EFFECT OF OIL SPILLAGE ON SOIL PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES

IN RIVERS STATE.

BY

CHIMA VICTOR UCHENNA

MOUAU/AGE/15/86212

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL AND BIORESOURCE ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
MICHAEL OKPARA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, UMUDIKE

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SEPTEMBER, 2021

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 EFFECT OF OIL SPILLAGE ON SOIL PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES IN RIVERS STATE.

BY

CHIMA VICTOR UCHENNA

MOUAU/AGE/15/86212

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL AND BIORESOURCE ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
MICHAEL OKPARA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, UMUDIKE

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG.) IN AGRICULTURAL AND BIORESOURCE
ENGINEERING

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SUPERVISOR:
ENGR. P. EHIOMOGUE

SEPTEMBER, 2021

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 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this project work is done by me and it is a record of my own research

work. It has not been presented before in any previous application for a Bachelor Degree in

Engineering. All the sources of information which are not my own originally are duly

acknowledged by means of reference.

__________________________ __________________
Chima Victor Uchenna Date
(Student)

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6
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project titled “effect of oil spillage on soil physicochemical
properties in Rivers State” by Chima Victor Uchenna with registration number
MOUAU/AGE/15/86212 meets parts of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of
Engineering(B.Eng.)Degree in Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering in the College of
Engineering and Engineering Technology, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike
and is approved for its contribution to knowledge and literary presentation

........................................ ....... ..................................

Engr. Ehiomogue Precious Date
(Project Supervisor)

............................................... ..................................
ENGR. Dr. J. U. Etoamaihe Date
(Head of Department)

.............................................. ..................................
Engr. Prof. S. I. Oluka Date
(External Examiner)

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 DEDICATION

I dedicate this project work to God Almighty for his protection, guidance, provision and
sufficient grace. I also dedicate this to all those who contributed to my little success in life.

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I wish to express my profound thanks and appreciation to God Almighty for his guidance
and protection throughout this programme.

I also appreciate the effort of my supervisor Engr. P. Ehiomogue for his outstanding
supervisory contribution and encouragement towards the success of this project work. His
special guidance, patience, ever-ready attention and words of encouragement helped
towards the completion of this study.

I also acknowledge the inevitable role played by my academic adviser, Engr. Francis Orji
throughout my stay in school. In the same vein, my appreciation goes to the Head of
Department, Agricultural and Bioresource Engineering: Engr. Dr. U. J. Etoamaihe, the Dean,
College of Engineering and Engineering Technology: Prof. K. J. Simoyan. I also extend my
appreciation to Engr Francis Nkwazima Thanks for Ur Support Sir and to other lecturers of
the college who showered me with much affection and instructional inputs all through my
programme here and the entire members of staff of Agricultural and Bioresource
Engineering Department.

My hearty appreciation and regard goes to my lovely parents, Mr. and Mrs. Fedelis Chima
for their encouragement and moral support.

I recognize in a special way, the noble efforts of my typist Jeph Patrick C. for the painstaking
effort in typesetting this work.

Finally, I appreciate all my course mates and friends who in many ways have contributed
towards the success of this work. May God grant them all the grace to excel.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page i

Declaration ii

Certification iii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgement v

Table of Contents vi

List of Tables viii

Abstract ix

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 3

1.3 Objectives of the Study 4

1.4 Justification of the Study 4

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Background Information on Nigeria 5

2.2 Economy of Nigeria 7

2.3 Types of Oil Spillage 8

2.3.1 Oil lake types 9

2.3.2 Soil pH 9

2.3.3 Soil Moisture 10

2.3.5 Soil Texture 12

2.4 Oil Spill on the Niger Delta Environment 13

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2.5 Implications for Oil/Gas Bearing Communities 14

2.6 Related Activities that Impact the Environment 15

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Description of the Study Area 16

3.2 Soil Sampling and collection 16

3.3. Soil Analysis 17

3.3.1 Moisture Content 17

3.3.2 Bulk Density Determination 17

3.3.3 Electrical Conductivity Determination 17

3.3.4 Soil pH Determination 19

3.3.5 THC Determination 20

3.3.6 Cation Exchange Capacity 21

3.3.7 Ecological risk assessment 21

3.3 Data Collection 22

3.4 Statistical Analysis 0f Result 22

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results. 24

4.2 Discussion 27

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion 29

5.2 Recommendation 29

REFERENCES 30

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Nigeria's Economic Indicators 6

Table 4.1: Results of the Physical Properties of the Soil Samples 24

Table 4.2: Results of the chemical Properties of the Soil Samples 25

Table 4.8: Statistical analysis of the bioremediation effect on some chemical parameters
of the soil. 26

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 ABSTRACT

The study of the effect of oil spillage on soil physico- chemical properties in Rivers state was
carried out. The physico- chemical properties of the oil spill effected soil was determined by
standard laboratory methods. The results show that the soil moisture content of the oil Spill
affected soil was very lower than the non-effected soil having the highest moisture content of
13.6%. The results also show that the textural class of the soil from the experimental site was
predominately loamy sand and there were no much difference observed in the bulk density and
porosity of the soil for both oil spillage affected soil and the non-oil spillage area. The soil pH
values in the oil spill effected soils ranged from 6.40 to 6.44 while that of the soil non-effected
soil ranges from 5.40 to 5.46. There were significant difference between the pH value of soils
effected with iol spillage soil and that of the non-effected soil (p < 0.05) . Oil pollution reduced
the Exchangeable Acidity (EA) and the Effective Cation Exchangeable Capacity (ECEC) but
raises the Exchangeable bases (EB). The concentrations of Available Phosphorus (AP) in the oil
spill effected soil were significantly lower than that of the remediation, thus bioremediation
increases the phosphorus concentration of oil spill effected soil.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Oil production has continued to play a dominant role in the Nigerian economy, ranging from

generation of foreign exchange to serving as a source of energy to run the nation’s Economy.

