BBE 457 1–13

biocybernetics and biomedical engineering xxx (2020) xxx–xxx

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

ScienceDirect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/bbe

1
2
3 Review Article

4 The fractional Fourier transform as a biomedical

5 signal and image processing tool: A review

6 Q1 Alejandro Gomez a, Juan P. Ugarte b,*, Catalina Tobón a

a
7 Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad de Medellín, Medellín, Colombia
b
8 GIMSC, Universidad de San Buenaventura, Medellín, Colombia

article info abstract

Article history: This work presents a literature review of the fractional Fourier transform (FrFT) investiga-
Received 4 February 2020 tions and applications in the biomedical field. The FrFT is a time-frequency analysis tool that
Received in revised form has been used for signal and image processing due to its capability in capturing the non-
16 April 2020 stationary characteristics of real signals. Most biomedical signals are an example of such
Accepted 19 May 2020 non-stationarity. Thus, the FrFT-based solutions can be formulated, aiming to enhance the
Available online xxx health technology. As the literature review indicates, common applications of the FrFT
involves signal detection, filtering and features extraction. Establishing adequate solutions
Keywords: for these tasks requires a proper fractional order estimation and implementing the suitable
Biomedical signal processing numeric approach for the discrete FrFT calculation. Since most of the reports barely describe
Fractional Fourier transform the methodology on this regard, it is important that future works include detailed informa-
Time-frequency analysis tion about the implementation criteria of the FrFT. Although the applications in biomedical
Non-stationary signals sciences are not yet among the most frequent FrFT fields of action, the growing interest of
the scientific community in the FrFT, supports its practical usefulness for developing new
MSC: biomedical tools.
00-01 © 2020 Nalecz Institute of Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineering of the Polish
99-00 Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

12

119
10
13
14
15 biological event. The physiology and mechanisms of the 18
1. Introduction
biological systems determine specific features in the signals 19
acquired during monitoring procedures. Such features contain 20
16 Q2 Biomedical signals are time, space or time-space recordings information that can be relevant in establishing medical 21
17 measured and monitored from human beings as a result of a diagnosis and treatment strategies. Most biomedical signals 22

* Corresponding author at: GIMSC, Universidad de San Buenaventura, Medellín, Colombia.

E-mail address: juan.ugarte@usbmed.edu.co (J.P. Ugarte).
Abbreviations: DFT, discrete Fourier transform; DFrFT, discrete fractional Fourier transform; ECG, electrocardiogram; EEG, electroen-
cephalogram; FrFE, fractional Fourier entropy; FrFT, fractional Fourier transform; FrFT-MFSC, fractional Fourier transform-based Mel-
frequency spectral coefficients; FrST, fractional Stockwell transform; FrWT, fractional wavelet transform; FT, Fourier transform; MR,
magnetic resonance; PCA, principal component analysis; SNR, signal to noise ratio; SVM, support vector machine; STFrFT, short-time-
fractional Fourier transform; STFT, short-time Fourier transform; WT, wavelet transform; WVD, Wigner-Ville distribution.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbe.2020.05.004
0208-5216/© 2020 Nalecz Institute of Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineering of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier
B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Gomez A, et al. The fractional Fourier transform as a biomedical signal and image processing tool: A
review. Biocybern Biomed Eng (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbe.2020.05.004
 BBE 457 1–13

2 biocybernetics and biomedical engineering xxx (2020) xxx–xxx

23 are multi-component and non-stationary, meaning that the Bearing these ideas in mind, this document is focused on 63
24 information they carry is related to the initial state, duration reviewing the most relevant contributions of the FrFT to 64
25 and variation of their components [1]. Thus, single domain – biomedical field. For this purpose, the theoretical grounds are 65
26 i.e., time, space or frequency – analysis is insufficient to reveal introduced, including the FrFT interpretation within the time- 66
27 the useful information embedded in the biosignals. A better frequency plane, the implications of the FrFT kernel and the 67
28 approach can rely on time-frequency techniques that yield a numerical approximation methods. A review of the literature 68
29 description of the temporal variations of their spectral that applies the FrFT for biomedical signal and image 69
30 components [2–4]. These techniques have also become processing is presented and a discussion around the described 70
31 appealing in other fields of study [5,6]. There is a permanent FrFT applications is provided. 71
32 research effort of improving the practical usefulness of
33 classical time-frequency approaches. Such enhancement 72
34 includes looking for new mathematical proposal for addres- 2. The fractional Fourier transform
35 sing the time-frequency representation.
36 The fractional Fourier transform (FrFT) is a time-frequency In time-frequency analysis, a signal is represented in a plane 73
37 analysis technique that extends the traditional Fourier where the time and frequency domains are orthogonal axes, as 74
38 transform (FT) to the entire time-frequency domain by using depicted by the dashed lines in Fig. 2. For a signal x(t) along the 75
39 fractional powers of the FT operator F. The FrFT generalizes the time axis, its traditional FT X(v) corresponds to the frequency 76
40 FT with an extra parameter a that can be related to a signal axis, meaning a 908 rotation in the time-frequency plane 77
41 rotation in the time-frequency plane. Under such scheme, the
42 temporal signal is decomposed using a chirp function basis [7].
43 Thus, the FrFT provides a unified time-frequency representa-
44 tion of the signal with higher time-frequency resolution than
45 other techniques [8].
46 The FrFT has multiple applications in quantum mechanics,
47 optics and signal and image processing. It has been widely used
48 in the optics field, due to the possibility of its practical
49 implementation [9–11]. Developments in speech, music, bio-
50 medical engineering and mechanical vibrations are among the
51 solutions that this tool can further potentiate [12]. Fig. 1 shows a
52 significant increase in the number of publications from 2000 to
53 2019 reporting the use of the FrFT in general applications (blue
54 bars). However, few works in the biomedical field are found, as
55 depicted by the red bars in Fig. 1. Nevertheless, the scientific
56 activity within this field is increasing in recent years. By
57 identifying the relations between the FrFT features and
58 physiological or pathological events, would provide valuable
59 information about this tool to the scientific community. New
60 processing approaches allowing deal with the complex and non-
61 stationary nature of biomedical signals an images, would Fig. 2 – The FrFT domain is represented by the ua and ua+1
62 contribute to increase the FrFT practical implementations. axes whose orientation is given by the angle f.
63

Fig. 1 – Number of results when searching in Google scholar for ‘‘Fractional Fourier transform’’ + ‘‘signal processing’’ (blue
bars) and ‘‘Fractional Fourier transform’’ + ‘‘biomedical’’ + ‘‘signal processing’’ (red bars).

Please cite this article in press as: Gomez A, et al. The fractional Fourier transform as a biomedical signal and image processing tool: A
review. Biocybern Biomed Eng (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbe.2020.05.004
 BBE 457 1–13

biocybernetics and biomedical engineering xxx (2020) xxx–xxx 3

78 generated by the FT operation. The FrFT of real order a, fulfills with classical properties, e.g., linearity, commutativ- 103
79 designated by the Fa operator, enables intermediate repre- ity, associativity and energy conservation. Moreover, it has a 104
80 sentations between time and frequency domains. Therefore, set of specific properties related with the form of the kernel 105
81 the FrFT defines a signal along the ua axis, also known as the and the additional degree of freedom provided by the frac- 106
82 fractional axis, yielding a unified time-frequency characteri- tional order [13]. Among these properties, the ones listed 107
83 zation. The ua is a rotated axis within the time-frequency plane below have an important role in the development of FrFT 108
84 by an angle f as illustrated by the solid lines in Fig. 2. applications: 109
85 The ath-order FrFT of a signal x(u0), where u0 represents the 110
86 initial domain, i.e., time, space, frequency or even an  According to Eq. (2), for a = 4n and a = 4n  2 where n 2 Z, the 112
111
87 intermediate domain, is defined as follows: Fa operator corresponds to the identity operator I and parity 112
113
operator P (sequence inversion), respectively. Thus, the 113
114
88
Z 1
operator is periodic at order a, with a period value of 4. 114
115
Fa fxðu0 Þg ¼ Xðua Þ ¼ Ka ðu0 ; ua Þxðu0 Þdu0 : (1)  For a1 ; a2 2 R, repeated application of the Fa operator 115
117
116
1
produces: Fa1 fFa2 fxðu0 Þgg ¼ Fa1 þa2 fxðu0 Þg ¼ Fa2 fFa1 fxðu0 Þgg. 116
118
90
89 The kernel Ka(u0, ua) is given by the following expression: Thus, the inverse of the ath-order FrFT is represented by 117
119
91 Fa leading to Fa Fa ¼ I. This property is also referred as order 118
120
8 additivity. 119
121
< Af e½ jpðua cotf2ua u0 cscfþu0 cotfÞ ;
2 2

Ka ðu0 ; ua Þ ¼ dðua  u0 Þ if a ! 4n; (2)  It can be shown that the FrFT squared magnitude is related 120
123
122
: with a rotated version of the Wigner distribution that is 121
124
dðua þ u0 Þ if a ! 4n  2;
projected on the fractional axis [14]. The relation between 122
125
93
92 where j2 = 1, n 2 Z and:
the FrFT and the Wigner distribution evinces that, the 123
126
94 former provides simultaneous information of time and 124
127
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
frequency domains. This concept allows a graphical depic- 125
128
Af ¼ 1  jcotf; (3)
tion of the FrFT over the time-frequency plane. 126
129
96
95 127
130
128
97
ap 2.1. Chirp decomposition and relation of the FrFT with the 131
f¼ : (4) FT 132
2
99
98 The square root in Eq. (3) is calculated such that the argu-
100 ment of the result lies in the interval ( p/2, p/2]. Eq. (4) In order to gain intuition about the FrFT, it is useful to analyze 133
101 establishes the relation between the rotation angle of the the behavior of the basis functions of the kernel, as the order a 134
102 time-frequency plane f and the fractional order a. The FrFT varies. The kernel corresponds to a set of orthonormal 135

Fig. 3 – Basis functions of the FrFT Kernel for distinct values of a. The solid and dashed lines represent the real and imaginary
part, respectively.

