TALBOT SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY

THE DAY OF THE LORD IN THE MINOR PROPHETS:

A DISCUSSION OF LITERARY UNITY AND BIBLICAL THEOLOGY

A Paper Presented to

Dr. Kenneth Way

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Course

TTOT 799 – Old Testament Capstone

Stephen A. Noch
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Introduction

Recent scholarship has taken a particular interest in the redactional history of the

collection of books we know as the Minor Prophets.1 Some have argued for seeing the twelve

prophets as a canonical unity, intentionally composed to be read as one book with a unified

message.2 Others have contested this view, asserting that such a view is a post-canonical

concept, and to read the Twelve as such is to miss the unique message of each individual

prophet.3 The purpose of this paper is to briefly survey arguments for each view, examining

manuscript evidence and evaluating intertextual and thematic similarities. In terms of seeking

internal evidence for unity, this paper will have a special focus one theme in particular, the day

of the Lord, which seems to be a common thread stringing the prophets together. After defining

the day of the Lord and reviewing a biblical theology of the theme, we will consider how this

impacts our understanding of the Twelve’s compositional unity.

‘The Twelve Prophetic Books’ or ‘The Book of the Twelve?’

Manuscript Evidence

Regardless of their potential literary unity, history shows a longstanding tradition of at

least viewing the Minor Prophets as a group of their own. The earliest reference to the minor

1
See, for instance, Paul R. House, The Unity of the Twelve, JSOTSup (Great Britain: Sheffield Academic
Press, 1990); Al Fuhr and Gary Yates, The Message of the Twelve: Hearing the Voice of the Minor Prophets
(Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2016), 41–58; James D. Nogalski, “Intertextuality and the Twelve,” in Forming
Prophetic Literature: Essays on Isaiah and the Twelve in Honor of John D.W. Watts, ed. James W. Watts and Paul
R. House (New York: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996); James Nogalski, “Reading the Book of the Twelve
Theologically,” Interpretation 61, no. 2 (April 2007): 115–122; Russell Fuller, “The Form and Formation of the
Twelve,” in Forming Prophetic Literature: Essays on Isaiah and the Twelve in Honor of John D.W. Watts, ed.
James W. Watts and Paul R. House (New York: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996); Ehud ben Zvi, “Twelve Prophetic
Books or ‘The Twelve,’” in Forming Prophetic Literature: Essays on Isaiah and the Twelve in Honor of John D.W.
Watts, ed. James W. Watts and Paul R. House (New York: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996).
2
Among the proponents of this view are Paul House, Russell Fuller, James Nogalski, Richard Fuhr, Jr.,
Gary Yates, Rolf Rendtorff, David L. Peterson.

3
Proponents of this view include Ehud ben Zvi, Mika S. Pajunen, and Hanne von Weissenberg.
 2

prophets as ‘the twelve’ appears around 200 BC in Sirach 49:10, “May the bones of the twelve

prophets rise to new life, because these men encouraged the people of Israel and saved them with

confident hope.”

Russell Fuller has an extensive chapter in Forming Prophetic Literature which examines

manuscript evidence from the Judean Desert supporting the compositional unity of the Twelve.4

Seven scrolls found in Cave IV at Qumran indicate that from as early as 150 BC the twelve

prophets have been written on single scroll (see manuscripts 4QXIIa-g). Unfortunately, all seven

manuscripts have been damaged severely so that no one manuscript is able to exhibit the entire

collection on a single scroll; however, one of the better-preserved manuscripts (4QXIIg) shows as

many as nine prophets reflecting order of the Masoretic tradition. Another scroll found at Wadi

Murabba’at (Mur 88) is in better condition, and attests to ten of the minor prophets in MT order

(only Hosea at the beginning of the scroll and Malachi at the end have not been preserved).

Greek Septuagint manuscripts from the Judean Desert (e.g., 8HevXIIgr and the Washington

papyrus) similarly reflect the practice of grouping the Twelve together on a single scroll.5

The evidence from these archeological sites demonstrates that the desert community

considered the Twelve to be the words of Yahweh, and that they made it common practice to

group the Twelve together on a single scroll, rather than maintaining twelve individual scrolls.6

While observations about the early redaction of the Twelve are helpful for determining their

4
Fuller, “Forming Prophetic Literature,” 86–101.

5
Ehud ben Zvi rightly points out that although collections of writings could be kept on a single scroll, this
does not necessitate them being read as a single literary unit. He cites a few examples of these scrolls from antiquity;
see ben Zvi, “Forming Prophetic Literature,” 130–132.
6
For a critique on this view with an in-depth analysis of the manuscript evidence, see Mika S. Pajunen and
Hanne von Weissenberg, “The Book of Malachi, Manuscript 4Q76 (4QXIIa), and the Formation of the ‘Book of the
Twelve,’” Journal of Biblical Literature 134, no. 4 (2015): 731–751.
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canonical unity, we must go deeper than external evidence to ascertain authorial intent. We now

turn our attention to internal evidence, the lexical and thematic coherence between the Twelve.

Intertextuality

James Nogalski defines intertextuality as, “the interrelationship between two or more

texts which evidence suggests (1) was deliberately established by ancient authors/editors or (2)

was presupposed by those authors/editors.”7 Nogalski also identifies five different types of

intertextuality which occur in the Twelve: quotations, allusions, catchwords, motifs, and framing

devices.8 Due to the limited scope of this paper, we will only look briefly at quotations and

allusions.

Intertextual relationships within the Twelve are significant to this discussion because

greater lexical cohesion strengthens the argument for intentional unity on behalf of the authors;

that is, the more that quotations and allusions appear within the Twelve, the greater likelihood

that each author was cognizant of unifying his composition with the other writings.9 Nogalski

offers an appendix of allusions and citations which is a helpful reference.10 A few examples of

quotation are listed here:

Joel 3:5 (Eng 2:32) quotes Obadiah 17: ‫ ִכּי ְבַּהר־ִציּוֹן וִּבירוָּשַׁל ִם ִתְּהֶיה ְפֵליָטה ַכֲּאֶשׁר ָאַמר ְיהָוה‬//

7
Nogalski, “Forming Prophetic Literature,” 102.

8
Ibid., 103.

9
An essential question which must be asked when one text ostensibly quotes or alludes to another is,
“Which text was written first?” The answer will impact the way the reader understands the text, and therefore a
section of this paper has been dedicated to suggesting a chronological ordering of the prophets.
10
James Nogalski, Redactional Processes in the Book of the Twelve, Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die
alttestamentliche Wissenschaft (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1993), 290–291.
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“For in Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there shall be those who escape, as the LORD has
said.”11

Amos 1:2 quotes Joel 4:16 (Eng 3:16): ‫ ְיהָוה ִמִציּוֹן ִיְשָׁאג וִּמירוָּשַׁל ִם ִיֵתּן קוֹלוֹ‬// “The LORD
roars from Zion and utters his voice from Jerusalem.”

Amos 9:13 quotes Joel 4:18 (Eng 3:18): ‫ ַביּוֹם ַההוּא ִיְטּפוּ ֶהָה ִרים ָﬠִסיס‬// “And in that day the
mountains shall drip sweet wine.”

Jonah 4:2 quotes Joel 2:13: ‫ ִכּי־ַחנּוּן ְוַרחוּם הוּא ֶאֶר• ַאַפּ ִים ְוַרב־ֶחֶסד ְו ִנָחם ַﬠל־ָהָרָﬠה‬// “For he is
gracious and merciful, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love; and he relents over
disaster.”

Mal. 3:23 quotes Joel 3:4 (Eng 2:31): ‫ ִלְפֵני בּוֹא יוֹם ְיהָוה ַהָגּדוֹל ְוַהנּוָֹרא‬// “Before the great and
awesome day of the LORD comes.”

Zephaniah 3:20 quotes Joel 4:1 (Eng 3:1): ‫ַבָּיִּמים ָהֵהָמּה וָּבֵﬠת ַהִהיא ֲאֶשׁר ָאִשׁיב ֶאת־ְשׁבוּת ְיהוָּדה‬
‫ ִוירוָּשָׁל ִם‬// “In those days, and at that time, when I restore the fortunes of Judah and
Jerusalem.”

Zechariah 13:9 quotes Hosea 2:23: ‫ ְוָאַמ ְרִתּי ְלל ֹא־ַﬠִמּי ַﬠִמּי־ַאָתּה ְוהוּא י ֹאַמר ֱא˜ָהי‬// “And I will say
to Not My People, ‘You are my people’; and he shall say, ‘You are my God.’”

