signal processing (DSP) to address the enhancement
requirements by utilizing the concept of an echo canceller for
satellite signals, and its use to eliminate intentional echoes
of signals introduced solely for the purpose of minimising
the link bandwidth. Double Talk was originally intended
to be modem agnostic and had only IF interfaces. A high
level signal processing architecture of Double Talk is shown
in Fig. 8, where;
• Rx In denotes the received composite IF downlink signal
consisting of both the desired signal from the far end
of the link and the (co-channel) echo of the transmitted
signal (Tx Out) from the local modem.
• Tx In denotes the IF uplink signal from the local modem.
• Rx Out denotes the IF output signal from DoubleTalk.
This is the signal from the far end of the link recovered
in Double Talk by cancelling echo of the local uplink
signal Tx Out.
• Rx Out is subsequently passed to a suitable modem for
demodulation.
The essence of DoubleTalk is quite simple. The local IF
uplink signal is digitised, stored in memory, adaptively fil-
tered and subtracted from the received input. An adaptive FIR
filter (canceller) using minimum output power (MOP) or least
mean square criterion is used to adjust the filter taps to
minimise the differences between the local reference and the
downlink signals [86], [87]. Because the signal from the far
end of the link is presumed uncorrelated with the locally
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C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems
transmitted uplink signal, the MOP criterion is satisfied only
when the desired signal from the far end of the link remains
after the cancellation process. This is a classic ‘noise can-
celling’ adaptive filtering problem. The performance of this
scheme in the lab yielded 28-29 dB cancellation, which is
far from the supposed 130 dB [82] required to enable FD
operations in the SatCom systems.
3) TRANSMIT / RECEIVE MODULE (TRM)
Bharj et al. [88] study a FD, multi-channel TRM for an
S-Band SatCom Phased Array system. The multi-channel
S-Band TRM has been designed for SatCom on FD mode, and
applicable to satellites in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), Medium
Earth Orbit (MEO) and Geo Synchronous Orbit (GEO). The
TRM utilises over 90 Monolithic Microwave Integrated Cir-
cuits (MMICs) for transmit and receive beamforming and
array control and has internal shields in the modules which
provide RF isolation with the array providing simultaneous
multiple high gain transmit and receive beams within a hemi-
sphere to communicate with satellites during the time they are
above the local horizon. The main design components of the
TRM, consists of high rejection ceramic diplexers, low noise
MMIC amplifiers, 4- Bit transmit and receive digital phase
shifters and integrated circuit micro controllers. Included in
the design are polarization diversity, RF shielding and design
considerations for interfacing with a beamformer, among
other things. Whereas this solution could be optimised to
offer a reasonable solution for the FD SatComs by building a
plug and play device within the SatCom systems capable of
a 45 dB cancellation, the drawback is that there is a differ-
ence in the transmit and receive frequency bands which are
1.75-2.1 GHz and 2.2-2,3 GHz, respectively. This do not
necessarily imply STR on same radio resource. It should be
interesting researching more on the possibility of implement-
ing the TRM on same frequency band.
IV. EFFECTS OF TRANSCEIVER IMPAIRMENTS ON
SELF-INTERFERENCE MANAGEMENT
It has been suggested in literature that active SI cancella-
tion is capable of ridding the FD system of issues of SI
and bringing home the benefits of FD systems. However,
several non-ideality issues limit the performance of the SI
mitigation. Some of these includes receiver noise, transmitter
noise, phase noise, channel estimation errors, dispersion and
nonlinearities. As the prospects for the implementation of
FD systems increase with improvements in the SI mitiga-
tion techniques, it is imperative to understand the dominant
nonlinearities within the system and correctly model them.
With the increasing complexities of wireless communication
systems, nonlinear behaviours are observed in more and more
blocks. These nonlinear behaviours as a result of hardware
imperfections pose the highest limiting factors to conven-
tional SI mitigation techniques [5]. This is especially true in
FD systems where due to strong SI signals, the system non-
linearities pose huge limitations to the cancellation of the SI
power. Radio elements in a wireless communication systems
VOLUME 6, 2018
are susceptible to RF front-end impairments. These become
more obvious with higher-data rate devices such as FD radios
both in the RF analogue front-end and digital baseband.
For instance, as shown by [89], as a requirement for active
cancellation the active analogue canceller needs to mitigate
the analogue SI to ensure it meets the Analogue-to-Digital
Converter (ADC) sampling requirement. However, the active
analogue cancellation performance is often restricted by the
non-ideal electronic components, e.g., the tunable attenuator,
the phase shifter and associated circuits, which introduce
nonlinear distortions to the residual SI signal that enters the
receive chain, as the transmit power increases.
To tackle the key challenge of SI in FD systems, sugges-
tions have been made for joint analogue and digital cancel-
lation which take into account the characteristics of the RF
analogue imperfections. Whereas it is not strictly accurate
to state that the total amount of SI cancellation is directly
proportional to the amount of analogue cancellation, it is
however correct to say that the amount of digital cancellation
achieved has a direct bearing to the amount of analogue can-
cellation when cascaded [25]. In other words, if the analogue
cancellation reduces the system SI to a lesser degree, then
digital cancellation is able to cancel the residual SI even more
substantially.
In practice, SI consists of multiple components as the
transmit signal is corrupted by these different impairments,
such as nonlinearity, phase and quantization noise [90]. Some
of these by-products are noisy, others are deterministic. The
transmit signal, including its by-products, is coupled into the
receiver through various paths, e.g., direct crosstalk, TX-RX
antenna leakage due to limited isolation, and reflections on
nearby objects in the environment. To achieve a receiver
sensitivity similar to the conventional HD radios is very
challenging, as all SI components should be suppressed to
below the receiver noise floor. SI cancellation in the analogue
circuit is still limited by a number of impairments which for
the sake of this survey, we have classified as: transceiver
phase noise [74], quadrature imbalance, and power ampli-
fier nonlinearity [72], [77]. There are however other non-
idealities which impact the SI cancellation capabilities in
FD systems. These includes: ADC quantization noise [91],
carrier and frequency offsets etc. Both the transmitter and the
receiver are impacted by impairments with both consisting of
nonlinearities and noise components as well as some system
level impairments.