Please cite this article in press as: Gomez A, et al. The fractional Fourier transform as a biomedical signal and image processing tool: A
review. Biocybern Biomed Eng (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbe.2020.05.004
 BBE 457 1–13

4 biocybernetics and biomedical engineering xxx (2020) xxx–xxx

136 complex exponentials with linear-varying instantaneous by their counterparts n and k, respectively. The fractional 170
137 frequency. These functions, also known as chirps, are transformation matrix is defined as follows [16]: 171
138 characterized by the frequency change rate as time evolves.
X 172
139 Fig. 3 depicts some of the basis functions of the FrFT kernel for 3
Fa ¼ ai ðfÞFi ; (5)
140 different values of a. For the case of a = 1, the kernel reduces to i¼0
141 a complex exponential that agrees with the FT kernel. Hence,
where 174
173
142 the classical Fourier basis is a particular case of the chirp base
143 with zero rate of change in frequency. Additionally, the parity 175
144 property is evidenced through the inverted sequence version 1X 4
e jðfi2Þk ;
p

145 of the basis function for a = 0.5 and a = 1.5. As a ! 0 and a ! 2 ai ðfÞ ¼ (6)
4 k¼1
146 the frequency change rate tends to infinity. In order to avoid
F0 is the identity matrix, F1 is the discrete FT (DFT), and F2 and 176
177
147 such discontinuities, the kernel is defined as a piece-wise
F3 are the circular flipped version of F0 and F1, respectively. The 178
148 function as stated in Eq. (2). An example of chirp decomposi-
DFrFT of a discrete signal x[n] is given by: 179
149 tion can be seen in Fig. 4. An electrocardiogram (ECG) signal
150 (from the MIT-BIH Arrhythmia Database [15] available at the 180
151 Physionet website) and four chirp components with amplitude X½k ¼ Fa x½n: (7)
152 modulation are depicted.
181
182
This DFrFT approach meets the periodicity and order 183
153 2.2. Numerical calculation of the FrFT additivity properties, allowing the inverse transformation. 184
Although the computational complexity is low (  OðNlogðNÞÞ), 185
154 Processing digital signals and images using the FrFT requires a this implementation generates an important deviation error 186
155 discrete approximation of the transformation operator. The respect to the continuous FrFT. 187
156 studies on this regard have established numerical schemes
157 with specific formulations for dealing with the fractional order 2.2.2. Eigenvector decomposition-type DFrFT 188
158 and the inverse operation. Thus, the estimations of the This method builds the fractional transformation matrix Fa 189
159 discrete FrFT (DFrFT) may differ between numerical imple- from the eigendecomposition of the DFT transformation 190
160 mentations. This section introduces three methods for matrix F. Assuming k ðnÞ and lk to be an arbitrary orthonormal 191
161 calculating the DFrFT that have a relevant recurrence in eigenvector set of F and the associated eigenvalues respec- 192
162 scientific publications and underlie new developments. Such tively, the DFrFT transformation matrix is defined as follows: 193
163 methods include an approach based on a fast algorithm for
194
164 estimating the continuous FrFT. An overview of each scheme
X
N 1
165 is provided and the main features to be considered for its Fa ðm; nÞ ¼ a
k ðmÞðlk Þ k ðnÞ: (8)
166 implementation are described. k¼0

195
196
167 2.2.1. Linear combination-type DFrFT There are several studies of the eigendecomposition form 197
168 Also known as weighted-type DFrFT, is the simplest definition that solves Eq. (8) [17–19]. Pei et al. [18] proposed the 198
169 of the DFrFT. The continuous variables u0 and ua are replaced transformation matrix as follows: 199
170

Fig. 4 – Chirp decomposition of an ECG signal.

Please cite this article in press as: Gomez A, et al. The fractional Fourier transform as a biomedical signal and image processing tool: A
review. Biocybern Biomed Eng (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbe.2020.05.004
 BBE 457 1–13

biocybernetics and biomedical engineering xxx (2020) xxx–xxx 5

8 Table 1 – Other definitions of the DFrFT.

200 > X
N1
>
> ejkf vk vTk
>
< if N isodd;
Ref. DFrFT type
Fa ¼ VDa VT k¼0
(9)
>
> X
N2
>
> ejkf vk vTk þ ejNf vN vTN1 if N iseven; [23] Sampling-type
:
k¼0 [24,25,19,26–38] Eigenvector decomposition-type
[17,39,16,40] Linear combination-type
201
202 where matrix V = [v0|v1| . . . |vN1], D is a diagonal matrix with
[41] Group theory-type
203 the eigenvalues corresponding to the column eigenvectors of [42] Chirp-Z transform-type
204 V. The eigendecomposition-type DFrFT approximates the con- [43–46] Quadratic phase transform-type
205 tinuous FrFT with a smaller deviation error. It preserves the
206 periodicity and order additivity properties, allowing the in-
207 verse transformation. However, the computational complexity given above or are different approaches within specific 257
208 reaches OðN2 Þ, which makes it impractical for real-time appli- applications. Table 1 summarizes some relevant literature of 258
209 cations and long signals processing. DFrFT schemes. For a more extensive review and analysis 259
please refer to [21,22]. 260
210 2.2.3. Sampling-type FrFT
211 This numerical implementation decomposes the FrFT opera- 261
3. Applications of the FrFT in biomedical
212 tion into simpler operations [20]. Such assumption relies on 262
signal processing
213 the fact that the FrFT is a member of the quadratic-phase
214 transforms. The X(ua) samples are obtained from the x(u0)
215 samples in a process whose computational complexity is Time-frequency analysis can be exploited for studying time- 263
216 OðNlogðNÞÞ. Therefore, this method is also known as a fast varying degradation models and non-stationary processes [47– 264
217 approximate fractional Fourier transform. The time and 50]. Thus, the FrFT is an attractive tool for signal processing 265
218 frequency domain representations of a signal are distributed applications. Some developments include filtering of non- 266
219 on the intervals [ Dt/2, Dt/2] and [ Dv/2, Dv/2], respectively, stationary signals through an optimal fractional order [51–53], 267
220 having a time-frequency bandwidth product of N = DtDv. Such parameter estimation of underwater acoustic signals [54], 268
221 representation is obtained by equalizing the length of the time ultrasonic signals [55], feature extraction for automatic 269
222 and frequency intervals through the scaled coordinates u0 = t/s classification [56–58], image processing [59,60] and fluid flow 270
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
223 and u1 = vs, where s ¼ Dt=Dv. In the new coordinate system, signals processing [61]. Recent literature accounts for applica- 271
224 the signal is represented in both domains with N = (Du0)2 tions in optical encryption systems, X-rays microscopy, optical 272
pffiffiffiffi
225 samples, spaced by ðDu0 Þ1 ¼ 1= N. The dimensional normal- fiber communication systems and beam analysis [62–73]. The 273
226 ization confines the signal FrFT to the interval of length FrFT has been proposed for radar imaging, target detection and 274
227 Du0 = Dua. Equivalently, it can be stated that the Wigner waveform design for communicating radar systems [74–78]. 275
228 distribution is restricted within a circle of diameter Dua [20]. There are also multimedia applications for digital water- 276
229 After the normalization procedure, the FrFT of a signal x(u0) is marking, image compression and image encryption systems 277
230 solved through three sequential operations: [79–85]. In the area of communications, the FrFT has been 278
231 implemented for wireless communications, transmission 279
233
232 1. Chirp multiplication schemes, security of communication system and underwater 280
233 acoustic communication systems [86–89]. The list of publica- 281
yðu0 Þ ¼ e jpu0 tanðf=2Þ xðu0 Þ:
2
(10)
tions, evidence the usefulness of the FrFT as a signal and 282
234
235
237
236 2. Chirp convolution image processing tool within a wide span of scientific and 283
235
234
236 Z 1 application context. 284
2
y0 ðua Þ ¼ Af e jpcscðfÞðua u0 Þ yðu0 Þdu0 ; (11)
237 1 The main motivation of this document is to review the 285
240
Z biomedical problems, whose solution is achieved by using the 286
238
239 1
FrFT as a signal and images analyzing tool. Compared with 287
y0 ðua Þ ¼ Af hðua  u0 Þyðu0 Þdu0 ¼ Af ½hðua Þ  yðua Þ: (12)
240 1 other fields that are mentioned above, the biomedical 288
238
239 applications of the FrFT has been explored moderately. The 289
242
241
244
243 3. Chirp multiplication principal fields of study mainly comprise electroencephalo- 290
grams (EEG), electrocardiograms (ECG), magnetic resonance 291
Xðua Þ ¼ e jpua tanðf=2Þ y0 ðua Þ:
2
241
242 (13)
243 (MR) and bioacoustic signals. 292
246
245
244
247 Zhang et al. [90] investigated the FrFT as a framework for 293
248 This approach provides the best approximation to the biomedical signal detection. Such signals are weak, non- 294
249 continuous FrFT among the discrete transforms presented stationary and normally contaminated with multiple inter- 295
246
245
250 above. Since it does not preserve the additivity property, the ferences associated with physiological activities and back- 296
251 inverse operation cannot be performed. In spite of this, the fast ground noise. The authors stated that the parameters of the 297
252 computation of this scheme is an attractive property for biomedical signals such as amplitude, frequency and modu- 298
253 applications in which the inversion operation is not required. lated frequency ratio are partially known for practical 299
applications. Hence, the FrFT is implemented by determining 300
254 2.2.4. Other methods for calculating the DFrFT the time-frequency rotation angle where the maximum of the 301
255 There are several procedures for solving the DFrFT. Some of fractional energy spectrum surpasses a determined threshold. 302
256 them are straightforward developments of the definitions In situations where strong interference exists, the authors 303