While there are clear instances of certain prophets directly quoting earlier writings, there

are many more cases in which they use catchwords and motifs to reference earlier texts. Since

motifs begin to overlap with thematic unity (a topic which will receive a section of its own), at

this point we will only draw attention to a few significant catchwords serving as intertextual

links:12

- Locusts (Joel 1:4; 2:25; Amos 4:9; Nah. 3:15, 16, 17)
- Vines and fig trees (Hos. 2:12; Joel 1:7, 12; 2:22; Amos 4:9; Mic. 4:4; Hab. 3:17;
Hag. 2:19; Zech. 3:10)

11
This first example is particularly insightful, because in quoting Obadiah, Joel makes specific reference to
the oracle of Yahweh by saying, “As the LORD has said.” This demonstrates clear intentionality from the author
(i.e., in this case, intertextuality isn’t mere “coincidence”).
12
Although Nogalski identifies allusions as an intertextual category of their own, he recognizes how
liberally the term may be applied and aptly points out, “Catchwords function as a type of allusion by using/reusing
significant words to refer to another text(s).” Nogalski, “Forming Prophetic Literature,” 112.
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- Beating plowshares into swords (Joel 4:10; Micah 4:3 [cf. Isa. 2:4])
- Earthquakes (Joel 2:10; 4:16; Amos 9:1, 9; Nah. 1:5; Hag. 2:6, 21)
- “The Day of the Lord” (Joel 1:15; 2:1, 11; 3:4; 4:14; Amos 5:18, 20; Obad. 15; Zeph.
1:7, 14; 2:2, 3; Mal. 3:23)

It’s important to note that several of these catchwords are unique to the Minor Prophets;

that is, while many other catchwords could be included in this list (e.g., Messianic catchwords),

they must be excluded because they are ubiquitous throughout the rest of Scripture and do not

contribute to a particular cohesiveness among the Twelve. However, several catchwords from

this list, such as “the day of the Lord,”13 and the gazam-locusts (‫)ַהָגָּזם‬, are unique to the prophetic

writings and therefore create stronger interrelationships between the prophets.14

Thematic Unity

Thematic unity throughout the Twelve is extensive, which is why this paper chooses to

focus on one theme in particular: the day of the Lord. Before diving into that discussion,

however, we will briefly mention a few other themes which appear throughout the Twelve.

The catchwords stemming from Joel about locust plagues and agricultural fertility

contribute to a development of themes which carry on throughout the Minor Prophets. In fact,

these agricultural motifs are so pervasive that whenever they occur in later prophets (e.g., Hab.

3:17; Hag. 2:19), Nogalski refers to them as “the Joel-related layer.”15 The recurring vine and fig

13
“The day of the Lord” does appear in writings of the Major Prophets who were contemporaries of the
Twelve (Isa.13:6, 9; Jer. 46:10; Ezek. 13:5; 30:3). In some views, this may detract from the notion of a unified
corpus of the Twelve, although the difference in the number of occurrences for this phrase is substantial (5 times in
the Major Prophets compared to 13 times in the Minor Prophets).
14
Ehud ben Zvi does not see these intertextual parallels as convincing because he argues that the Twelve
allude to each other just as frequently as they parallel other parts of Scripture. Therefore, in his view, the use of
intertextuality is not dissimilar enough to warrant particular unity. See ben Zvi, “Forming Prophetic Literature,”
135–137.

15
Nogalski, “Forming Prophetic Literature,” 111.
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tree motifs begin to represent the spiritual status of the nation; i.e., when Israel sins against the

Lord and is punished, the vine and fig tree languish; yet, when Israel repents and is restored, the

vine and fig tree blossom so much so that “every man [sits] under his vine and under his fig tree”

(Mic. 4:4).16

Yet another perceivable theme in the Twelve is Yahweh’s judgment against the nation

Edom. This theme originates in Obadiah, but continues throughout the rest of the prophets (Joel

4:19; Amos 1:11; 9:12, Mal. 1:1-4) and begins to tie the Twelve together around the concept of

judgment not only against Edom, but also the rest of the nations.17 It is in this context of

Obadiah’s oracle that we discover first (chronological) appearance of the day of the Lord motif,

which becomes a central theme in the Minor Prophets.

There are more recurring themes than this paper in its limited nature can adequately

account for. However, it is necessary to mention one macro-theme that extends throughout the

whole of the Twelve: the sin, judgment, and restoration paradigm. 18 This overarching theme is

so central to the prophets that it may even be considered the “plot” of the Twelve. Paul House

makes valuable observations about a viable structure and plot within the Twelve that he suggests

are evidence of literary unity. House defines plot as “a selected sequence of logically caused

events that present a conflict and its resolution by utilizing certain established literary devices

16
This phrase in particular, when each man sits under his own vine and fig tree, is a direct reference to
Solomon’s reign which was considered the most prosperous era of the Kingdom of Israel (1 Kings 4:25). The Minor
Prophets use this phrase to anticipate a future Solomonic kingdom under the reign of the true Son of David (cf. Mic.
4:4 and Zech. 3:10).
17
As we will see later in the exegetical portion of this paper, Obadiah 12-15 creates the possibility of
interchangeability between Edom and any other nation as the target of the day of the Lord.
18
While the sin, judgment, restoration paradigm exists within in each of the Minor Prophets individually,
there is also a larger trans-literary paradigm that arches across the Twelve and binds them together. See Paul
House’s chart where ‘sin’ is displayed in Hosea-Micah, ‘punishment’ in Nahum-Zephaniah, and ‘restoration’ in
Haggai-Malachi (Unity of the Twelve, 72).
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(introduction, complication, crisis, denouement, etc.).”19 He further explains a U-shaped

framework for the plot in which the story (which he reads in canonical order, Hosea-Malachi)

descends into crisis in the first half of the prophets so that it can ascend into resolution in the

second half.20 A canonical reading of the prophets presents the sinfulness of Israel and the world

as the introductory conflict (Hosea-Micah), punishment from the Lord as the deepening crisis

(Nahum-Zephaniah), and return from exile as the resolution (Haggai-Malachi). With this in

mind, the day of the Lord begins to surface as an integral driving force of the plot since it creates

an intensifying conflict as the spiritual state of Israel and the rest of the world spirals downward.

Even though the day of the Lord is an anticipated eschatological event, the Minor Prophets use

this event as the crux of several other major themes including judgment, salvation, and the

kingdom of God, all to preach one message: a call to repentance. It’s clear that understanding

this one theme is crucial to evaluating the possible unity of the Twelve, as well as accurately

understanding their prophetic message. So, without further ado, we begin our discussion on the

day of the Lord.

An Overview of “Day of the Lord”

Definition

In order to sustain fruitful discussion of the day of the Lord within the Minor Prophets,

we must begin by defining this phrase. “The day of the Lord” (hereafter abbreviated “DOL”)

may be defined lexically and thematically; that is, first by the Hebrew construction ‫ יוֹם ְיהָוה‬and

second by the associated catchwords or motifs, such as “darkness and gloom” (Joel 2:1-2) which

19
House, The Unity of the Twelve, 115. For a fuller discussion on how structure, plot, and characterization
contribute to the literary unity of the minor prophets, see pp. 63-217.

20
Ibid., 123–124.
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contribute to a definitive DOL theme. In earlier writings, the phrase ‫ יוֹם ְיהָוה‬is necessary in order

to define the initial concept of the day of the Lord. Once a working definition has been

established, later prophets are able to reference DOL thematically without the exact use of the

phrase ‫יוֹם ְיהָוה‬. We will first examine the lexical occurrences of DOL in order to grasp a fuller

meaning of the phrase before we look into the thematic appearances of the same event.

Lexical Occurrences of DOL

A complete canonical listing of the passages that mention ‫ יוֹם ְיהָוה‬in the Minor Prophets

has been provided from the MT version with the Eng translation:21

Joel 1:15, ‫ ֲאָההּ ַליּוֹם ִכּי ָקרוֹב יוֹם ְיהָוה וְּכֹשׁד ִמַשַׁדּי ָיבוֹא‬// Alas for the day! For the day of the
LORD is near, and as destruction from the Almighty it comes.

Joel 2:1, ‫ ִתְּקעוּ שׁוָֹפר ְבִּציּוֹן ְוָה ִריעוּ ְבַּהר ָקְדִשׁי ִי ְרְגּזוּ ֹכּל ֹיְשֵׁבי ָהָאֶרץ ִכּי־ָבא יוֹם־ ְיהָוה ִכּי ָקרוֹב‬// Blow a
trumpet in Zion; sound an alarm on my holy mountain! Let all the inhabitants of the land
tremble, for the day of the LORD is coming; it is near,

Joel 2:11, ‫ַויהָוה ָנַתן קוֹלוֹ ִלְפֵני ֵחילוֹ ִכּי ַרב ְמֹאד ַמֲחֵנהוּ ִכּי ָﬠצוּם ֹעֵשׂה ְדָברוֹ ִכּי־ָגדוֹל יוֹם־ ְיהָוה ְונוָֹרא ְמֹאד‬
‫ וִּמי ְיִכיֶלנּוּ‬// The LORD utters his voice before his army, for his camp is exceedingly great;
he who executes his word is powerful. For the day of the LORD is great and very
awesome; who can endure it?

