Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Sustainability 12 09494
Sustainability 12 09494
Article
Framework for Designing Sustainable Structures
through Steel Beam Reuse
Seongjun Kim 1 and Sung-Ah Kim 2, *
1 Department of Convergence Engineering for Future City, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea;
diorkisss@skku.edu
2 Department of Architecture, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea
* Correspondence: sakim@skku.edu
Received: 9 October 2020; Accepted: 12 November 2020; Published: 15 November 2020
Abstract: The architecture, engineering, and construction sector requires carbon-intensive materials,
such as steel, in the construction process and generates a large amount of waste in the life cycle.
This causes global warming and waste problems. The demand for the reuse of construction materials
is increasing, although it is not the convention, to reduce the environmental impact. Although the
sustainable effect of the reuse of materials has been proven in several studies, materials are not
always reused in practice, owing to the lack of an information system for reusable materials and
the economic uncertainty. In this study, we propose a framework for designing structures using
reusable steel beams. The design framework consists of a material bank and a design support tool.
The material bank provides information on reusable materials based on the building information
modeling. The design support tool generates efficient material procurement plans and provides
information about the environmental and economic impact of the project. In a case study used to
verify the framework, CO2 emissions were reduced by up to 77% through material reuse, which was
consistent with the results of previous studies. However, owing to the cost of processing reusable
materials, the overall cost was found to increase by up to about 40%. Therefore, an economic analysis
over the entire life cycle when using reusable materials needs to be done.
Keywords: reuse; design for reuse; material bank; life cycle assessment; life cycle cost; building
information modeling
1. Introduction
The demand for greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction has increased due to rapid climate change
caused by global warming. In particular, the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) sector
is a resource-intensive industry sector accounting for about 40% of the energy consumption and over
32% of the CO2 generation in the U.S. and Europe [1,2]. There is, therefore, a great need for the AEC
sector to reduce its generation of GHGs. In addition, the AEC accounts for 51% of the total steel
resource consumption [3] and up to 30% of the global waste generation [4–6], including Europe and
most developed countries. The material-related energy consumption accounts for 10–20% of the
AEC’s total energy consumption [7], and this proportion increases with the type and life span of the
structure. As such, resource consumption in the AEC sector poses a serious threat to the environment,
and according to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the use
of construction materials is expected to increase further in the future [8]. Accordingly, calls for the
reduction of both waste and production of construction materials are increasing worldwide. In Korea,
the AEC sector accounts for about 40% [9] of the energy consumption, which is two times greater than
that of the transportation section [10], and most of the generated waste and GHGs owing to the use
of carbon-intensive materials. In 2020, the annual steel consumption of the AEC sector in Korea was
estimated to be over 20.7 million tons [11]. In response to this situation, the Korean government is
attempting to reduce GHG emissions by 50% [12] and CO2 emissions from AEC by approximately
60% [13] by 2050.
Countries around the world have introduced the concept of a circular economy (CE) to reduce
the environmental impact caused by the production of construction materials and the discharge of
waste, with waste management being a key strategy for a CE [14–16]. The CE concept is used not
only for construction but also for responding to resource depletion and environmental issues and
other sustainability issues across all fields. This concept is particularly important in the AEC sector,
which has a significant influence on the environment, owing to its large resource consumption and
waste generation. The European Union action plan for CE actively encourages the recycling and reuse
of construction materials and provides guidelines [17,18]. Reduce, recycle, and reuse are recommended
as major strategies for waste management [19]. In particular, the reuse of materials extracted from
structures has proven to have a high potential to improve resource efficiency, energy use, and carbon
emissions of the AEC sector [20]. When steel scrap is processed using an electric arc furnace for
recycling, which is considered an eco-friendly strategy, 0.15–1.03 tons of CO2 are generated in the
process of producing 1 ton of steel [21]. In Korea, the electric arc furnace method generates only about
a quarter of the CO2 generated by the basic oxygen steelmaking method, in which iron ore is processed
using a blast furnace [22,23]; the amount of CO2 generated can be further reduced by the reuse of
materials. In addition, the reuse of construction materials reduces material production costs. Reuse
is attracting attention as the most promising alternative for enhancing the sustainability of the AEC
sector by replacing the resource and energy-intensive material production process and reducing waste.
Research has been conducted on design methods for efficiently extracting materials from structures
for reuse, or using materials already extracted to apply reuse in the AEC sector. Research on design for
deconstruction has developed strategies for both deconstructing structures from the design process,
and evaluating tools for ease of disassembly [24,25]. Research related to design for reuse (DfR)
has investigated the environmental effects and design strategies of new structures using reusable
materials [26,27]. Nevertheless, materials are rarely reused in the AEC sector, and there is a lack of
information on reusable materials and their properties. There is no official service that provides a list
or status of reusable materials, and even if reusable materials are sought, it is difficult for designers
to grasp information on their properties [28–30]. Therefore, the case for construction using reusable
materials and the process of design are not well-defined. In addition, project stakeholders, including
the owner, are concerned about the economic uncertainty of using reusable materials [28,29,31].
Designers, in particular, are reluctant to reuse because they are concerned that their designs and
material procurement strategies may be compromised by limitations in the shape and quantity of
available reusable materials [28,29,31,32]. The opportunity to enhance the sustainability of the AEC
sector is therefore lost because reusable materials are not used in practice, despite the environmental
benefits and existence of policy incentives for reuse.
In this study, we propose a framework for designing structures with reusable steel beams to
reduce CO2 emissions. The framework consists of a material bank for managing reusable material
information and a design support tool to increase the efficiency of reusable material use. The framework
supports the design process by providing information on reusable materials, efficient material usage
plans, and information on the environmental and economic impact of the project for designers and
stakeholders. In this way, it facilitates the process for stakeholders to use reusable materials to improve
the sustainability of the AEC sector. Sustainability is a broad term that comprehensively considers
the economic and social performance and environmental resilience to balance the interests of current
and future generations [14,33]. In this study, we focused on the environmental aspect of the various
elements of sustainability.
The subject of the proposed framework is a steel beam structure. This is because the demand
for steel beams in the AEC sector is very high; 60 million tons of sections are used worldwide every
year [34]. In Korea, about 7.9 million tons of steel sections and I beams (or H beams) are produced every
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9494 3 of 20
year [35]. Not all the steel components produced in Korea are used in the AEC sectors. Nevertheless,
the proposed framework is expected to allow an amount of steel sufficient to cover a significant portion
of the Korean and global demand for steel beams. Steel beams are easy to reuse [36,37], and although
reuse is not a common practice at present, the steel beam recovery rate in the AEC sector is about
85% [3], making it easy to secure inventory. The environmental benefit that can be obtained through
reuse is significant because steel beams require a lot of energy in the production process. In Korea, 67%
of the total steel is produced through the basic oxygen steelmaking method using a blast furnace [38].