Please cite this article in press as: Gomez A, et al. The fractional Fourier transform as a biomedical signal and image processing tool: A
review. Biocybern Biomed Eng (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbe.2020.05.004
 BBE 457 1–13

6 biocybernetics and biomedical engineering xxx (2020) xxx–xxx

304 propose to compute the second central moment of the signal the FrFT. The method was tested using a dataset of 100 single- 364
305 in the fractional domain to estimate the appropriate angle. The channel EEG divided into 5 subsets. The STFrFT was compared 365
306 method proved to be effective for detection tasks using a set of with another time-frequency analysis such as the conven- 366
307 test signals. The performance was compared with the tional spectrogram, WVD, discrete wavelet transform and 367
308 traditional linear correlator used for signal detection and stationary wavelet transform. The STFrFT-based feature 368
309 the results indicate that the FrFT outperforms the linear extraction provided high sensitivity, specificity and accuracy 369
310 correlator for signal to noise ratios (SNR) up to -5 dB. values when classifying normal and seizure EEG. This 370
311 Iwai et al. [91–94] studied the FrFT for analyzing and performance was better than the other time-frequency 371
312 improving fingerprint authentication systems. The fingerprint techniques. 372
313 images are analyzed through the corresponding FrFT squared Haque et al. [98] presented a person authentication system 373
314 modulus, referred to as the intensity signal. The procedure based on an exact radial basis neural network classifier. Given 374
315 relies on generating multiple intensity representations of an the non-stationary nature of EEG signals, the FrFT was 375
316 image by varying the FrFT fractional order. Such representa- considered as a proper feature extraction tool. An open-source 376
317 tions are cross-correlated with the corresponding intensity of dataset, with recordings from 7 healthy individuals perform- 377
318 an established template. In this manner, the fingerprints can ing five mental imagery tasks was used. An optimal order of 378
319 be authenticated or disproved. The proposed procedure the FrFT was determined for each electrode using a coarse–to– 379
320 started with an approach for analyzing the entire fingerprint fine method [99]. The results indicate that the performance of 380
321 image [91] and later it was improved to operate with a reduced the neural network classifier, fed with FrFT features, depends 381
322 region within the image [92]. The FrFT-based methodology was on the subject and on the mental imagery task. This setting 382
323 tested with real fingerprints images, obtaining high matching shows that the FrFT order can be exploited to adjust the 383
324 accuracy of fingerprint data. Additionally, the method proved processing procedure to specific characteristics of the system 384
325 to be robust to noise and artifacts due to position misaligning under study. 385
326 [93,94]. Gencer et al. [100] proposed a detection method for embolic 386
327 Guerrero et al. [95] presented a comparative analysis of Doppler ultrasound signals, based on the normalized fitted 387
328 EEGs feature extraction methods, for a classification task. For curve of the FrFT. The embolic signals are characterized as 388
329 this purpose, the FrFT coefficients, obtained at different transients associated with emboli producing larger amplitude 389
330 fractional orders, were used as EEG features. Thus, the feature events in the recordings in contrast to the normal blood flow. 390
331 space consisted of 17 coefficients calculated using FrFT order The embolic signal detection is achieved by improving the 391
332 values from 0 to 4. A database consisting of five sets of 100 ratio of embolic signal to background blood signal. The FrFT 392
333 single-channel EEG segments was used and the performance was considered for solving this problem, due to the possibility 393
334 of the extracted features was tested using a support vector of determining a fractional order whose time-frequency plane 394
335 machine (SVM). The results showed a better performance of rotation yields a higher concentration of the unwanted noise 395
336 the FrFT compared to the WT and the tracks extraction components. The database used for the study includes three 396
337 method. Moreover, the performance in the classification task types of Doppler signals recorded at the ipsilateral middle 397
338 was improved by combining the FrFT and WT features. These cerebral artery from 35 patients with symptomatic carotid 398
339 results evince that the FrFT of a signal under various fractional stenosis. Through empirical trials, the effective order of the 399
340 orders contain relevant information that can be exploited for FrFT was set to a = 0.09. Results were compared with a STFT 400
341 classification problems. based strategy demonstrating that the FrFT outperforms the 401
342 Subramaniam et al. [96] presented a scheme for denoising STFT for detecting embolic signals. 402
343 elastograms by filtering the signals in the fractional Fourier Wang et al. [101] proposed a pathological brain detection 403
344 domain. The elastograms contains information about the system that uses the fractional Fourier entropy (FrFE) as a set 404
345 abrupt changes in the tissue stiffness under pathological of features to discriminate pathological from healthy brains. 405
346 conditions. Such information can be obtained from the first The FrFE combines the FrFT with the Shannon entropy. The 406
347 derivative of the signal, but his operation also amplifies the proposed method was tested on 481 MR brain images. The 407
348 noise and artifacts within the elastogram signal. The FrFT is space feature was built by varying the order from a = 0.6 to a = 1 408
349 considered for this problem, due to its capability of applying and calculating the corresponding entropy values. The 409
350 filtering operations at different fractional domains to retain classification was implemented through an SVM algorithm. 410
351 relevant frequencies. The test data was obtained from The results indicate a classification performance greater than 411
352 computational simulations that includes white Gaussian 99% of accuracy, providing superior performance when 412
353 noise. The FrFT filtering was compared with a conventional compared to 20 state-of-the-art methods. 413
354 Butterworth filter. The fractional orders were selected to Zhang et al. [102] presented an automatic computer-aided 414
355 maximize the contrast to noise ratio. The results obtained system for classifying pathological brain images A linear 415
356 under this design showed that filtering in distinct fractional combination-type fractional Fourier transform was used to 416
357 domains provides a significant signal quality improvement extract spectrum features of each MR image. The 2D-FrFT was 417
358 compared with conventional filtering. implemented by first applying the unidimensional FrFT to 418
359 Madhu et al. [97] proposed a method for seizure detection columns and rows ranging from orders between a = 0.6 to a = 1. 419
360 using the short-time fractional Fourier transform (STFrFT) for The feature space was reduced using principal component 420
361 feature extraction to feed a classification stage based on a analysis (PCA) and then feed an SVM classifier. The results 421
362 probabilistic neural network. The STFrFT can be calculated by showed that the linear combination-type FrFT provides 422
363 applying a sliding window to the input signal before applying information that enhances the performance of the classifica- 423

Please cite this article in press as: Gomez A, et al. The fractional Fourier transform as a biomedical signal and image processing tool: A
review. Biocybern Biomed Eng (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbe.2020.05.004
 BBE 457 1–13