Industries cannot function effectively with the use of refined petroleum products Easy and faster

means of transportation would have been impossible without pipelines. Production of other

necessary needs of man derived from crude oil would not have been possible if crude oil was not

discovered and exploited. The above-mentioned benefits and lots of others have shown that

crude oil has been a blessing to man and the nation as a whole. On the other hand, the process of

employing modern technology in the exploration, production, processing and storage of this

God- given resources has resulted in the abuse of man’s environment directly or indirectly.

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Bodies of water are polluted, leading to the destruction of useful aquatic lives. Cultivable lands

are rendered uncultivable due to loss of soil fertility. Diseases due to polluted lands, water and

air are on the increases. There are reports from the various communication media about

community disturbances by youth in the host communities who feel cheated by these oil

companies „harvesting gold‟ in their land and leaving nothing in return. Large sums of money

are lost daily due to shut down in oil production. Oil pollution in the environment has been a

major source of concern to the people living in the crude oilrich-areas (Ohanmu and Bako, 2017)

and the greatest effects of human advancement in technology. Pollution is itself defined as the

persistent appearance of radioactive elements, toxic compounds, salts, chemicals, or disease

causing agents, which have an adverse effect on the environment. Thus affecting the quality of

human life, productivity in plant yield, survivals of animals and microbial populace. The

contamination of the environment (mainly terrestrial and aquatic) by crude oil is referred to as

crude oil pollution and it is estimated that 80% of crude oil pollution is as a result of spillage

(Odu, 2017). Crude oil is the major source of energy in world and accounts for most of the

pollution in Nigeria. In Nigeria, crude oil plays a pivotal role in the mainstay Nigerian economy

in revenue generation and development of the country. Transportation of crude oil sometimes

pollute the environment by accidental oil spills and operational discharge resulting to the loss of

very large quantities of crude oil into land and sea bodies (Ohanmu et al., 2014). Essien and John

(2010) reported the frequent spillage on agricultural soils, and the consequent fouling effect on

all forms of life by render the soil (especially the biologically active surface layer) toxic and

unproductive. This reduces the soil’s fertility such that most of the essential nutrients are no

longer available for plant and crop utilization (Abii and Nwosu, 2009). Contamination of soil by

oil spills is a wide spread environmental problem that often requires cleaning up of the

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contaminated sites. These petroleum hydrocarbons adversely affect the germination and growth

of plants in soils (Samina and others, 2012). Oil spills affect plants by creating conditions which

make essential nutrients like nitrogen and oxygen needed for plant growth unavailable to them

(Adam and others, 2012). Phytoremediation is an alternative to more expensive remediation

technologies because it is a feasible, effective and non-intrusive technology that utilizes natural

plant processes to enhance degradation and removal of oil contaminants from the environment

(Marmiroli and others, 2013). All stages of oil exploitation impact negatively on the

environment, and the greatest single intractable environmental problem caused by crude oil

exploration in the Niger Delta region is oil spillage. Over 6000 spills had been recorded in the 40

years of oil exploitation in Nigeria, with an average of 150 spills per annum. In the period 1976 –

1996, 647 incidents occurred resulting in the spillage of 2,369,407.04 barrels of crude oil. With

only 549,060.38 barrels recovered, 1,820,410.50 barrels of oil were lost to the ecosystem. The

environmental consequences of oil pollution on the inhabitants of Rivers State are enormous. Oil

spills have degraded most agricultural lands in the State and have turned hitherto productive

areas into wastelands. With increasing soil infertility due to the destruction of soil micro-

organisms, and dwindling agricultural productivity, farmers have been forced to abandon their

land, to seek non-existent alternative means of livelihood. Aquatic lives have also been destroyed

with the pollution of traditional fishing grounds, exacerbating hunger and poverty in fishing

communities. Many authors have reported a lower rate of germination in petroleum or its

derivatives contaminated soil (Adam and others, 2012; Vavrek and Campbell, 2012; Méndez-

Nateraand et al., 2014; Achuba, 2016; Smith, et al., 2006, Sharifi, et al., 2017; Korade and

Fulekar, 2009; Ogbo, 2009). Petroleum hydrocarbons may form a film on the seed, preventing

the entry of oxygen and water (Adam and others, 2012) and toxic hydrocarbon molecules could

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inhibit the activities of amylase and starch phosphorylase and thereby affecting the assimilation

of starch (Achuba, 2006). Henner, et al.,. (2010) reported that petroleum hydrocarbons consisting

of small molecules and those that are water soluble are more phytotoxic for the germination. The

most common and important symptoms observed in the plants contaminated with oil and its by

products include the degradation of chlorophyll (Malallah et al., 2018). This study will be carried

out to analyse the effect of oil spillage on soil physicochemical properties in Rivers state, Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

One of the biggest concerns associated with crude oil pollution in the environment is the risk to

farmland, fisheries, and potable drinking water contamination (Ohanmu et al., 2017). The soil

physical properties such as pore spaces might be clogged thereby reducing soil aeration,

infiltration of water into the soil and increased bulk density of the soil. These soil properties are

involved in soil-plant-water relationship are degradable and include texture, infiltration,

hydraulic conductivity, moisture content, pH and density, which affect root and leaf development

and plant growth and yield (Michael, 2018; CIGR, 2010; Michael and Ojha, 2016). Oil spillage

also affects crop yield and farm income, and by extension, the social and economic livelihoods

of farming communities. Spilled crude-oil which is denser than water, reduces and restricts

permeability: organic hydrocarbons which fill the soil pores expel water and air, thus depriving

the plant roots the much needed water and air (Brian, 2017). Other effect range from disruption

of plant water relations, direct impact to plant metabolism, for instance, nutrient uptake, toxicity

to living cells for example the liquid component of the protoplasm, reduced oxygen exchange

between the atmosphere and the soil affecting root function to reduction in biomass (Bako et al.

(2008).

1.3 Objectives of the Study

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The broad objective of this study is to:

i. identify causes of oil spillage in the study area

ii. effect of oil spillage on soil physicochemical properties in the study area.