With this method, about 2 tons of CO2 are generated for every 1 ton of iron produced [39]. In this
study, the amount of CO2 , which accounts for over 60% of the GHG emissions [40], was calculated to
measure the environmental impact of construction projects. The framework of this study focuses on
the process of creating design and material procurement plans using reusable materials. Therefore,
this study does not include a method of extracting materials from a structure to be deconstructed, or a
design method to facilitate extraction.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 explores previous studies on DfR, material
banks for managing reusable materials, and methods for assessing the environmental and economic
costs of construction projects; Section 3 proposes a design framework for promoting steel beam reuse
based on previous research considerations; Section 4 describes a case study to verify the effectiveness
of the proposed framework; Section 5 analyzes the results of the case study.
2. Literature Review
material procurement plan is needed through the optimization of cutting stock [43,46] because reuse
may not be possible due to the cost, which varies depending on the procurement plan.
and material unit information necessary for life cycle evaluation. In addition, because BIM can be used
for material banks [48–50], it can integrate the information needed to perform an environmental and
economic evaluation of construction projects using reusable materials.
The core principle of LCA is to measure the total environmental load of the project by analyzing the
materials and work required at each stage throughout the life cycle of the building, and summing the
environmental loads for each stage [58]. ISO 14040 [59] and ISO 14044 [60] explain the implementation
of the LCA through four phases: goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment,
and impact interpretation. The amount of material required is estimated using the BIM model.
The environmental load data generated for each unit of material and work are provided as attribute
information for each object in the BIM model. Recently, it was also provided in a standardized form
through national Life Cycle Inventory Databases (LCI DBs). As representative examples, there are
the U.S. Life Cycle Inventory Database [61] and the Korea Life Cycle Inventory Database (Korea LCI
DB) [39]. In the case of economic cost evaluation through the LCC, the cost of each step and the total
cost are calculated by multiplying the unit costs by the total material or work cost [62].
It was found that BIM’s management function of life cycle and attribute information can be
effectively used in the material banks, LCA, and LCC processes. The LCI DB can provide environmental
load data for each element of work and material. Therefore, BIM data needs to be linked to the LCI DB
for the life cycle evaluation of reuse projects. Additionally, system boundaries need to be established
according to the type of structure during the evaluation process throughout the life cycle. For example,
in the case of civil engineering structures, unlike buildings, cooling and heating costs may not be
required during the operation process.
The current status of the reuse is summarized as follows. The reuse of materials can
effectively reduce the environmental impact of the AEC sector. In particular, steel beams, which are
carbon-intensive materials, are very likely to be reused owing to their high demand and high recovery
rates. Nevertheless, the following problems are still faced in the reuse of steel beams. First, data on the
status and attribute information of reusable materials are not managed. Designers cannot consider
reuse at the design stage because data on reusable materials are not provided. In some cases, although
reuse is economical, it is avoided owing to the lack of data and economic uncertainty [52]. Another
problem is that the use of reusable materials increases the design difficulty. There are strong restrictions
on the form and quantity of reusable materials. For these reasons, it is more difficult to create designs
and material procurement plans when considering reuse. Therefore, in order to overcome the barriers
for reuse, a material bank for managing reusable material data and a design support tool for creating
an efficient alternative and assessment for environmental and economic feasibility are needed.
3. Method
This section describes a design framework for structures with reusable steel beams. Figure 1
shows the structure of the proposed framework, which consists of a material bank and a design support
tool. The designer inputs the design proposal and material reuse settings into the design support tool.
The design support tool requests a list of available materials for reuse from the material bank based on
the information entered by the designer. The design support tool creates efficient stock cutting and
material procurement plans that can be fulfilled using reusable materials. Finally, an environmental
and economic cost assessment is performed based on the LCA and LCC. The designer iteratively
revises the design based on the assessment results and determines the final solution.
Sustainability
Sustainability2020,
2020,12,
12,x 9494
FOR PEER REVIEW 6 6ofof2120
Figure 1.
Figure Design framework
1. Design framework for
for structures
structures using
using reusable
reusable steel
steel beams.
beams.
However, the life prediction of materials was excluded from the discussion because detailed methods
for life prediction were not within the scope of this study. In the case of CO2 emission information, it is
provided through linkage with the LCI DB managed by the government.
In addition, the extracted information attributes are used in cutting stock and material procurement
plans for reusable
Sustainability 2020, 12, x materials and in environmental
FOR PEER REVIEW and economic evaluation processes. 8 of 21
Next, the designer can set constraints on reusable materials. These constraints determine the range
of reusable materials required to search for in the material bank. For example, the designer can retrieve
only
onlymaterials
materialswhosewhose remaining
remaining life life is
is longer
longer thanthan the
the target
target life
lifeof
ofaanewnewstructure.
structure.InInaddition,
addition,eveneven
ififthe
thespecifications
specificationsofofthe thedesign
designand andthe thereusable
reusablematerial
materialdo donot
notcompletely
completelymatch, match,an analternative
alternativeto
applying the reusable material with the difference in specification
to applying the reusable material with the difference in specification within a certain range can within a certain range canbebe
considered.
considered. For example, if there is no reusable material with the same sectional specifications asasthe
For example, if there is no reusable material with the same sectional specifications the
design
designmaterial
materialin in the
the material
material bank,
bank, thethe designer
designer may may request
request the the material
materialbank banktotosearch
searchall allsectional
sectional
specifications within a certain size range, even if the sectional size of
specifications within a certain size range, even if the sectional size of the design is changed. the design is changed.
AA material
material procurement
procurement plan plan is is created after the
created after the designer
designer determines
determines the the scope
scopetotowhichwhichthe the
reusable material will be applied and the available material for reuse.
reusable material will be applied and the available material for reuse. However, it is difficult for However, it is difficult for
designers to create efficient procurement plans directly because
designers to create efficient procurement plans directly because there are many types of reusablethere are many types of reusable
materials
materials to to be
be considered,
considered, and many possible
and many possible alternatives.
alternatives. The problem of
The problem of finding
finding an anefficient
efficient
alternative in a situation where resources are limited is dealt with in operational
alternative in a situation where resources are limited is dealt with in operational research. In particular, research. In particular,
aasituation
situationwhere
where youyou want
want to to cut
cut while
while reducing
reducing the the loss
loss of
of an
an object
objectsuch
suchas asaasteel
steelbeam
beamisiscalled
calledthethe
cutting
cuttingstock
stockproblem
problem(CSP) (CSP)[43,46].