biocybernetics and biomedical engineering xxx (2020) xxx–xxx 7

424 tion stage. Later, Zhang et al. presented another pathological modified largest Lyapunov exponent. Such metric was used 484
425 brain detection system based in a multi-layer perceptron to for an automatic preictal prediction using artificial neural 485
426 assist neuroradiologists in interpreting MR brain images [103]. networks. The proposed model yields higher accuracy in the 486
427 This method discriminates healthy and pathological brains classification compared to the short-term maximum Lyapu- 487
428 using the FrFT for feature extraction. The authors used 12 nov characteristic exponent. 488
429 different combinations of fractional order pairs to extract Awal et al. [109] proposed a high-resolution time-frequency 489
430 features and feed a one-hidden layer multi-layer perceptron. representation called ‘‘locally optimized spectrogram’’ based 490
431 This method was compared with 11 state-of-the-art on the STFrFT. This method automatically determines the 491
432 approaches, obtaining a better average accuracy. Following locally optimal window parameters and fractional order for all 492
433 these developments, a computer-aided diagnosis system for signal components, leading to a high-resolution and cross- 493
434 detecting abnormal breasts from healthy ones was introduced terms free time-frequency representation. This approach 494
435 [104]. This study used mammogram images that were introduces an optimization strategy to achieve the most 495
436 segmented and enhanced around the region of interest. For compact representation of all signal components. This tool 496
437 a given mammogram, 16 different spectrum images were was tested in a task of feature extraction for the detection of 497
438 obtained using different angle combinations between a = 0.7 burst-suppression patterns in neonatal EEG signals. The burst- 498
439 and a = 1. The features obtained were reduced through PCA to suppression patterns are associated with the adverse neuro- 499
440 feed an SVM. The performance of the proposed algorithm developmental outcome of newborns who suffered from 500
441 outperforms five existent methods. hypoxicischemic brain injury. From the locally optimized 501
442 Wang et al. [105] proposed a strategy to detect sensorineu- spectrogram, seven features were extracted: singular value 502
443 ral hearing loss in MR images. This study exploits the FrFT decomposition maximum, singular value decomposition 503
444 order as an extra degree of freedom to obtain the feature space. entropy, energy concentration measure, instantaneous fre- 504
445 The task involves discriminating images from patients with quency deviation, time-frequency Renyi entropy, time-fre- 505
446 left-sided hearing loss, right-sided hearing loss and healthy quency mean and time-frequency variance. This method was 506
447 controls. The procedure involved 25 combinations of the FrFT compared with other approaches, obtaining better perfor- 507
448 orders distributed in five rotation angles for the horizontal mance in detecting burst-suppression patterns. 508
449 direction and five for the vertical direction. The obtained Belousov et al. [110] presented a comparison of ECG 509
450 spectrums were reduced with PCA and feed a single-hidden representations recorded from a healthy patient and a patient 510
451 feed-forward layer neural network. The proposed strategy with ischemic heart disease. The authors defined a tomo- 511
452 obtained an overall accuracy greater than 95%, improving the graphic representation through the FrFT energy spectrum. A 512
453 performance of other state-of-the-art strategies. comparison of both patients under this approach reveals 513
454 Sud [106] applied the FrFT for the separation of heartbeats differences between the tomographic representation of 514
455 from twin fetuses in ECGs. The proposed algorithm takes healthy and unhealthy ECGs. These results evinced that more 515
456 advantage of the approximation of the beats with damped information can be obtained through the FrFT compared with 516
457 chirp signals that are slightly out of phase in time or the traditional FT. Moreover, the cross-section of the tomo- 517
458 amplitude. A suitable rotation in the time-frequency plane graphic representation for orders lesser and close to 1, can be 518
459 is defined when the chirped beats become narrow bands and used to detect early differences between normal and quasi- 519
460 the signal is filtered in the corresponding fractional domain to normal cardiac activity. 520
461 extract the dominant signal by subtraction. The test signals Zhang et al. [111] proposed a multi-class brain image 521
462 were modeled using analytic functions mixed with white classifier by implementing the reality-preserving FrFT and the 522
463 Gaussian noise. The results showed the ability of the FrFT Adaboost machine learning algorithm. The reality-preserving 523
464 filtering to separate the ECG signals, allowing the identification FrFT is a modified FrFT that yields real-valued coefficients. The 524
465 of cardiac problems in fetuses when the mother is expecting task consisted in classifying MR brain images into five 525
466 twins. categories: healthy, cerebrovascular disease, neoplastic dis- 526
467 Kumar et al. [107] used the FrFT for speech signal denoising ease, degenerative disease and inflammatory disease. The 527
468 assessing the performance at various fractional orders. The reality-preserving FrFT was computed for 25 different orders 528
469 proposed algorithm analyzes a signal with white Gaussian ranging from a = 0.6 to a = 1 and the obtained features were 529
470 noise in the fractional Fourier domain, where it is hard- reduced by PCA. Classification results output an average 530
471 thresholded and then inverse transformed to recover the accuracy of 98.6%. 531
472 temporal signal. The performance of the algorithm is Keshishzadeh et al. [112] proposed a biometrical feature 532
473 measured using the peak signal to noise ratio and mean extraction technique for EEG-based human verification with a 533
474 absolute error. The results demonstrate that in a corrupted different number of channels. Due to the non-stationary 534
475 signal the peak signal to noise ratio is improved by 3.6 dB. characteristics of the EEG signals, the authors proposed a FrFT 535
476 Fei et al. [108] proposed a method to capture chaotic based approach for feature extraction of recordings from 536
477 dynamics from epileptic signals in the FrFT domain. This subjects, performing several experimental runs. The task 537
478 method exploits chirp-like characteristics of the signal involves discriminating imposter and genuine subjects using 538
479 transients under ictal state and the non-linearity of the SVM. The proposed strategy obtained 99.77% accuracy, 99.76% 539
480 preictal state of the intracranial EEG. The fractional domain specificity and 99.82% sensitivity using three EGM channels 540
481 energy was calculated and the relevant fractional order was and a fractional order of a = 0.5. 541
482 determined by a threshold value. The chaos in the FrFT Guo et al. [113] combined the FrFT and an entropy-based 542
483 domain at the proper order was quantified through the technique for the analysis of the gene expression profile (GEP) 543

Please cite this article in press as: Gomez A, et al. The fractional Fourier transform as a biomedical signal and image processing tool: A
review. Biocybern Biomed Eng (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbe.2020.05.004
 BBE 457 1–13

8 biocybernetics and biomedical engineering xxx (2020) xxx–xxx

544 to classify cancer of various sub-types. The GEP can be the FrFT is proposed as a tool to obtain sufficient features 604
545 considered as a non-stationary signal and thus, the FrFT can be through the fractional order. The features were built 605
546 used as a proper analyzing tool. A matrix containing the GEP considering the extreme difference, standard deviation, 606
547 was built, where each row represents a sample and each variance, interquartile range, average, root mean square, 607
548 column a gene. Each row of the GEP was transformed into the mean of peaks, and peaks count. The obtained features were 608
549 FrFT domain and normalized to obtain a standardized FrFT used in four binary sub-classifiers to differentiate between 609
550 coefficient matrix. The entropy weight of the FrFT coefficients run and other actions, walk and downstairs, walk and upstairs 610
551 was computed to quantify the useful information. The 300 top- and finally downstairs and upstairs. The results showed that 611
552 ranked FRFT coefficients set by the entropy weight were the FrFT based classifier reaches optimal performance when 612
553 chosen as input for a classification stage using SVM. The order combining the peaks count and standard deviation at a = 0.67 613
554 of the FrFT was empirically adjusted. Four datasets containing for walk and downstairs, the extreme difference and peaks 614
555 information about leukemia, colon cancer, gastric cancer, and count at a = 0.64 for upstairs and downstairs, the root mean 615
556 breast cancer were used. The results indicate a better accuracy square and average at a = 0.71 for walk and upstairs, and root 616
557 for the leukaemia dataset using a = {0.1, 0.65, 0.95}, for the mean square and average at a = 0.75 for run and other actions. 617
558 gastric dataset using a = 0.35, for colon dataset using a = 0.8 Through these results, it is shown that the FrFT can be 618
559 and for breast dataset using a = {0.05, 0.2, 0.45, 0.5}. The adapted to extract useful information from a wide range of 619
560 proposed strategy showed the FrFT capabilities to extract scenarios. 620
561 inherent genetic features on a genome-wide scale. Abduh et al. [119,120] presented a computer-aided auscul- 621
562 Gupta et al. [114] assessed the performance of the fractional tation system for phonocardiograms that used a FrFT-based 622
563 wavelet transform (FrWT), the FrFT, and independent PCA for Mel-frequency spectral coefficients (FrFT-MFSC) approach for 623
564 ECG signal pre-processing. The FrWT allows a multiresolution heart sounds classification. The FrFT-MFSC was proposed for 624
565 analysis and it yields a signal representation in the fractional feature extraction as it provides multiple time-frequency 625
566 domain [115]. The FrWT coefficients were obtained by applying representations due to the fractional order parameter. To 626
567 the WT to the signal FrFT. The wavelet coefficients were extract the features from the phonocardiogram, DFrFT of the 627
568 processed using soft-thresholding and the Daubechies wavelet windowed signal was calculated at orders a = {0.9, 0.95, 1, 1.1}. 628
569 was implemented to extract detailed information. The results The energy of the obtained spectrum was mapped into the 629
570 showed that the FrFT have shortcomings in the presence of Mel-scale using triangular overlapping windows. The loga- 630
571 motion artifacts resulting in QRS complexes overlapping and rithms of the powers were calculated at each Mel-frequency to 631
572 frequency artifacts. On the other hand, the FrWT was able to obtain the FrFT-MFSC features that were PCA reduced. The 632
573 discriminate the QRS complexes from motion artifacts. The classification problem consisted in discriminating normal and 633
574 FrWT also showed a better performance in improving the abnormal cardiac sounds. In [119] the authors proposed a SVM, 634
575 signal SNR and outperformed the FrFT and independent PCA k-nearest neighbor and ensemble classifier achieving a high 635
576 sensitivity and accuracy in detecting ECG beats. classification performance. In [120] a stacked sparse auto- 636
577 Yang et al. [116] developed a brain-computer interface encoder deep neural network was proposed for classification, 637
578 implementing a Steady-State Visual Evoked Potential for improving the performance obtained with the machine 638
579 stimulating brain waves in EEG. The Mel-Cepstral Coefficients learning algorithms. This study highlighted the potential of 639
580 were estimated using the FrFT and they were used to train a FrFT-MFSC features for phonocardiogram analysis over other 640
581 Hidden Markov model for EEG signal recognition. The techniques in the literature. 641
582 experiments used 420 datasets from 3 volunteers. The Table 2 presents a summary of the references that 642
583 proposed method was compared with a Hidden Markov model implements the FrFT in biomedical signal processing. This 643
584 that used an ordinary Mel-Cepstral Coefficient feature extrac- table summarizes the type of signals used for the experiments, 644
585 tion. The results showed that the proposed method improves the DFrFT type, order values and the specific tasks. 645
586 the accuracy of the ordinary Hidden Markov model.
587 Bajaj et al. [117] proposed a QRS complex detection in ECG 646
4. Discussion
588 that uses fractional Stockwell transform (FrST) and fractional
589 Stockwell Shannon energy to dealt with the non-stationarity
590 of such signals. The FrST is a multi-resolution transform that Biomedical technology strongly relies on how human physio- 647
591 combines the FrFT and the Stockwell transform. This logical data is processed and interpreted. There is an on-going 648
592 transformation utilizes window adjustment parameters and effort on developing digital tools for extracting useful 649
593 the FrFT order to increase fractional frequency resolution. The information. The frequency content analysis allows establish- 650
594 QRS detection is achieved by transforming the ECG signal ing physiological spectral signatures such as those in EEG and 651
595 using the FrST, by which the envelopes are extracted using the ECG. However, quasi-periodicity and non-stationarity, as 652
596 Shannon energy method. The proposed strategy obtained features of biomedical signals and as outcome of complex 653
597 99.99% sensitivity, 99.97% positive predictivity, 99.97% detec- underlying dynamics, demands turning to advanced signal 654
598 tion accuracy and 0.03 error rate, thus, validating the processing techniques for effective information extraction. 655
599 superiority of the method over 6 well-established techniques. The FrFT has been proposed as a generalization of the classical 656
600 Wang et at. [118] Proposed a feature extraction method for Fourier transform, yielding a time-frequency depiction. Such 657
601 action detection on an artificial knee. Since human action is a property has been exploited to work out the non-stationarity 658
602 time-varying motion and independent time and frequency of biomedical signals. Moreover, the multiple fractional 659
603 analysis avoid mutual information between both domains, spectrums estimated through the fractional order enable the 660