Joel 3:4 (Eng Joel 2:31), ‫ ַהֶשֶּׁמשׁ ֵיָהֵפ• ְלֹחֶשׁ• ְוַהָיֵּרַח ְלָדם ִלְפֵני בּוֹא יוֹם ְיהָוה ַהָגּדוֹל ְוַהנּוָֹרא‬// The sun
shall be turned to darkness, and the moon to blood, before the great and awesome day of
the LORD comes.

Joel 4:14 (Eng Joel 3:14), ‫ ֲהמוֹ ִנים ֲהמוֹ ִנים ְבֵּﬠֶמק ֶהָחרוּץ ִכּי ָקרוֹב יוֹם ְיהָוה ְבֵּﬠֶמק ֶהָחרוּץ‬//
Multitudes, multitudes, in the valley of decision! For the day of the LORD is near in the
valley of decision.

Amos 5:18, ‫ הוֹי ַהִמְּתַא ִוּים ֶאת־יוֹם ְיהָוה ָלָמּה־ֶזּה ָלֶכם יוֹם ְיהָוה הוּא־ֹחֶשׁ• ְול ֹא־אוֹר‬// Woe to you who
desire the day of the LORD! Why would you have the day of the LORD? It is
darkness, and not light,

21
Two passages from Zephaniah mentioning “the day of the anger of the Lord” have been included in this
list, since this author considers those phrases to be within the lexical boundaries of ‫יוֹם־ ְיהָוה‬.
 9

Amos 5:20, ‫ ֲהל ֹא־ֹחֶשׁ• יוֹם ְיהָוה ְול ֹא־אוֹר ְוָאֵפל ְול ֹא־ ֹנַגהּ לוֹ‬// Is not the day of the LORD
darkness, and not light, and gloom with no brightness in it?

Obad. 15, ©‫ ִכּי־ָקרוֹב יוֹם־ ְיהָוה ַﬠל־ָכּל־ַהגּוֹ ִים ַכֲּאֶשׁר ָﬠִשׂיָת ֵיָﬠֶשׂה ָלּ• ְגֻּמְל© ָישׁוּב ְבּר ֹאֶשׁ‬// For the day
of the LORD is near upon all the nations. As you have done, it shall be done to you; your
deeds shall return on your own head.

Zeph. 1:7, ‫ ַהס ִמְפֵּני ֲאֹדָני ְיה ִוה ִכּי ָקרוֹב יוֹם ְיהָוה ִכּי־ֵהִכין ְיהָוה ֶזַבח ִהְקִדּישׁ ְקֻרָאיו‬// Be silent before
the Lord GOD! For the day of the LORD is near; the LORD has prepared a sacrifice and
consecrated his guests.

Zeph. 1:14, ‫ ָקרוֹב יוֹם־ ְיהָוה ַהָגּדוֹל ָקרוֹב וַּמֵהר ְמֹאד קוֹל יוֹם ְיהָוה ַמר ֹצֵרַח ָשׁם ִגּבּוֹר‬// the great day
of the LORD is near, near and hastening fast; the sound of the day of the LORD is
bitter; the mighty man cries aloud there.

Zeph. 2:2, ‫ְבֶּטֶרם ֶלֶדת ֹחק ְכֹּמץ ָﬠַבר יוֹם ְבֶּטֶרם ל ֹא־ָיבוֹא ֲﬠֵליֶכם ֲחרוֹן ַאף־ ְיהָוה ְבֶּטֶרם ל ֹא־ָיבוֹא ֲﬠֵליֶכם יוֹם‬
‫ ַאף־ ְיהָוה‬// before the decree takes effect—before the day passes away like chaff—before
there comes upon you the burning anger of the LORD, before there comes upon you the
day of the anger of the LORD.

Zeph 2:3, ‫ַבְּקּשׁוּ ֶאת־ ְיהָוה ָכּל־ַﬠ ְנֵוי ָהָאֶרץ ֲאֶשׁר ִמְשָׁפּטוֹ ָפָּﬠלוּ ַבְּקּשׁוּ־ֶצֶדק ַבְּקּשׁוּ ֲﬠָנָוה אוַּלי ִתָּסְּתרוּ ְבּיוֹם ַאף־‬
‫ ְיהָוה‬// Seek the LORD, all you humble of the land, who do his just commands; seek
righteousness; seek humility; perhaps you may be hidden on the day of the anger of the
LORD.

Mal. 3:23 (Eng Mal. 4:5), ‫ ִהֵנּה ָא ֹנִכי ֹשֵׁלַח ָלֶכם ֵאת ֵאִלָיּה ַהָנִּביא ִלְפֵני בּוֹא יוֹם ְיהָוה ַהָגּדוֹל ְוַהנּוָֹרא‬//
Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and awesome day of the
LORD comes.

The verses in this list paint a consistent picture of the day of the LORD, from which a

simple definition of DOL may be proposed: “A futuristic and theophanic event, characterized by

darkness, in which Yahweh, accompanied by a great army, appears in his fury to bring judgment

against Israel and the rest of the nations for their wickedness.” The whole world is perceived as

wicked during this event, and so while Yahweh’s judgment is at times targeted at specific

nations, in the end his judgment renders total destruction upon the whole earth—no one is

exempt.

Thematic Occurrences of DOL

 10

Once day of the Lord has been defined lexically, an astute reader begins to notice

recurrences of DOL imagery in other passages of the Minor Prophets even when the exact phrase

‫ יוֹם ְיהָוה‬isn’t used. For example, there are certain events associated with DOL, such as the

heavens and earth shaking (‫)רעשׁ‬. In Joel 2:10, the heavens and earth shake before the Lord and

his army, and in Joel 4:16 (Eng 3:16) the heavens and earth shake as a result of the Lord’s

thundering voice. Each case takes place within the context of DOL (see Joel 2:11 and 4:14 [Eng

3:14], respectively), and thus contribute to the developing earthquake motif within the greater

day of the Lord theme.

Although the earthquake motif appears in DOL passages where ‫ יוֹם ְיהָוה‬isn’t used (e.g.,

Haggai 2:6-7 and 2:21-22), this is not to say that every instance of an earthquake is a reference to

the Day of the Lord. For example, Amos 1:1 mentions an earthquake which should not be

considered part of DOL for at least three reasons: (1) the DOL earthquake is cataclysmic and

apocalyptic in nature, a supernatural event that is caused by the Lord himself; the earthquake in

Amos 1:1, on the other hand, is not of this same nature, and appears to be an ordinary earthquake

(though devastating nonetheless); (2) the DOL earthquake mentions not only the earth shaking,

but also the heavens shaking as a result of the Lord’s coming; the “heavens shaking” language is

absent from Amos 1:1, which makes this earthquake less likely to be the same event; (3) the

earthquake of Amos 1:1 is likely to have taken place around 760 BC,22 and if that were the DOL

earthquake, then it would not make sense for later writers continue to prophesy about this event

(e.g., Haggai, who prophesies 200+ years after Amos’ ministry has ended).

This example serves to prove that while reoccurrences of certain motifs may be

references to the day of the Lord theme, their validity as such must be determined on a case-by-

22
Shalom M. Paul, Amos, ed. Frank Moore Cross, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1991), 35.
 11

case basis, requiring the exegete to pay careful attention to context and exact phrasing. Bearing

this in mind, the following motifs have been identified by this author as pertaining to DOL:

- Darkness/gloom
- Solar/Lunar eclipse
- Locusts
- Drought/Famine
- Devouring fire
- Trumpet blasts
- Bitter weeping/mourning
- Heaven and earth shaking
- Egypt/Assyria/Babylon
- The nations assembling themselves
- Yahweh gathering the nations
- Valley of judgment
- Yahweh judges the nations
- Yahweh judges Israel/Judah
- Yahweh as a refuge to his people

The following is a list of example passages where DOL motifs are employed to reference that

theme without use of the phrase ‫יוֹם ְיהָוה‬:

- Hosea 5:8-15; 9:1-17

- Amos 8:1-14; 9:1-10
- Micah 5:7-15
- Nahum 1:6-8; 3:15-19
- Habakkuk 3:17-19
- Zephaniah 3:6-8
- Haggai 1:6-8; 2:21-22
- Zechariah 2:6-13; 8:1-8; 9:14-17; 12:1-9; 13:2-9; 14:1-21
- Mal. 3:1-5

An Important Distinction

The above passages refer to DOL via certain motifs, and at times use alternative phrases

such as “the day of his coming” (Mal. 3:2), “the coming day” (Mal. 3:19 [Eng 4:1]), “a day

coming for YHWH” (Zech. 14:1), and at times simply “that day” (Hos. 1:5; Amos 2:16; 8:3, 9,

13). However, it must be carefully noted that while “that day” is a generic construction and a

common phrase (occurring 44 times in the Minor Prophets, 227 times in the Hebrew Bible),
 12

there are several instances in which “that day” seems to be used with a unique and specific

reference, distinct from the day of the Lord or any other day. While the DOL passages

exclusively describe a day characterized by darkness and cosmic destruction, the same is not true

for “that day.” A survey of “that day” usage in the Minor Prophets reveals two widely disparate

depictions: the first a day of judgment, representative of the day of the Lord, and the second a

time of healing and restoration (Mic. 4:6-7), when the famine of God’s curse is taken away (Hos.