[43,46].InIn Figure
Figure 2, 2,
a total of of
a total sixsixmaterials
materials areare
required
requiredfor for
the the
design. The
design.
solution to the CSP is to replace the materials required for construction
The solution to the CSP is to replace the materials required for construction by using reusable materials by using reusable materials
(hatched
(hatchedin inFigure
Figure 2)2) and
and minimizing
minimizing the the amount
amount of ofnewly
newlyproduced
producedmaterials.
materials.The Thecase
caseofofcutting
cuttingsteel
steel
beams
beams to fit the shape of the design is the typical type of CSP. Efficient cutting plans for the CSP can bebe
to fit the shape of the design is the typical type of CSP. Efficient cutting plans for the CSP can
derived
derivedusing
using mathematical
mathematical models models or heuristic searches
or heuristic searches suchsuch as asmeta-heuristics
meta-heuristics[65,66].[65,66].However,
However,
implementing
implementingan analgorithm
algorithmto to solve
solve thethe CSP
CSP waswas notnot within
within thethe scope
scope of ofthis
thisstudy,
study,and andcommercial
commercial
programs to solve the CSP have already been developed. In this study,
programs to solve the CSP have already been developed. In this study, Gurobi [67], a commercial tool, Gurobi [67], a commercial tool,
was used to solve the CSP. Information on the type, quantity, and
was used to solve the CSP. Information on the type, quantity, and length of the material extracted, length of the material extracted,
based
basedon onthetheprevious
previous designer’s
designer’s settings,
settings, is used
is usedto define the CSP
to define problem.
the CSP Finally,
problem. all possible
Finally, cutting
all possible
patterns and plans with the least material waste are created, and based
cutting patterns and plans with the least material waste are created, and based on the cutting plans, on the cutting plans, a material
procurement plan is created,
a material procurement planincluding
is created,aincluding
production plan for new
a production materials.
plan for new materials.
when 𝐺 usingand 𝐺
reusable are the The
materials. CO2lifeamounts
cycle cangenerated
be classified during raw and
as product material extraction
construction, and
in use,
manufacturing, respectively.
and end of life [68]. The process Theofsteel beam raw
extracting manufacturing
materials and process is thematerials
producing most energy-intensive.
is generally a
Specifically, using a blast furnace generates a large amount of CO . 𝐺
process that generates a large amount of CO2 . In construction sites, CO2 is generated when using
2 is the CO 2 generated using
bending,
machinery cutting, and punching
and energy and in themachines
production in the process ofmaterials
of additional processing reused
during 𝐺
materials. maintenance,
construction, , 𝐺 ,
𝐺and deconstruction.
are the amounts At theofendCOof2 generated
the structure’s during life, construction, maintenance,
materials are transported to and deconstruction,
landfills, recycling
respectively. 𝐺
plants, or material is the amount
banks. Reusableofmaterials
CO2 generated primarily
are processed from
with the combustion
modification beforeof diesel
being fuel
used
during
in newtransportation.
projects. In theThe LCC,
case like the
of steel LCA,cutting,
beams, is performed
bending,by summing
and punching the costs
are incurred in each step
mainly performed.
[62]. 𝐶 and 𝐶 are the purchase costs of reuse and newly produced
The scope of this study is from mining raw materials to the deconstruction of structure. If data steel beams. 𝐶 , 𝐶 on ,
𝐶the flow
, 𝐶 of materials
, 𝐶 are the
after costs for modification
deconstruction, suchofasreusable
landfill, materials,
recycle, and construction,
reuse, can be maintenance,
obtained,
deconstruction and transportation,
life cycle evaluation respectively.
from cradle to grave (3) Impact assessment
can be performed. However, inand this(4) Interpretation:
study, the process In this
after
process, the CO emission generated by the structure in each life cycle and activity
deconstruction and the benefit beyond life cycle (which includes load and benefit of reuse and recycle)
2 is calculated and
analyzed
were not using data from
considered, owingthetodesign
the highalternatives, materialThe
data uncertainty. procurement
processes of plans,
summingand LCI updatabase.
CO2 (G) and Each
project
cost (C)has differentatpoints
generated of focus
each stage in the
of the lifelife cycle.
cycle are For example,
performed asbuildings
shown ingenerate
Equations a lot
(1)of CO(2):
and 2 during
operation, but simple structures do not. In addition, at the end of life stage, landfill, recycling, and reuse
processes are generally G =excluded m f g +analysis
Graw + Gfrom Gmod + due Gconstto+high
Gmaint + Gdeconst +[69].
uncertainties GtransTherefore,
, (1)
the designer
must adjust the system boundary for LCA and LCC analysis to be suited to the characteristics of each
project. C = Creuse + Cm f g + Cmod + Cconst + Cmaint + Cdeconst + Ctrans . (2)
Figure 3. Flow chart of the general life cycle, including items causing CO2 emissions and high costs of
Figure 3. Flow chart
steel structures of theofgeneral
and scope life cycle, including items causing CO2 emissions and high costs of
this study.
steel structures and scope of this study.
Graw and Gm f g are the CO2 amounts generated during raw material extraction and manufacturing,
4. Case StudyThe steel beam manufacturing process is the most energy-intensive. Specifically, using
respectively.
a blast furnace
A case studygenerates
was useda large amount
to verify CO2 . Gmod
theofproposed is the framework
design CO2 generatedand using bending,
to confirm the cutting,
effect of
and punching machines in the process of processing reused materials.
material reuse. The case study consisted of a scenario based on a situation G , G
in Korea.
const , G
maint Indeconst are the
this scenario,
amounts of CO2 generated during construction, maintenance, and deconstruction, respectively. Gtrans
is the amount of CO2 generated primarily from the combustion of diesel fuel during transportation.
The LCC, like the LCA, is performed by summing the costs incurred in each step [62]. Creuse and
Cm f g are the purchase costs of reuse and newly produced steel beams. Cmod , Cconst , Cmaint , Cdeconst ,
Ctrans are costs for modification of reusable materials, construction, maintenance, deconstruction and
transportation, respectively. (3) Impact assessment and (4) Interpretation: In this process, the CO2
emission generated by the structure in each life cycle and activity is calculated and analyzed using
data from the design alternatives, material procurement plans, and LCI database. Each project has
different points of focus in the life cycle. For example, buildings generate a lot of CO2 during operation,
but simple structures do not. In addition, at the end of life stage, landfill, recycling, and reuse processes
are generally excluded from analysis due to high uncertainties [69]. Therefore, the designer must
adjust the system boundary for LCA and LCC analysis to be suited to the characteristics of each project.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9494 10 of 20
4. Case Study
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21
A case study was used to verify the proposed design framework and to confirm the effect of
material reuse. The case study consisted of a scenario based on a situation in Korea. In this scenario,
reusable
reusablematerials
materialswere
wereprocured
procuredfrom
from the
the steel
steel structure
structure ofof aa deconstructed
deconstructed building,
building, andandthethenewly
newly
constructed structure was a noise barrier tunnel (NBT). In Korea, many thousands
constructed structure was a noise barrier tunnel (NBT). In Korea, many thousands of kilometers of kilometers of
sound barriers, including NBTs, have been built and their demand is constantly
of sound barriers, including NBTs, have been built and their demand is constantly increasing [70]. increasing [70]. In
addition, even
In addition, for for
even a short NBT,
a short NBT,thethe
length
lengthis isseveral
severalhundred
hundredmeters,
meters,soso itit requires
requires aa lot
lot of
ofmaterials
materials
and
and has a great impact on the environment. However, as shown in Figure 4, the main structuresof
has a great impact on the environment. However, as shown in Figure 4, the main structures
NBTs are all
of NBTs aremade of steel
all made beams,
of steel and the
beams, andlayout is similar
the layout amongamong
is similar structures, so it is easy
structures, so it to
is use
easyreusable
to use
materials and highly likely that sustainability will be enhanced.
reusable materials and highly likely that sustainability will be enhanced.