1.4 Justification of the Study

Oil spillage in the Niger-Delta area of Southern Nigeria has become a public concern as a result

of its frequent occurrence which has been linked with Petroleum exploration and development

activities. Crude oil spill affects plants negatively by creating conditions which makes essential

nutrients like nitrogen, Oxygen etc needs for plant growth unavailable to them from the spilled

affected soil. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the effects of oil spillage on soil

physicochemical properties in these areas. The result will give an insight to the level of damage

that oil spill has done to the fertility and nutrient status of the community farmland.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Background Information on Nigeria

Nigeria as a Country is reported as having a population of about 173.615 million people as at

2014 (World Bank, 2014). This makes it the most populous nation south of the Sahara with an

area of 923,768 square kilometres with annual growth rate range of between 2.8 and 3.2 percent

between states. The Country lies between Longitude 30East and 150East and Latitude 40North

and 1400 North. It is bordered in the north by the Republics of Niger and Tchad; in the West with

the Republic of Benin, in the south-east by the Republic of Cameroun and in the south by the

Atlantic Ocean which forms a coastline of about 800km. It measures about 1200km from east to

west at its widest point and about 1050km from north to south. It has a topography ranging from

the Niger Valley lowlands along the coast, to high plateaus in the north and mountains along the

eastern border.

By 2013, the gross domestic product (GDP) was $448.1 billion, indicating a per capita income of

$2,720. The re-basing of its GDP from 1990-2010, resulted in an 89% increase in the estimated

size of the economy which now surpasses the GDP of South Africa (Barungi, 2014) and the GDP

increased to $510 billion (Business Day, 2014).

The Nigerian economy has recorded an average growth of 7.4% per annum in the last decade,

which is higher than the West African sub-regional level and also higher than the sub-Saharan

Africa level (Barungi, 2014). Inflation has averaged about 12.2% in the last five years (World

Bank, 2014). While the economy has grown generally, development in terms of the United

Nation’s Millennium Development Goals in the areas of eradicating poverty and hunger;

achieving universal primary education; promoting gender equality and empowering women;

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reducing child mortality; improving maternal health; combatting HIV/AIDS, malaria and other

diseases; ensuring environmental sustainability; and Global Partnership for Development, have

been very slow with Nigeria ranking only 153 out of 186 Countries in the United Nation’s

Human Development Index (World Bank, 2014). Table 2.1 provides a summary of Nigeria’s

economic indicators.

Table 2.1: Nigeria's Economic Indicators

Region Sub-Saharan Africa

Income Category Lower Middle

Income
Population 173.6 Million

Gross National $2,720.

Income

(GNI) Per Capita US$

Source: World Bank (2014)

The vegetation which describes assemblages of plants is a combination of rain forests in the

south and grass savannah in the north. The rain forest consists of Saline water swamp,

Freshwater swamp, and Tropical evergreen rainforest; while the savannah grasslands consist of

the Guinea Savannah, Sudan Savannah, and the Sahel Savannah. The rain forest vegetation

supports timber production and forest development and the production of cassava, fruit trees like

citrus, oil palm, raffia palm, oranges, cocoa, and rubber among others. The savannah vegetation

is mostly suitable for grain production, supporting grains like grasses, tubers, groundnuts, cotton

and vegetables.

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It is politically subdivided into 36 States including the Federal Capital Territory and 774 Local

Government Areas. Its government is a three- tier structure, with a Federal Government, The

States and the Local Government Areas, with its administrative Capital at Abuja. Figure 2.1

shows the Country with the various States and the Federal Capital Territory of Abuja.

Figure 2.1: Geographical Map of Nigeria

Source: http://www.nigeriamasterweb.com/5mbebe/NigeriaStatesMap.gif

2.2 Economy of Nigeria

Nigeria’s economy is dominated by the oil and gas industries which contribute about

95% of the nation’s export earnings and 40% of the gross domestic product (GDP) at current

prices (World Bank, 2013), with the major industrial complexes being the Refineries and Petro-

Chemicals at Kaduna, Warri, Port Harcourt, and Eleme. Nigeria ranks in the top ten oil

producers in the world and is the highest producer in Africa. Other industries include Iron and

Steel at Ajaokuta, Warri, Oshogbo, Katsina and Jos, Fertilizer af Onne- Port Harcout, Kaduna,

Minna and Kano, Liquified Natural Gas at Bonny and an Aluminium Smelting Company at Ikot

Abasi. Its major commercial/ industrial cities include Lagos, Onitsha, Kano, Ibadan, Port

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Harcourt, Aba, Maidugiri, Jos, Kaduna, Warri, Benin and Nnewi. Nigeria’s oil and gas reserves

are concentrated in the Niger Delta region where the major international operators operate.

To situate this study requires a brief history of crude oil exploration in Nigeria. Oil was first

discovered in Nigeria in 1956 at Oloibiri in the Niger Delta after half a century of exploration by

Shell-BP as sole concessionaire. Commercial production began in 1958 and after 1960,

exploration rights in onshore and offshore areas adjoining the Niger Delta, were granted to all the

foreign companies. Nigeria joined the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in

1971 and set up a state owned oil company called the Nigerian National Petroleum Company

(NNPC) in 1997. Oil production in Nigeria today, is dominated by the joint venture (JV)

companies who collectively control about 95% of Nigeria’s crude oil production leaving the

balance to indigenous companies operating some marginal oil fields. These JV companies

according to

Odularu (2008), include Shell Petroleum Development Company with 55% Government Interest;

Exxon Mobil, Chevron Texaco, ENI/Agip, and Totalfina Elf with 60% Government Interest. The

Government Interests are held by the Government Oil Company called NNPC.

2.3 Types of Oil Spillage

Oil spill is categorized into groups namely:

 Minor spill occurs when the volume of the spilled oil is less than 25 barrels in inland water or

less than 250 barrels on land; offshore or coastal water that does not pose a threat to public health

or welfare

 Medium spill takes place when the volume of the spill is 250 barrels or less in inland waters

or 250 to 2500 barrels on offshore and coastal waters

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 Major spill occur when the oil discharged to inland water is in excess of 250 barrels in

offshore or coastal waters.

