MINE PLANNING AND EQUIPMENT SELECTION 2000

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINTH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON MINE PLANNING

A ND EQUIPMENT SELECTION/ATHENS/GREECE/6-9 NOVEMBER 2000

M ine Planning and

Equipment Selection 2000
Edited by
G. N. Panagiotou & T. N. M ichalakopoulos
National Technical University of Athens, Greece

Taylor &.Francis
Taylor Si Francis Croup

LONDON AND NEW YORK

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 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Table o f contents

Foreword xvn
Organization XIX

1 Design and planning o f surface and underground mines

Assessment o f vibration measurements due to blasting o f the hard formations 3
at the South Field Lignite Mine, Ptolemais, Greece
Z.AgioutantiSy CKavouridis, S.Bozinis & KTsampis
The transportation planning to the new panel of the longwall mechanized equipment 11
in Tunçbilek Coal Mine
H.Akda§y M.Yavuz & R.Çelik
N ew design approaches for mine ore passes based on reduced-scale laboratory testing, 15
field experiments and computer modehng
MJ.Beus & S. Iverson
Assessment o f explosive performance by detonation velocity measurements in Turkey 21
ABilgin & S.Esen
A contribution to a better design and control of surface blasting 27
ABortolussi, R.CiccUy S.Forte & B.Grosso
Investigation o f interrelationship o f internal and external factors and parameters 33
o f ‘opencast’ system
D.G.BukeikhanoVy B.D.LermaUy RGGabdullin, S.Zh.Galiyev & V.ESiedin
Geological modeling and mine planning for dimension stone quarries 39
ACaranassioSy G.de Tomi & N.Senhorinho
Planning nuggety vein-gold operations: Underground exploration, bulk sampling 45
and resource reporting
S.C.Dominyy BMCuffley & G KJohansen
EOLAVAL, a mine ventilation planning tool 51
K. FytaSy S. Perreault & B. Daigle
The influence o f strategic development options on the long-term quality variation 57
o f mined lignite - The case o f the South Field Mine in Ptolemais, Greece
M.Galetakis & ZAgioutantis
Open stope cavity monitoring for the control o f dilution and ore loss 63
A RJarosz & L. Shepherd
Methane safety o f coal mining 67
KO, Kaledina
Analyses o f valley fill stability and spoil handling techniques in mountainous areas 71
S R B .K olli& A W K hair
The minimum total cost approach to optimum pit slope design 77
R A Lilly
Drivage o f a new incline with a roadheader at Ombilin Coal Mine, Indonesia 83
KM atsui, KShimada, M.Ichinose, S. Kramadibrata, K ZA nw ar & KFurukawa
Design process and equipment selection for auxiliary ventilation systems 89
D. G. Mirakovski & B. Krstev
Conceptual solution o f the excavation method in ‘Biochki stan’ mine in Niksic, Yugoslavia 95
SMitic, D.Milojevic & D.Zlatanovic
Optimization of toe in bench blasting - A practical view 99
C. B.Navalkar
Selection of fan or fan location in ventilation of long drivages 105
M.Onder
Prediction of Sarcheshmeh copper mine blasting operation effects on nearby structure 111
M.GOsanloo, AJavaherian & H.Bakhshandeh
Development o f the decentralized control mathematical model for the potash mine 117
transport system
GRivnyak & VTkachov
Estimation o f the situation in the mining output area 121
RI. Ronomarenko & A A Askarov
Optimal development o f the quarry’s working zone by the complex deposits exploitation 123
B.Rakishev, B.Gurjevsky & ABegalinov
A combined method for the analysis o f mine ventilation networks 127
S. Sarac & C. Sensogut
Water balance and genesis o f the inflows to some mines in Poland 131
J. Sawicki
Measurement base for mine ventilation flow rate control-acoustic choice 137
SZShkundin, S.L.Klimov & V.VSobolev
Geolog - Integrated system for the mining industry 145
D. Stdnescu, LMacoviciuc.ADadu, L.Diaconu, L.Drdgdnescu & V.Georgiu

VI
Mine design changes at Silver and Baryte’s bauxite operation 151
P. Stregas & N. Christou
Planing the safety in mines 155
K ZUshakov
Technological wells schemes and location parameters optimization for uranium 157
geotechnology
VG.YazikoVy Y./.Rogov &AY.Rogov

2 Mining geostatistics and mine optimisation

Indicator kriging approach to hazard definition ahead of coal mine development headings 163
E. YBaafi
Geostatistical simulation: A framework to forecast fluctuations during mining 167
F. S. BonatOy J. E C. L. Costa & J. C. Koppe
Estimation o f volumes o f stripping and winning operations at opencasts 173
using solid graphs
D.GBukeikhanoVy M.Zh.ZhanasoVy V.ESyediriy B.Zh.Bekmurzayev & S.D.Bukeikhanov
Propsects for Zn-Pb ore mining in Poland with regard to ore quality in discovered deposits 177
J. Cabala
Changes o f selected parameters o f coal quality in fault zones in the Upper Silesian Coal 183
Basin, Poland
S.R.Cmiel & A E Idziak
Linear programming model applied to scheduling o f iron ore production at the Kiruna Mine, 187
Sweden
KDagdeleUy ETopal & M.Kuchta
Geostatistical ore reserves estimation in deposits o f variable dip. Application 193
on a manganese deposit
D.Drymonitis
Resource and reserve analysis o f Hasangelebi Iron Ore deposit, Turkey 199
B. Elevliy A Demirciy A Dogan & G Onal
Geostatistical characterization o f thermal impacts from floodplain mining 203
D. R.Hack
GEMNet II - An alternative method for grade estimation 209
I. K. KapageridiSy B. Denby & D. Schofield
Open pit design optimisation o f a lignite deposit 217
W. Kawalec & J. Specylak
Indices o f mineral raw materials use by different technological processes 223
B.R.RakisheVy EB.Rakishev & Zh.R.Imashev
Geostatistical analysis and interpretation o f the geotechnical properties o f rock massif, 227
Ceara State, Brazil
E. N. Santos y T. R. Gopinath & A A Lima