A. TRANSCEIVER PHASE NOISE
Sahai et al. [74] note that the amount of active analogue
cancellation is limited to 35 dB. This is as a result of phase
noise in the local oscillator which limits the amount of active
cancellation [92]. Phase noise in the transceiver causes the
disturbances which ensures the SI and the nulling signals do
not cancel out. This claim is further elucidated by the analysis
in [15] which demonstrated that the transceiver oscillator
phase noise is one of the major bottlenecks limiting the
amount of SI cancellation in practical FD systems. In [16],
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it was analytically established that the capacity gain of FD
systems is significantly decreased as phase noise increases /
becomes stronger making it clear that for efficient SI cancel-
lation, reduction of transceiver phase noise should be con-
sidered seriously. Sahai et al. [74] present an analysis of
the impact of phase noise on the strength of the residual
SI signal on analogue cancellation. In the analogue domain,
an imperfect SI channel estimation was considered with the
conclusion that the residual SI signal strength consists of
the SI-dependent component as well as the phase noise-
dependent component in the pre-mixer, post-mixer and the
baseband canceller. It could be inferred from their studies that
in the presence of high received SI power levels, phase noise
will dominate the residual SI after analogue cancellation
because the phase noise dependent component scales linearly
with the SI power [25].
B. IN-PHASE /QUADRATURE IMBALANCE
A signal from the transmitter is usually received in the
receiver as a modulated signal. A modulated signal includes
an in-phase component and a quadrature component. There
is always an amount of deviation in the proper alignment of
the in-phase and quadrature components of the modulated
received signal. This deviation may occur in both the ampli-
tude and the phase of the in-phase and quadrature components
cal systems are the power amplifier at the transmitter side and
the LNA at the receiver side. These pose a significant chal-
lenge to the SI cancellation ability of the FD wireless system.
According to [7], [89], and [97] the nonlinear distortions in
an FD transceiver can be approximated using polynomials.
Several works have modelled nonlinearities in an FD device,
so we shall not be making any analytical derivations but shall
refer to a couple of such modelling.
The output, y of any wireless system nonlinear component
can generally be modelled as in [92] as a polynomial function
of the input signal as follows:
P
X
y (t) = βp 0(t)p (1)
p=1
Where, the first term 0 (t), represents the linear component
input, the higher order terms contribute to the spurious non-
linear component. This is consistent with the analysis of [97]
which showed that the 2nd and 3rd order terms or receive chain
induced nonlinearities are the most significant distortion
components with transmit powers above 10 dBm. Further-
more [92] shows that only the odd orders of the polynomial
contribute to the in-band distortion. Accordingly, equation (1)
can be simplified and written in the digital baseband as:
P
X  p−1
of the signal. Even though other system impairments such as yq = β p 0q  0q  (2)
phase noise and sampling jitter degrades the SI cancellation p=1
ability of several techniques [93] describes I/Q imbalance Where, 0q and yq are the digital base-band representation of
and PA nonlinearities as the most prominent impairments the input and the output of the nonlinear component and P is
that limit the system performance especially the precision of odd.
digital SI cancellation techniques. On the transmitter side in To model the nonlinear distortion of the active analogue
general, I/Q imbalance contributes to the transmitter error circuit, the Memory Polynomial (MP) model with even order
vector magnitude (EVM) and also adjacent channel leak- nonlinear terms is used. The MP model can be described
age [94]. It represents an additional loopback signal leak- as [98]:
age to the receiver path. It is noted in [73], which studied K −1 Q−1
the effect of I/Q imbalance on the FD transceiver, that IQ X X
yAC [n] = wkq x [n − q] |x[n − k]|k (3)
imbalance causes residual SI even after all the cancellation
k=0 q=0
stages. The discrepancies of I/Q imbalance parameters within
two transmission chains causes the generation of imprecise where, yAC [n] is the analogue circuit model output, K is the
SI signal. This hampers the performance of SI suppression. order of nonlinearity, and Q is the depth of memory length.
To study the influence and effects of I/Q imbalance in the The multipath SI channel between the transmitter and
performance of SI mitigation in FD devices, and how to mit- the receiver can be modelled with a Finite Impulse
igate I/Q imbalance in a wireless transceiver, [95] proposed Response (FIR) filter as [89], [57], [98], [99]:
advance pre-equalisation units which are able to handle the M
X −1
I/Q impairments. Though the results of the analysis presented ySI [n] = hm x [n − m] (4)
are appreciable, they more than anything, showed the dire m=0
effects of the I/Q imbalance to the SI capability of an FD where, ySI [n] is the SI signal, hm is the m-th filter coefficient
system. of the equivalent digital FIR representing the channel.
The received signal after the active analogue circuit can be
C. TRANSCEIVER AND POWER AMPLIFIER written as:
NONLINEARITIES
Generally, RF / analogue impairments cause signals in yRA [n]
wireless communication systems to be distorted in different = ySI [n] − yAC [n]
subsystems. These distortions are made up of the linear com- M
X −1 K
X −1 Q−1
X
ponents as well as the nonlinear components [72]. As [89] = hm x [n − m] − wkp x [n − q] |x[n − k]|k
notes, the main sources of the system nonlinearities in practi- m=0 k=0 q=0

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K
X −1 P−1
X
= kp x [n − p] |x[n − p]|k (5)
k=0 p=0

where, P = max{M , Q} is the memory depth of the model

after active AC cancellation, 0p = hp −w0p and kp = −wkp
for k > 1 are the model parameters.
Therefore the overall SI signal model comprising the
AC nonlinearity and the multipath SI channel can also be
expressed as a MP model.
FIGURE 9. Full duplex system model.
To mitigate the effects of nonlinearities to SI cancella-
tion, [97] proposes a solution which involves two active SI
cancellation stages after passive suppression. An RF cancel-
necessary to realize FD BS deployment. Reference [11] with
lation is first performed at the input of the receiver chain by
FD enabled at the BS of a cellular network for instance, BS-
subtracting the transmitted signal from the received signals
BS interference becomes an extremely serious issue capable
followed by an additional SI cancellation in the baseband
of overwhelming weak UL signals and resulting in serious
(digital domain) which estimates the SI signal channel and
loss of UL capacity. This makes it imperative that effective
regenerates it based on the estimate. The idea behind this
SI management scheme should seek to mitigate this source
is increasing the precision of the regenerated SI signal, thus
of additional interference.
increasing the amount of achievable digital SI cancellation
when operating with practical nonlinear RF components.