 Catastrophic spill refers to any uncontrolled well blowout, pipeline rupture or storage tank

failure which poses an imminent threat to the public health or welfare. (Egbe, R.E and others,

2010)

2.3.1 Oil lake types

Oil lakes vary in their type, area, volume, and depth of penetration. They differ in type due to the

different formation condition. Studies categorized them into four types 1) Wet oil lakes

contamination which is formed in areas of shallow depression and drainage channels. It‟s

described as black, highly weathered and viscous liquid or semi-solid oil sludge over a thickness

of oil contaminated soil that in turn overlies clean soil. 2) Dry oil lakes contamination: occurs in

shallow depression and flat areas and it is comprised of a black, moderately hard, tar-like dry

surface layer overlying dark brown oil contaminated soil that in turn overlies clean soil. 3) Oil-

Contaminated piles: occurs when earthmoving equipment has been used to consolidate oil

contaminated and/or liquid oil into mound. These piles were made to stop the flow of oil from

wells, to clean areas of heavy oil contamination to facilitate fire fighting or subsequent KOC

field operation. 4) Oil trenches and associated oil spill which consist primarily of oil-

contaminated soil from back-filled trenches. Including in this category are oil contaminated soils

associated with oil spills from Nigeria constructed pipelines.

2.3.2 Soil pH

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The pH value determines to what degree the soil environment is acidic or alkaline. The pH of a

solution is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration where pH = log

1/H+ and H2O is ionized as an H+ cation (acid) and an OH- anion (base). A pH value between

6.5 and 7.5 is considered optimum for the growth of many plants. Although many plants respond

to an optimum pH, this value usually covers a range from 0.5 units below to 0.5 units above the

optimum level. It should be noted one pH unit is a factor of 10. Therefore, plants have a fairly

broad pH tolerance. The pH of soil influences the absorption and availability of nutrients to

plants. There are two general sources of soil nutrients. Some nutrients are absorbed on colloids

and some are available to plants as ions in solution. In both cases the various nutrients are

present as ions. In most cases the cations (positively charged ions) are absorbed on colloids and

the anions (negatively charged ions) are in solution. Soil is a highly buffered ecosystem.

Hydrogen ions in the soil solution are in equilibrium with negative exchange sites on the soil

particles. In cation exchange, hydrogen acts as a reserve pool which continuously supplies

hydrogen ions to the soil. In areas of high rainfall, soil tends to be acidic due to the leaching

effect on the exchange sites. In arid and semi-arid regions, soils tend to be basic. Basic soils have

higher concentrations of calcium, magnesium, and sodium carbonates. The pH of soil varies

significantly in thin soil zones. These variations in pH are due to differences in both macro and

micro ecosystems. The microbial population near root surfaces is an example of such an

ecosystem. The rhizosphere bacteria population significantly impacts pH this microsystem and

thus affects plant growth and the progress of soil remediation. Restoring the rhizosphere bacteria

population and activity significantly increases available nutrients to the soil. Since most soils in

Niger Delta are basic, the addition of sulphur with fertilizer is an important part of the

remediation. As pH approaches 8.7, the addition of sulphur can be justified. To lower the pH of

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an 8 inch deep loam soil 0.5 pH units, 1,000 lbs of sulphur per acre is required. Sulphur lowers

the pH thus increases the solubility of gypsum.

2.3.3 Soil Moisture

The volume and movement of water in the soil is the single most important factor determining

plant growth. Depending on the plant, water comprises 50% to 90% of the plant tissue.

Photosynthesis and nutrient availability depend on water. Water is the solvent in which all

chemical reactions take place. Similarly, water is the most important factor determining

remediation of salt water and hydrocarbon spills. Approximately 12-14 inches of rain are

required to remediate 10,000 uS/cm of electrical conductivity per year, depending on soil type.

Gravitational force pulls water down through the soil matrix and is the predominant influence on

water movement in soil.

Water can also move by capillary action due to hydrogen bonding and the subsequent magnetic

attraction of water molecules to one another. Capillary forces can overcome gravitational forces

and move water in a direction other than straight down into the soil. Both gravitational and

capillary water movement is influenced by soil particle type and distribution in the soil. Water

around soil particles is controlled by adhesive and cohesive forces. “Adhesion water” is held

tightly and does not move. In contrast, “cohesion water” is held more loosely on soil particles

and can be utilized by plants. Cohesive forces and capillary forces move water against

gravitational forces in the root zone to increase water utilization by plants. The osmotic potential

of water becomes important in a saline soil. At high salt concentrations, a higher osmotic

potential decreases the movement of water into plants. Additionally, more energy is required to

move water into the root at higher osmotic potentials. Following a rain event, the soil is saturated

as soil pores fill with water. Gravitational forces drain water from the root zone. Depending on

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the soil and amount of rain, the draining process is completed in 48 to 72 hours. As the soil

drains, the soil reaches a “field capacity” state. At this point, air will fill the large pores and each

soil particle will have a thick film of moisture (cohesion water). Plant uptake and evaporation

will continue to deplete the cohesion water and shrink the soil-water film. As the film becomes

thinner it is more difficult for the root to absorb water. As this process continues and capillary

water and additional rain fall does not replenish the root zone, a “wilt point” will develop.

During this process of saturation and drainage, calcium ions can replace the sodium ions and

remediation can occur. It is important that water move evenly though the soil as it drains out of

the root zone. Therefore, pre-work of the soil to produce a “remediation seed bed” to facilitate

water drainage out of the root zone is helpful to the total remediation process. Soil texture will

determine the “water retention” capacity of a soil. A loamy soil will remediate at a faster rate

than a sandy or heavy clay soil.( Gawel,2003)

2.3.5 Soil Texture

The relative proportions of sand, silt and clay particles in a mass of soil (material less than 2mm

in size). Soil characteristic is influence by texture. Structure modifies the influence of texture in

regard to moisture and air relationships, availability of plant nutrients, action of microorganisms

and root growth. Silt, the intermediate size, feels smooth when dry, and slippery but not sticky

when moist. Because the smaller particle size promotes smaller pore spaces between particles,

silty soils have a slower water intake rate but a higher water holding capacity than sandy soils..