VII
A statistical approach to the thermogravimetric characteristics o f Turkish coals 233
C. Sensoguty O. S.Yildiriniy I.Cinar & AH. Ozdeniz

3 Geotechnical stability in surface and underground mines

LAMODEL - A boundary element program for coal mine design 239
Z.Agioutantis & K A H easley
An improved approach to the room and pillar design: A case study from Zambia 247
M.J.Appolinary & R. Krishna
A primary stress state within deep shaft lining based on numerical modeling 253
J.Butra & W.Pytel
Determination o f capacity o f powered supports for a longwall face o f a thick coal seam 259
S.K.Das
Some aspects about the prognosis o f the ground deformations for the ore deposits 267
KDimUy O.Herbei & KFissgus
Room and pillar design o f Istanbul-Yenikoy coal field using finite element method 271
S. G.Ergelebi & K N asuf
Geomechanical situation at horizontal working connection 277
T. M. ErmekoVy M.A Kayupov & S. S. Uysimbayeva
Determination o f behaviours o f loads distribution on pillars when overlapping ledges mining 281
T.M.ErmekoVy KKh.NugmanoVy Yu.I.Chabdarovay AABukin & S.K.Japayev
Influence o f blast on stability o f elements of mine methods when repeated mining o f deposits 285
T.M.ErmekoVy KKTulebaeVy Sh.ADildabayev & S.Z.Uisimbaeva
Geotechnical features for quarrying abandoned underground marble voids: 289
The Monte Altissimo example, Apuane Range
M.FornarOy R.Gennaro & C.Oggeri
Stabihty analysis o f Maydook Copper mine 295
KG.Goshtasbi & M.Hosseini
The effect o f shock load on the stability of tunnels 299
KG.Goshtasbi & M.Mohamadi
Geomechanical analysis using simulated 3D natural joint networks 303
J.Hadjigeorgiou & M.Grenon
Practical applicability o f steel wire cable sensor for rock fall detection 309
M.Komazakiy KHiramay F.ItOy M.Ujihiray Y.Kawamura & T.Tokunaga
Definition o f the roof strata movements in longwall mining method 315
G.Konaky AH.Onury HKosCy O.Turgay & Q.Tatar
PREGAL - A program for choosing rockbolt support systems 319
T.Koriniy G.N.Panagiotou & V.Jorgji
Plastic zones within the rock mass as a function o f the shaft lining resistance 325
S.Krstovic

VIII
High density spatial data collection for monitoring o f steep wall movements 327
D. D, Lichti, M. Stewart & M. Tsakiri
Highwall mining system with backfilling 333
KMatsuiy H.Shimaday TSasaoka^ MJchinose & S. Kubota
The geomechanics and mine planning: A case study 339
H.M.Vega & L.A Ayres da Silva
DB-BASE: A geomechanical database for destress blasting applications in hard rock mines 343
H. S Mitri & J. Marwan
A method for analyzing and designing frictional rock bolting systems 349
in room-and-pillar mining
N. Nikolaev & VParushev
An appUcation o f integrated measuring technique for rock pressure determination 355
in coal mines
TOnargan
A case study for an open pit coal mine induced slope failure affecting an industrial 359
plant in Turkey
AKOnWy G.Konaky H. Rose y Y.Kocay H.Yenice & D.Karaku§
Optimisation of longwall face advance rate 365
K O raee
Major causes o f accidents in tailing dam due to geological and geotechnical factors 371
LSoareSy ELVasquezArnez & W.T.Hennies

The importance o f interlayer friction on the stability of underground bedded roofs 377
Al.SofianoSy RRNomikos & CKTsoutrelis
Distribution o f discontinuities in Jakubcovice mine, South West o f Ostrava City, 381
Czech Republic
H.Tavakoliy VPetros ¿cM.Romana
Stability monitoring of open pit mines in Australia using GPS 387
M Tsakiri & M. Stewart

Modelling o f discontinuity surface roughness by digital photogrammetry 391

and geostatistical methods
M Unaly B. Unver & E,Tercan

A critical assessment o f an exploration pilot tunnel in adverse geological conditions: 397

A case study
B. Unver & EAygar
Finite element modeling o f underground openings in bedded rock 403
/. Vicenzi & H. S. Mitri

Methods computer modelling and analysis of geomechanical processes 409

M.AZhuravkoVy U. N Lazurenko yLSNevelson dcNADakuko
Geotechnical investigations during underground taihng storage 415
S,N.Zhurin

IX
4 Mine evaluation - Financial and management issues
Management o f underground mine economy in the period of mining activity damping 421
J.Dvordcek
Optimizing a project’s true rate o f return 425
M. M, Hajdasihski
The prospects for the development o f the Georgian coal mining industry: 431
Comparison with alternative energy resources
CVKavourideSy LRNikolaides & AJ.Logothetis
Owner versus contract mining 437
LJ.Kirk
The case study o f Greek-EU relations and their effect on Greek mining 443
S.Kyriakou ScLPretorius
Selected aspects o f restructuring hard coal mining sector 449
R. Magda
Innovative tools for performance improvement in CVRD mines 453
I. M. Menezes & FA G. Magalhdes
System parameters modeling while planning the mining development program 459
I.T. Morozov &RI. Ronomarenko
Albanian mineral industry and its trends in the future 461
I.NakOy V.Jorgji &ABakiu
Ways o f electric power saving at the coal mines of Ukraine 467
G. G Rivnyak & S. I. Vypanasenko

Perspectives o f mining stock improvement under crisis economics 471

VV. Radchenko
Problems o f resource management at unprofitable mines 473
V. I. Sally ¿c R. I. Yurovsky
How historical costing causes mine inefficiency A ll
A Savva
The system o f complex appreciate o f anthracite mines 483
A I. Sharov & V.AChmihun
Planning for mine safety and the management of risk 485
N. Terezopoulos
Productivity measurement at the sectoral level: The case of Greek lignite mining 491
LE.Tsolas