B. MODELLING PERSPECTIVE OF SELF-INTERFERENCE
FOR MULTI-ANTENNA SYSTEMS
V. SELF-INTERFERENCE MANAGEMENT ISSUES FOR
MULTI-ANTENNA SYSTEMS
Modelling the SI signal is perhaps the most crucial task of an
A. OTHER FORMS OF INTERFERENCE FOR FULL DUPLEX
in-band FD transceiver. Generating an accurate cancellation
MIMO OPERATION
signal is required both in the RF and digital domains, or else
the level of the residual SI will be too high for efficient
In addition to the devastating SI, FD introduces other forms
communication. The general structure of the considered FD
of interference within the network. Whereas FD concept is
transceiver is shown in Fig. 6, where the basic operating
able to improve spectrum efficiency, in a multi-cell scenario,
principles of the different SI cancellation stages are also
for example, HetNets, multi-access and multi-user interfer-
shown.
ences are introduced [3]. Apart from SI and the co-channel
Considering an FD system model as shown in Fig. 9, each
interference prevalent in HD systems, there are the two major
node is equipped with NT transmit antennas and NR receive
sources of interference introduced to a multi-antenna HetNet
antennas, respectively. If HHs is the NR × NT matrix of
due to FD operation namely; UE-UE interference and BS-BS
channel gains from the NT antennas of the j-th node to the
interference.
NR antennas of the i-th node(i 6 = j), then the SI matrix of
the channel gains for the i-th node, HHI can be given as:
1) UE-UE INTERFERENCE
NR × NT . If we consider a SISO system, the received signal
this type of interference is prevalent in smaller cells than large
at node 1 will be given as:
cells and depends on the UE locations and their transmission
0
powers. When the UEs have FD capability and share same y (t) = Hs x (t) + HI x(t) + z(t) (6)
radio resources, the uplink UEs will interfere with the down-
link UEs. To mitigate this type of interference, intelligent Where, the first term represents the signal of interest, the
scheduling and coordination mechanism are required. The second term represents the interfering signal and z(t) is the
goal of the coordination is to select those UEs for simul- additive white Gaussian noise at the receiver. After quantisa-
taneous transmission such that their rate as well as power tion, the received signal can be rewritten as:
0
allocation would create less interference for each other and y (n) = Hs x (n) + HI x(n) + z(n) (7)
extract the capacity gain potential of FD operation [11].
If the SI is completely eliminated by using an estimated
2) BS-BS INTERFERENCE channel defined by 1HI in (8), then the received signal at
next generation networks will be driven on the strength of node 1 will be:
0
dense networks. As more and more cells are introduced, y (n) = Hs x (n) + z(n)
the more inter-cell interference challenge is introduced.
1HI = HI − HI 0 (8)
This becomes even more complex with FD capability. For
instance, due to simultaneous transmission and reception at Therefore with active cancellation, equation (6) omitting the
the BS, adjacent BS downlink signals would always interfere discrete function [n] can be rewritten as:
with the UL signals in the home BS, resulting to BS-BS 0
 0

interference. Techniques to mitigate BS-BS interference are y = Hs x + HI − HI x + z (9)

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 C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems
which is the received analogue signal at node 1 after cancella-
tion. We can therefore define the unwanted residual SI signal
at node 1 as:
 0

y1res HI − HI x + z (10)
Where, y1res is the leaked unwanted residual signal from
0
node 1 transmitter and HI , is an exact image of the transmit
channel.
For a multi-antenna scenario, we model the received signal
according to [100] utilising pre-coding and decoding matrices
to process the SI in order to mitigate the negative effects of SI.
Let UHi given as NT ×di and VHi given as NR ×di be the pre-
coding and decoding matrices for the i-th node respectively,
then the signal received at the i-th node can be written as:
† † † C. AMOUNT OF SELF-INTERFERENCE CANCELLATION
yi = Vi Hsj Uj + Vi HIi Ui xi + Vi zi (11)
Where, xi (di ×1) is the vector of transmitted signals for the i-
th node and zi (di ×1) is the noise at the i-th node. Whereas the
first term represents the desired signals at the i-th node, the
second term represents the SI signals suffered by operating in
FD mode. For the i-th node receiver, If we let the covariance
matrices of the direct channel representing the desired signals
be given by Wi,j and the SI signals be given as Wi,i , then
before adding the decoding matrix we can write:
† †
Wi,j = Hsj Uj Pj Uj Hsj
† †
Wi,i = HIi Ui Pi Ui HIi (12)
n o
† surrounding obstacles, the desired signals may not be prop-
Where, Pi = xi xi . The achievable rate i-th node assuming
unitary decoding matrices will therefore be written as:
hh ii
Ri = log2 INR + 0i + Wi,i

−1
Wi,j (13)
n o
†
where, 0i = zi zi .
To be able to solve the above equations and use the achiev-
able rate equations, it is important to correctly model the SI
channel. In the SI Pricing approach for SI management, [100]
made use of pre-coding and decoding matrices to process the
SI in order to minimise its effects. To achieve this, the authors
estimated the SI channels while assuming that the forward
channels are perfectly known. Again, in presenting advanced
SI cancellation in a MIMO system, [97] considered a MIMO
FD transceiver model through two active SI cancellation
stages in addition to passive schemes. At the input of the
receive chain, an RF cancellation, where the transmitted
signals is subtracted from the receive signal is performed.
A further SI cancellation is performed in the digital domain
beyond the actual receive chain. This is achieved by esti-
mating the SI signal and then regenerating it based on the
channel estimate. However, for the scope of this survey, we do
not intend doing an in-depth modelling of SI channels for an
FD-MIMO system.
30258
FIGURE 10. Error vector magnitude.