Figure 6. Building information modeling (BIM) model of deconstructed buildings and material
Figure 6. Building information modeling (BIM) model of deconstructed buildings and material bank
bank database.
database.
As shown in Figure 7, the designer created the NBT design and BIM models. The designer entered
the BIM model into the design support tool, and at the same time set the scope to apply the reusable
material and the constraints on the reuse. The design support tool extracted information such as
the length and cross-sectional dimensions of the material (yellow beams in Figure 7) selected by the
designer among the BIM models in the input design. The extracted attribute information was used as
criteria for searching for applicable materials from the material bank. For example, because the length
of the column in the design was 4500 mm, reusable materials shorter than this were not retrieved from
the material bank. In addition, the designer was able to search for reusable materials by setting the
allowable range, even if the specifications or conditions of the steel beam in the material bank did not
exactly match the design.
The design support tool received the initial design and constraints and asked the material bank
for information on available materials for reuse. Subsequently, the design support tool defined the CSP
by extracting information on type, length, and quantity from the list of available materials received
from the material bank and the list of materials required for the NBT construction. The solution for the
defined CSP was explored through the commercial program Gurobi [67], and a material procurement
plan was created based on this (Figure 8).
Finally, the environmental and economic impacts of the initial design and the generated material
procurement plan were evaluated through the LCA and LCC (Figure 9). Alternatives (A) and (D)
represent the initial alternative and the case that did not consider reuse at all, respectively. Alternatives
(B) and (C) are amendments to Alternative (A). (B’) and (C’) refer to the revised alternatives of (B) and
(C). Alternative (D), a case without reuse, generated approximately 420 tons of CO2 over 40 years,
at a cost of USD 270,000. Alternative (A) was found to generate approximately 95 tons of CO2 over
the same time, at a cost of USD 378,000. This represented a reduction of approximately 77% of CO2
through reuse; however, the cost increased with the amount of material reused.
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 21
Figure 6. Building information modeling (BIM) model of deconstructed buildings and material bank
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9494 12 of 20
database.
The design support tool received the initial design and constraints and asked the material bank for
information on available materials for reuse. Subsequently, the design support tool defined the CSP by
extracting information on type, length, and quantity from the list of available materials received from
the material bank and the list of materials required for the NBT construction. The solution for the
defined CSP was explored through the commercial program Gurobi [67], and a material procurement
Sustainability
plan 2020, 12,based
was created x FOR PEER REVIEW
on this (Figure 8). 12 of 21
The design support tool received the initial design and constraints and asked the material bank for
information on available materials for reuse. Subsequently, the design support tool defined the CSP by
extracting information on type, length, and quantity from the list of available materials received from
the material bank and the list of materials required for the NBT construction. The solution for the
defined CSP was explored through the commercial program Gurobi [67], and a material procurement
plan was created based on this (Figure
Figure 7. Initial8).
design of the noise barrier tunnel (NBT).
Figure 8. Initial solution to cutting stock problem and material procurement plan.
Finally, the environmental and economic impacts of the initial design and the generated material
procurement plan were evaluated through the LCA and LCC (Figure 9). Alternatives (A) and (D)
represent the initial alternative and the case that did not consider reuse at all, respectively. Alternatives
(B) and (C) are amendments to Alternative (A). (B’) and (C’) refer to the revised alternatives of (B) and
(C). Alternative (D), a case without reuse, generated approximately 420 tons of CO2 over 40 years, at a
cost of USD 270,000. Alternative (A) was found to generate approximately 95 tons of CO2 over the same
time, at a cost of USD 378,000. This represented a reduction of approximately 77% of CO2 through reuse;
however, the cost increased
Figure 8. Initial with thetoamount
solution cutting of material
stock reused.
problem and material procurement plan.
Figure 8. Initial solution to cutting stock problem and material procurement plan.
Finally, the environmental and economic impacts of the initial design and the generated material
procurement plan were evaluated through the LCA and LCC (Figure 9). Alternatives (A) and (D)
represent the initial alternative and the case that did not consider reuse at all, respectively. Alternatives
(B) and (C) are amendments to Alternative (A). (B’) and (C’) refer to the revised alternatives of (B) and
(C). Alternative (D), a case without reuse, generated approximately 420 tons of CO2 over 40 years, at a
cost of USD 270,000. Alternative (A) was found to generate approximately 95 tons of CO2 over the same
time, at a cost of USD 378,000. This represented a reduction of approximately 77% of CO2 through reuse;
however, the cost increased with the amount of material reused.
Figure 9. Life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle cost (LCC) results.
Figure 9. Life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle cost (LCC) results.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9494 13 of 20
Therefore, the designer created modified alternatives to reduce the high cost of the initial alternative.
Initially, it was decided to apply the reused material to all of the NBT columns, adjustable beams, and
rafter beams, but in the cases of B and C, the adjustable beam and rafter beam were excluded from the
scope of reuse. In addition, Alternatives B’ and C’ were created in which the length of the column,
which was 4200 mm, was increased to 4500 mm, which was the length of the reusable material. As the
size of the material increased, the CO2 and cost increased during the production of new materials,
but the cutting process of materials for reuse was omitted, reducing the overall cost.
5. Discussion
The results of the case study show that the proposed design framework can provide designers
with an alternative applying reusable materials. Information on reusable materials was extracted
from the BIM model of the building to be deconstructed and stored in the material bank database.
The design support tool extracted information based on the initial design proposal and constraints,
and then requested a list of materials conforming to it from the material bank database. Finally,
an efficient material procurement plan was created, using the list and information about available
materials delivered from the material bank, and environmental and economic analysis results were
provided to the designer. Through iterative design, the designer was able to create alternatives that
generated less CO2 than alternatives without reuse.