5 Mine equipment selection

A computer program for open pit mine equipment selection: TruckMac 499
M.Aksoy & E.Yalgin
Experimental research o f a soft start-up process of armoured face conveyor equipped 505
with a water flow-controlled hydrodynamic coupling
J.Antoniak
Determination o f economic life o f heavy earth moving machinery in mines 511
R.Arora & S,Nakra
Rippability assessment studies at Tuncbilek Coal Mine: A case study 515
KBasariVy C.Karpuz & T.Bozdag
Safety in quarrying ornamental stones by using diamond wire 521
RBerry/y G.ABlenginiy S,Fabbri & VATafaro
The valuation o f power efficiency o f mining-transport systems work of open-pits 527
D.G.BukeikhanoVy S.Zh.Galiyev, D.Sh.Akhmedov,AKhJaxybayev & T.GGabdullin
Overview o f roadheader applications in Turkish mining and civil construction industries 533
H. Copur
High-performance rock destroying tool from modified solid alloy 539
R.RDidyky YV.Savchenko & M.V.Rogoza
Dynamic model o f a shearer’s cutting system 541
M Dolipskiy MJaszczuky R CheluszkUy R SobotOy E. Kusak & M. Kurek

Review o f surface mining equipment selection techniques 547

SGErgelebi & CKirmanli
Problem with cracking o f the rope disc welds 555
Z Folta & H. Rrecek

Determination o f tractive capacity o f the drum o f a multirope hoisting machine 559

with due account o f flexibility of its elastic liner
V.RFranchuk & VVFranchuk
The complex decision o f a problem o f open-pits excavator-automobile systems reproduction 563
SZh.GaliyeVy AKhJaxybayeVy AABoyandinovay B.D.Lerman & T.GGabdullin
The impact o f multi-element external coal transportation on reliability o f the system 569
and on environment
M.M.GrujiCy M.M.Grujic & M.D.Ivkovic
Contribution to the study o f cutting mechanism of Capao Bonito Granite, 573
Sao Paulo State, Brazil
WTHennies & A Stellin Jr
The methodology o f the selection o f auxiliary mechanisation for the open pit mines o f lignite 577
D.IgnjatoviCy IRistovic & M.Stojakovic
Selection o f current collection operation mode and power circuit design 583
A B. Ivanov
The conveyor belt wear index and its application in belts replacement pohcy 589
LJurdziak

XI
The effect o f conveyor belt load upon belt durability 595
LJurdziok & M. Hardygora
Effect o f cutting tool angle on failure mechanism o f rock in rock-tool interaction 601
AWKhair, S.Addala & CPezowicz
Prediction o f roadheader performance: A geotechnical assessment scheme 607
M.AKirkbride
Computer simulation o f the open pit transportation systems 613
B.Kolonja, N.Vasiljevic & R.Stante
Assessment o f the performance o f raise boring 73 RM-DC at the Pongkor gold mine, 619
West Java
SKramadibrata, M.ARai, SDarmawan, LArif, D.ASumanagara, AArdianto,
K. Matsui & H. Shimada
Rock technological parameters useful to water jet cutting systems 625
CT.Lauandy G.R.Martin C , W.T.Hennies ¿cR.Ciccu
Cost estimation o f earthmoving done by hydraulic shovels and trucks in mines 631
M.Leontidis & B. Patmanidou
Application o f LCC techniques in selection o f mining equipment and technology 635
T. Markeset & U. Kumar
Abrasives in water jet cutting systems 641
G.R.Martin C, C.T.Lauand^ W.T.Hennies &R.Ciccu
Engineering ceramics for wear-protection o f mining and mineral processing equipment 647
E.Medvedovski
Application o f pre mixed abrasive water jet for maintenance of oil and gas ducts 653
M.L.AMendeSy LSoareSy W.T.HennieSy R.Ciccu & ABortolussi
Aspects regarding the determination o f the volume o f the silo-wagons 657
S. MihailescUy I. DumitrescUy N. S. Ungureanu & L. Mihailescu
Investigation o f the relationship between cutting angles and wearing on beads in diamond 661
wire cutting method
Y.Ozgelik & SKulaksiz
Performance and efficiency measures for mining equipment 667
J. Paraszczaky S. Planeta & J. Szymanski
Basic factors estimation which define rotary blast hole drill production 673
R.Y.Poderni
Wirtgen Surface Miner - New machine development and project experience 679
B. Schimm
Factors affecting loading performance o f the excavators in Garp lignite enterprise 685
M.Taksuk & KErarslan
Equipment replacement considerations 691
P. D. Tomlingson

XII
Rock cutting resistance prognosis at the Libous model mining site based on newly 695
developed method
J.Zdarsky & V.Kremlacek

6 Innovative mining systems - Machine automation

Alternative access, mining and hoisting for underground deposits 703
K B iegaj
Evaluation o f mining equipment automation including process considerations 709
and sensitivity analysis
R.A Hall & L. K, Daneshmend
I-SiTE - Laser scanning revolutionises site survey 715
/. K. Kapageridis
The combined power is the technology of the 21 st century 721
O. V. Kolokolov & N. M. Tabachenko
Truck driver assisting devices to increase safety and productivity 727
V.A Kononov
Steep angle conveying for material transportation in open cut mines 731
M.D.Kuruppu & T.G.Golosinski
Reflective seismic tomography to identify anomaUes impacting underground developments 735
D. M Nelly M.J. DeMarco yA D. Rock & J. M. Descour
The powerful excavator-dragline’s control for automatic accurate bucket positioning 743
LD.Pevzner
Automatic control interface for underground atmosphere parameters 747
A Poanta & D. Dojcsar

Software control for a drilling mining robot 751

E. Popy M. Pop & M. Leba
Innovative solutions for the overburden handling system of P.T Freeport Indonesia 755
D L. Schröder
Tests o f experimental specimen o f robotized unit for continuous blasting o f hard ores 763
A M . TkatchenkOy V.KVoronenkOy O.GKremer & AT.Buneyev
New type o f transport for deep open pits 765
Ye.KYedygenov