REQUIRED FOR FULL DUPLEX OPERATION
The fundamental challenge of full duplexing centers on the
isolation of the transmit path from the receive path to a level
which ensures that the transmit signal acting as a source of SI
does not affect the receivers’ sensitivity. Such huge level of
required transmit-receive isolation (in the order of 100 dB) [7]
is much larger than the isolation level needed even for decou-
pling of MIMO antenna system. As already mentioned, SI
is made up of the linear components, the nonlinear compo-
nents and the transmitter noise. Choi and Shirani-Mehr [11]
describe the SI – the leakage of transmitted signal in to the
receive chain - as echo. Without the cancellation of this echo
and other echoes that might result as a result of impedance
mismatch at the antenna and the reflections from the
erly decoded at the receiver. A big component of that echo
is EVM [68]. EVM (the difference between the error vector
and the measured symbol as depicted in Fig. 10 is the Root
Mean Square (RMS) magnitude of the error vector between
the received constellation points and the corresponding ideal
constellation points. Simply put, it is the magnitude of phase
difference as a function of time between an ideal reference
signal and the measured transmitted signal. EVM represents
a single metric / number used to describe the degradation of
the transmitted signal due to several transmitter impairments
(such as phase noise, I/Q imbalance, amplitude distortion,
phase distortion and thermal noise) already discussed [68].
EVM has a great impact on the required amount of SI cancel-
lation and subsequently on FD as EVM at the local transmitter
may raise the noise floor at the local receiver thereby lowering
the sensitivity of the receiver.
To effectively isolate, the transmit signal from leaking
into the receive path, it is important to provide interference
cancellation beyond the noise floor. Noise is an ever present
factor in wireless communication systems. It deteriorates
the receive signal quality and degrades throughput in digital
systems [27]. It is known that for a communication system
to achieve FD, the radio has to cancel the self-destruct sig-
nal that leaks from within its’ transmit chain to the receive
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C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems
chain. In other words, for a receiver to detect an RF signal,
the power of the receive signal has to be up to the receiver’s
sensitivity and equal to or more than the noise floor for a good
system performance. Noise cancellation has proven to be a
herculean task. For instance [101] attempted cancelling noise
components in the digital domain, but could not arrive at a
good performance level. This is because noise cancellation
in the digital domain do not have high enough resolution in
the approach employed. The noise floor of a wireless system
is the summation of all unwanted signals, including noise
and the signals generated within the system. Though the
receivers’ sensitivity is independent of the transmitter, it is
directly proportional to the noise floor.
Given a reference bandwidth B (Hz) and Temperature To
(K), the noise power can be calculated as
N = F (KTo ) B
Then the output noise is given as
Nout = FKTB
Assuming a perfect amplifier, i.e., F = 1, and using the
above, the output noise power received at the receiver at the
room (noise) temperature (290K) is given as −174 dBm/Hz.
The in-band receiver noise floor is then calculated as:
 
dBm
Pn = −174 + NF (dB) + 10log[B (Hz)] (15)
Hz
where, F is the noise factor defined as the ratio of input SNR
to the output SNR, NF is the noise figure, K is the Boltzmann
constant (given as 1.38 × 10−23 J /K ), and W is the system
bandwidth.
For instance as shown in [7], using the calculation above,
assuming a system bandwidth of 80 MHz, a transmit power
of 20 dBm and a noise figure of 5 dB, we realise that the
noise floor is −90 dBm implying that to enable FD operation
in a WiFi system a SI cancellation of 20 dBm (−90 dBm) =
110 dB is required. Similarly, without loss of generality and
ignoring receiver noise figure, we present the SI cancellation
required to enable FD operations in several technologies and
generations of wireless communications systems in Table VI.
D. MIMO-BASED SELF-INTERFERENCE
MANAGEMENT SCHEMES
In an FD MIMO systems, there are several trans-
mit and receive antennas operating simultaneously in a
transceiver. In this scenario, the total loopback signal or SI
signal coupling to a singular receiver is a summation of all
the transmitted signals from the various transmit antennas.
Unlike the SISO systems, there are a number of other issues
associated with MIMO systems which impacts the capability
for SI cancellation techniques in a MIMO setup. These
include: antenna coupling, frequency offset, synchronisation
error, etc. [25] explores three approaches for improving the SI
mitigation capabilities in FD MIMO systems. These includes
natural isolation, time-domain cancellation and spatial sup-
pression.
VOLUME 6, 2018
1) PRECODING-BASED ISOLATION
Precoding-based isolation techniques for the FD MIMO sys-
tems are implemented by employing signal processing tech-
niques in providing additional isolation of the transmit and
the receive chain. This is different from the physical sep-
aration discussed under passive suppression. For instance,
Anderson et al. [33] presents precoding-based antenna isola-
tion techniques using separated transmit and receive antenna
arrays for FD MIMO aided relays. This technique was
extended further in [102] and [103] where the antennas of
an FD aided relay are partitioned to let some of the relay
antennas transmit while the others receive. This essentially
introduces obstacles in the line-of-sight by either adding
a shielding plate or exploiting surrounding structures and
buildings [18]. Achieving isolation via precoding has also
been achieved by exploiting antenna directionality and mak-
ing antenna elements orthogonal [18], [33], [102]. A more
practical application of precoding in achieving natural iso-
lation has been implemented by using same antenna array
(14) with a duplexer for STR. To ensure isolation is achieved,
the duplexer is connected to the antenna array which splits
the input and the output feeds [104].
2) TIME-DOMAIN MITIGATION
This technique is implemented on the assumption that the
FD device is able to estimate its transmitted signal and the
loopback signal fairly accurately [18], [25]. To do this it
has to have full knowledge of the transmitted signal to be
able to replicate a mirror image signal that can be used
to cancel out the SI signal. For analog cancellation, Time
Domain (TD) cancellation algorithms such as training-based
methods can be used in both SISO and MIMO scenarios.
The TD methods can be beneficially utilized for loopback
signal leakage estimation as well as reliable SI cancellation.
Everett et al. [105] present a relay recorder with prior knowl-
edge of the interference sequence employing time-orthogonal
training in enabling a structured SI cancellation in time
domain. The structured SI cancellation technique enables
the FD device to estimate the TX-RX signal leakage path
using the knowledge of its own transmit signal. Again, for
replicating the loopback signal, [106] used time-orthogonal-
training-based algorithms. However both training methods
are susceptible to system noise and channel estimation errors
which in effect degrade the SI performance, especially in
FD-MIMO systems [25].
3) SPATIAL-DOMAIN MITIGATION
This technique makes use of the spatial dimensions for
receive and transmit filtering thus offering an extra degree
of freedom. This is a particularly useful technique for multi-
antenna systems where spatial domain could offer multiple
antenna systems a whole new range of SI cancellation solu-
tions [107]. SI mitigation in the spatial domain is imple-
mented using several schemes, which for this survey we do
not intend to present in great details. Some of these as already
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TABLE 6. Amount of Self-Interference that needs to be cancelled to enable full duplex operation.
discussed in [25], [58], and [102] include:
• Antenna Subset Selection – which involves a joint trans-
mit and receive filter design found by calculating the
Frobenius norm for all transmit and receive antenna
array combinations and selecting the set with least resid-
ual SI strength.