These are difficult for storage because they often lack aggregation. This results in high density

and a pore size too small for suitable water percolation and aeration. Nevertheless, silt is an

essential component of the medium textured, versatile soil called loam. Clay, the finest size

fraction, gives the soils a sticky or plastic feel. Clay exhibits some unusual properties,

25
unexpected if it were merely composed of smaller particles or the same minerals that make up

sand and silt. Clay is largely composed of a different set of minerals, called secondary minerals.

These are weathering products of the primary minerals -- quartz, feldspar, and mica -- of which

sand and silt are largely composed. Soil with large diameter particles (coarse texture) can contain

less water than soil with small diameter particles. . Loamy soil has about 30-50% silt and 20%

less than clay particles. Sand contains rock particles with diameter in range 0.125-2.0mm. Clay

has soil particles whose size is less than 2-4mm in diameter. Silt soil is composed of particles

whose diameter ranges from 1/256-1/16mm. Soil texture relates primarily to particles smaller

than 2 millimetres (.080 inches) in diameter - sand, silt, and clay - since these are the particles

most active in soil processes which support plant growth. Coarser particles, gravel and stones,

are either inert or detrimental to plant cultivation.

2.4 Oil Spill on the Niger Delta Environment

Since large scale operations in the oil industry began in 1958, the Niger Delta region had been

steadily experiencing cases of environmental degradation. One of the first observable cases of

environmental impact of the oil industry in the Niger Delta is related to oil spillage. Delt and

IGBEN (2012) stated that increasing petroleum exploitation activities like seismic surveys, land

acquisitions, drilling, transportation, storage, waste dumping and associated oil spillages have

increased the degradation of the physical environment and resulted in the deprivation and

destruction of economic livelihoods of the Niger Delta region. It is recorded that the first large-

scale oil blow out occurred in October 1959 and rendered over 2000 people homeless. The first

oil spill occurred in 1970 with over 150 barrels spilling on both land and water. Akpan (2006:18)

records that between 1970 and 1983, about 1,581 cases of oil spill involving 1,711,355 barrels

occurred on both offshore and onshore. Between 1976 and 1996, 4647 oil spills were recorded to

26
have spilled approximately 2,369,470 barrels of oil into the environment. Nwilo and Badejo

(2005) state that out of the quantity spilled, 77% were lost to the environment while 23.17% was

recovered. By 1998, 5,724 cases involving 2,571,118 barrels were released into the environment

(Udoh et al., 2008). The National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA) reports

that approximately 2,400 oil spills had been reported between 2006 and 2010. A New York

Times (2012) report states that about 260,000 barrels of oil have been spilled each year for the

past 50 years.

Nwankwo and Ifeadi (1988) argued that damages to the environment include the following:-

- Oil film, on water surfaces prevents natural aeration and leads to death of trapped marine

organisms below the surface.

- Oil contaminates food materials which now become harmful to man, plants and animals.

- Oil on land could lead to retardation of vegetation growth for a period. It could also lead

to fire out break with disastrous consequences to the environment.

The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP, 2011) report on Ogoniland, confirmed that

for over 50 years, there has been wide spread oil contamination across land and water resources

in the Niger Delta from oil production and that it could take 25 to 30 years to return to normalcy.

Figure 2.3 below shows a weld failure along an oil pipeline, spewing crude oil into the

surrounding environment, while Figure 2.4 below shows crude oil soiled inter-tidal mud flat,

both at Bodo Community in the Rivers State within the Niger Delta. Figure 2.6 below shows the

impact of the spilled crude oil on the surrounding mangrove vegetation and this contrast with

Figure 2.5 below which shows a mangrove forest in its unpolluted state. These occurrences at

Bodo, is a regular site in the Niger Delta. The oil spillages occur both at oil locations and along

pipelines. There are about a dozen networks of pipelines that convey crude to the export and

27
domestic refineries and fuel depots across the country. The pipelines run from 49.89km

(31miles) to 616.379 km (383 miles), through mostly rural or swampy areas of land. Most of the

pipelines are owned by the major International Oil Companies (IOCs) and the Nigerian National

Petroleum Corporation (NNPC).

2.5 Implications for Oil/Gas Bearing Communities

The implication of the combined effect of oil spills and gas flaring for oil/gas bearing

communities differs from one locality to another, depending on:

i. The number of Local Government Areas/Communities actually producing oil/gas.

ii. The length of time the area has been involved in oil/gas activities.

iii. The exact location or terrain of the oil and gas activities in the state or Local Government

Area whether it is on shore or off shore or both.

iv. The extent to which the community hosts other administrative or social infrastructures

provided and managed by oil/gas companies.

2.6 Related Activities that Impact the Environment

i. During Economic Survey, the environment is impacted in the process of track cutting and

transacting, seismic shooting with dynamites, the transportation of personnel and

equipment as well as in camp-site erection.

ii. At the drilling stage, there is access route construction involving the destruction of

vegetation, digging of burrow pits, compaction of subsurface and the disposal of drilling

wastes as well as heavy equipment and staff movements.

iii. Others are the construction of camp-sites and support facilities, rig movement, storage of

drilling chemicals and spare-parts as well as logging.