2:21-22) and a fruitful land results (Joel 4:18). This time is not just a moment, but an entire era

characterized by peace in creation (Hos. 2:18) as well as international peace (Mic. 4:3) since the

nations no longer war with Yahweh, but have instead joined themselves to him (Zeph. 3:9; Zech.

2:11). Perhaps most significantly, “that day” refers to a time when Israel’s exile is ended (Zeph.

3:14-20), the Davidic kingdom is rebuilt (Amos 9:11), the vine and fig tree restored (Zech. 3:10),

their shame and iniquity removed (Zeph. 3:11-13, Zech. 13:1), and Israel is betrothed to the Lord

in faithfulness (Hos. 2:16-17, 19-20). In “that day,” Yahweh will reign over his people (Mic. 4:7)

and dwell with them once again (Zech. 2:11).

On the contrary, the phrase “the day of the Lord” (‫ )יוֹם ְיהָוה‬is never used with the

language of restoration; rather, the phrase is reserved exclusively for the day of God’s wrath and

judgment against Israel and the nations. “That day,” then, seems to refer to a wider time period

which encompasses both the day of the Lord and the day of restoration in a two-phase paradigm.

The times of unparalleled peace and prosperity as divine blessings from Yahweh occur only after

the purging process of DOL has taken place. Richard Mayhue agrees, “God’s blessings are

anticipatory and attendant to the DOL but do not assume their intended expression until the DOL
 13

concludes; thus, the full experience of God's blessing follows, rather than encompasses, DOL.”23

Having defined the parameters for the day of the Lord, we now turn our attention to a diachronic

analysis of the development of this theme within the Twelve.

A Biblical (Chronological) Theology of DOL in the Minor Prophets24

Obadiah

As the earliest of the Minor Prophets, Obadiah is especially significant because it

contains the very first mention of “the day of the Lord,” and therefore defines the term. This

means in order to understand the diachronic development of this phrase, we must first refrain

from applying prior knowledge of DOL which we have learned from reading the later prophets

(e.g., the sun and moon being darkened). At this point in time, all we know is that within the

context of pronouncing judgment against Edom (vv 8-14), Obadiah then states in v 15, “For the

day of the LORD is near upon all the nations. As you have done, it shall be done to you; your

deeds shall return on your own head” (‫ֵיָﬠֶשׂה ָלּ• ְגֻּמְל© ָישׁוּב ִכּי־ָקרוֹב יוֹם־ ְיהָוה ַﬠל־ָכּל־ַהגּוֹ ִים ַכֲּאֶשׁר ָﬠִשׂיָת‬

©‫)ְבּר ֹאֶשׁ‬.

This day is initially defined as a day against Edom (Oba. 8), but is then extended to

include “all the nations” (‫)ָכּל־ַהגּוֹ ִים‬. The shift between Obadiah 14 and 15 seems sudden, so much

so that several commentators have proposed reversing the order of 15a (‫ִכּי־ָקרוֹב יוֹם־ ְיהָוה ַﬠל־ָכּל־‬

‫ )ַהגּוֹ ִים‬and 15b (©‫ )ַכֲּאֶשׁר ָﬠִשׂית ֵיָﬠֶשׂה ָלּ• ְגֻּמְל© ָישׁוּב ְבּר ֹאֶשׁ‬so as to maintain continuity.25 However,

23
Richard L. Mayhue, “The Bible’s Watchword: Day of the Lord,” The Master’s Seminary Journal 22, no.
1 (2011): 67.

24
In any discussion of biblical theology or intertextuality, a chronological ordering of the writings under
examination is prerequisite. For this study, I have arranged the prophets in the following order: Obadiah, Joel,
Jonah, Amos, Hosea, Micah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Habakkuk, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi. For a discussion on how I
arrived at this order, see the Appendix at the end of this paper, ‘Dating the Prophets.’
25
Allen assumes an error of homoeoarcton on behalf of the scribe due to the phrase ‫ ִכּי ַכֲּאֶשׁר‬in verse 16,
which has the same beginning as lines 15a and 15b, respectively. See Leslie C. Allen, The Books of Joel, Obadiah,
 14

Ehud ben Zvi shrewdly points out the X‫ יוֹם־‬pattern in vv 12-14 allows v 15a to be a seamless

transition and a much more natural reading.26 Additionally, reading vv 12-15 as a single unit

reveals an important component of Obadiah’s theology: an interchangeability between Edom

and “the nations” as the target of DOL. The phrase ‫ יוֹם ְיהָוה‬sets this day apart as a day in which

Yahweh himself will act definitively to establish justice by lex talionis, “As you have done, it

shall be done to you.”

From this point in history, Obadiah’s contemporaries would understand DOL as an event

that accomplishes two things: (i) judgment for those who do not acknowledge Yahweh as God,

and (ii) the establishment of God’s kingdom.27 According to Obadiah, DOL is a day when God

rescues Israel from their enemies (17) and “turns the tables” by using them as the executing

agent of justice against Edom (18) with the ultimate goal of reconquering the land of Canaan

(19-20) and restoring the kingdom of Israel (21). When these events will take place is not stated.

Lastly, it should be noted that while Judah’s calamity is expressed in vv 10-14, there is no

mention of their sin or punishment. Obadiah does not describe Israel’s calamity as a result of the

day of the Lord. He defines DOL as a day in which Yahweh comes to deliver his people and

judge the nations who have mounted an attack against Jerusalem.

Joel

Joel is perhaps the most helpful writer in terms of developing the DOL motif since it is

the central message of his book. Not only does he use this phrase more than any other writing

Jonah, and Micah, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1976),
159.
26
Ehud ben Zvi, A Historical-Critical Study of the Book of Obadiah, Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die
alttestamentliche Wissenschaft (Berlin: De Gruyter, Inc., 1996), 165–69.
27
Billy K. Smith, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, The New American Commentary (Nashville, TN: Broadman &
Holman Publishers, 1995), 195–96.
 15

prophet, but he also paints a picture of the Day in graphic detail, delving into a wider timescale

that encompasses DOL so as to give his readers a “panoramic view” of not just that Day, but also

the events that follow. Therefore, this section warrants a longer exegetical analysis than later

sections, especially since Joel is only the second prophet to speak on DOL (chronologically), and

therefore the first to establish several core DOL motifs.

The first reference to DOL appears in Joel 1:15. After describing a devastating locust

plague (1:4) that causes a famine across the land (1:5-12), Joel turns to the priests of the nation

and tells them to consecrate a fast, saying, “Alas for the day! For the day of the LORD is near,

and as destruction from the Almighty it comes” (‫( ) ֲאָההּ ַליּוֹם ִכּי ָקרוֹב יוֹם ְיהָוה וְּכֹשׁד ִמַשַׁדּי ָיבוֹא‬1:15).

Joel uses the exact same phrasing as Obadiah to describe the imminence of DOL ( ‫ִכּי ָקרוֹב יוֹם‬

‫) ְיהָוה‬, employing a play-on-words between “destruction” (‫ )ֹשׁד‬and “Almighty” (‫)ַשַׁדּי‬. Joel expands

upon Obadiah’s definition of DOL, and perhaps shocks his readers, when he points his finger at

Israel and tells them they are no exception to the day of God’s judgment. What has taken place

so far (i.e., the locust plague) is only a taste of what the DOL will be like. Hence, Joel speaks of

the plague as a past event, but the DOL he speaks of as yet “near” (‫ )ָקרוֹב‬and “coming” (‫)ָיבוֹא‬.

Therefore, Joel 2:1 opens with a loud warning to Israel, “Blow a trumpet in Zion; sound

an alarm on my holy mountain! Let all the inhabitants of the land tremble, for the day of the

LORD is coming; it is near” ( ‫ִתְּקעוּ שׁוָֹפר ְבִּציּוֹן ְוָה ִריעוּ ְבַּהר ָקְדִשׁי ִי ְרְגּזוּ ֹכּל ֹיְשֵׁבי ָהָאֶרץ ִכּי־ָבא יוֹם־ ְיהָוה ִכּי‬

‫)ָקרוֹב‬. The rest of this passage (2:2-11) diverges from Obadiah’s vision of DOL and illustrates

Yahweh marching with his army not to defend Jerusalem from her attackers, but to attack

Jerusalem himself!28 At this point, vivid detail is added to the DOL motif; namely, that it is “a

day of darkness and gloom” (2:2), accompanied by cosmic upheaval (2:10a) and celestial

28
Duane A. Garrett, Hosea, Joel (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 1997), 334–35.
 16

phenomena (2:10b). Joel also adds new catchwords to the DOL motif, “great and awesome”

(‫( )ַהָגּדוֹל ְוַהנּוָֹרא‬2:11; 3:4 [Eng 2:31]), which will be recalled by a later prophet (Mal. 3:23 [Eng

4:5]).