• Null-space projection – in the null space projection
the precoding and decoding matrices from the Singu-
lar Value Decomposition (SVD) of the SI channel is
selected such that the FD MIMO device is able to direct
the receive and transmit in different orthogonal sub-
spaces.
• Joint Eigen beam Projection – joint transmit and receive
Eigen beam selection is based on the SVD of the loop-
back signal. This can be achieved by minimising the
power of the SI signal by pointing the transmit and
receive beams to the minimum Eigen modes of the
loopback (SI) channel. This is called optimal Eigen
beamforming [25]. Intuitively, the optimal joint beam
30260
selection can be solved by testing all the TX-RX array
combinations just as with antenna subset selection. This
FD assisted multi antenna SI suppression scheme is
capable of extending the coverage area and increasing
the rate [108].
VI. CHALLENGES OF SELF-INTERFERENCE MANAGEMENT
IN MULTI-CELL WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
The SI caused by the coupling of the transceivers’ own
transmit signal to the receiver while trying to receive signal
sent by another equipment in a cellular network has been a
key challenge that has made cellular systems largely avoid
the use of FD in the past. As is hugely evident in literature,
FD systems hold impressive promise for the next generation
of cellular networks. The scope and potential applications
of FD in cellular systems include: FD relays [44], [108],
FD connection in small cells [17], re-use of radio resources
with FD transmission, device–to–device (D2D) connection
with FD, connection for cellular backhaul with FD, and FD
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C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems
FIGURE 11. Full duplex network deployment scenarios.
transmission in wireless mesh networks. Efforts are currently
made on further research for application of FD systems on
small cells for cellular networks, ad-hoc and mesh networks
and UE relay and wireless cellular backhaul in public safety
networks [6], [7], [10], [11], [72]–[74]. This section focuses
on relay networks and multi-cell networks which are gener-
ally composed of small cells.
A. FD RELAY NETWORKS
Earliest instances of FD systems in cellular networks came
in form of relaying, where in-band repeaters as a way
of improving coverage and throughput of cellular net-
works, receive, amplify and re-transmit signals on same fre-
quency [10], [66], [75], [77]. Radio-based FD relay (FDR)
is a promising energy and spectral efficient technology for
high speed data services [44]. While capable of improving
the service quality of users within its service range, it can
also improve the link capacity of users within its service
range. Most existing works on relays have been done on
HD mode. This owes largely to its simplicity of implemen-
tation. However, implementing relay systems in HD mode
requires extra dedicated resources which leads to inefficiency
in radio resources use. Because of its good performance in
challenging terrains like tunnels, FD-capable relay system
is a prospective component of future FD enabled cellular
networks capable of resource conservation in contrast to HD
relay systems where additional frequency or time slot is usu-
ally dedicated for relay transmissions. The primary challenge
for FDR systems remains how to mitigate the strong SI and
residual SI, especially in small devices scenario. Several pro-
posals on the implementation of same frequency FDR have
been made by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engi-
neers (IEEE) and the 3GPP [110], but the implementation still
faces strong challenges including form-factor issues, security,
channel modelling and estimation, joint radio resource man-
agement and SI management.
Traditionally, HD relay (HDR) systems are usually
employed in wireless communications. This does not help the
issue of spectrum scarcity. In order to improve the offering
from relay systems including achieving spectral efficiency
VOLUME 6, 2018
benchmarked against the traditional HDR, several relay-
ing schemes have been studied and reported in [66], [77],
and [110]. Because the focus of this paper is not on relay
systems, we shall only mention these schemes. They include:
successive relaying, two-way relaying, buffer-aided relaying,
frame-level virtual FD relaying, out-band FD relaying and
IBFD relaying.
B. CHALLENGES OF SIC IN A FULL DUPLEX MULTI-CELL
NETWORK
Enabling FD in wireless networks will technically be more
feasible in HetNets comprising different cell sizes (pico cells,
femto cells, metro cells, micro cells and macro cells) and
different nodes (relays, remote radio heads, eNodeBs and
mobile devices) with different capabilities. Enabling FD in
cellular networks can be done under the following different
single-tier (we purposely left multi-tier network for simplic-
ity of explanation) network deployment scenarios depicted
in Fig. 11. The BS as represented in the diagrams are FD
enabled as such have same frequency in both directions.
1) FD ENABLED BS AND HD ENABLED UE
This scenario involves deploying an FD capable BS and
HD enabled MTs. In this scenario as shown in Fig. 11(a),
the FD BS is able to simultaneously communicate with both
the DL and the UL users with the former receiving data
from the BS and the later transmitting data to the BS. The
challenges of this scenario include: accurately measuring co-
channel interference at different nodes and backhauling it to
the BS, user-scheduling for maximum gain and effectively
managing additional interference caused by leakages from
signals transmitted from neighbouring bands.
2) FD ENABLED BS AND FD ENABLED UE
In this scenario shown in Fig. 11(b), both the BS and the UE
are FD enabled with the BS expected to constantly establish
FD links to scheduled UEs. This scenario holds prospects
for a no co-channel interference situation and holds potential
for doubling the overall spectral efficiency compared to the
traditional HD only systems, since the BS is simultaneously
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 C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems
FIGURE 12. A small cell with FD BS and FD D2D UEs.
transmitting and receiving. This could ultimately be the future
implementation of FD wireless communication. However SI
on the BS and also on the UE threatens to dominate perfor-
mance. Just like in the scenario described in Fig. 11(a), this
scenario induces inter-user interference which is not obtain-
able with HD only systems. In this case the UL transmission
causes interference to the DL reception and in cases of strong
inter-user interference in the system even with SI mitigated,
this problem can easily erode the gains of FD if not properly
mitigated.
3) FD ENABLED BS WITH BOTH FD AND HD ENABLED
UES COEXISTING
This scenario has been identified as a futuristic prospect for
FD cellular systems where an FD BS serves both FD and
HD UEs all coexisting in same cell. As shown in Fig. 11(c),
an FD BS serves a mix of users some of which are capable
of simultaneous transmit and receive on same radio resources
and others operating as traditional HD terminals which could
only transmit on an UL frequency and receive on a different
DL frequency or use different time slots to accomplish their
UL and DL transmissions.