Please cite this article in press as: Gomez A, et al. The fractional Fourier transform as a biomedical signal and image processing tool: A
review. Biocybern Biomed Eng (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbe.2020.05.004
 BBE 457 1–13

biocybernetics and biomedical engineering xxx (2020) xxx–xxx 9

Table 2 – Summary of references that use the FrFT in biomedical signal processing.
Ref. Type of signal DFrFT type Applied order (a) Task
[90] Chirp model Not specified Optimal in the range 0 to 2 Signal detection
[95] EEG Not specified 0 to 4 in steps of 0.25 Feature extraction
[96] Elastograms Sampling-type Optimal calculated geometrically Denoising
[91] Fingerprint signal model Eigenvector decomposition-type 0.1 to 1 in steps of 0.1 Encoding
[92] Fingerprint image Eigenvector decomposition-type 0.1 to 1 in steps of 0.1 Encoding
[93] Fingerprint signal model Not specified 0.5 to 1 in steps of 0.1 Encoding
[94] Fingerprint image Not specified 0.1 to 1.9 Encoding
[97] EEG Not specified Not specified Feature extraction
[98] EEG Not specified Optimal in the range 0 to 1 Feature extraction
[100] Embolic Doppler ultra sound Eigenvector decomposition-type Set to 0.09 by empirical trials Signal detection
[101] Brain MR image Linear combination-type 0.6 to 1 in steps of 0.1 Feature extraction
[102] Brain MR image Linear combination-type 0.6 to 1 in steps of 0.1 Feature extraction
[103] Brain MR image Not specified 0.6 to 1 in steps of 0.1 Feature extraction
[104] Mammogram images Linear combination-type 0.7 to 1 in steps of 0.1 Feature extraction
[105] Brain MR image Not specified 0.2 to 1 in steps of 0.2 Feature extraction
[106] ECG models Eigenvector decomposition-type Optimal in the range 0 to 2 Signal separation
[107] Bioacoustics (speech) Not specified Set to 0.75 empirically Denoising
[108] EEG Sampling-type Set empirically by thresholding Feature extraction
[109] EEG Not specified Optimal by energy concentration Feature extraction
[110] ECG Not specified 0 to 1 Signal representation
[111] Brain MR image Not specified 0.6 to 1 in steps of 0.1 Feature extraction
[112] EEG Eigenvector decomposition-type 0.1 to 1 in steps of 0.1 Feature extraction
[113] Gene expression profile Not specified 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 Feature extraction
[114] ECG Sampling-type Optimal with range not specified Improved Analysis
[116] EEG Not specified Not specified Feature extraction
[117] ECG Sampling-type Optimal in the range 0.1 to 1.1 Signal detection
[118] Inertial signal (human motion) Eigenvector decomposition-type 0.75, 0.67, 0.65 and 0.64 Feature extraction
[119] Bioacoustics (heart sounds) Eigenvector decomposition-type 0.9, 0.95, 1 and 1.1 Feature extraction
[120] Bioacoustics (heart sounds) Eigenvector decomposition-type 0.9, 0.95, 1 and 1.1 Feature extraction

661 identification of broad biomedical patterns that can be related The FrFT numerical implementations have distinct prop- 690
662 to clinical interpretations. erties: the linear combination-type DFrFT is easy to implement 691
663 The order of the FrFT, as an additional degree of freedom, but it does not provide an accurate approximation to the 692
664 provides flexibility for addressing several problems in bio- continuous FrFT, the eigenvector decomposition-type DFrFT 693
665 medical signal processing. As the literature review indicates, a fulfill additivity and reversibility properties at high computa- 694
666 proper order estimation is essential to accurately perform the tion cost and the sampling-type DFrFT achieves a good 695
667 desired task. Some applications look for optimum orders to approximation to the continuous case at a low computation 696
668 achieve high compactness in the fractional domain, i.e., most complexity but additivity and reversibility properties are not 697
669 of the spectrum energy concentrates in a small time- preserved. Lack of information on the used DFrFT method is 698
670 frequency bandwidth. This criterion has been applied for recurrent in current literature. Due to the importance of proper 699
671 processing non-stationary signals such as non-linear filtering, DFrFT algorithm selection, prior knowledge of the character- 700
672 signal separation or signal detection. There are strategies that istics and properties of the different algorithms is needed. In 701
673 apply multiple fractional domains to extract features associ- this regard, Zhang et al. and Su et al. [21,22] analyzed and 702
674 ated with the non-stationary nature of biomedical signals. compared the main computational techniques used to 703
675 Such features are used as inputs of classification machines, approximate the DFrFT. These works can provide valuable 704
676 computer-aided diagnosis and pattern recognition purposes. insight into the DFrFT approaches to an adequate selection of 705
677 Since a 2 R, it is important to define an appropriate interval, the respective algorithms [121]. 706
678 looking for retaining the coarse information and avoiding Several biomedical problems are not properly characterized 707
679 redundant information. Due to the symmetry and periodicity by traditional signal and image processing tools. Novel 708
680 properties of the FrFT, the order working interval is frequently mathematical frameworks, such as the FrFT, endorse relevant 709
681 restricted to [0, 2). According to the technical needs, the improvements in the analysis approaches for addressing 710
682 interval can be reduced to [0, 1]. However, the literature review complex problems. Accordingly, the reviewed literature 711
683 evinced that, for several reports, the fractional order selection attests to the ability of the FrFT in representing non-stationary 712
684 procedure is diffuse and this task mainly relies on empirical signals in a compact form, allowing filtering procedures and 713
685 trials. Therefore, there is a need for effective strategies for signal detection. The FrFT has also been applied for feature 714
686 selecting a proper fractional order according to the problem extraction in machine learning-based automatic diagnosis 715
687 requirements. Publications about the FrFT applications should and pattern recognition systems. Moreover, the FrFT has been 716
688 include detailed information about the criteria and methods successfully combined with other tools such as Shannon 717
689 for selecting the fractional order. entropy, the wavelet transform, FrST, Mel spectral coefficients, 718

Please cite this article in press as: Gomez A, et al. The fractional Fourier transform as a biomedical signal and image processing tool: A
review. Biocybern Biomed Eng (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbe.2020.05.004
 BBE 457 1–13