What is Israel to do in the face of such adversity? The answer is simple: repent (2:12-14).

Repentance becomes the answer to preventing (or at least mitigating) the disastrous effects of

DOL. Joel describes repentance as “turning” (‫ )שׁוב‬to God with genuine sorrow and a contrite

heart (2:12), rather than mere ritualistic practices (2:13a). Such “repentance” (‫ )שׁוב‬could cause

God to “relent” (‫ )שׁוב‬from full-blown judgment and instead leave a blessing (2:13b-14). If this

happens, what will ensue is a time of restoration (2:23-25) that leads to permanent security for

Israel: “My people shall never again be put to shame” (2:26b and 27b).

Joel then gives his readers a unique “panoramic view” of the DOL sequence of events

(3:1-5 [Eng 2:28-32]). He describes that in the “latter days” (‫)ַאֲחֵרי‬29 God’s spirit will be poured

out in a unique manifestation (3:1), and then cosmic and celestial signs will take place (3:3-4a),

signifying that DOL is about to happen (3:4b).30 In the day of God’s wrath and judgment, there

will be opportunity for those who repent to be saved (3:5a). Then Joel says something peculiar,

“For in Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there shall be those who escape, as the LORD has said” (‫כּי‬

‫( )ְבַּהר־ִציּוֹן וִּבירוָּשַׁל ִם ִתְּהֶיה ְפֵליָטה ַכֲּאֶשׁר ָאַמר ְיהָוה‬3:5b). By stating, “as the Lord has said,” Joel makes

it clear that he is quoting another prophet, in this case Obadiah 17, “But in Mount Zion there

shall be those who escape” (‫)וְּבַהר ִציּוֹן ִתְּהֶיה ְפֵליָטה‬. What Joel is describing to his readers is that the

DOL will be catastrophic for Israel, but will not make a full end of God’s people; rather, because

29
For the biblical-chronological development of the “latter days” catchword, see Gen 49:1; Num 24:14;
Deut 4:30; Joel 3:1; Isa 2:2.

30
Note, these cosmic and celestial signs happen “before” (‫ )ִלְפֵני‬DOL sequentially.
 17

some repent (cf. 2:12-14), there will be “survivors” (‫ )ְשּׂ ִריִדים‬who call upon Yahweh (3:5a)

because they are called by him (3:5c).

Then Joel 4:1-16 (Eng 3:1-16) demonstrates yet another DOL sequence that takes place

after the one described in 3:1-5 (Eng 2:28-32), this time against the nations and not Israel. He

begins by saying “in those days and at that time, when I restore the fortunes of Judah and

Jerusalem” (‫)ַבָּיִּמים ָהֵהָמּה וָּבֵﬠת ַהִהיא ֲאֶשׁר ָאשׁוּב ֶאת־ְשׁבוּת ְיהוָּדה ִוירוָּשָׁל ִם‬, denoting that time when those

who repent escape to Zion (3:5 [Eng 2:32]). Joel goes on to describe a moment when DOL will

be fulfilled against all the nations, as Obadiah 15 initially described. This involves rallying the

nations to the Valley of Jehoshaphat where Yahweh will judge them (another wordplay, as

“Jehoshaphat” [‫ ] ְיהוָֹשָׁפט‬means “Yahweh judges” [‫)]יהוה שׁפט‬. Joel once again quotes Obadiah, this

time employing the lex talionis principle of DOL by saying to the nations, “I will return your

payment on your own head” (‫( )ָאִשׁיב ְגֻּמְלֶכם ְבּר ֹאְשֶׁכם‬4:4 [Eng 3:4]).

The reference to ‘the Valley of Jehoshaphat’ in Joel 4:2 and 4:12 recalls 2 Chronicles

20:1-23 where God delivers Jerusalem from a multi-ethnic horde of enemies assembling in a

nearby valley. In that time God says to King Jehoshaphat, “You will not need to fight in this

battle. Stand firm, hold your position, and see the salvation of the LORD on your behalf, O

Judah and Jerusalem” (2 Chron. 20:16). As God fought the battle for Judah in that day against

many nations, he will do it once again in a far greater capacity. In Joel’s DOL setting, God

challenges the nations to battle, telling them to weaponize their farm tools and beckon everyone

to war, even those who are weak (4:10 [Eng 3:10]). For this encounter, all of the DOL language

thus far established is present: the catchphrase “for the day of YHWH is near” (‫( )ִכּי ָקרוֹב יוֹם ְיהָוה‬v

14), darkness and celestial phenomena (v 15), cosmic upheaval (v 16a), and now Joel adds a new

item to the list, “But the LORD is a refuge to his people, a stronghold to the people of Israel” (v
 18

16b). In this final DOL moment, Yahweh will not be a threat to his people. The Israel-oriented

DOL has already taken place and created a “holy” people (v 17), and now Yahweh will be a

refuge to them when he accomplishes the nations-oriented DOL set forth by Obadiah.

Joel lastly looks forward to the post-DOL restoration when the punishment of Joel 1:5 is

reversed and agricultural bounty returns to the land, “And in that day the mountains shall drip

sweet wine” (Joel 4:18 [Eng 3:18]). Joel concludes his prophecy by quoting Obadiah 10 to say

that justice will be satisfied when Judah’s enemies are destroyed (Joel 4:19-21 [Eng 3:19-21]).

Jonah

Since Obadiah and Joel are the most foundational for defining and developing DOL, their

writings merited longer analysis. For many of the other prophets, such as Jonah, this paper will

give a cursory overview of the DOL theme within the book.

Given that Jonah writes about 70 years after Obadiah and Joel (see ‘Dating the Prophets’

above), it is fair to say he is familiar with their writings about DOL. With this background, one

can discern why Jonah was so inimical about preaching to Nineveh. He knew that Joel preached

a message of destruction which could be mitigated by repentance; Jonah did not want the

Ninevites to know this, lest they should repent and be spared.

This very thing took place, and in confirming Jonah’s familiarity with Joel, he quotes Joel

2:13, saying, “That is why I made haste to flee to Tarshish; for I knew that you are a gracious

God and merciful, slow to anger and abounding in steadfast love, and relenting from disaster”

(Jonah 4:2). The passage Jonah quotes immediately follows Joel’s DOL warning (2:1-11). The

message that Yahweh teaches Jonah in the end is that repentance and salvation are also available

to the Gentiles, because God pities them the way he does Israel (Joel 2:18) and will therefore

have compassion on them.

 19

Amos

The message of Amos follows right on the heels of Jonah, who was rebuked by Yahweh

for wanting to see DOL come upon the Gentiles. Amos now applies this message to all of the

Israelites, who share a “Jonah complex” of longing for DOL.

Amos begins his message by quoting DOL imagery from Joel 4:16 (Eng 3:16), “The

LORD roars from Zion and utters his voice from Jerusalem.” In this way, Amos makes clear that

what is about to follow is judgment from Yahweh. He first proclaims judgment on the enemies

that surround the Northern Kingdom of Israel: Damascus (1:3-5), Gaza (1:6-8), Tyre (1:9-10),

Edom (1:11-12),31 the Ammonites (1:13-15), Moab (2:1-3), and Judah (2:4-5). While Israel yet

maintains their “Jonah complex,” Amos’ launches a massive exposition of their impending

doom, which begins in 2:6 and doesn’t end until the end of the book, when Yahweh says, “All

the sinners of my people shall die by the sword, who say, ‘Disaster shall not overtake or meet

us’” (Amos 9:10).

In Amos 5:18-20, the Israelites are explicitly rebuked for longing to see DOL because

they seem to be so focused on Joel’s Gentile-oriented DOL, that they’ve missed that Joel also

expounded on an Israel-oriented DOL.32 Amos picks up on the same “darkness” and “gloom”

DOL motifs which Joel established (Amos 5:18, 20; cf. Joel 2:2). Amos points out Israel’s

hypocrisy (5:21-23) and then tells them of their punishment: exile (5:27).

In the midst of this pronouncement of judgment, Joel’s message must not be forgotten—

“everyone who calls on the name of the LORD shall be saved” (Joel 3:5 [Eng 2:32]). The

31
Note that Amos parallels and expands Obadiah’s judgment against Edom, whose greatest sin was
betraying his brother Jacob.
32
Rolf Rendtorff, “Alas for the Day! The ‘Day of the LORD’ in the Book of the Twelve,” in God in the
Fray: A Tribute to Walter Brueggemann, ed. Tod Linafelt and Timothy K. Beal (Minneapolis: For, 1998), 191–93.
 20

primary purpose of God’s DOL against his own people is to bring about repentance, which

results in a purified remnant of Israel. Amos reminds his readers of God’s promise, “The eyes of

the Lord GOD are upon the sinful kingdom, and I will destroy it from the ground, except I will

not utterly destroy the house of Jacob” (Amos 9:8). God refines Israel by killing “the sinners of

my people” (9:10); but those who repent may be saved.