1 Information technologies in mining

3D modeling and reserve estimation of a coal deposit using neural networks 773
KAkcakocOy N.Qelebiy AGPasamehmetoglu & K.Erarslan
Visual Basic implementation o f the Maximum Value Neighbourhood algorithm 111

to optimise stope boundaries

M.Ataee-pour & E.Y.Baafi

XIII
Multicriteria choice o f a lignite field for mine development and power plant construction 783
FABatzias & C.P.Roumpos
Pattern recognition software for quality evaluation of mining machines 789
VCokorilo & V.Milisavljevic
A simulation algorithm for material flow from open pit mine to power plant: A case study 793
K. Erarslan
Computer design and operation o f quarries for non-metallic mineral industries: 799
Case study at Lafarge Limestone Deposit in Turkey
H.Ergin & M.Basaran
Development o f mining management information system for Soma Open Pit Mines 805
M Ersoy & N.^elebi

Object modelling o f a belt conveyor 811

LGladysiewicz & W.Kawalec
A mine planning and information system merging specialized planning data 815
with conventional office-files and process data via a three-dimensional model
o f underground mines
G. K. Heim & R. Hunefeld
Production information system o f the Pljevlja coal mine 821
B. Kolonja, R. Stankovic & EVukovic Filip
Digital face mapping to assist mining operations 827
CJ.Kolovos
Computer assisted planning for extraction of ornamental granite 833
A de Andrade Lima, M.R.Kalvelagey G.de Tomi &N.Senhorinho Silva
The use o f geometrical-technical planning systems for support - A prerequisite 835
for high-performance longwall operations
SMoellerherm & RN.Martens
Reliability assessment o f mining equipment using genetic algorithms 841
T.Nuziale & N.Vagenas
Using animations o f mining operations as presentation models 847
IR.Sturgul
Application o f genetic algorithms for the layout of openings in mines 851
Q.X.Yun, K.M.Huang &M.Z.Lian

8 Mining and the environment

Economical aspects o f possible pollution decreasing in mining industry o f Kazakhstan 859
AYeAikynbayev & GLYedilbayeva
The ecological rehabihtation o f the Banat-Oravita area 863
SArady VArady D.Cosmay T.IuhaSy AM.Cosmay D.Cosma & D.Cocar

XIV
Environmental impact characterization o f a tin mine in the northwest of Argentina 865
J. C.Avila & AS.Fogliata
Mine planning and closure issues in the 21 st Century 871
S. Bandopadhyay & E. C. Packee Jr
Noise o f belt conveyors 879
W.Bartelmus & WSowicki
Monitoring o f clay mine waste for utilization in the non-soil reclamation 885
o f mine waste dumps
Z.Bzowski
Geochemical studies to characterize the complex sulfur mineralogy at Red D og Pb-Zn Mine 891
S D a y G.ACoulter & M.Falutsu
Some aspects regarding the Romanian open pit lignite mining impact on soil 899
D. Fodor y G.Baican &M. Lazar
Eliminating negative environmental impacts of large opencast mining equipment 905
LHanuska
Mining aerology - Factor o f ecological safety of environment 907
SA K aliev ¿cVVOglov
The system o f control o f the general absorbed doze of a dust and definition o f possible 909
risk o f disease mining worker
B. Kirin
Critical factors affecting rehabilitation o f abandoned phosphogypsum stacks 913
K. Komnitsas
Radon dispersion air modeling in Banat mining area 919
G. O. Madeary E. Traista & I. Pop

Reclamation and development o f voids in the raw material industry in Lower Silesia, Poland 925
J. Malewskiy J. Szwed-Lorenz & S. Slusarczyk
Acoustic warning signals and design o f restricted working areas in noisy environment 931
GMassacciy V.Dentoni &ACamboni
The radiological protection during mining radioactive raw materials in the Czech Republic 935
B.Michdleky PNavrdtil & PVinkler
The environmental management o f the coal mining activity in the Jiu valley 941
M.Radulescu & B.Grigore
Disposal o f jarosite slurry in a lined tailings pond, Hindustan Zinc Limited, India 947
VRajaraniy UChughy S. Malik & R.KBansal
Air quality control in quarries o f technical stone 951
B.Salopek & G.Bedekovic
Seed germination in Ruby Dock Rumex vesicarius (Fam. Polygonaceae) 957
A Schatral & J. M. Osborne

XV
Evaluation and modelling of haul road dust palliatives 961
RJ.Thompson & AT.Visser
Underground gold-extracting plant 967
ALYedilbayeVyALYakunin & VS,Muzgina

Author index 969

XVI
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Foreword

The Mine Planning and Equipment Selection series of symposia is an annual event recognized by the
mining society as a leader in promoting international technology transfer in the fields o f mine
planning, mining systems design, equipment selection and operation techniques.
Organizers o f the 9th International Symposium on Mine Planning and Equipment Selection
(MPES 2000) are: Department o f Mining Engineering & Metallurgy, National Technical University
o f Athens, Greece; Department o f Mines and Metallurgy, University of Laval, Canada; Dipartimen­
to di Geoingegneria e Tecnologie Ambientali, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, Italy; Universidad
PoUtechnica de Madrid, Spain; Atihm University, Ankara, Turkey; National Mining University of
Ukraine, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine; WH Bryan Mining Geology Research Centre, The University of
Queensland, Australia; Western Australian School of Mines, Curtin University of Technology,
Australia; International Journal o f Surface Mining, Reclamation and Environment; World Mining
Equipment; American Society for Surface Mining and Reclamation; World Mining Association of
Soil and Water Conservation; CENTER - International Training and Development Centre, Lulea
University, Sweden; Faculty o f Mining and Geology, VSB - Technical University, Ostrava, Czech
Republic; Gluckauf Mining Reporter.
MPES 2000 aims to provide a forum for the presentation, discussion and criticism of state-of-the-
art and emerging technologies in the fields o f mine planning and mining equipment selection, as we
move into the new millennium. MPES 2001 will be held in India, MPES 2002 in the Czech Republic
and MPES 2003 in Australia.
The symposium’s call for papers attracted more than two hundred and forty abstracts, o f which
one hundred and eighty two papers were accepted and submitted for presentation. These high quality
papers from thirty one countries representing Europe, North and South America, Australia, Asia and
Africa, are included in this volume of proceedings arranged in eight major topics: Design and
Planning o f Surface and Underground Mines; Mining Geostatistics and Mine Optimisation;
Geotechnical Stability in Surface and Underground Mines; Mine Evaluation - Financial and
Management Issues; Mine Equipment Selection; Innovative Mining Systems - Machine Automa­
tion; Information Technologies in Mining; Mining and the Environment.
The papers o f this volume are listed in an alphabetical order, by first author’s last name, for each of
the eight major topics o f the symposium, in order to facilitate the locating of specific papers during
presentations.
The organization and success o f such a symposium is due mainly to the efforts of many
individuals, authors included. Dr Raj K.Singhal, chairman o f the International Organising Commit­
tee, and all committee members have contributed greatly. The support o f the MPES 2000 sponsors
and exhibitors, plenary session speakers and technical session chairs is gratefully acknowledged.
Particular recognition is accorded to Niki Gargassoula o f FREI S.A. Travel-Congress and her team
for their professional work, Manos Tsiavos, and to our publisher A.T. Balkema.
My greatest appreciation goes to Theodore Michalakopoulos for his dedication and timeless work
in organizing the symposium and editing this volume o f proceedings.