4) FD D2D COMMUNICATION
A D2D communication involves the source and destina-
tion devices exchanging data with each other without the
involvement of the base station, though could be supported by
the base station for link information [111]. The idea behind
this scenario is the ability of two users to communicate as
FD devices on the unused macro resource if none of their
neighbours are using it. As illustrated in Fig. 12, if UE2 and
UE3 are FD enabled, they could reuse UE1’s UL resources
for their FD communication. Also, the D2D performance
between them could be improved. A different Radio Resource
Allocation (RRA) method could see UE2 reusing its macro
DL resources for its transmission to UE3 whereas UE3 uses
UE1’s macro uplink channel for its transmission to UE2 [7].
VII. LESSONS LEARNT, OPEN RESEARCH ISSUES AND
FUTURE DIRECTION
In this section we present the lessons learnt from surveying
the different SI management schemes. These then form the
30262
basis for the directions and likely challenges for future work
for implementing appropriate SI mitigation scheme with less
complexities and costs but capable of enabling single fre-
quency FD systems in the mobile wireless networks.
A. LESSONS LEARNT
1) The evolution of future networks tends towards small cells,
ad-hoc and mesh networks in a dense environment. A network
comprising of small cells having the capability for connecting
users to the base station and supporting STR could greatly
improve the SE of the system. However, this throws up several
other sources of interference apart from SI. One of the things
that we have learnt is that there is not a single fully operational
system that has incorporated the increased effects of co-
channel, multi-cell, and SI due to FD operation.
2) No single method is all sufficient. Work done so far
suggests that a hybrid combination of passive suppression
and active cancellation could prove more effective for SI
management in FD systems. Literature also has it that the
effectiveness of digital cancellation has a reliance on ana-
logue cancellation. For instance, with Double Talk technique
in SatCom, a cancellation of 30-35 dBm achieved with DSP
in the ‘back-end’ is not enough to enable FD operation.
In essence, this must be augmented by careful and inge-
nious front-end analogue design to provide the requisite extra
interference cancellation. Again, none of the solutions seem
to have adequately nailed that trade off or equilibrium level
that defines a cost effective balance of passive suppression
and active cancellation for effective SI management. For
efficient Digital SI cancellation, there should be an effective
analogue design and cancellation.
3) Sufficient Passive Suppression methods only may be
difficult to attain. Especially with small form factor devices,
it is difficult achieving a reasonable TX-RX isolation capable
of enabling FD functionality.
4) Frequency dependent solutions may not aid digital can-
cellation schemes especially in MIMO systems. The fact that
most RF components are frequency sensitive, designing a
one-fits-all solution for frequency varying circuits is a chal-
lenge, especially in wideband scenarios.
5) SI cancellation in MIMO systems suffers the inherent
problems with MIMO multi antenna issues. MIMO already
has the challenges posed by antenna coupling, synchroniza-
tion error and frequency offset. These challenges becomes
even more pronounced in FD-MIMO system making it more
difficult for SI management.
6) Transmitter noise induced distortion in an FD receiver is
an important factor that impacts the SI cancellation capability
of the system. For any efficient cancellation scheme, it is
important to model the linear, nonlinear components and
understand EVM impact for more efficient antenna design.
A good example is the SI mitigation technique in SatCom
requiring an on-board relay system. The noise generated by
the receiver systems on both the uplink and downlink direc-
tions is as equally important as the SI channel.
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C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems
7) Though there is minimal isolation problem with satel-
lite systems compared to the very formidable isolation issue
with the terrestrial systems, the power imbalance in SatCom
system is enormous. Whereas studies have demonstrated the
possibility of mitigating the SI using the on-board relay
system in satellites, to realise FD satellite system, further
comprehensive investigation need to be carried out to study
the practicality of estimating the on-board SI channel to a
high accuracy.
B. SELF-INTERFERENCE MANAGEMENT IN SMALL
FORM-FACTOR DEVICES
Most of the state-of-the-art SI mitigation schemes focus on
small form-factor devices e.g., as shown in Table VI. For
instance, DUPLO project, like many others target small cell
scenarios implying that FD transceiver designs must con-
sider small form-factor devices which support integration into
commercially viable compact radio devices. Whereas the idea
behind this can hardly be faulted, first because most devices
operating on wireless communication networks (e.g., smart
phones, some relay systems, etc.) are of small sizes and sec-
ond and importantly because future networks are targeting
small cells. Antenna miniaturization (antenna size reduction)
suffers extremely limited bandwidth and other technical diffi-
culties due to space and shape constraints. As already noted,
relay systems are mostly of a small form-factor size and to
be able to enable FD in such systems further research needs
to be done. Furthermore, most schemes reported in literature
are implemented within the propagation and active analogue-
domain spheres. This makes it a challenge having the required
space for isolation that could enable FD as well as enough
space for the analogue circuits. A possible future direction
in addressing miniaturization of the antenna systems could
be investigating the possibility of a planar antenna device
capable of doing FD both on small form-factor devices but
which could also be integrated on larger microwave and, or
millimeter-wave solutions.
C. IMPROVING THE HARDWARE CIRCUITRY AND
CHANNEL MODELLING
In theory, FD can potentially double the spectral efficiency
of a communication system. This is however feasible if the
system has infinite dynamic range, perfect channel estimation
and is able to perfectly suppress SI signal. This prospect is
threatened by hardware limitations including transceiver sig-
nal quantisation, I/Q imbalance and nonlinearities. As already
pointed out in the work of [7], the analogue 10x10 cm
PCB design is capable of cancelling the SI generated in
a WiFi network up to the noise floor including the lin-
ear, nonlinear and transmitter noise components. However,
it only supports SISO scenarios. To introduce this solution
to the multi-antenna systems, an analogue chip that is able
to cancel distortions across multiple antennas and capable
of dynamic adaptation in terms of changing environmental
conditions needs to be developed. Carrying out SI mitiga-
tion increases both the complexities and cost of FD devices.
VOLUME 6, 2018
A SI cancellation solution for MIMO will often require extra
analogue circuitry with more power consuming components.