Amos follows Joel’s DOL-restoration paradigm with his conclusion (9:11-15). He

reapplies certain motifs which have already been posited by Obadiah and Joel, such as Israel

possessing Edom and the nations (9:12; cf. Obadiah 19-20), the mountains dripping with wine

(9:13; cf. Joel 4:18 [Eng 3:18]), and restoring the fortunes of Israel (9:14; cf. Joel 4:1 [Eng 3:1]).

Amos also adds a new component to the restoration scheme following DOL, “In that day I will

raise up the booth of David that is fallen” (9:11), signifying that not only will the nation of Israel

be restored, but its Messianic lineage will be as well. To reinforce that Davidic kingship will be

reestablished, Amos concludes by quoting and therefore reaffirming God’s covenant which he

made with David, “I will plant them on their land and they shall never again be uprooted” (9:15;

cf. 2 Sam 7:10).

Hosea

Hosea, like Jonah, is one of the Twelve that does not use the phrase ‫ ;יוֹם ְיהָוה‬however, the

DOL concept still appears at least thematically. For example, Hosea 5:8-9 says, “Blow the horn

in Gibeah, the trumpet in Rama. Sound the alarm at Beth-aven … Ephraim shall become a

desolation in the day of punishment,” which is reminiscent of Joel’s, “Blow a trumpet in Zion;

sound an alarm on my holy mountain!” (Joel 2:1). Punishment is coming for Ephraim because of

his iniquity, and God says he will not relent will “until they acknowledge their guilt and seek my

face, and in their distress earnestly seek me” (Hos 5:15). It seems that Israel offers their
 21

repentance in Hosea 6:1-3, but it is transient and not the repentance that Joel 2:12-13 requires;

hence, Hosea declares to Israel, “Your love is like a morning cloud, like the dew that goes early

away” (Hos 6:4).33

Hosea develops the DOL theme by utilizing Amos’ language of exile (Amos 5:27) and

metaphorically applying Egypt to Assyria (Hos 8:13; 9:3; 11:5, 11). This duly attaches a

theology of the Exodus to the DOL-restoration paradigm. In order for Israel to escape the exile, a

second Exodus needs to occur. Hosea 11:1-2 makes it clear, however, that the Exodus in view is

far more serious than a physical return from Assyria. Due to the fleeting, inadequate nature of

their repentance, a spiritual exodus and a spiritual return (i.e., repentance) needs to happen. God

promises to do this very thing, “I am the LORD your God from the land of Egypt; I will again

make you dwell in tents, as in the days of the appointed feast” (12:9). Until that happens, God

will continue to be against Israel in the day of punishment, “I will destroy you, O Israel, for you

are against me” (Hos 13:9). Hosea concludes his book with the message that the Twelve in sum

are preaching in light of the day of the Lord, “Return, O Israel, to the LORD your God, for you

have stumbled because of your iniquity” (14:2 [Eng 14:1]).

Micah

Micah is yet another prophet who does not use the phrase ‫ יוֹם ְיהָוה‬but nonetheless exploits

undeniable thematic references to DOL. One such case is Micah 5:10-11, “Writhe and groan, O

daughter of Zion, like a woman in labor, for now you shall go out from the city and dwell in the

open country; you shall go to Babylon. There you shall be rescued; there the LORD will redeem

you from your enemies.” Micah is consistent with the DOL-restoration theme and continues with

33
Hosea applies the lex talionis principle to Israel’s short-lived repentance by saying that likewise their
lives will be short-lived, “Therefore they shall be like the morning mist or like the due that goes early away” (Hos
13:4).
 22

the exile-exodus expansion which Amos and Hosea have begun. For Judah, however, Babylon

will be their captor and not Assyria, like their Israelite counterpart. Nevertheless, Joel’s two-part

DOL paradigm34 is kept intact—first Judah will undergo the refining DOL judgment, and then

the nations will experience DOL by agency of a purified Judah. In Micah 4:11 the nations

assemble themselves as they do in ‘the Valley of Jehoshaphat’ (Joel 4:12 [Eng 3:12]), and in

accordance with Obadiah 18, Micah illustrates God’s people as the means by which he carries

out DOL against the nations, “Arise and thresh, O daughter of Zion, for I will make your horn

iron, and I will make your hoofs bronze; you shall beat in pieces many peoples” (4:13).

Just as Amos added a Messianic component to the restoration scheme after Israel’s DOL

(Amos 9:11, 15), so Micah incorporates into his prophecy the Messianic ruler who will rescue

Judah from her enemies (Micah 4:14-5:5 [Eng 5:1-6]). Micah is careful to note that this ruler

appears only after Judah has gone through the pains of exile (Micah 5:2 [Eng 5:3]; cf. Micah

4:10). Knowing the inescapable DOL sequence of events, Micah speaks for the nation when he

consigns himself to his inevitable fate, “I will bear the indignation of the LORD because I have

sinned against him, until he pleads my cause and executes judgment for me. He will bring me out

to the light; I shall look upon his vindication” (7:9).

Nahum

Nahum picks up after the Israel-oriented DOL has seemingly taken place. In accordance

with Amos 5:27 and Hosea 7:11, Israel has entered into exile, having been conquered by Assyria.

Nahum now pronounces the nations-oriented DOL (Obadiah 15) against Nineveh, employing

established motifs such as earthquakes (1:5), God’s unbearable anger (1:6; cf. Joel 2:11),

Yahweh as a refuge to his people (1:7; cf. Joel 4:16 [Eng 3:16]), and the locust plague (3:15-17;

34
See discussion above on Joel 3:1-4:21 (Eng 2:28-3:21).
 23

cf. Joel 1:4). The post-DOL restoration also takes place in Nahum’s oracle, “For the LORD is

restoring the majesty of Jacob as the majesty of Israel, for plunderers have plundered them and

ruined their branches” (2:3 [Eng 2:2]; cf. Amos 9:14). Ultimately, in lex talionis manner, because

Nineveh has shown so many nations “unceasing evil” (‫)ָרָﬠְת© ָתִּמיד‬, they are now being repaid

with “unrelenting pain” (©‫( )ֵאין־ֵכָּהה ְלִשְׁבֶר‬3:19).

Zephaniah

Like the book of Joel, the whole of Zephaniah practically revolves around the DOL

theme, profoundly applying and portraying its cataclysmic reality. Zephaniah relies heavily on

the writings of the earlier prophets to compose his message; indeed, nearly every verse is a

reference to Obadiah, Joel, Amos, Hosea, Micah, or Nahum. He strings all of these prophesies

together in order to create a comprehensive summary and reaffirmation of what is about to take

place as Judah prepares to enter 70 years of captivity in Babylon.

Zephaniah opens with an abysmal statement about the universal scope of DOL, “‘I will

utterly sweep away everything from face of the earth,’ … ‘I will cut off mankind from the earth,’

declares the LORD” (1:2-3), but he doesn’t hesitate to mention Jerusalem as a particular target in

that day (1:4-6). Following the established prophetic expression, Zephaniah warns “the day of

the LORD is near” (‫( )ָקרוֹב יוֹם ְיהָוה‬1:7, 14) and proceeds to describe the wrath, ruin, devastation,

darkness, and gloom, along with the trumpet blasts and battle cries, that have come to comprise

the backdrop of DOL (1:15-16).

Zephaniah reinforces Amos’ nations-oriented DOL message by detailing the destruction

of the Philistine cities Gaza, Ashkelon and Ekron (Zeph 2:4-5; cf. Amos 1:6-8) as well as Moab

and the Ammonites (Zeph 2:8-9; cf. Amos 1:13-15 and 2:1-3). He connects Obadiah’s message

to this affair by saying, “The seacoast shall become the possession of the remnant of the house of
 24

Judah” (2:7, cf. Obadiah 19-20). Zephaniah 2:13-15 clearly ties in Nahum’s oracle about the

destruction of Assyria.

Zephaniah 3:1-4 returns to a Judah-oriented DOL with a recapitulation of what Micah has

said about Judah’s leaders (Micah 3:1-11). Zephaniah restates the indictment of Hosea that with

each act of divine deliverance the God’s people only became more corrupt (Zeph 3:6-7; Hos

11:1-2). Zephaniah concludes the only solution to this widespread corruption is to purge the

entire cosmos through DOL (Zeph. 3:8).

In the post-DOL restoration, Yahweh has purified the speech of the “peoples” (‫ )ַﬠִמּים‬so

that everyone is able to call upon the Lord and serve him “with one accord” (lit., “with one

shoulder,” ‫)ְשֶׁכם ֶאָחד‬, even those who are not Israelites are invited to come worship the true God

(Zeph. 3:9-10).