George N. Panagiotou
MPES 2000 Chairman

XVII
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Organization

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

Symposium Chairman
Dr George N. Panagiotou, National Technical University o f Athens, Greece

International Committee Chairman

Dr Raj K.Singhal, University o f Laval, Canada

Members
Dr Zacharias Agioutantis, Technical University o f Crete, Greece
Dr Newton Amegbey, University o f Science and Technology, Ghana
Prof. Keith Atkinson, University o f Exeter, United Kingdom
Dr Zbigniew Bzowski, Central Mining Institute, Poland
Prof. Raimondo Ciccu, Digita - University of Cagliari, Italy
Dr Euler M .D e Souza, Queens University, Canada
Prof. Roussos Dimitrakopoulos, University o f Queensland, Australia
Prof. Michel Duchene, Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Paris, France
Mr Magnus Ericsson, Raw Materials Group, Stockholm, Sweden
Prof. Selim EEstefan, Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
Mr Laureano Fueyo, Rocas Y Minerales, Spain
Dr Kostas Fytas, University o f Laval, Canada
Dr Lidia Gawlik, Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute, Krakow, Poland
Prof. Mircea Georgescu, Technical University of Petrosani, Romania
Dr Uta Gerlach-Laxner, Köln (Rodenkirchen), Germany
Prof. Donald Graves, University o f Kentucky, USA
Dr John Hadjigeorgiou, University o f Laval, Canada
Prof. Martin Haigh, Oxford Brookes University, United Kingdom
Prof. Monika Hardy gora. Technical University of Wroclaw, Poland
Prof. Wildor T.Hennies, University o f Sao Paulo, Brazil
Prof. Michael Karmis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, USA
Dr Vladimir Kebo, VSB - Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic
Dr Thoma Koiini, Polytechnic University of Tirana, Albania
Dr Uday Kumar, Stavanger University College, Norway
Prof. Peter A. Lilly, Curtin University of Technology, Australia
Dr Ing. Andrei Magyary, Technical University of Petrosani, Romania
Prof. Pier Paolo Manca, Digita - University of Cagliari, Italy
Dr Hani Mitri, McGill University, Canada
Ms Maria Morelli, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Dr Vera Muzgina, Institute o f Mining, Kazakhstan
Prof. Joan Osborne, Curtin University o f Technology, Australia
Mr Sven Erik Österlund, Lulea University, Sweden

XIX
Prof. Pedro Ramirez Oyanguren, Universidad Politechnica de Madrid, Spain
Prof. Lèvent Özdemir, Colorado School of Mines, USA
Prof. A.Günhan Pasamehmetoglu, Atilim University, Turkey
Prof. Vladimir Paylovic, University o f Belgrade, Yugoslavia
Prof. Gennadiy G.Pivnyak, State Mining University of Ukraine, Ukraine
Prof. Roman Y.Podemi, M oscow State Mining University, Russia
Dr Richard Poulin, University o f Laval, Canada
Prof. L. Puchkov, Moscow State Mining University, Russia
Dr Bayan R.Rakishev, Kazakh National Technical University, Kazakhstan
Prof. Shunsuke Sakurai, Kobe University, Japan
Mr Bhaskar P Singh, LNJ Bhilwara Group, India
Ms Mona Singhal, International Journal o f Surface Mining, Reclamation and Environment,
Netherlands
Dr Thomson Sinkala, University o f Zambia, Zambia
Prof. Vladimir Strakos, VSB - Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic
Prof. John R.Sturgul, University o f Idaho, USA
Dr Masuyuki Ujihira, Hokkaido University, Japan
Dr Nick Vagenas, Laurentian University, Canada
Mr Tsolo Voutov, Geotechmin - SVS Ltd., Bulgaria
Dr Marie Vrbova, R-Princip MOST s.r.o., Czech Republic
Dr Alaphia E. Wright, University o f Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
Prof. Yun Qing Xia, Xian University o f Architecture & Technology, China
Prof. Michael Zhurakov, Belarus State University, Belarus

XX
1 D esign and planning o f surface and underground m ines
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A ssessm ent o f vibration m easurem ents due to blastiug o f the hard form ations
at the South Field L ignite M ine, Ptolem ais, G reece

Z. Agioutantis & KTsampis

Department o f Mineral Resources Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Hania, Greece
C. Kavouiidis & S. Bozinis
Lignite Center of Ptolemais-Amydeon, Public Power Corporation, Ptolemais, Greece

ABSTRACT: Drilling and blasting procedures are utilized for removing various types of overburden hard
formations at the South Field Lignite Mine, at the Lignite Center of Ptolemais-Amydeon, operated by the
Greek Public Power Corporation. This paper presents the results and experiences from a blast vibration
program that was recently initiated in order to ensure that the surface blasting operations do not affect a
powerplant as well as a village that are located in close proximity to the surface mining operations.
Additionally, results of this program were utilized to redesign the blasts to achieve lower vibration levels.