28
 iv. At the Production/Processing stage, the construction of the pipeline right of way (ROW)

involving clearing, preparation, laying of pipes and construction of flow stations,

preliminary processing activities is undertaken the separation of oil, gas and water is done

at flow stations, the produced water is disposed, the gas is flared or re-injected, site oil

storage for refineries, gas is piped to user industries and camp site built for personnel.

v. At the Transportation Stage, storage and consumption stages, the environment is

impacted by tanker/barges off-loading and transfers, construction of tank farms and

transportation of oil and gas.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Description of the Study Area

The Study will be conducted in Rivers state, Nigeria. Rivers State is geographically located

between longitude 6°04'E and 6°43'E and latitude 5°44'N and 7°34'N of the equator. The natural

vegetation consists of rain forest in the Port Harcourt low-land and is of humid tropical climate

with an average annual rainfall of about 2500 mm (NDDC, 2006). The state is located with the

tropical rainforest zone of southern Nigeria with favourable climate sufficient moisture that is

ideal for agricultural production. The mainstay of her economy is oil and gas although it is

endowed with natural resources like agricultural and livestock produce.

3.2 Soil Sampling and collection

29
The crude oil polluted soil used in this study was obtained from the dumpsite at shell SPDC

Airport Road Rukpokwu in Ikwere L.G.A, Rivers State on the 11 th of November, 2011. The soils

were collected from three different points in the study area. There were two concentrations

namely; the spillage impacted soil (100% crude oil polluted soil) and non-spillage medium

impacted soil (75% unpolluted soil + 25% crude oil polluted soil). The samples were dried at

105oC for 24 hrs and then ground to a particle diameter of <0.25mm in an agate mortar (Shams

and Purkayastha, 2011) and were stored in polythene bags and will be taken to the laboratory for

analysis of C/N ratio, Electrical conductivity, bulk density, moisture content, pH, Salinity, THC

and other physiochemical properties

3.3. Soil Analysis

3.3.1 Moisture Content

Moisture content of the oil samples will be confirmed using the gravimetric method described by

Onwuka (2018):

The metal dishes or moisture cans will be washed and thoroughly dried in the oven. They will be

put in a desiccator to cool and will be weighed (W 1). Two grammes if the samples will be

weighed and put into the weighed dish (W 2). The average weight will be taken after drying and

weighing. The samples will be dried at 105 0C for 4 hrs until a constant weight will be obtained.

They will be allowed to get cool and the weight of the dry samples and dishes will be recorded

(W3).

The percentage moisture content will be calculated as

30
% moisture = W2 - W3 x 100
W2 - W3 1

3.3.2 Bulk Density Determination

Bulk density is the mass of a dry sample (mass of solids) divided by the volume of the sample. If

the sample is collected using a container of known volume, determining the sample’s volume

and calculating bulk density is straightforward: divide the sample’s dry mass by its volume. If,

however, the sample volume is not known and cannot be accurately determined from the

sample’s dimensions, the volume must be measured using a suitable method. Of the many

methods available, the procedure below describes the wax clod method, which is best suited for

samples which are not easily deformed or disaggregated.

1. Photograph the core, pit, or trench with a scale bar.

2. Collect intact sample by hand or with coring device. Wrap with aluminum foil or plastic wrap.

Seal in Ziploc bag and wrap with bubble wrap or plastic foam. Label appropriately. Transport to

the laboratory. Log samples into laboratory, following Chain of Custody procedures SOP 2.

3. Calibrate scale using standard weights.

4. Remove wrapped sample from stored bag. Weigh wrapped sample to within 0.01 grand

record.

5. Weigh aluminum weighing tare to within 0.01 g and record as tare weight.

6. Carefully remove sample from wrapping and weigh sample to within 0.01 g in a weighing

tare. Subtract tare weight and record the result as sample wet weight.

31
7. Weigh sample wrapping to within 0.01 g. Compare the sum of this weight and the sample wet

weight to the wrapped sample weight for quality control.

8. Oven dry sample at 105 degrees C for 24 hr and cool in a desiccation chamber.

9. Weigh the sample to within 0.01 g and record as the sample dry weight.

10. Indicate the quality, if known, of the sample volume measurement on the bulk density form.

Examples include “lab measurement”, “estimated from sample dimensions”, “sample compacted

and sheared”, etc. Divide sample dry mass by sample volume and record as bulk density (g/cm3).

If the sample volume is not known to within 1 cm3 and the sample is reasonably competent,

follow steps 11-23.

11. Melt the paraffin so that it forms a liquid bath sufficiently deep to contain the entire.

3.3.3 Electrical Conductivity Determination

Soil electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure of the amount of salts in soil (salinity of soil).

Procedure

1. Prepare a 1:5 soil: water suspension by weighing 10 g air-dry soil (<2 mm) into a bottle. Add

50 mL deionised water. Mechanically shake at 15 rpm for 1 hour to dissolve soluble salts.

2. Calibrate the conductivity meter according to the manufacturer's instructions using the KCl

reference solution to obtain the cell constant.

3. Rinse the cell thoroughly. Measure the electrical conductivity of the 0.01M KCl at the same

temperature as the soil suspensions.

32
4. Rinse the conductivity cell with the soil suspension. Refill the conductivity cell without

disturbing the settled soil. Record the value indicated on the conductivity meter. Rinse the cell

with deionised water between samples.

3.3.4 Soil pH Determination

1. The material must be separated on the ¼ in. (6.3mm) sieve. Only the minus¼ in. (6.3mm)

material is to be used for testing.

2. Weigh and place 30±0.1g of soil into the glass beaker.

3. Add 30±0.1g of distilled water to the soil sample. Stir to obtain a soil slurry and then

cover with watch glass.

4. The sample must stand for a minimum of one hour, stirring every 10 to 15minutes. This

is to allow the pH of the soil slurry to stabilize.

5. After one hour, the temperature of the sample should be stabilized. Measure the

temperature of the sample and adjust the temperature controller of the pH meter to that of

the sample temperature. This adjustment should be done just prior to testing. On meters

with an automatic temperature control, follow the manufacturer's instructions.

6. Standardize the pH meter by means of the standard solutions provided. Temperature and

adjustments must be performed as stated under.

7. Immediately before immersing the electrode(s) into the sample, stir the sample well with

a glass rod. Place the electrode(s) into the soil slurry solution and gently turn beaker to

make good contact between the solution and the electrode(s). DO NOT place electrode(s)

into the soil; only into the soil slurry solution.