Habakkuk

By the time of Habakkuk, it’s clear that there is no stopping the destruction of

Jerusalem—it’s too late. Habakkuk’s oracle is the nearing fulfillment of Micah’s DOL: exile in

Babylon (Mic 3:10). The Lord warns Habakkuk of the coming Babylonian army (Hab 1:5-11)

which strongly resembles the Lord’s army in Joel’s DOL (Joel 2:2-9). Habakkuk 2:8 applies

Obadiah’s lex talionis principle to a future Babylon-oriented DOL, saying, “Because you have

plundered many nations, all the remnant of the peoples shall plunder you.”

Habakkuk knows that he cannot stop impending judgment against Jerusalem from

happening, so rather than praying for God to reverse the judgment, he rather prays that just as

God is faithful in bringing his wrath, he would also be faithful in bringing mercy (Hab 3:2). He

cleaves to God’s promises of restoration in the day of calamity, and therefore finds hope.
 25

Habakkuk concludes with fearful anticipation, using the “Joel-related layer”35 of

catchwords that signify the DOL motif, such as drought and agricultural famine (Hab 3:17). Yet,

in all this, Habakkuk knows the theology of DOL as expounded by each of the earlier prophets,

and he is therefore able to rejoice in the God’s coming salvation, knowing that God will give him

the strength to endure the day of the Lord (Hab 3:18-19).

Haggai

Haggai and Zechariah are contemporaries, both speaking after the Babylonian exile has

ended; however, it’s clear that these times are a far cry from the post-DOL times of restoration

that have been promised. The land still experiences drought and famine (1:10-11) and the temple

of Yahweh still lies in ruins. God uses Haggai to strengthen a discouraged people, reminding

them that he is the God of the Exodus (2:5) and that the full DOL against the nations with the

attendant restoration of Judah is yet to come (2:6-9).

Once the foundation of the temple has been laid, God ends the drought and blesses Judah

(2:18-19), a small foretaste of the restoration that is to come. But the fullness of the DOL against

the nations is yet to come. God tells Haggai once more what is about to happen, employing DOL

imagery, “I am about to shake the heavens and the earth [Joel 4:16], and to overthrow the throne

of the kingdoms of the nations [Oba 15], and overthrow the chariots and their riders [Mic 5:8-9]”

(2:21-22).

Zechariah

Zechariah is an immensely theological book, densely populated with references to the

other prophets as well as the rest of Scripture. Zechariah’s name (‫ )ְזַכ ְרָיה‬aptly means “Yahweh

remembers” (‫)זכר יהוה‬, and fittingly this book serves to recapitulate, reaffirm, and even

35
Nogalski, “Forming Prophetic Literature,” 111.
 26

systematize all of the promises of God that have been made thus far. Because Zechariah’s

writing is so detailed, immaculate, and complex, time does not permit a full exegetical analysis

of each DOL passage. A cursory overview of select passages is necessary, though not desired.

Zechariah begins with the same message the Twelve have been preaching the entire time:

repentance. He warns, “Do not be like your fathers, to whom the former prophets cried out,

‘Thus says the LORD of hosts, Return from your evil ways and from your evil deeds.’ But they

did not hear or pay attention to me, declares the Lord” (1:4).

Zechariah 1:12-17 reaffirms Hosea’s DOL-restoration that Yahweh will one day have

mercy on ‘No Mercy’ (Hos 2:23). The DOL-restoration scheme is clearly portrayed in Zechariah

2:6-12 in which Zechariah uses the Obadiah-Joel rhetoric to say the survivors of the exile will

“escape to Zion” (Oba 17; Joel 3:5 [Eng 2:32]) and the Lord will repay the nations for the evil

they’ve committed against his people. When the DOL comes against the nations, Zechariah says,

“Many nations shall join themselves to the LORD in that day, and shall be my people” (3:11),

which is a fulfillment of Joel’s message of repentance (Joel 2:12-14), Jonah’s message of

salvation offered to the Gentiles (Jonah 4:2), and Hosea’s message that those who were not

God’s people shall one day be God’s people (Hos 2:23). Zechariah 2:13 “Be silent, all flesh,

before the LORD, for he has roused himself from his holy dwelling,” sounds strongly

reminiscent of Zephaniah’s DOL language, “Be silent before the Lord GOD! For the day of the

LORD is near” (Zeph 1:7).

Micah 5:1-5 indicated that it would be the Messianic ruler who rescues his people from

exile after DOL, and Hosea 11:1-2 pointed beyond a mere physical exodus from Assyria to a

spiritual exodus from bondage to sin. Zechariah 3:8-10 conflates these two prophesies into the

Messiah Branch who will remove the iniquity of his people and reestablish the Davidic Kingdom
 27

(“every one of you will invite his neighbor to come under his vine and under his fig tree;” cf.

Mic 4:4; 1 Kgs 4:25).

Zechariah 14 depicts the most graphic detail of DOL yet. He uses a near catchphrase, “a

day is coming for the LORD” (‫( )יוֹם־ָבּא ַליהָוה‬14:1) and then proceeds to describe a Jerusalem-

oriented DOL in which Yahweh gathers the nations to plunder the city, and take half of the

people into exile (14:2). Finally, Yahweh himself arrives at Jerusalem to go to battle against the

assembled the nations (14:3). Zechariah make reference to Amos’ earthquake (cf. Amos 1:1; 9:1)

to demonstrate the fear which shall route God’s enemies when he arrives with his army (14:5).

The connection should be made that God’s army; i.e., his “holy ones,” are those survivors from

the DOL against his own people who have now been purified and refined (Zeph 3:11) and will

serve as God’s “bow and arrow,” as it were (Zech 9:12-13).

As Zephaniah described (Zeph 3:9-13), the survivors of the nations will be welcomed to

worship Yahweh in Jerusalem (Zech 14:16) in the time of restoration. Anyone who refuses shall

be punished (Zech 14:17-19), and thus evil will be purged from the world until everyone and

everything is ‘Holy to the LORD’ (Zech 14:20-21), thus accomplishing the ultimate purpose of

DOL, to consecrate a people who will call upon the name of the Lord (Zech 13:8-9).

Malachi

Malachi is the last prophet to speak before the close of the Old Testament, making his

words especially weighty. He begins by proving his love to Israel through being faithful to his

DOL promises in Obadiah; namely, to destroy Edom so that the nation never rises again (Mal

1:2-5).

Malachi 3:1-5 uses DOL rhetoric to describe the unbearable “day of his coming” (‫יוֹם‬

‫)בּוֹאוֹ‬, which is reminiscent of Nahum’s and Joel’s DOL language (Nah 1:6; Joel 2:11). He
 28

recapitulates the refining purposes of DOL from Zephaniah 3:9-13 and Zechariah 13:8-9 with

this ultimate goal, “Then the offering of Judah and Jerusalem will be pleasing to the LORD as in

the days of old as in former years” (Mal 3:4).

Malachi concludes his prophecy with one final warning, and one final explanation of

DOL. He reminds God’s people that they will be instrumental in executing judgment against

their enemies in the day of Yahweh; i.e., “on the day when I [Yahweh] act” (‫)ַבּיּוֹם ֲאֶשׁר ֲא ִני ֹעֶשׂה‬

(3:21 [Eng 4:3]), but first they need to be purified by judgment so that they are holy (3:19 [Eng

4:1]), at which time their Messiah will come to rescue those who fear him (3:20 [Eng 4:2]). Until

that takes place, Israel’s main responsibility is to “remember the law of Moses” (3:22 [Eng 4:4]),

while they wait for Elijah the prophet who will come before “the great and awesome day of the

LORD comes” (‫( )בּוֹא יוֹם ְיהָוה ַהָגּדוֹל ְוַהנּוָֹרא ִלְפֵני‬3:23 [Eng 4:5]). The final verse of Malachi tells us

what the message of Elijah will be, and it’s not surprising he preaches the same message that the

Twelve have preached all along: Repent—for the Day of the Lord is near!

Summary

This cursory study of the day of the Lord in the Minor Prophets should put the Twelve’s

practices of intertextuality and thematic concurrence in the limelight. The intentionality behind

their use of quotations and allusions is undeniable. From Obadiah to Malachi, each prophet

rigorously adheres to the writings of the earlier prophets and seeks to make new contributions to

the developing DOL theme. While the earlier prophets certainly had no way of knowing what

later prophets would say (or the fact that there would be twelve of them), it’s unequivocally clear

that the later prophets were cognizant of their literary and rhetorical strategies, passing the baton

and adding to complex scheme. For this reason, the prophets can be seen as co-laborers, each

doing his part to contribute to one message and one “book.”

 29

The DOL theme itself undergoes a “snowball” effect, and grows into a massive concept

which becomes more than just a ‘day,’ but multiple days with global impact that end up

precipitating a new era. While each prophet uses DOL to deliver a unique message to the

audience of his time, they each also end up unifying around one “big picture.” The fact that these

individual messages can be so unified stands in additional support for reading the Twelve as a

literary unit.