10 biocybernetics and biomedical engineering xxx (2020) xxx–xxx

719 PCA, SVM, neural networks, etc. Such ensemble approach [4] Tsipouras MG. Spectral information of EEG signals with 767
720 yields robust algorithms for solving complex problems or respect to epilepsy classification. Eurasip J Adv Signal 768
Process 2019;2019(1). 769
721 improving the performance in solving a given task. Addition-
[5] Boashash B. Time-frequency signal analysis and 770
722 ally, recent studies on modified FrFT/GTFT (Generalized time-
processing: a comprehensive reference. Academic Press; 771
723 frequency transform) deal with kernel functions of quadratic 2015. 772
724 frequency modulated and higher order chirps [122–124]. Since [6] Healy JJ, Kutay MA, Ozaktas HM, Sheridan JT. Linear 773
725 most of the biomedical signals fall in the category of nonlinear canonical transforms: theory and applications, vol. 198. 774
726 chirps, further developments of biomedical applications Springer; 2015. 775
727 should explore integrated solutions including the FrFT and [7] Almeida LB. The fractional fourier transform and time- 776
frequency representations. IEEE Trans Signal Process 777
728 other processing tools, and implementations of nonlinear
1994;42(11):3084–91. 778
729 kernel functions. [8] Man'ko MA, Man'ko VI, Mendes RV. Tomograms and other 779
transforms: a unified view. J Phys A: Math Gen 2001;34 780
730 (40):8321–32. 781
5. Conclusions [9] Mendlovic D, Ozaktas HM. Fractional Fourier transforms 782
and their optical implementation I. J Opt Soc Am A 1993;10 783
(12):1875–81. 784
731 This review describes the developments in biomedical signals
[10] Ozaktas HM, Mendlovic D. Fractional Fourier transform 785
732 and image processing using the FrFT. The fractional order, as
and their optical implementation. II. J Opt Soc Am A 786
733 an additional degree of freedom, has been mainly exploited for 1993;10(12):2522–31. 787
734 feature extraction problems. Thus, a fractional spectral [11] Bernardo LM, Soares OD. Fractional Fourier transforms 788
735 signature can be defined for pattern recognition and automatic and optical systems. Optics Commun 1994;110(5–6):517– 789
736 diagnosis purposes. Moreover, the fractional order determines 22. 790
737 time-frequency changes that can aid in characterizing non- [12] Sejdic´ E, Djurovic´ I, Stankovic´ L. Fractional Fourier 791
transform as a signal processing tool: an overview of 792
738 stationary dynamics, with relevant physiological information.
recent developments. Signal Process 2011;91(6):1351–69. 793
739 Reviewed literature reveals the FrFT being implemented in
[13] Ozaktas HM, Kutay MA. The fractional Fourier transform. 794
740 different biomedical contexts, where the main research lines 2001 European Control Conference (ECC). 2001. pp. 1477– 795
741 are related to the neurologic and cardiovascular fields. 83. 796
742 Although biomedical applications are not yet among the most [14] Ozaktas HM, Kutay MA, Mendlovic D. Introduction to the 797
743 prevalent FrFT fields of action, the growing interest during the fractional Fourier transform and its applications. Adv 798
744 last 20 years of the scientific community of implementing the Imaging Electron Phys 1999;106:239–91. 799
[15] Moody GB, Mark RG. The impact of the MIT-BIH 800
745 FrFT in biomedical solutions supports its usefulness and
arrhythmia database. IEEE Eng Med Biol Mag 2001;20(3):45– 801
746 potential use for novel data analysis tools. It is expected that 50. 802
747 research and translational works will increase in the near [16] Santhanam B, McClellan J. The discrete rotational Fourier 803
748 future. transform. IEEE Trans Signal Process 1996;44(4):983–7. 804
[17] Dickinson BW, Steiglitz K. Eigenvectors and functions of 805
the discrete Fourier transform. IEEE Trans Acoust Speech 806
749 Authors' contributions Signal Process 1982;30(1):25–31. 807
[18] Pei SC, Yeh MH. Improved discrete fractional Fourier 808
transform. Optics Lett 1997;22(14):1047–9. 809
750 All authors contribute equally to this work, including [19] Candan Ç, Kutay MA, Ozaktas HM. The discrete fractional 810
751 participation in conceptualization, analysis, visualization, Fourier transform. Water Resour Manag 2000;32(12):3887– 811
752 writing and revision of the manuscript. 902. 812
[20] Ozaktas HM, Ankan O, Kutay MA, Bozdagt G. Digital 813
computation of the fractional Fourier transform. IEEE 814
753 Declarations of interest Trans Signal Process 1996;44(9):2141–50. 815
[21] Zhang YD, Wang SH, Yang JF, Zhang Z, Phillips P, Sun P, 816
et al. A comprehensive survey on fractional Fourier 817
754 None declared. transform. Fundam Inform 2017;151(1–4):1–48. 818
[22] Su X, Tao R, Kang X. Analysis and comparison of discrete 819
fractional Fourier transforms. Signal Process 2019;160:284– 820
755 references 98. 821
[23] Pei SC, Ding JJ. Closed-form discrete fractional and affine 822
Fourier transforms. IEEE Trans Signal Process 2000;48 823
(5):1338–53. 824
756 [1] Escabí M. Chapter 11 – biosignal processing.. In: Enderle [24] Pei SC, Tseng CC, Yeh MH. A new discrete fractional 825
757 JD, Bronzino JD, editors. Introduction to biomedical Fourier transform based on constrained 826
758 engineering. Third ed. Biomedical Engineering; Academic eigendecomposition of DFT matrix by largrange multiplier 827
759 Press; 2012. p. 667–746. method. IEEE Trans Circuits Syst II: Analog Digit Signal 828
760 [2] Tabar YR, Halici U. A novel deep learning approach for Process 1999;46(9):1240–5. 829
761 classification of EEG motor imagery signals. J Neural Eng [25] Pei SC, Yeh MH, Tseng CC. Discrete fractional Fourier 830
762 2016;14(1):16003. transform based on orthogonal projections. IEEE Trans 831
763 [3] Huang J, Chen B, Yao B, He W. ECG arrhythmia Signal Process 1999;47(5):1335–48. 832
764 classification using STFT-based spectrogram and [26] Hanna MT, Seif NPA, Ahmed WAEM. Hermite-Gaussian- 833
765 convolutional neural network. IEEE Access 2019;7:92871– like eigenvectors of the discrete Fourier transform matrix 834
766 80. based on the singular-value decomposition of its 835

Please cite this article in press as: Gomez A, et al. The fractional Fourier transform as a biomedical signal and image processing tool: A
review. Biocybern Biomed Eng (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbe.2020.05.004
 BBE 457 1–13

biocybernetics and biomedical engineering xxx (2020) xxx–xxx 11

836 orthogonal projection matrices. IEEE Trans Circuits Syst I: [47] Ozaktas HM, Mendlovic D, Onural L, Barshan B. 905
837 Regular Pap 2004;51(11):2245–54. Convolution, filtering, and multiplexing in fractional 906
838 [27] Pei SC, Hsue WL, Ding JJ. Discrete fractional Fourier Fourier domains and their relation to chirp and wavelet 907
839 transform based on new nearly tridiagonal commuting transforms. J Opt Soc Am A 1994;11(2):547–59. 908
840 matrices. IEEE Trans Signal Process 2006;54(10):3815– [48] Ozaktas HM, Barshan B, Mendlovic D. Convolution and 909
841 28. filtering in fractional Fourier domains. Opt Rev 1994;1 910
842 [28] Candan Ç. On higher order approximations for Hermite- (1):15–6. 911
843 Gaussian functions and discrete fractional Fourier [49] Kutay MA, Ozaktas HM, Ankan O. Optimal filtering in 912
844 transforms. IEEE Signal Process Lett 2007;14(10):699–702. fractional Fourier domains. IEEE Trans Signal Process 913
845 [29] Hanna MT. Direct batch evaluation of optimal 1997;45(5):1129–43. 914
846 orthonormal eigenvectors of the DFT matrix. IEEE Trans [50] Erden MF, Kutay MA, Ozaktas HM. Applications of the 915
847 Signal Process 2008;56(5):2138–43. fractional Fourier transform to filtering, estimation and 916
848 [30] Pei SC, Hsue WL, Ding JJ. DFT-commuting matrix with restoration. NSIP 1999;481–5. 917
849 arbitrary or infinite order second derivative [51] Durak L, Aldirmaz S. Adaptive fractional Fourier domain 918
850 approximation. IEEE Trans Signal Process 2009;57(1):390–4. filtering. Signal Process 2010;90(4):1188–96. 919
851 [31] Serbes A, Durak-Ata L. Efficient computation of DFT [52] Kumar S, Saxena R. fFrMF: fractional Fourier matched 920
852 commuting matrices by a closed-form infinite order filter. Circuits Syst Signal Process 2018;37(1):49–80. 921
853 approximation to the second differentiation matrix. Signal [53] Zhang XZ, Ling BWK, Dam HH, Teo KL, Wu C. Optimal joint 922
854 Process 2011;91(3):582–9. design of discrete fractional Fourier transform matrices 923
855 [32] Serbes A, Durak-Ata L. The discrete fractional Fourier and mask coefficients for multichannel filtering in 924
856 transform based on the DFT matrix. Signal Process 2011;91 fractional Fourier domains. IEEE Trans Signal Process 925
857 (3):571–81. 2018;66(22):6016–30. 926
858 [33] Candan Ç. On the eigenstructure of DFT matrices. IEEE [54] Zhao Y, Yu H, Wei G, Ji F, Chen F. Parameter estimation of 927
859 Signal Process Mag 2011;28(2):105–8. wideband underwater acoustic multipath channels based 928
860 [34] Hanna MT. Direct sequential evaluation of optimal on fractional Fourier transform. IEEE Trans Signal Process 929
861 orthonormal eigenvectors of the discrete Fourier 2016;64(20):5396–408. 930
862 transform matrix by constrained optimization. Digit Signal [55] Lu Y, Kasaeifard A, Oruklu E, Saniie J. Fractional Fourier 931
863 Process: Rev J 2012;22(4):681–9. transform for ultrasonic chirplet signal decomposition. 932
864 [35] Hanna MT. The direct batch generation of Hermite- Adv Acoust Vib 2012. 2012. 933
865 Gaussian-like eigenvectors of the DFT matrix using the [56] Bhalke DG, Rao CB, Bormane DS. Automatic musical 934
866 notion of matrix pseudoinverse. ICASSP, IEEE instrument classification using fractional Fourier 935
867 International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal transform based- MFCC features and counter propagation 936
868 Processing – Proceedings; 2013. p. 6063–7. neural network. J Intell Inf Syst 2016;46(3):425–46. 937
869 [36] Kuznetsov A. Explicit hermite-type eigenvectors of the [57] Shi Q, Li W, Tao R. Classification in remote sensing 938
870 discrete Fourier transform. SIAM J Matrix Anal Appl imagery. 2018 10th IAPR Workshop on Pattern Recognition 939
871 2015;36(4):1443–64. in Remote Sensing (PRRS); 2018. pp. 1–5. 940
872 [37] De Oliveira Neto JR, Lima JB. Discrete fractional fourier [58] Gu FC, Chen HC, Chen BY. A fractional Fourier transform- 941
873 transforms based on closed-form Hermite-Gaussian-like based approach for gas-insulated switchgear partial 942
874 DFT eigenvectors. IEEE Trans Signal Process 2017;65 discharge recognition. J Electr Eng Technol 2019;14 943
875 (23):6171–84. (5):2073–84. 944
876 [38] De Oliveira Neto JR, Lima JB, da Silva GJ, Campello de [59] Kumar S, Saxena R, Singh K. Fractional Fourier transform 945
877 Souza RM. Computation of an eigendecomposition-based and fractional-order calculus-based image edge detection. 946
878 discrete fractional Fourier transform with reduced Circuits Syst Signal Process 2017;36(4):1493–513. 947
879 arithmetic complexity. Signal Process 2019;165:72–82. [60] Saxena N, Sharma KK. Pansharpening scheme using 948
880 [39] Santhanam B, McClellan J. The DRFT-a rotation in time- filtering in twodimensional discrete fractional Fourier 949
881 frequency space. 1995 International Conference on transform. IET Image Process 2018;12(6):1013–9. 950
882 Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing; 1995. pp. 921–4. [61] Qiu F, Liu Z, Liu R, Quan X, Tao C, Wang Y. Fluid flow 951
883 [40] Cariolaro G, Erseghe T, Kraniauskas P, Laurenti N. A signals processing based on fractional Fourier transform 952
884 unified framework for the fractional Fourier transform. in a stirred tank reactor. ISA Trans 2019;90:268–77. 953
885 IEEE Trans Signal Process 1998;46(12):3206–19. [62] Chen H, Liu Z, Chen Q, Blondel W, Varis P. Color image 954
886 [41] Richman MS, Parks TW. Understanding discrete rotations. cryptosystem using Fresnel diffraction and phase 955
887 ICASSP, IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, modulation in an expanded fractional Fourier transform 956
888 Speech and Signal Processing – Proceedings, vol. 3; 1997. p. domain. Laser Phys 2018;28(5). 957
889 2057–60. [63] Liu Z, Chen H, Blondel W, Shen Z, Liu S. Image security 958
890 [42] Deng X, Li Y, Fan D, Qiu Y. A fast algorithm for fractional based on iterative random phase encoding in expanded 959
891 Fourier transforms. Optics Commun 1997;138(4–6):270–4. fractional Fourier transform domains. Optics Lasers Eng 960
892 [43] Ikram MZ, Abed-Meraim K, Hua Y. Fast quadratic phase 2018;105(December 2017):1–5. 961
893 transform for estimating the parameters of [64] Chen H, Liu Z, Zhu L, Tanougast C, Blondel W. Asymmetric 962
894 multicomponent chrip signals. Digit Signal Process: Rev J color cryptosystem using chaotic Ushiki map and equal 963
895 1997;7(2):127–35. modulus decomposition in fractional Fourier transform 964
896 [44] Bi G, Wei Y, Li G, Wan C, Si B. Radix-2 DIF fast algorithms domains. Optics Lasers Eng 2019;112(August 2018):7–15. 965
897 for polynomial time-frequency transforms. IEEE Trans [65] Liansheng S, Xiao Z, Chongtian H, Ailing T, Krishna Asundi 966
898 Aerosp Electron Syst 2006;42(4):1540–6. A. Silhouette-free interference-based multiple-image 967
899 [45] Ju Y, Bi G. Generalized fast algorithms for the polynomial encryption using cascaded fractional Fourier transforms. 968
900 time-frequency transform. IEEE Trans Signal Process Optics Lasers Eng 2019;113(September 2018):29–37. 969
901 2007;55(10):4907–15. [66] Yu SS, Zhou NR, Gong LH, Nie Z. Optical image encryption 970
902 [46] Bi G, Ju Y, Li X. Fast algorithms for polynomial time- algorithm based on phase-truncated short-time fractional 971
903 frequency transforms of real-valued sequences. IEEE Fourier transform and hyper-chaotic system. Optics Lasers 972
904 Trans Signal Process 2008;56(5):1905–15. Eng 2020;124(July 2019). 973