33
 8. The electrode(s) require immersion 30seconds or longer in the sample before reading to

allow the meter to stabilize. If the meter has an auto read system, it will automatically

signal when stabilized.

9. Read and record the pH value to the nearest tenth of a whole number. If the pH meter

reads to the hundredth place, a round off rule will apply as follows: If the hundredth place

digit is less than 5, leave the tenth place digit as is. If it is greater than 5, round the tenth

place digit up one unit. If the hundredth place digit equals 5, round the tenth place digit to

the nearest even number.

10. Rinse the electrode(s) well with distilled water, then dab lightly with tissues to remove

any film formed on the electrode(s). Caution: Do not wipe the electrodes as this may

result in polarization of the electrode(s) and consequents low response.

3.3.5 THC Determination

Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) is a term used to describe a large family of several hundred

chemical compounds that originally come from crude oil; the main and most specific part of

these compounds are non-polar and slightly polar hydrocarbons of the aliphatic, aromatic and

alicyclic structure.

Procedure

A fluorimetric method of determination of mass concentration of THP using the FLUORAT-02

analyzer is based on measuring the fluorescence intensity of oil products after their extraction

from water phase by hexane. The influence of polar substances can be eliminated by treatment of

the hexane extract of TPH with hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solutions. For the

analysis of not treated wastewater in pulp and chemical industry, as well as in the case of high

34
absorption of the hexane extract an additional clean-up procedure using column chromatography

with aluminium oxide is required.

Highlights of the Fluorimetric Method

• Versatility in use – almost any water sample can be analyzed;

• Almost no interference from natural organic compounds;

• The method is more cost-effective solution comparable to chromatography techniques being

the same or better in terms of sensitivity and accuracy.

3.3.6 Cation Exchange Capacity

This will be calculated from the summation of all exchangeable bases (Mg 2+, K+, Na+, Ca2+) and

total exchangeable acidity.

3.3.7 Ecological risk assessment: this research employed the potential ecological risk index

proposed by (Xu et al., 2015) tp evaluate the potential ecological risk of heavy metals. This

method comprehensively considers the synergy, toxic level concentration of the heavy metals

and ecological sensitivity of heavy metals (Singh et al., 2010, Douay et al., 2013).

Eri = Tri X pli (3)

Where:
Tri – Toxic-response factor for a given substance

PIi – Degree of contamination.

Where, Tri – Toxic-response factor for a given substance (i.e, Cu =, Cr = 2, Zn = 1, Pb = 5, Cd
=30, Mn =1):
Criteria for degrees of ecological risk caused by heavy metals are shown below
Eri < 15 low ecological risk
15 ≤ Eri < 30 Moderate ecological risk
30 ≤ Eri < 60 Considerable ecological risk

35
60 ≤ Eri < 120 high ecological risk
Eri ≤ 120 Very high ecological
3.3 Data Collection

Data collection in research is common to both quantitative and qualitative research. Difference

arise mainly due to the restrictions imposed on flexibility, structure, sequential order, depth and

freedom that a researcher has in their use during the research process (Kumar, 2011). Some

methods like observations and interviews may be used by both quantitative and qualitative

researchers. Kumar (2011) posits that if an observation is recorded in a narrative or descriptive

format, it becomes qualitative information, but if it is recorded in categorical form or on a scale,

it will be classified as quantitative information.

3.4 Statistical Analysis 0f Result

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with multiple comparison using Duncan multiple test will be

performed to deduce significant difference between the means at a significant leve of 0.05 the

statistical analysis will be performed using SPSS Version 2.0.

A series of tests will be performed to evaluate the physiochemical effect of crude oil spill on soil.

Properties like C/N ratio, Electrical conductivity, bulk density, moisture content, pH, Salinity,

THC and other physiochemical properties. All the tests will be conducted in line with the API

specification. The data shown in the Tables were means (X) and standard errors (S.E).

36
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS.

The results of the physico-chemical properties of the soil samples are presented in the tables 4.1

and 4.2.

Location Sample M. C B.D POROSI KSAT % % % TEX

Depth % g/cm3
TY% (m/s) SAN SILT CLA CLASS
cm D Y

Crude oil 10 10.6 1.42 42.0 3.30 x 10-5 76.0 15.0 9.0 LOAMY
spillage SAND
area
20 10.0 1.44 42.5 3.62 x 10-5 76.6 14.8 9.6 LOAMY
SAND
30 10.0 1.44 42.5 3.74 x 10-5 78.8 12.0 9.2 LOAMY
SAND

Average 10.2 1.43 42.3 3.55x 10-5 77.1 13.9 9.3 LOAMY
SAND
Non Crude 10 12.8 1.36 39.6 4.10 x 10-5 70.8 22.0 7.2 SANDY
oil spillage LOAM
area
20 13.2 1.35 38.6 4.12 x 10-5 73.0 19.2 7.8 SANDY
LOAM
30 13.6 1.35 38.0 4.12x 10-5 72.4 18.4 9.2 SANDY
LOAM
Average 13.2 1.35 38.7 4.11x 10-5 70.1 19.9 8.1 SANDY
LOAM
Table 4.1: Results of the Physical Properties of the Soil Samples

37
 Table 4.2: Results of the chemical Properties of the Soil Samples

Location Sampl pH % % % EC K Na Ca Mg P ECE TPH

e us/cm Cmol/ Cme
O.C O.M N kg Cmol/ Cmol/kg Cmol/kg Cmol q/100 Cmol
Depth kg /kg g /kg
cm

Crude oil 10 6.40 3.80 1.78 0.092 65.72 0.120 0.319 3.40 2.20 18.00 0.13 16.36
spillage
area
20 6.40 3.34 1.86 0.092 69.00 0.154 0.318 3.48 2.28 10.20 0.09 12.22

30 6.44 3.20 1.60 0.090 76.24 0.123 0.314 3.62 2.22 8.40 0.08 10.28

Average 6.41 3.45 1.75 0.091 70.32 0.132 0.216 3.50 2.23 12.20 0.10 13.00

Non 10 5.50 1.66 6.24 0.496 88.93 0.320 0.189 4.80 3.30 42.20 0.45 0.014
Crude oil
spillage
area 20 5.48 1.64 6.44 0.421 123.00 0.354 0.185 4.60 3.20 40.00 0.55 0.012

30 5.52 1.60 6.93 0.420 115.56 0.323 0.188 4.82 3.70 42.20 0.24 0.011

Average 5.50 1.63 6.54 0.457 109.16 0.339 0.187 4.74 3.40 41.47 0.41 0.012

Table 4.8: Statistical analysis of the bioremediation effect on some chemical parameters of
the soil.