The results of the case study are analyzed as follows:
1. The use of reusable materials can reduce the CO2 emissions of construction projects. This case
study shows that CO2 can be reduced by up to 77%. Although they will depend on the type of
construction project and the assumed situation, the results of this study support the conclusions
of previous studies [37,63] that material reuse is one of the most effective strategies for reducing
CO2 emissions. In particular, most of the CO2 generated during the life cycle of the NBT is
generated during the manufacturing process of the material, and reuse is effective because it
can most directly reduce the CO2 generated from manufacturing (Figure 10). In the case of the
initial Alternative (A), the column, adjustable beam, and rafter beam were replaced with 175, 200,
and 200 reusable materials, respectively (Figure 8). The use of reusable materials caused CO2 to
be generated due to the modification and longer distance for transportation, but the production
of new materials was reduced. Eventually, Alternative (D), with no reuse, generated about 420
tons of CO2 , whereas Alternative (A) generated 95 tons of CO2 , resulting in a CO2 reduction
effect of about 325 tons. In this study, the use of carbon-intensive steel beams reduced carbon
emissions significantly, however, the reduction in the CO2 production may vary depending on
the type of material. For example, when less CO2 is generated during manufacturing or recycling,
the effect of reducing CO2 that can be obtained through reuse may be lower than that obtained
with steel beams.
2. Material reuse can increase the cost of the project. As a result of this case study, the cost of
the alternatives created through the proposed framework was higher in all cases than when
no reusable materials were considered. The project costs of Alternatives (A) and (D) were
about USD 378 and 270 thousand, respectively. The case study shows that the application of
reusable materials increases the cost by up to 40%. In some cases, CO2 and cost reduction
cannot be achieved simultaneously when reusable materials are applied. This is consistent
with the designers’ concerns [28,29,31] regarding the economic uncertainty of reusable materials.
It was proven that reuse is sometimes more expensive than manufacturing new materials [52,74].
Previous studies generated optimal solutions by focusing primarily on the production process
of the material without considering the cost of modification for reusable materials [41,42,47].
However, the results of this study show that it is necessary to review the economic feasibility of
the previous optimal solutions throughout the life cycle. For example, if the scope of the cost
assessment is limited to the material production process, it appears that the cost of the project
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9494 14 of 20
can be reduced through reuse. However, there are several items that incur costs when reusing
materials, such as transportation and modification.
3. The process of modifying reusable materials must be included in the cost assessment process.
The cost of purchasing reusable materials is generally lower than that of new materials. However,
the cost of the entire project may increase due to the cost incurred in the modification process
of reusable materials into the desired shape, size, and quality [44,75]. Processing costs can
vary greatly, depending on the type, region, and labor cost of the project. In this study, it was
observed that as the amount of reusable material increased, the cost for modification increased,
and eventually the whole cost of the project increased, compared to the case without reuse
(Figure 11). In addition, since it is not easy to determine the remaining life of reusable materials
in practice, inspection costs for this may be added. As such, the incidental costs incurred by
using reusable materials act as barriers to reuse [29–31]. Therefore, from the planning stage,
the modification and inspection costs of reusable materials must be considered. In addition,
research on automation and simplification of reusable material inspection should be carried out
to reduce the cost of reuse projects.
4. The most promising strategy to reduce CO2 and cost at the same time is to use the reusable
material without changing its shape. However, excessive constraints on the shape of the material
can increase the design difficulty and cost. In fact, designers are hesitant to use reusable materials
due to concerns about the increase in design difficulty [28,29,31,32]. Therefore, it is necessary to
assist the designer through the development of a design tool to generate a design in a required
form while minimizing the processing of reusable materials.
5. Above all, data on deconstructed structures and reusable materials should be obtained for the
operation of the proposed framework. This is because the entire framework will not work without
data on reusable materials in the material bank. In particular, materials used in buildings that are
about to be deconstructed are not likely to be digitized in the form of a BIM model. Therefore,
research should be conducted on a method for automatically constructing existing building
and material data and so creating a comprehensive database containing significant amounts of
material bank assets. The use of visual data [76], such as photographs or laser scanning data [77],
enables the automatic generation of BIM models of existing buildings and will help to increase
the number of BIM models, which are assets of material banks.
The scope of this study did not include the development of methods for predicting the life of
reusable materials. However, the service life of the material must be determined to compare it with the
target life of the structure to apply the reusable material. The life prediction of materials or structures
has been performed mainly through long-term aging tests, laboratory tests, and theoretical/analytical
methods [78]. The long-term aging test is employed to predict the lifespan through tests and observations
of historical data or current buildings. The theoretical/analytical method has the potential to automate
the life expectancy process because it determines the life span through a mathematical model or
simulation. ISO 15686 [79] also provides a method and a simple formula for predicting the lifetime.
Akanbi et al. [80] developed a whole-life performance estimator based on BIM and mathematical
models and determined whether or not the material could be reused. Recently, a study was conducted
to determine the reusability by attaching a sensor directly to the material [81]. The important point
in material bank is that information must be managed on a per material basis. David et al. showed
that it is possible to manage material-level information through radio frequency identification (RFID)
technology and BIM [3].
Sustainability
Sustainability 2020,
2020, 12,
12, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 15
15 of
of 21
21
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9494 15 of 20
Costs of alternatives
Figure 11. Costs
Figure alternatives in the
the case study.
study.
Figure 11.
11. Costs of
of alternatives in
in the case
case study.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
This paper proposed a design framework for using reusable steel beams in structures to promote
This paper proposed a design framework for using reusable steel beams in structures to promote
sustainability. The proposed framework consists of a material bank and a design support tool. The
sustainability. The proposed framework consists of a material bank and a design support tool. The
material bank manages the information on reusable materials. The design support tool generates a
material bank manages the information on reusable materials. The design support tool generates a
material procurement plan and evaluates the project’s CO2 emissions and costs through LCA and LCC
material procurement plan and evaluates the project’s CO22 emissions and costs through LCA and LCC
methodologies. All information on the framework is managed based on BIM data.
methodologies. All information on the framework is managed based on BIM data.
In a case study to verify the proposed framework, an alternative was created to reduce the CO2 of
In a case study to verify the proposed framework, an alternative was created to reduce the CO2 of
construction projects by up to 77% through material reuse. However, it turned out to be impossible 2to
construction projects by up to 77% through material reuse. However, it turned out to be impossible to
create alternatives that reduced both CO2 and costs simultaneously. Therefore, the designer explored a
create alternatives that reduced both CO22 and costs simultaneously. Therefore, the designer explored a
compromise between CO2 and cost through an iterative design process using the framework.
compromise between CO22 and cost through an iterative design process using the framework.