Lastly, the day of the Lord carries with it the thematic paradigm of sin, punishment, and

restoration (which we defined earlier as the “plot” of the Twelve). The corpus of the Twelve

experiences this paradigm under the scheme of three movements: pre-exile, exile, and post-exile,

living out a “day of the Lord” as a canon. However, by the time we arrive at Haggai, Zechariah,

and Malachi in the corpus, it becomes clear that what they have experienced is nothing compared

to the eschatological DOL. All of the historical DOL instances are merely a sneak-preview of

what will happen in “the latter days.” Because the Twelve are inseparable not only in their

historical plot, but also in their terminus ad quem, it is favorable to read the “Twelve” as “one.”

Conclusion

While canonical unity among the Twelve cannot be proven definitively at the moment,

the concept is certainly plausible and worthy of further study and consideration. Whether or not

the redactional process intended to create a single composition, it’s evident that at least by way

of their message the prophets are all on the same page (which at Qumran proves to be the case,

literally). Until further evidence or research comes out, we will continue to read and reread the

prophets, waiting for the day of the Lord.

 30

APPENDIX

Dating the Prophets

In any discussion of biblical theology or intertextuality, a chronological ordering of the

writings under examination is prerequisite. I therefore have chosen to survey the development of

the Day of the Lord theme by studying the prophets in this order: 36

1. Obadiah
2. Joel
3. Jonah
4. Amos
5. Hosea
6. Micah
7. Nahum
8. Zephaniah
9. Habakkuk
10. Haggai
11. Zechariah
12. Malachi

While it is not the purpose of this paper to argue for dates of the prophets, I thought it

should be helpful to offer a brief explanation for why I have ordered them in this way.37

Obadiah. The oracle of Obadiah is interesting because the prophet makes reference to

past historical events as a basis for the future destruction of Edom. It has been supposed by late-

daters that Obadiah 10-14 alludes to the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC and

36
I owe a great deal of gratitude to Daniel Forbes for his insightful discussion on the dates of the prophets
in his thesis. I find each of his arguments compelling, and they were foundational to my chronological ordering of
the Minor Prophets. Many of his suggestions are restated in this section; for the full discussion, see Daniel Forbes,
“The Intertextual Impact of Obadiah on the Writing Prophets” (The Master’s College, 2014), 81–96.
37
Of course, the dating of many if not all the prophets is hotly contested. While many liberal scholars
propose a late (i.e., post-exilic) date for many of the prophets, one must recognize their approach to the writings
comes from a vaticinium ex eventu (“prophecy from the event”) hermeneutic. Because they deny the supernatural
quality of prophecy, to them any reference to a historical event indicates the book being written after the fact.
Holding the presupposition that the words of the prophets are in fact divine and a foretelling of historical events, my
hermeneutic assumes a date prior to foretold events.
 31

therefore must have been written after that date. However, one must note that Obadiah 10-11

does not rebuke the Edomites for their involvement in the day of Jerusalem’s invasion, but rather

for their lack thereof. The Edomites are condemned because they “stood aloof” (‫ )ֲﬠָמְד© ִמֶנֶּגד‬in the

day that foreigners plundered Jerusalem. Therefore, the events of Obadiah 10-11 cannot be in

586 because Edom was very much involved that day (cf. Psalm 137, esp. v 7, “Remember, O

LORD, against the Edomites the day of Jerusalem, how they said, ‘Lay it bare, lay it bare, down

to its foundations!’”).

Moreover, while Obadiah 12-14 is more likely to reference 586 BC, it is crucial to note

the Hebrew verb form changes from the perfect qatal (Oba. 10-11) to imperatives (Oba. 12-14).

Obadiah is speaking prohibitively to Edom for future involvement “in the day of [Judah’s] ruin”

(12). To appropriately date Obadiah, we must therefore search for a day before 586 in which

Edom “stood aloof” while foreigners attacked the city. We need look no further than 2

Chronicles 21:8-17 which fits the criteria perfectly. During the reign of Jehoram, the Edomites

break their allegiance to Judah and revolt. Shortly after, Philistines and the Arabians invade

Judah, and Edom is nowhere to be seen. Therefore, I have dated Obadiah’s prophecy to the time

of Jehoram’s reign, ca. 845 BC.

Joel. Like Obadiah, Joel does not include an incipit with reference to a reigning king

which makes the exact date elusive. We must again search internal evidence for clues as to when

these prophesies take place.

First, Joel 2:1-11 and 2:15-17 speak as though the city walls and temple of Jerusalem are

still standing; hence, the book supposes a pre-exilic date. Second, I have placed Joel around the

same time as Amos (8th century, see below) since they share many of the same concerns,

including historical events such as locust plague, drought, and famine (Joel 1:1-20; cf. Amos 4:6-
 32

12), as well as several of the same foreign enemies (Joel 4:1-21 [Eng 3:1-21]; cf. Amos 1:6-12).

But Joel must come before Amos because he speaks of the drought as a current event (Joel 1:17,

20) while Amos speaks of it as a thing of the past (Amos 4:7-8).

One final point to mention is that, interestingly, Joel makes no negative remarks about

Israel’s kings as the other pre-exilic prophets frequently do (cf. Micah 3:1-11; Hos 5:2; Isa 1:23).

This has caused late-daters to assume Joel writes after the exile when the Davidic lineage been

dethroned; but this oddity could also be explained by the Judahite king Joash who began his

reign at the young age of 7 and spent much of his early life under the tutorship of Jehoiada the

priest (1 Kings 12:1-2). While not conclusive, this hypothesis is perfectly viable and makes sense

of the book’s internal components. Hence, I suggest Joel should be dated to the time of Joash

(835-796), but closer to the earlier years of his reign, ca. 830.

Jonah. While Jonah does not begin with a dateable incipit, 2 Kings 14:23-27 references

Jonah’s prophetic ministry to be around the reign of Jeroboam II (793-53). I see no convincing

reason to search for a later date than that time period, 793-53.

Amos. The incipit we find in Amos 1:1 is provides a precise date for the book, “In the

days of Uzziah king of Judah and in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel, two

years before the earthquake.” Uzziah reigned in Judah from 792-40, and Joash in Israel from

793-53. The scholarly consensus is that the earthquake took place in 760,38 and so we can easily

date Amos to 762, “two years before the earthquake.”

Hosea. The incipit of Hosea says his ministry takes place in the days of Uzziah (792-40)

and Hezekiah (715-686). Hosea’s first oracle in 1:4 relates the imminent destruction of the Jehu

38
Paul, Amos, 35.
 33

dynasty (ca. 753) which was already spoken of by the Lord (2 Kings 15:8-12). Therefore, we can

narrow down his prophetic ministry to around 755-715.

Micah. According to the superscription in Micah, his ministry lasts from the days of

Jotham (750-35) to Hezekiah (715-686), kings of Judah. Since Micah 1:10-16 seems to forewarn

Sennacherib’s siege against Jerusalem in 701, we can roughly estimate Micah’s ministry to

around 740-700.

Nahum. Because the fall of Nineveh takes place in 612, Nahum must happen prior to

that. The reference to the destruction of Thebes by Ashurbanipal as a past event (3:8-10) places

Nahum after 667. Since there is no mention of Babylon, it seems plausible that Nahum speaks

before the rise of the Babylonian empire under Nabopolassar (626-605). Therefore, we can say

with some degree of certainty that Nahum speaks sometime around 640-30.

Zephaniah. Zephaniah’s superscription limits his ministry to the time of Joash (640-

609). Zephaniah 2:13-15 predicts the fall of Nineveh, which makes 612 the latest date possible,

and because of the wickedness in Judah at this time, Zephaniah probably speaks before the

religious reforms of Josiah in 622 (cf. 2 Kings 22:3–23:37). Perhaps sometime around 630 is

when Zephaniah’s ministry takes place.

Habakkuk. Habakkuk offers no superscript to help with dating, but it seems that he

speaks after Babylon has grown to be a world superpower (following the fall of Nineveh, 612),

but before Nebuchadnezzar’s first assault on Jerusalem (605). So sometime between 612-605.

Haggai and Zechariah. Haggai and Zechariah were contemporaries whose ministries

lasted about the same time. Haggai 1:1 offers an exact date for the start of his ministry, “In the

second year of Darius the king, in the sixth month, on the first day of the month” (i.e., August

29, 520). Zechariah 1:1 reveals he started only a couple months after Haggai. Ezra 6:14-15
 34

intimates that Haggai and Zechariah continued to prophecy until the completion of the temple

(515), so their ministries lasted from 520-515.

Malachi. There is no date superscription for Malachi, but many of his concerns seem to

coincide with the those of Nehemiah during the Persian period (cf. Malachi 1:6-2:6; 2:10-16;

3:5-10; Nehemiah 5:1-13; 10:37-39; 13:23-29). Therefore, it seems safe to place Malachi around

that time, or 433-25.

 35

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