38
 parameters Before remediation After remediation
PH 6.41 a ± 0.01 5.50 b± 0.02

O.C 3.451a ± 0.04 1.63b± 0.02

O.M 1.75a ± 0.02 6.59 b ± 0.02

N 0.091a ± 0.02 0.457b ± 0.06
EC 70.32 a ± 0.06 109.16b ± 0.16
K 0.432 b ±0.07 0.339b ±0.32
Na 0.216a ± 0.16 0.187a ± 0.2
Ca 3.50a± 0.03 4.74a ± 0.55
Mg 2.23 a± 0.03 3.40a± 0.02
P 12.20 a ± 0.04 41.42 b ± 0.02
ECE 0.10a± 0.05 0.41 a ± 0.05
TPH 13.00 a ± 0.02 0.012 b ± 0.03
a –b Values with different superscripts in each row are significantly different from each other (P

> 0.05); N = 2;row

4.2 DISCUSSION

Oil contamination can affect soil physical and chemical properties. The level of effect of oil

spillage on the soil depends on the concentrations of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon (TPH) of the

soil usually causes anaerobic environment in soil by smothering soil particles and blocking air

diffusion in the soil pores, and affects soil microbial communities (Townsend et al., 2003; Labud

et al., 2007; Sutton et al., 2013). The results of physical properties of the oil spillage affected soil

and the non-oil spillage area as control are shown in table 4.1, while the results of the chemical

39
properties of the soil are shown in table 4.2. The results show that the soil moisture content of

the oil polluted soil ranges between 10.0% to 10.6% and lower than the non-oil spillage area

which ranges between 12.7 % to 13.6 %. This study shows that crude oil spillage in an

environment lowers the soil moisture content. This agree with the work of Wang et al., (2003)

that crude oil pollution significantly affected soil water contents.

The textural class of the soil from the experimental site was predominately loamy sand,. There

were no much difference observed in the bulk density and porosity of the soil for both oil

spillage affected soil and the non-oil spillage area.

The results of the chemical properties of the experimental soils were as shown in Tables 4.2. The

results show that the average soil pH values in the oil polluted soils was 6.41 while that of the

non-effected soil was 5.50. The result of the analysis of Variance ( ANOVA) shows that there

were significant difference between the pH value of soils before remediation and that of the soil

after remediation (p < 0.05) as seen in the table 4.3. This agrees with the results of previous

studies on oilfields in China which showed that oil pollution raised soil pH (Jia et al., 2009;

Wang et al., 2010),. This is also in line with the work of Imasuen et al., (2014) which state that

that petroleum contaminated soil has increased in pH against the natural background. The higher

pH values in crude oil-polluted soil in this study might be caused by two factors: first, the

hydrophobic nature of crude oil might induce a potential drought in the surface and subsurface

layers of polluted soil (Njoku et al., 2009), which could aggravate salinization, and thus raise the

pH values compared with that in the control site; second, oil pollution in soil has been shown to

be associated with the accumulation of exchangeable base (such as Ca2+, Na+) and a reduction

in exchangeable acidity and effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) (Benka-Coker and

Ekundayo, 1995; Ekundayo and Obuekwe, 1997; Osuji et al., 2006; Agbogidi et al., 2007).

40
These mechanisms might also underpin the increase of pH values in the crude oil polluted soil.

The values of the exchangeable base (Ca2+, Na+) were higher in the oil contaminated soils than

that of the non-effected soil.

Phosphorus is one of the most important macro-nutrients for plants and soil microorganisms. The

concentrations of Available Phosphorus (AP) in the soil of the oil contaminated soil were

significantly lower than that in the remediated soil. (p < 0.5) as seen in Table 4.3. The results of

previous studies showed that oil contamination decreased AP concentration by various degrees

(Wang et al., 2009; 2010; Eneje et al., 2012). This supported the result obtained in this work.

41
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

The study of the effect of oil spillage on soil physico- chemical properties in Rivers state was

carried out. The physico- chemical properties of the oil spill effected soil was determined by

standard laboratory methods. The results show that the soil moisture content of the oil Spill

affected soil was very lower than the non-effected soil having the highest moisture content of

13.6%. The results also show that the textural class of the soil from the experimental site was

predominately loamy sand and there were no much difference observed in the bulk density and

porosity of the soil for both oil spillage affected soil and the non-oil spillage area.

The soil pH values in the oil spill effected soils ranged from 6.40 to 6.44 while that of the soil

non-effected soil ranges from 5.40 to 5.46. There were significant difference between the pH

value of soils effected with iol spillage soil and that of the non-effected soil (p < 0.05) . Oil

pollution reduced the Exchangeable Acidity (EA) and the Effective Cation Exchangeable

Capacity (ECEC) but raises the Exchangeable bases (EB). The concentrations of Available

Phosphorus (AP) in the oil spill effected soil were significantly lower than that of the

remediation, thus bioremediation increases the phosphorus concentration of oil spill effected soil.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

Based on the observations and conclusion above, we recommend that farmers around and within

the oil spill effected area in Rivers State should adopt the process of bioremediation with the

use of poultry droppings, beans and maize chaff, for the remediation of the soil to improve the

soil nutrient for all year round production.

42
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