1 INTRODUCTION formations which are encountered in the overburden

strata.
Greece is the fifth largest producer of soft brown The South Field Mine, can be considered unique
coal in the world and the second largest in the regarding the mining conditions and the technologies
European Community, producing about 61Mt of used to exploit the orebody. More specifically,
lignite per annum. The Lignite Center of Ptolemais- benches la, 11a, lb, 2a, 2b and 3 excavate over­
Amydeon (LCP-A), operated by the Greek Public burden, while benches 4, 5, 6a, 6b and 7 excavate
Power Corporation (PPC), is located in northern the lignite seams. The mine uses 65 conveyor belts
Greece, about 110km west of the city of Thessalo­
niki. The lignite deposits under exploitation cover an
area of 120km^, including 4000Mt of proven
geological reserves and 2500Mt of exploitable
lignite under current economic and technological
criteria. Today, the LCP-A manages four large active
mining units, which produce lignite to cover 62% of
the power generation in Greece. At the present rate
of extraction, 50Mt of lignite are produced annually
(comprising about 80% of the total lignite extraction
in Greece), by moving a total of 250Mm^ of earth
material.
The South Field Mine is the largest of the four
operational surface mines at the Lignite Center of
Ptolemais-Amydeon, covering an area of 24km^
(Fig.l). The original lignite deposit in the area was
estimated at 1.2 billion tons of lignite. Mining
operations commenced in August 1979 and currently
the mine operates on ten benches, using mainly the
continuous mining method, which employs bucket
wheel excavators (BWEs), conveyors and stackers.
Also conventional mining equipment including big
trucks, front end loaders, electric rope and hydraulic
shovels, dozers are utilized for mining the hard rock
lignite bearing Ptolemais - Amydeon valley.
Figure 2: Typical cross-section o f overburden material. Red-brown clay Cemented gravel
Calcareous brecciated
conglomerates Gray-yellow sand
with a total length of 100km. Mining depth is Red-brown clay w/ m i Gray-green sand
expected to reach 200m. The scheduled annual conglomerates
Gray-yellow/green
lignite production at the South Field Mine reaches Gray clay
18-20Mt lignite, while overburden removal operat­ Gravel Organic clay
ions produce annually 47-53Mm^ of bank material, Gray-yellow clay w/ 1^1 Lignite and clay
to achieve total annual excavations of 90Mm^ of mudstone
earth material. Gray-green clay w/
1^ Xylite
mudstone
Approximately 25-30% of the overburden consists Sand and sandstone J Fault
of hard and semi-hard formations, which are
Conglomerated
removed using conventional mining methods. Since sandstone
the beginning of mining operations to the end of
1999, 917Mm^ of total earth material were moved
and 200Mt of lignite were produced with an average
exploitation ratio of 3.75:1. South Field Mine, are presented and critically
As early as 1981, it was decided to use large evaluated regarding surface blast design and
scale explosives to loosen the hard rock formations implementation. It should be noted that, currently,
and use conventional load and haul equipment to maximum vibration levels as well as air-blast levels
move it. are below the limits set by DIN 4150 and OSMRE.
In 1996 a blast vibration monitoring program was
initiated in order to ensure that the surface blasting
operations would not affect in any way a powerplant 2 OVERBURDEN LITHOLOGY
as well as a village that were located in close Overburden strata consist of fine and coarse clastic
proximity to the mine face. Additionally, since blast sediments such as clays, mails, gravel, conglo­
design guidelines for blasting the hard formation merates with embedded hard layers of sandstones,
lenses, which occur within softer overburden cemented conglomerates and mudstones (Figure 2).
materials, were not available, results of this program The average in site specific weight of the overburden
were utilized to redesign the blasts to achieve lower is 19.62kN/m^ (2ton/m^) and the average bulking
vibration levels. factor ranges fi-om 1.4 to 1.5. The average thickness
Results of the blast vibration program at the of overburden material in that area is 90m. Table 1
shows the range of the mechanical and physical
Table 1. Physical and mechanical properties for the
hard formation material.
Parameter Range value
Uniaxial compressive strength (MPa) 15-143
Tensile strength (MPa) 2.4-11.2
Density (ton/m^)__________________ 2.4-2.T
properties of the hard rock formations, while Table 2
shows the approximate extend of each formation in
the South Field Mine. Table 3 summarizes the
conventional equipment used in overburden
removal.
3 BLASTING PROCEDURES
Currently, five blasthole rigs (Tamrock C50 K3L)
are utilized, drilling over 1000 m of blastholes per
day at 7 and 9 in diameter for 4x5m or 6x6m
blasthole grids. About 1600 tons of explosives are
consumed annually by detonating about 700 shots.
That corresponds to 2-3 blasts per day with an
explosives load of 1-8 tons per blast. Drillheads are
air-cooled tricones (lADC 622), with embedded
carbide bids.
Originally blasting was accomplished utilizing
ANFO mixes with either ammonia dynamite (extra
dynamite) products or gelatin dynamite (30% weight
strength) for boosters. Wet holes were loaded with
30% weight strength gelatin dynamite.
In 1995, South Field Mine engineers used for the
first time a special mix of ANFO and emulsion
called Heavy ANFO (H-ANFO), which is prepared
in situ by mixing emulsion (nitrate salts dispersed as
small droplets in a continuous oil base), and porous
ammonium nitrate. Several mixing ratios were
evaluated for the specific application at the South
Field before the optimum conditions were selected
(Agioutantis & Kavouridis, 1998). This mixture has
a relatively high bulk strength, a higher critical
diameter (over 150mm), but good blasting
characteristics in wet blastholes. Hence, currently
ANFO is used in dry holes and H-ANFO in wet
holes. Ammonia dynamite is used as a booster to
ANFO and gelatine dynamite as a booster to H-
ANFO or ANFO loaded blastholes.
The hard formation removal operations employ
about 240 people in 3 shifts and are responsible for
moving approximately 13-14Mm^ of overburden
material annually. Additional material is excavated
by subcontractors.