This study provides the following contributions:
This study provides the following contributions:
1. This study proposed a generalized design framework for reusing steel beams that have a significant
1. This study proposed a generalized design framework for reusing steel beams that have a
environmental impact, thereby enabling the creation of a steel structure design plan and a material
significant environmental impact, thereby enabling the creation of a steel structure design plan
procurement plan using reusable materials.
and a material procurement plan using reusable materials.
2.
2. The Thecase
casestudy
studyshows
showsthat
thatthe
the reuse
reuse of
of materials
materials is
is an
an effective
effective strategy
strategy to
to reduce
reducethe
theCO22
CO 2
generation of construction projects.
generation of construction projects.
3. The results of the case study also show that practical concerns about the economic uncertainty of
material reuse are valid. The framework of this study can help project stakeholders overcome
this through economic evaluation over the entire life cycle.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9494 16 of 20
1. For the application of reusable materials, methods to measure the life and quality of materials
with low costs are required. Concerns about the quality of materials and rising costs due to
inspection act as barriers to the reuse of materials [28,52]. Therefore, a method for tracking and
ensuring material quality and inspecting materials with low costs is also required. Structural
health monitoring technology using sensor and vision technology [82] and material monitoring
information management technology using RFID, BIM, and digital twin can be considered for
automated inspection and reduction of inspection costs.
2. The material bank should contain detailed construction process information. For example,
the material bank of this study only contains information about the type of connection of the
steel beams. However, to construct a structure using steel beams, information on the shape
of the connection and the specification of the connecting member is required. In particular,
if reusable materials were connected by bolted joints in the past and there is perforation at the joint,
the information must be provided to the designer in advance. In addition, information on the
connection of materials is needed to determine the reusability of structures and materials. This is
because the reusability is affected by the ease of disassembly of the structure, and the difficulty of
disassembly varies depending on the connection type of the material [74]. The evaluation of the
difficulty of disassembly will help determine whether it is possible to actually extract and use
reusable materials from the structure to be deconstructed.
3. Optimization of the design plan using reusable materials and the material procurement plan
needs to be performed. Because the number of alternatives that can be explored through the
designer’s iterative design process is limited, many alternatives need to be explored through the
computational optimization process and optimal alternatives derived.
4. The precision of LCA and LCC analyses needs to be improved. For example, catering to the
inflation rate in the cost evaluation process improves the accuracy of the analysis. Limitations of
this study arise owing to the experimental assumptions and limitations of the scope of the LCC
analysis. In addition, if data on the flow of materials after the deconstruction of the structure
are obtained, it will be possible to evaluate all stages of the life cycle and accurately analyze the
benefits of reuse and recycle. Therefore, a more precise analysis will need to be performed in
the future.
Appendix A
The CO2 emissions of the band saw machine and the bending machine were derived through
multiplication of work time per unit, power consumption of machine, and CO2 emission from electricity
use, and the specifications of the actual machine were referenced. For other values related to cost or
work, we referred to the cost estimation case of the NBT company. For other values, we referred to the
Korea LCI DB [39].
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9494 17 of 20
References
1. Carvalho, J.P.; Bragança, L.; Mateus, R. Optimising building sustainability assessment using BIM.
Autom. Constr. 2019, 102, 170–182. [CrossRef]
2. Ozcan-Deniz, G.; Zhu, Y. Multi-objective optimization of greenhouse gas emissions in highway construction
projects. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2017, 28, 162–171. [CrossRef]
3. Ness, D.; Swift, J.; Ranasinghe, D.C.; Xing, K.; Soebarto, V. Smart steel: New paradigms for the reuse of steel
enabled by digital tracking and modelling. J. Clean. Prod. 2015, 98, 292–303. [CrossRef]
4. Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW). Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/
construction_demolition.htm (accessed on 29 September 2020).
5. Chi, B.; Lu, W.; Ye, M.; Bao, Z.; Zhang, X. Construction waste minimization in green building: A comparative
analysis of LEED-NC 2009 certified projects in the US and China. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 256, 120749. [CrossRef]
6. Akinade, O.O.; Oyedele, L.O.; Ajayi, S.O.; Bilal, M.; Alaka, H.A.; Owolabi, H.A.; Arawomo, O.O. Designing out
construction waste using BIM technology: Stakeholders’ expectations for industry deployment. J. Clean. Prod.
2018, 180, 375–385. [CrossRef]
7. Tuladhar, R.; Yin, S. Sustainability of using recycled plastic fiber in concrete. In Use of Recycled Plastics in
Eco-Efficient Concrete, 1st ed.; Pacheco-Torgal, F., Khatib, J., Colangelo, F., Tuladhar, R., Eds.; Woodhead
Publishing: Cambridge, UK, 2019; pp. 441–460. [CrossRef]
8. OECD HIGHLIGHTS Global Material Resources Outlook to 2060—Economic Drivers and Environmental
Consequences. Available online: https://www.oecd.org/environment/waste/highlights-global-material-
resources-outlook-to-2060.pdf (accessed on 20 September 2020).
9. Cho, S.-H.; Chae, C.-U. The comparative study on the environmental impact assessment of construction
material through the application of carbon reducing element-focused on global warming potential of concrete
products. KIEAE J. 2015, 15, 147–154. [CrossRef]
10. 2017 Energy Consumption Survey. Available online: http://www.keei.re.kr/keei/download/ECS2017.pdf
(accessed on 5 November 2020).
11. Analysis on the Transition of Steel Demand Structure and Its Implications. Available online: https:
//www.kiet.re.kr/part/sDownload.jsp?s_idx=39603 (accessed on 5 November 2020).
12. Cho, S.; Na, S. The reduction of CO2 emissions by application of high-strength reinforcing bars to three
different structural systems in South Korea. Sustainability 2017, 9, 1652. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9494 18 of 20
13. 2050 Long-Term Low Emission Development Strategy (LEDS). Available online: http://me.go.kr/home/file/
readDownloadFile.do?fileId=188872&fileSeq=2 (accessed on 5 November 2020).
14. Geissdoerfer, M.; Savaget, P.; Bocken, N.M.P.; Hultink, E.J. The Circular Economy—A new sustainability
paradigm? J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 143, 757–768. [CrossRef]
15. Koutamanis, A. Building information modeling for construction and demolition waste minimization.
Adv. Constr. Demolition Waste Recycl. 2020, 101–120. [CrossRef]
16. Paz, D.H.F.; Lafayette, K.P.V.; Sobral, M.C.M. Management of construction and demolition waste using
GIS tools. Adv. Constr. Demolition Waste Recycl. 2020, 121–156. [CrossRef]
17. Whicher, A.; Harris, C.; Beverley, K.; Swiatek, P. Design for circular economy: Developing an action plan for
Scotland. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 172, 3237–3248. [CrossRef]
18. Construction and Demolition Waste: Challenges and Opportunities in a Circular Economy. Available
online: https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/waste/waste-management/construction-and-demolition-waste-
challenges (accessed on 29 September 2020).