Please cite this article in press as: Gomez A, et al. The fractional Fourier transform as a biomedical signal and image processing tool: A
review. Biocybern Biomed Eng (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbe.2020.05.004
 BBE 457 1–13

12 biocybernetics and biomedical engineering xxx (2020) xxx–xxx

974 [67] Farah MA, Guesmi R, Kachouri A, Samet M. A novel chaos [85] Chen B, Yu M, Tian Y, Li L, Wang D, Sun X. Multiple- 1043
975 based optical image encryption using fractional Fourier parameter fractional quaternion Fourier transform and its 1044
976 transform and DNA sequence operation. Optics Laser application in colour image encryption. IET Image Process 1045
977 Technol 2020;121(April 2019):105777. 2018;12(12):2238–49. 1046
978 [68] Pedersen AF, Simons H, Detlefs C, Poulsen HF. The [86] Li Y, Song Z, Sha X. The multi-weighted type fractional 1047
979 fractional Fourier transform as a simulation tool for lens- fourier transform scheme and its application over wireless 1048
980 based X-ray microscopy. J Synchrotron Radiat 2018;125 communications. Eurasip J Wirel Commun Netw 2018 1049
981 (3):717–28. 2018;1. 1050
982 [69] Yang L, Guo P, Yang A, Qiao Y. Blind third-order dispersion [87] Li J, Sha X, Fang X, Mei L, Dxwkru F, Vkd H, et al. 8- 1051
983 estimation based on fractional Fourier transformation for Weighted-type fractional Fourier transform based three- 1052
984 coherent optical communication. Optics Laser Technol branch transmission method. China Commun 2018;15 1053
985 2018;99:86–90. (9):147–59. 1054
986 [70] Habibi F, Moradi M. Propagation of an airy beam through [88] Ni L, Da X, Hu H, Liang Y, Xu R. PHY-aided secure 1055
987 atmospheric turbulence with optical vortex under communication via weighted fractional Fourier transform. 1056
988 fractional Fourier transforms. Optics Laser Technol Wirel Commun Mob Comput 2018 2018. 1057
989 2018;107:313–24. [89] Zhou L, Zhao Q, Chi S, Li Y, Liu L, Yu Q. A fractional Fourier 1058
990 [71] Habibi F, Moradi M, Ansari A. Study on the Mainardi beam transform-based channel estimation algorithm in single- 1059
991 through the fractional Fourier transforms system. Comput carrier direct sequence code division multiple access 1060
992 Optics 2018;42(5):751–7. underwater acoustic communication system. Int J Distrib 1061
993 [72] Saad F, Ebrahim AA, Khouilid M, Belafhal A. Fractional Sens Netw 2019;15(1). 1062
994 Fourier transform of double-half inverse Gaussian hollow [90] Zhang Y, Zhang Q, Wu S. Biomedical signal detection 1063
995 beams. Opt Quantum Electron 2018;50(2):1–12. based on fractional Fourier transform.5th Int. Conference 1064
996 [73] Sreekumar G, Mary L, Unnikrishnan A. Performance on Information Technology and Applications in 1065
997 analysis of fractional Fourier domain beam-forming Biomedicine, ITAB 2008 in Conjunction With 2nd Int. 1066
998 methods for sensor arrays. Smart Sci 2018;7(1):28–38. Symposium and Summer School on Biomedical and 1067
999 [74] Hanbali SBS, Kastantin R. Fractional Fourier transform- Health Engineering, IS3BHE. 2008. 2008. p. 349–52. 1068
1000 based chirp radars for countering self-protection [91] Iwai R, Yoshimura H. A new method for improving 1069
1001 frequency-shifting jammers. Int J Microw Wirel Technol robustness of registered fingerprint data using the 1070
1002 2017;9(8):1687–93. fractional Fourier transform. Int J Commun Netw Syst Sci 1071
1003 [75] Wang F, Wang Y, Liu J, Wang Y. Optical excitation 2010;03(09):722–9. 1072
1004 fractional Fourier transform (FrFT) based enhanced [92] Iwai R, Yoshimura H. New method for increasing 1073
1005 thermal-wave radar imaging (TWRI). Optics Express matching accuracy and reducing process time of 1074
1006 2018;26(17):21403–17. fingerprint data by the fractional Fourier transform. 1075
1007 [76] Tang Z, Bao Q, Chen Z, Lin C, Wang S. A new target Proceedings – International Conference on Image 1076
1008 detection method for noncooperative bistatic radar based Processing, ICIP; 2010. p. 3061–4. 1077
1009 on fractional Fourier transform and wavelet transform. [93] Iwai R, Yoshimura H. Matching accuracy analysis of 1078
1010 Proceedings of 2018 2nd IEEE Advanced Information fingerprint templates generated by data processing 1079
1011 Management, Communicates, Electronic and Automation method using the fractional Fourier transform. Int J 1080
1012 Control Conference, IMCEC 2018; 2018. p. 834–8. Commun Netw Syst Sci 2011;04(01):24–32. 1081
1013 [77] Fang X, Cao Z, Min R, Pi Y. Radar maneuvering target [94] Iwai R, Yoshimura H. Accuracy analysis in fingerprint 1082
1014 detection based on two steps scaling and fractional Fourier authentication using the fractional Fourier transform 1083
1015 transform. Signal Process 2019;155:1–13. without misalignment correction of scanned images. Int J 1084
1016 [78] Gaglione D, Clemente C, Ilioudis CV, Persico AR, Proudler Commun Netw Syst Sci 2012;05(03):178–86. 1085
1017 IK, Soraghan JJ, et al. Waveform design for communicating [95] Guerrero-Mosquera C, Verleysen M, Navia Vazquez A. EEG 1086
1018 radar systems using fractional Fourier transform. Digit feature selection using mutual information and support 1087
1019 Signal Process: Rev J 2018;80:57–69. vector machine: a comparative analysis. 2010 Annual 1088
1020 [79] Ali M, Ahn CW, Pant M. An efficient lossless robust International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in 1089
1021 watermarking scheme by integrating redistributed Medicine and Biology Society, EMBC'10; 2010. pp. 4946–9. 1090
1022 invariant wavelet and fractional Fourier transforms. [96] Subramaniam SR, Hon TK, Georgakis A, Papadakis G. 1091
1023 Multimed Tools Appl 2018;77(10):11751–73. Fractional fourier-based filter for denoising elastograms. 1092
1024 [80] Abdelhakim AM, Saad MH, Sayed M, Saleh HI. Optimized 2010 Annual International Conference of the IEEE 1093
1025 SVD-based robust watermarking in the fractional Fourier Engineering in Medicine and Biology. 2010. pp. 4028–31. 1094
1026 domain. Multimed Tools Appl 2018;77(21):27895–917. [97] Madhu A, Jayasree VK, Thomas V. Seizure detection in 1095
1027 [81] Zhang XZ, Li Y, Ling BWK, Song C, Teo KL. Spread epileptic EEGs using short time fractional Fourier 1096
1028 spectrum compressed sensing magnetic resonance transform. Int J Adv Eng Emerg Technol (IJAEET) 2011;2 1097
1029 imaging via fractional Fourier transform. 2017 Asia-Pacific (2):9–16. 1098
1030 Signal and Information Processing Association Annual [98] Rizwan-I-Haque I, Khan MF, Saleem M, Rao NI. Network 1099
1031 Summit and Conference (APSIPA ASC). 2017. pp. 90–3. weight adjustment in a fractional fourier transform based 1100
1032 [82] Naveen Kumar R, Jagadale BN, Bhat JS. A lossless image multi-channel brain computer interface for person 1101
1033 compression algorithm using wavelets and fractional authentication. 2012 11th International Conference on 1102
1034 Fourier transform. SN Appl Sci 2019;1(3):1–8. Information Science, Signal Processing and Their 1103
1035 [83] Gong L, Deng C, Pan S, Zhou N. Image compression- Applications (ISSPA); 2012. pp. 900–5. 1104
1036 encryption algorithms by combining hyper-chaotic system [99] Zheng L, Shi D. Maximum amplitude method for 1105
1037 with discrete fractional random transform. Optics Laser estimating compact fractional Fourier domain. IEEE Signal 1106
1038 Technol 2018;103:48–58. Process Lett 2010;17(3):293–6. 1107
1039 [84] Zhang D, Liao X, Yang B, Zhang Y. A fast and efficient [100] Gencer M, Bilgin G, Aydin N. Embolic Doppler ultrasound 1108
1040 approach to color-image encryption based on compressive signal detection via fractional Fourier transform. 2013 35th 1109
1041 sensing and fractional Fourier transform. Multimed Tools Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering 1110
1042 Appl 2018;77(2):2191–208. in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC). 2013. pp. 3050–3. 1111