Table 2. Extend and dimensions of each overburden formation group (Papageorgiou & Pakas, 1997).
Rock type Rock description Area Average Volume Percent
(W ) thickness (m) (Mm^) (%)
Hard material conglomerates, sandstone 24 11 264 13
conglomerates, breccia 10.5 10 105 5.2
Semi hard material clay, sandstone, gravel 10.5 10 105 5.2
Loose material clay 24 61 1464 72.3
sand, gravel 22 4 88 4.3
Total 24 - 2026 100

Table 3. Equipment used for hard formation removal.

Equipment type Equipment manufacturer Available First year of Characteristics
units operation
Drills Tamrock C50 K3L 5 1990 rotary blasthole drills
Shovels Liebherr R 994 3 1990 diesel hydraulic, 13.5 m bucket
Demag H185 S 1 1997 diesel hydraulic, 13.5 m^ bucket
P&H 2100 BLE 2 1986/87 electric
Backhoes Liebherr R 984 1 1994 diesel hydraulic, 5.5 m^ bucket
Dozers Komatsu D475-A2 5 1991 770 HP
Motor graders Komatsu GD 825-A2 2 1991 280 HP
Trucks Terex 33 HE 14 1992 85 ton
Terex 3308E 14 1996 50 ton
Unit Rig 3000 6 1997 136 ton
Wheel loaders Marathon L-1000 2 1994 13 m^ bucket capacity
Mobile crushers KSK Stroj export 2 1988/89
Explosive mixers Amerind 2 1993
Table 4: Annual consumption of explosives at LCP-A.
Year Gelatin Ammonia ANFO Heavy Total Blasted Powder
dynamite dynamite ANFO material factor
(kg) (kg) (kg/m^)
1990 59375 60225 462660 - 582260 2008000 0.290
1991 122635 85545 473495 - 681675 2435000 0.280
1992 199700 115135 494925 - 809760 2945000 0.275
1993 249150 24650 867840 - 1141640 4228000 0.270
1994 421450 51600 664090 - 1137140 4211000 0.270
1995 371700 113500 594500 208800 1288500 5154000 0.250
1996 275800 43400 684200 637400 1640800 6697000 0.245
1997 60600 52500 836900 478200 1428200 5830000 0.245
1998 78500 9600 820100 624300 1532500 6280000 0.244
1999 109400 0 701200 482200 1292800 5364000 0.241
Total 1948310 556155 6599910 2430900 11535275 45152000

Table 5: Summary of blast data (Tsampis, 2000).

GD AD AN Burden No
Fuel Hole No of Diam. Water Dist. tc►Bench
(k g ) (k g ) (k g ) (m) Delays Length holes
Oil (in) Level Target
(It) (m) (m) (m)
y 7/8
1 1500 5 6 2.5 80 2 400 2b
2 100 3000 210 5 3 8 52 9 500 11a
y 7/8
3 1000 70 5 4 8 28 100 2b
y 7/8
4 1150 5 9 2 100 2 350 2a
5 100 3000 210 5 6 8 57 9 500 2b
6 1575 5 6 4 80 9 3 350 2b
y 7/8
7 423 2000 155 5 11 2.5 140 400 lb
y 7/8
8 75 1000 80 5 4 4 40 400 lb
y 7/8
9 800 5 5 4 40 2 400 2b
y 7/8
10 1500 5 4 6 60 2 350 2b
y 7/8
11 1750 5 4 5 70 2 650 2b
y 7/8
12 200 200 4000 288 5 5 8 78 450 2b
13 300 3000 210 5 5 8 58 9 1 200 lb
14 1750 5 6 3.5 100 9 3 350 2a
15 1375 5 5 4 65 9 2 500 2b
16 350 6000 430 5 9 8 120 9 400 lb
y 7/8
17 750 5 5 4 50 2 400 2b
y 7/8
18 1000 5 3 3 70 2 550 2a
19 1000 5 3 5 40 9 2 300 2a
20 250 2000 150 5 1 5 80 9 300 2a
21 250 2000 215 5 1 8 55 9 250 11a
y 7/8
22 1200 5 1 3 65 250 2b
23 800 5 1 8 18 9 2 350 2b
24 1500 5 1 8 34 9 2 350 2b
25 1500 5 1 6 68 9 3 350 2b
y 7/8
26 500 5 6 2.5 40 2 300 2b
GD: Gelatin Dynamite, AD: Ammonia Dynamite, AN: Ammonium Nitrate

Table 4 presents the annual consumption of 1. An overall increase in the annual consumption of
explosives at the South Field Mine since 1990 as explosives
well as the corresponding hard formation material 2. A steady increase in the use of H-ANFO in the
blasted per year. This data shows: recent years and a corresponding decrease of the

6
 use of gelatin dynamite and ammonia dynamite.
3. The powder factor ranges from 0.24 to 0.29
kg/m^, steadily decreaing in recent years.
4 PARAMETERS AFFECTING VIBRATION
CHARACTERISTICS
nearby structures (Jimeno, et a l, 1995).
The distance from the blasts has a large
influence on the magnitude of vibrations. As the
distance increases, vibrations diminish according to
a power law such as:
1
V OC ---------