19. Kirchherr, J.; Reike, D.; Hekkert, M. Conceptualizing the circular economy: An analysis of 114 definitions.
Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2017, 127, 221–232. [CrossRef]
20. Yeheyis, M.; Hewage, K.; Alam, M.S.; Eskicioglu, C.; Sadiq, R. An overview of construction and demolition
waste management in Canada: A lifecycle analysis approach to sustainability. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy
2013, 15, 81–91. [CrossRef]
21. Kirschen, M.; Risonarta, V.; Pfeifer, H. Energy efficiency and the influence of gas burners to the energy related
carbon dioxide emissions of electric arc furnaces in steel industry. Energy 2009, 34, 1065–1072. [CrossRef]
22. Steel Scrap Introduction. Available online: http://www.kosia.kr/iron/iron_01.php (accessed on 5
November 2020).
23. Dongkuk Steel Environmental Report 2019. Available online: http://www.dongkuk.com/upload/promotion/
print/f06eac15-77ff-40f7-9713-7bb18527fda6.pdf (accessed on 5 November 2020).
24. Jouri, K. Design for Deconstruction in the Design Process: State of the Art. Buildings 2018, 8, 150. [CrossRef]
25. Akinade, O.O.; Oyedele, L.O.; Ajayi, S.O.; Bilal, M.; Alaka, H.A.; Owolabi, H.A.; Bello, S.A.; Jaiyeoba, B.E.;
Kadiri, K.O. Design for Deconstruction (DfD): Critical success factors for diverting end-of-life waste from
landfills. Waste Manag. 2017, 60, 3–13. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
26. Hradil, P.; Talja, A.; Wahlström, M.; Huuhka, S.; Lahdensivu, J.; Pikkuvirta, J. Re-Use of Structural Elements;
VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland: Espoo, Finland, 2014; ISBN 9789513881979.
27. Burgan, B.A.; Sansom, M.R. Sustainable steel construction. J. Constr. Steel Res. 2006, 62, 1178–1183. [CrossRef]
28. Densley Tingley, D.; Cooper, S.; Cullen, J. Understanding and overcoming the barriers to structural steel
reuse, a UK perspective. J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 148, 642–652. [CrossRef]
29. Rose, C. Systems for Reuse, Repurposing and Upcycling of Existing Building Components; UCL (University College
London): London, UK, 2019.
30. Gorgolewski, M.; Ergun, D. Closed-loop materials systems. In Proceedings of the Sustainable Buildings
Conference, Coventry University, Coventry, UK, 18–21 August 2013.
31. Allwood, J.M.; Cullen, J.M.; Carruth, M.A.; Cooper, D.R.; McBrien, M.; Milford, R.L.; Moynihan, M.C.;
Patel, A.C. Sustainable Materials: With both Eyes Open; UIT: Cambridge, UK, 2012.
32. Hemström, K.; Palm, D.; Lindblom, J.; Vegas, I.J.; Lisbona, A.; Horckmans, L.; Ratman-kłosińska, I.;
Ferrando, V. Characterisation of supply chain for reused building components in Europe. In Proceedings of
the WASCON 2012 Conference, Göteborg, Sweden, 30 May–1 June 2012; pp. 1–6.
33. Pieroni, M.P.P.; McAloone, T.C.; Pigosso, D.C.A. Business model innovation for circular economy and
sustainability: A review of approaches. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 215, 198–216. [CrossRef]
34. Moynihan, M.C.; Allwood, J.M. The flow of steel into the construction sector. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2012,
68, 88–95. [CrossRef]
35. Steel Statistics—Steel Products Production. Available online: https://www.kosa.or.kr/eng/ (accessed on 5
November 2020).
36. Dunant, C.F.; Drewniok, M.P.; Sansom, M.; Corbey, S.; Cullen, J.M.; Allwood, J.M. Options to make steel reuse
profitable: An analysis of cost and risk distribution across the UK construction value chain. J. Clean. Prod.
2018, 183, 102–111. [CrossRef]
37. Iacovidou, E.; Purnell, P. Mining the physical infrastructure: Opportunities, barriers and interventions in
promoting structural components reuse. Sci. Total Environ. 2016, 557–558, 791–807. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9494 19 of 20
38. Energy GHG Total Information Platform Service—Steel—Industry Introduction. Available online: http://tips.
energy.or.kr/overconsector/overconsector_view_01.do?code_num=MI&ch_code_num=MI01 (accessed on 5
November 2020).
39. Korea LCI DB. Available online: http://www.epd.or.kr/eng/lci/lciIntro00.do (accessed on 16 July 2019).
40. Buragienė, S.; Šarauskis, E.; Romaneckas, K.; Sasnauskienė, J.; Masilionytė, L.; Kriaučiūnienė, Z. Experimental
analysis of CO2 emissions from agricultural soils subjected to five different tillage systems in Lithuania.
Sci. Total Environ. 2015, 514, 1–9. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
41. Pongiglione, M.; Calderini, C. Material savings through structural steel reuse: A case study in Genoa.
Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2014, 86, 87–92. [CrossRef]
42. Brütting, J.; Desruelle, J.; Senatore, G.; Fivet, C. Design of truss structures through reuse. Structures 2019, 18,
128–137. [CrossRef]
43. Brütting, J.; Senatore, G.; Schevenels, M.; Fivet, C. Optimum design of frame structures from a stock of
reclaimed elements. Front. Built Environ. 2020, 6. [CrossRef]
44. Ali, A.K.; Wang, Y.; Alvarado, J.L. Facilitating industrial symbiosis to achieve circular economy using
value-added by design: A case study in transforming the automobile industry sheet metal waste-flow into
Voronoi facade systems. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 234, 1033–1044. [CrossRef]
45. Gorgolewski, M. The implications of reuse and recycling for the design of steel buildings. Can. J. Civ. Eng.
2006, 33, 489–496. [CrossRef]
46. Gilmore, P.C.; Gomory, R.E. A linear programming approach to the cutting stock problem-part II. Oper. Res.
1963, 11, 863–888. [CrossRef]
47. Bertin, I.; Mesnil, R.; Jaeger, J.M.; Feraille, A.; Le Roy, R. A BIM-based framework and databank for reusing
load-bearing structural elements. Sustainability 2020, 12, 3147. [CrossRef]
48. Cai, G.; Waldmann, D. A material and component bank to facilitate material recycling and component reuse
for a sustainable construction: Concept and preliminary study. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy 2019, 21,
2015–2032. [CrossRef]
49. Jayasinghe, L.B.; Waldmann, D. Development of a BIM-based web tool as a material and component bank
for a sustainable construction industry. Sustainability 2020, 12, 1766. [CrossRef]
50. Honic, M.; Kovacic, I.; Rechberger, H. Improving the recycling potential of buildings through material
passports (MP): An Austrian case study. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 217, 787–797. [CrossRef]
51. Arora, M.; Raspall, F.; Cheah, L.; Silva, A. Residential building material stocks and component-level
circularity: The case of Singapore. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 216, 239–248. [CrossRef]
52. Smeets, A.; Wang, K.; Drewniok, M. Can Material Passports lower financial barriers for structural steel
re-use? IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2019, 2019, 1–8. [CrossRef]