It is therefore noteworthy to balance power consumption, and
cost against SI management performance when designing
the SI cancellation circuitry. Finding that point of balanced
tradeoff between SI cancellation and the associated cost of
hardware required to accurately deliver improved SI cancel-
lation is a huge challenge. Moreover the strength of digital-
domain cancellation relies on the systems’ knowledge of the
CSI both on the transmitter and the receiver side. Not many
studies have done an actual characterization of the SI chan-
nel, as most have assumed SI follows Gaussian distribution,
Rayleigh distribution or Nakagami–m distribution [3]. It will
be interesting besides designing a more efficient circuitry,
modelling accurate and effective channels that capture the
residual SI, and the distortions introduced in the channel by
the transceiver in the mold of the hybrid analogue-digital
design proposed in [7] which accurately model all the linear,
nonlinear distortions as well as the transmitter noise.
D. IMPLEMENTING SELF-INTERFERENCE CANCELLATION
IN FD MIMO SCENARIOS
The simple fact that the capacity of a MIMO system
grows linearly with the minimum of the number of trans-
mit or receive antenna without needing extra radio resources
shows that the performance of a cellular network can be
improved by employing multiple antennas. However, antenna
systems in MIMO systems suffer from coupling and syn-
chronization error as well as cross talk when the antenna
modules are placed so close to each other. For instance,
the work of [7] seems to be holistic in mitigating SI up to
the noise floor, albeit for SISO systems. Whereas the general
design of the system is not frequency dependent, most of the
components used within the analogue circuitry are frequency
dependent and can only work well in a given frequency range.
The design targeted only SISO scenarios which effectively
makes it impractical to enable FD in MIMO scenarios using
the technique described. Extending their work to MIMO
scenarios, never mind massive MIMO will require a novel
design to handle cross talks and other distortions coming
from closely arranged MIMO antenna modules and hardware
impairments. It is obvious that active cancellation mechanism
relies substantially on the precision of cancellation signal.
Therefore the hardware impairments such as phase noise
and I/Q imbalance limit the cancellation performance. It is
therefore imperative that as a future direction the design of
a comprehensive model incorporating the different hardware
impairments capable of coping with the transmitter noise
difficult to compensate for in the baseband [46] is pursued.
This in turn will require an accurate mathematical modelling
and statistical characterisation of the SI channel to serve as the
basis for performance-matrix analysis, e.g., achievable rate,
as well as system design. In view of this, a future direction
would be investigating the impact of antenna correlation,
antenna non-linearity, effects of synchronization error, gain
/phase offset, carrier offset, In-phase Quadrature (I/Q) imbal-
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 C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems
ance and other non-idealities within the baseband receiver in
enabling FD in MIMO systems.
E. RADIO RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND MULTI-USER
DIVERSITY SCHEMES
FD technology definitely offers extra degree of freedom by
allowing the whole spectrum to be used in both forward and
reverse transmission direction. This will sure increase the
available multiuser diversity in the communication systems.
It is important to note that SI may not be fully mitigated when
performing resource allocation. Therefore, to fully harvest
the increased multiuser diversity and address the SI problem,
new multiple access techniques needs to be proposed and
evaluated. These should be such capable of supporting differ-
ent duplexing scenarios such as point-to-point FD and point-
to-multipoint FD scenarios. Again, designing radio resource
management algorithms that take into account the features of
FD are essential to improving the multiple access techniques.
Resource management plays important roles in energy
efficiency spectrum efficiency and quality of service provi-
sioning [112]. Since SI is involved in FDR networks, how
to dynamically allocate the space-time-frequency resources
becomes even more important and challenging than in the tra-
ditional wireless networks. Take beamforming for example,
while one can electronically steer transmit and receive weight
of different antenna elements for the purpose of SI mitigation,
this may also unintentionally reduce the power radiated on the
desired signals and hence degrade the system performance /
service quality. Similar phenomenon exists in other resource
allocation processes, such as power allocation, antenna selec-
tion and relay node selection. Therefore effective resource
management approaches should balance the performance of
SI mitigation and other systems measures.
Though it is easy to infer from literature that so much
work is being done in designing and implementing FD capa-
ble devices and systems, the impact of FD on the capac-
ity and the energy of heterogeneous networks have not be
sufficiently analysed. Whereas some work have been done
regarding resource management and SI management such
as [113] which evaluated FD operations in a small cell cellular
scenario by implementing a joint UL and DL beamform-
ing for a single cell and [114], which studied a joint radio
resource allocation for the UL and DL in an FD system,
there still exists some gaps. For example, while the work
of [114] considered a non-cooperative power allocation algo-
rithm, the DUPLO experiment did not consider the multi-
user diversity gain that could be derived by appropriate power
adjustments and user scheduling. Not only is this approach
suboptimal, the paper did not take into account the inter-user
interference generated in the system when a user is allowed
to increase its power arbitrarily and its impact on the SI
cancellation capability of the system. An effective resource
management approach which is capable of SI mitigation
while deriving the gains of FD without degrading the system
performance remains a challenge yet to be resolved. These
possibilities could steer a future direction.
30264
F. IMPLEMENTING COST EFFICIENT SPATIAL
DOMAIN SOLUTIONS
Separating transmit and receive antennas in space presents
a simple SI passive suppression scheme, especially for SISO
systems. However, implementing spatial-domain suppression
schemes for MIMO systems come with an extra complexity
burden capable of limiting the SI mitigation ability of the
system. This results from the very complex matrix compu-
tations required in this scenario. As a future direction for
achieving FD in wireless networks, it is imperative that more
cost-efficient spatial domain SI suppression algorithms for
MIMO channels have to be designed.
G. INTERFERENCE MANAGEMENT IN
HETEROGENEOUS NETWORKS
Future networks with dense heterogeneous cells presents
multiple sources of interference in addition to SI which in
turn presents a challenge to SI management and makes the
implementation of FD more complicated. This situation is
made worse in a heterogeneous multi-tier, multi-cell hierar-
chical structure where as the number of small cells increase,
so also are there multiple sources of inter-cell interference,
BS-BS interference as well as UE-UE interference in cases
where the user terminal is also FD enabled with a reuse factor
of one. In this case, radio resource management increasingly
becomes complex and challenging. Whereas the prospect
for increased SE exists, this will only be obtained using
an efficient radio resource management scheme and effec-
tive power allocation scheme. Finding this practical balance
between system performances against the performance of SI
management schemes is an interesting future direction.