Please cite this article in press as: Gomez A, et al. The fractional Fourier transform as a biomedical signal and image processing tool: A
review. Biocybern Biomed Eng (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbe.2020.05.004
 BBE 457 1–13

biocybernetics and biomedical engineering xxx (2020) xxx–xxx 13

1112 [101] Wang S, Zhang Y, Yang X, Sun P, Dong Z, Liu A, et al. [113] Guo ZP, Xin Y, Zhao YZ. Cancer classification using 1158
1113 Pathological brain detection by a novel image feature- entropy analysis in fractional Fourier domain of gene 1159
1114 fractional Fourier entropy. Entropy 2015;17(12):8278–96. expression profile. Biotechnol Biotechnol Equip 2018;32 1160
1115 [102] Zhang YD, Chen S, Wang SH, Yang JF, Phillips P. Magnetic (4):1042–6. 1161
1116 resonance brain image classification based on weighted- [114] Gupta V, Mittal M. A comparison of ECG signal pre- 1162
1117 type fractional Fourier transform and nonparallel support processing using FrFT. FrWT IPCA Improv Anal Irbm 1163
1118 vector machine. Int J Imaging Syst Technol 2015;25(4):317– 2019;40(3):145–56. 1164
1119 27. [115] Mendlovic D, Zalevsky Z, Mas D, García J, Ferreira C. 1165
1120 [103] Zhang YD, Sun Y, Phillips P, Liu G, Zhou X, Wang S. A Fractional wavelet transform. Appl Optics 1997;36 1166
1121 multilayer perceptron based smart pathological brain (20):4801–6. 1167
1122 detection system by fractional Fourier entropy. J Med Syst [116] Yang Q, Wu Y, Cao R. Brain–computer interface system of 1168
1123 2016;40(7). steady-state visual evoked potentials based on fractional 1169
1124 [104] Zhang YD, Wang SH, Liu G, Yang J. Computer-aided domain features. Proceedings of 2019 IEEE 8th Data Driven 1170
1125 diagnosis of abnormal breasts in mammogram images by Control and Learning Systems Conference, DDCLS 2019; 1171
1126 weighted-type fractional Fourier transform. Adv Mech Eng 2019. p. 1128–31. 1172
1127 2016;8(2):1–11. [117] Bajaj A, Kumar S. QRS complex detection using fractional 1173
1128 [105] Wang S, Yang M, Zhang Y, Li J, Zou L, Lu S, et al. Detection Stockwell transform and fractional Stockwell Shannon 1174
1129 of left-sided and right-sided hearing loss via fractional energy. Biomed Signal Process Control 2019;54:101628. 1175
1130 Fourier transform. Entropy 2016;18(5):1–10. [118] Wang T, Liu N, Su Z, Li C. A new time-frequency feature 1176
1131 [106] Sud S. Blind separation of twin fetal heartbeats in an extraction method for action detection on artificial knee 1177
1132 electrocardiogram using the fractional Fourier transform. by fractional Fourier transform. Micromachines 2019;10(5). 1178
1133 Int J Eng Res Appl 2016;6(4):14–8. [119] Abduh Z, Nehary EA, Wahed MA, Kadah YM. Classification 1179
1134 [107] Kumar P, Kansal S. Noise removal in speech signal using of heart sounds using fractional Fourier transform based 1180
1135 fractional Fourier transform. 2017 International mel-frequency spectral coefficients and stacked 1181
1136 Conference on Information, Communication, autoencoder deep neural network. J Med Imaging Health 1182
1137 Instrumentation and Control (ICICIC). 2017. pp. 1–4. Inform 2019;9(1):1–8. 1183
1138 [108] Fei K, Wang W, Yang Q, Tang S. Chaos feature study in [120] Abduh Z, Nehary EA, Abdel Wahed M, Kadah YM. 1184
1139 fractional Fourier domain for preictal prediction of Classification of heart sounds using fractional Fourier 1185
1140 epileptic seizure. Neurocomputing 2017;249:290–8. transform based mel-frequency spectral coefficients and 1186
1141 [109] Awal MA, Ouelha S, Dong S, Boashash B. A robust high- traditional classifiers. Biomed Signal Process Control 1187
1142 resolution time-frequency representation based on the 2020;57:101788. 1188
1143 local optimization of the short-time fractional Fourier [121] Bultheel A, Martínez Sulbaran HE. Computation of the 1189
1144 transform. Digit Signal Process: Rev J 2017;70:125–44. fractional Fourier transform. Appl Comput Harmonic Anal 1190
1145 [110] Belousov YM, Elkin NN, Man'ko VI, Popov EG, Revenko SV. 2004;16(3):182–202. 1191
1146 Tomographic representation of electrocardiogram signals. [122] Sreekumar G, Mary L, Unnikrishnan A. Beam-forming of 1192
1147 J Russ Laser Res 2018;39(3):302–13. broadband QFM signals using generalized time-frequency 1193
1148 [111] Zhang Y, Hu Q, Guo Z, Xu J, Xiong K. Multi-class brain transform. Int J Electron 2019;0(0):1. 1194
1149 images classification based on reality-preserving [123] Xu X, Wang Y, Chen S. Medical image fusion using discrete 1195
1150 fractional Fourier transform and adaboost. 2018 3rd IEEE fractional wavelet transform. Biomed Signal Process 1196
1151 International Conference on Image, Vision and Control 2016;27:103–11. 1197
1152 Computing, ICIVC 2018, vol. 2; 2018. pp. 444–7. [124] Abdelliche F, Charef A, Ladaci S. Complex fractional and 1198
1153 [112] Keshishzadeh S, Fallah A, Rashidi S. complex morlet wavelets for QRS complex detection. 2014 1199
1154 Electroencephalogram based biometrics: a fractional International Conference on Fractional Differentiation and 1200
1155 Fourier transform approach. Proceedings of the 2018 2nd Its Applications, ICFDA 2014; 2014. pp. 1–5. 1201
1156 International Conference on Biometric Engineering and
1157 Applications; 2018. p. 1–5.
1202

Please cite this article in press as: Gomez A, et al. The fractional Fourier transform as a biomedical signal and image processing tool: A
review. Biocybern Biomed Eng (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbe.2020.05.004