53. Hollberg, A.; Genova, G.; Habert, G. Evaluation of BIM-based LCA results for building design. Autom.
Constr. 2020, 109, 102972. [CrossRef]
54. Santos, R.; Costa, A.A.; Silvestre, J.D.; Pyl, L. Integration of LCA and LCC analysis within a BIM-based
environment. Autom. Constr. 2019, 103, 127–149. [CrossRef]
55. Eleftheriadis, S.; Mumovic, D.; Greening, P. Life cycle energy efficiency in building structures: A review of
current developments and future outlooks based on BIM capabilities. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 67,
811–825. [CrossRef]
56. Kensek, K. BIM guidelines inform facilities management databases: A case study over time. Buildings 2015,
5, 899–916. [CrossRef]
57. Ding, L.; Zhou, Y.; Akinci, B. Building Information Modeling (BIM) application framework: The process of
expanding from 3D to computable nD. Autom. Constr. 2014, 46, 82–93. [CrossRef]
58. Jeong, K.; Ji, C.; Koo, C.; Hong, T.; Park, H.S. A model for predicting the environmental impacts of educational
facilities in the project planning phase. J. Clean. Prod. 2015, 107, 538–549. [CrossRef]
59. International Organization for Standardization. Environmental Management: Life Cycle Assessment; Principles
and Framework ISO14040; ISO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.
60. International Organization for Standardization. Environmental Management: Life Cycle Assessment; Requirements
and Guidelines ISO14044; ISO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.
61. U.S. Life Cycle Inventory Database. Available online: https://www.nrel.gov/lci/ (accessed on 16 July 2019).
62. Chardon, S.; Brangeon, B.; Bozonnet, E.; Inard, C. Construction cost and energy performance of single family
houses: From integrated design to automated optimization. Autom. Constr. 2016, 70, 1–13. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2020, 12, 9494 20 of 20
63. Yeung, J.; Walbridge, S.; Haas, C. The role of geometric characterization in supporting structural steel reuse
decisions. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2015, 104, 120–130. [CrossRef]
64. Industry Foundation Classes IFC4 Official Release. Available online: https://standards.buildingsmart.org/
IFC/RELEASE/IFC4/ADD2_TC1/HTML/ (accessed on 30 August 2020).
65. Salem, O.; Shahin, A.; Khalifa, Y. Minimizing cutting wastes of reinforcement steel bars using genetic
algorithms and integer programming models. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2007, 133, 982–992. [CrossRef]
66. Chen, Y.H.; Huang, H.C.; Cai, H.Y.; Chen, P.F. A Genetic Algorithm Approach for the Multiple Length Cutting
Stock Problem. In Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 1st Global Conference on Life Sciences and Technologies
(LifeTech), Osaka, Japan, 12–14 March 2019; pp. 162–165.
67. Gurobi Cutting Stock Problem with Multiple Master Rolls. Available online: https://www.gurobi.com/
resource/cutting-stock-problem-with-multiple-master-rolls-2/ (accessed on 30 August 2020).
68. EN 15978:2011. Sustainability of Construction Works—Assessment of Environmental Performance of Buildings—
Calculation Method; The British Standards Institution: London, UK, 2011.
69. Broun, R.; Menzies, G.F. Life cycle energy and environmental analysis of partition wall systems in the UK.
Procedia Eng. 2011, 21, 864–873. [CrossRef]
70. Ahn, H.; Kim, I.; Park, J.-B.; Lee, J.H.; Kim, G.S. Analysis of research trend and development direction on
domestic and international noise barriers. J. Korean Soc. Environ. Eng. 2012, 34, 847–854. [CrossRef]
71. Better Steel, Lower Impacts. Available online: https://www.buildinggreen.com/feature/better-steel-lower-
impacts (accessed on 5 November 2020).
72. McNeel Rhinoceros. Available online: https://www.rhino3d.com (accessed on 5 November 2020).
73. Asuni VisualARQ. Available online: https://www.visualqrq.com (accessed on 5 November 2020).
74. Durmisevic, E.; Beurskens, P.R.; Adrosevic, R.; Westerdijk, R. Systemic view on reuse potential of building
elements, components and systems-comprehensive framework for assessing reuse potential of building
elements. In Proceedings of the International HISER Conference on Advances in Recycling and Management
of Construction and Demolition Waste, Delft, The Netherlands, 21–23 June 2017; pp. 275–280.
75. Gorgolewski, M. Designing with reused building components: Some challenges. Build. Res. Inf. 2008, 36,
175–188. [CrossRef]
76. Volk, R.; Stengel, J.; Schultmann, F. Building Information Modeling (BIM) for existing buildings—Literature
review and future needs. Autom. Constr. 2014, 38, 109–127. [CrossRef]
77. Yang, L.; Cheng, J.C.P.; Wang, Q. Semi-automated generation of parametric BIM for steel structures based on
terrestrial laser scanning data. Autom. Constr. 2020, 112, 103037. [CrossRef]
78. Vesikari, E.; Landolfo, R. Durability and Service Life Prediction Methodologies. In Proceedings of the Seminar
of the COST Action C25 on Sustainability of Constructions-Integrated Approach to Life-Time Structural
Engineering, Dresden, Germany, 6–7 October 2008; pp. 4.3–4.10.
79. International Organization for Standardization. Buildings and Constructed Assets—Service Life Planning—
Part 2: Service Life Prediction Procedures ISO 15686-2; ISO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2001.
80. Akanbi, L.A.; Oyedele, L.O.; Akinade, O.O.; Ajayi, A.O.; Davila Delgado, M.; Bilal, M.; Bello, S.A.
Salvaging building materials in a circular economy: A BIM-based whole-life performance estimator.
Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2018, 129, 175–186. [CrossRef]
81. Keller, P.; McConnell, J.; Schumacher, T.; Thostenson, E.T. Construction Stress Monitoring Using a Wireless
Sensor Network to Evaluate Reuse Potential of Structural Steel. J. Struct. Eng. 2019, 145, 04019143. [CrossRef]
82. Bao, Y.; Chen, Z.; Wei, S.; Xu, Y.; Tang, Z.; Li, H. The State of the Art of Data Science and Engineering in
Structural Health Monitoring. Engineering 2019, 5, 234–242. [CrossRef]
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional
affiliations.
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).