VIII. CONCLUSION
This article discusses the state-of-the-art on SI mitiga-
tion schemes for enabling single frequency FD networks.
The benefits of FD systems over HD systems are huge.
FD systems are capable of potentially doubling the spectral
efficiency of the network. However, the major challenge
hampering the implementation of this technology in prac-
tical mobile communication systems is the very destructive
effects of signal leakages from the transmit chain to the
receive chain. This leakage can be several millions (>100 dB)
more than the received signal thereby suppressing the desired
useful signals. To harness the gains of FD, the SI has to
be mitigated and suppressed to or nearly the receiver noise
floor. This paper has highlighted the schemes for SI mit-
igation available in literature by classifying and compar-
ing their pros and cons. The mitigation schemes are either
active or passive and the processes take place in any of the
following domains: the propagation domain, analogue circuit
domain or digital circuit domain. These are also impacted
by some transceiver non-idealities. Furthermore, we clas-
sified the available schemes for SI mitigation and showed
through figures and tables the capabilities, advantages and
disadvantages. Whereas a combination of some schemes has
shown proven results for cancelling SI up to the noise floor,
VOLUME 6, 2018
C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems
the challenges facing the implementation of such schemes are
also highlighted leading us to identifying some open research
issues and proposing future research directions towards real-
ising FD cellular networks. These include: improving the
small form-factor solutions, the hybrid analogue-digital solu-
tions, improvement of the analogue circuitry, implementing
effective SI mitigation techniques for FD in MIMO scenarios
and design of efficient RRM techniques that could aid SI
mitigation. Our intention with this survey is to present the
mitigation schemes available in literature while highlighting
the pending practical challenges for adequately mitigating SI
and enabling FD operation in wireless systems. While it is
fair to say that there are many SI mitigating schemes already
studied and implemented with varying degrees of success,
it is also important to note that a lot still needs to be done in
order to design a less complex, easily implementable scheme
that provides sufficient mitigating capability for enabling FD
operations in wireless communication systems.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The views expressed here are those of the authors and do not
necessarily reflect those of the affiliated organizations. The
authors would like to acknowledge the support of the Univer-
sity of Surrey 5GIC (http://www.surrey.ac.uk/5gic) members
for this work.
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CHINAEMEREM DAVID NWANKWO received
the B.Sc. degree in electrical and electronics engi-
neering from the Enugu State University of Sci-
ence and Technology, Nigeria, in 2002, and the
M.Sc. degree (Hons.) in mobile communication
systems from the University of Surrey, U.K.,
in 2011, where he is currently pursuing the Ph.D.
degree with the Institute for Communication Sys-
tems. He is involved in the new physical layer
work area at the 5G Innovation Centre at Surrey.
His current research interests include radio access networks, especially full
duplex communication, radio resource management, and energy efficiency.
LEI ZHANG received the B.Eng. degree in com-
munication engineering and the M.Sc. degree in
electromagnetic fields and microwave technology
from Northwestern Polytechnic University, China,
and the Ph.D. degree from The University of
Sheffield, U.K. He was a Research Engineer with
the Huawei Communication Technology Labora-
tory. Since 2013, he has been a Research Fellow
with the 5G Innovation Centre, Institute of Com-
munications, University of Surrey, U.K. He is
currently a Lecturer with the University of Glasgow. He holds over ten
international patents on wireless communications. His research interests
include communications and array signal processing, physical layer network
slicing (RAN slicing), new air interface design (waveform and frame struc-
ture), Internet of Things, multi-antenna signal processing, cloud radio access
networks, massive MIMO systems, and full duplex.
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 C. D. Nwankwo et al.: Survey of Self-Interference Management Techniques for Single Frequency FD Systems

ATTA QUDDUS received the M.Sc. degree in
satellite communications and the Ph.D. degree in
mobile cellular communications from the Univer-
sity of Surrey, U.K., in 2000 and 2005, respec-
tively. During his research career, he has led
several national and international research projects
that also contributed toward 3GPP standardization.
He is currently a Lecturer in wireless commu-
nications with the Institute of Communications,
Department of Electronic Engineering, University
of Surrey. His current research interests include machine type communi-
cation, cloud radio access networks, and device to device communication.
In 2004, he received the Centre for Communications Systems Research
Excellence Prize sponsored by Vodafone for his research on adaptive filtering
algorithms.
RAHIM TAFAZOLLI is a Professor and the
Director of the 5G Innovation Centre, Institute
for Communication Systems, University of Sur-
rey, U.K. He has authored or co-authored over
500 research papers in refereed journals and inter-
national conferences, and was an Invited Speaker.
He was a fellow of Wireless World Research
Forum, in 2011, in recognition of his personal con-
tribution to the wireless world. As well as heading
one of Europe’s leading research groups. He is the
Editor of two books on Technologies for Wireless Future (Wiley, Vol.1 in
2004 and Vol.2 2006).

MUHAMMAD ALI IMRAN (SM’12) received

the M.Sc. (Hons.) and Ph.D. degrees from Imperial
College London, London, U.K., in 2002 and 2007,
respectively. He is the Vice Dean of the Glasgow
College, UESTC, and a Professor of communi-
cation systems with the School of Engineering,
University of Glasgow. He is an Affiliate Professor
with the University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK,
USA, and a Visiting Professor with the 5G Innova-
tion Centre, University of Surrey, Guildford, U.K.
He has over 18 years of combined academic and industry experience, involv-
ing primarily in the research areas of cellular communication systems. He
has been awarded 15 patents, has authored/co-authored over 300 journal and
conference publications, and has been a principal/co-principal investigator
of over six million in sponsored research grants and contracts. He has
supervised over 30 successful Ph.D. graduates.
He is a Senior Fellow of Higher Education Academy, York, U.K. He
received the Award of excellence in recognition of his academic achieve-
ments, conferred by the President of Pakistan, the IEEE Comsoc’s Fred
Ellersick Award 2014, the FEPS Learning and Teaching Award 2014, and the
Sentinel of Science Award 2016. He was twice nominated for the Tony Jean’s
Inspirational Teaching Award. He is a shortlisted finalist for The Wharton-
QS Stars Awards 2014, the QS Stars Reimagine Education Award 2016 for
innovative teaching, and the VC’s Learning and Teaching Award from the
University of Surrey.

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