In homogeneous and massive rock masses the where D is the distance and b a positive number
vibrations are propagated in all directions; but in related to the rock.
complex geological structures, the wave propagation
can vary with the direction and, consequently, give
different attenuation characteristics or propagation Table 7: Overpressure data sorted by ascending
laws. Soil in the overburden usually results in lower detonating cord length.
wave propagation velocity, lower vibration Blast No Overpressure Noise Cord
frequency but higher displacement. The magnitude level length
of the vibrations, however, decrease rapidly with (psia) (Pa) (db) (m)
distance due to the energy dissipated as friction 23 0.004 32.3 124 300
between the soil particles. In addition, the surface 3 0.026 181.9 139 350
materials modify the wave trains making them last 1 0.006 40.7 126 400
longer and have lower frequencies, therefore,
increasing the response and potential damage to 8 0.026 181.9 139 400
9 0.006 45.7 127 400
17 0.016 114.8 135 400
Table 6: Scaled distance and particle velocity data,
19 0.011 81.3 132 400
sorted by ascending PPV values.
26 0.009 64.5 130 450
Blast no Scaled PPV PPV Bench
distance (in/sec) (mm/sec) 18 0.009 64.5 130 600
(kg/m''^) 22 0.02 162.2 138 600
12 14.696 0.135 3.438 2b 21 0.026 181.9 139 650
26 32.863 0.173 4.398 2b 13 >0.029 >200 * 700
5 21.288 0.217 5.504 2b 10 0.006 45.7 127 750
1 25.298 0.228 5.785 2b 15 0.0002 1.4 97 750
23 12.374 0.237 6.018 2b 20 0.009 64.6 130 750
8 23.540 0.239 6.081 lb 4 0.011 81.3 132 800
3 6.114 0.245 6.210 2b 5 0.018 128.8 136 800
14 20.494 0.261 6.625 2a 11 0.004 28.8 123 800
15 30.151 0.273 6.923 2b 24 0.026 45.7 127 800
19 16.432 0.279 7.098 2a 2 0.004 28.8 123 850
20 6.124 0.285 7.239 2a 25 0.019 144.5 137 900
2 15.053 0.291 7.389 la 6 0.013 91.2 133 1000
9 31.623 0.336 8.540 2b
7 0.026 181.9 139 1000
21 5.035 0.366 9.305 la
12 0.011 81.3 132 1000
11 31.076 0.395 10.043 2b
14 0.014 102.3 134 1100
4 30.963 0.399 10.128 2a *
16 >0.029 >200 1500
25 9.037 0.471 11.951 2b
6 21.602 0.564 14.327 2b
10 18.074 0.627 15.916 2b The seismic waves generated in blasting are
7 26.129 0.673 17.094 lb body and surface waves. It is well established that
18 30.125 0.724 18.385 2a the peak particle velocity (PPV) of ground particles
24 9.037 0.811 20.601 2b due to blasting, is related to the scaled distance
17 32.660 0.836 21.241 2b which is a function of the total amount of explosives
22 7.217 1.326 33.672 2b detonated per delay and the distance from source
(i.e. the blast location) to target (i.e. the location of
13 7.549 1.340 34.047 lb
interest). When measuring vibrations, each of the
16 14.574 1.353 34.365 lb three components (e.g. transverse, longitudinal and
vertical) of the velocity vector can be measured
independently. These values can also be combined to
establish the total particle velocity vector:
ppv

Research has shown that the larger amplitudes are

produced by the surface waves, such as the Rayleigh
(in the vertical component) and the Love waves (in
the transverse component) as well as the horizontal
shear waves (in the transverse component), (Jimeno
etal., 1995).

5 CONTROLLING OF BLAST EFFECTS

Direct regulation or specification of effects, rather

than design, is the most effective control from a Figure 3: Safe vibration limits set by the United
regulatory point of view, because effects are very States (OSMRE, 1983) and German (DIN 4150)
dependent on details of shot geometry, overburden regulations.
characteristics as well as shot initiation sequence.
Such dependency renders control impossible by
simple regulatory specification of two or three shot
T ra n s v e rs e
design parameters. Present regulatory control limits +

X V e r tic a l
in many countries are below those levels at which
cosmetic cracking may appear. There are two o L o n g itu d in a l OSMRE, 1983

principal reasons for such tight restrictions. First,

1,00
regulatory limits are influenced heavily by human
response to blast induced vibration and noise. Since 8
humans are approximately 10 times more sensitive
than structures to vibration, low regulatory limits are Ü
understandable. Secondly, many regulations appear
to have been adopted without the documented
experimentation necessary to determine the vibration
levels that cause cracking. (Dowding, 1992).
It is also acknowledged that the frequency of
vibration should also be taken into account when Safe Vibration Limits

examining potential damaging vibrations. Low 0.01

frequency vibrations usually correspond to lower 1.00 10.00

PPV values, while higher frequency allows for Frequency (Hz)

higher PPV limits (Sisking et al., 1980).
Figure 3 presents the safe vibration limits
proposed by the United States Office of Surface
Mining, Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE),
and the limits adopted by the German regulatory
organization (DIN 4150), which includes three
distinct levels for different type structures. As it can
be noted, DIN 4150 has stricter limits for residential
structures.
6 RESULTS OF THE VIBRATION MONITORING
PROGRAM
In 1996 a blast vibration monitoring program was
initiated, in an effort to assess blasting practice at the
South Field Mine. Vibrations resulting from 26 shots
were recorded using a portable seismograph system,
which was moved from location to location. Table 5
Figure 4: Plot of vibration measurements.
summarizes the characteristics for each of these
blasts. For each blast, the maximum of each velocity
component was plotted against the corresponding
frequency (Figure 3). Also, a 27^^ shot was set up to
measure, with the target being about 2000m away, at
a nearby village, but no ground vibration or airblast
data were recorded.
Table 6 presents the scaled distance value in
m/kg*^^, and the value for the particle velocity vector,
which is calculated as the vector sum of the particle
velocity components, for each blast. The vector sum
is calculated using the following formula:
Note that the data in Table 6 were sorted by
ascending PPV values in an effort to correlate PPVs
to blast location. In order of decreasing hardness, the
hard formations in the benches at that time are as
follows: 2b, 2a, lb, 11a.
 Table 7 presents the overpressure data and Mining Engineering Handbook, H.L Hartman Sr Editor,
noise level for each blast as well as the SME, 1992.
corresponding length of the detonating cord used in Jimeno, C.L., E.L. Jimeno & F.J.A. Carcedo, Drilling and
blasting o f Rocks, Balkema, 1995.
each case. The data are sorted in order of increasing
OSMRE, Federal Register, Part III, Vol. 48, No. 46, 1983
cord length. Papageorgiou, C. & Z. Pakas,"The hard rock removal in the
overburden o f South Field Lignite Mine o f Ptolemais,
Greece", Proceedings, 2. Konferenz zur Mobilen
7 CONCLUSIONS Gerdtetechnik, Leipzig, September 17-19,1997
Siskind, D.E., M.S. Stagg, J.W. Kopp & C.H. Dowding,
Surface mining operations at the South Field Mine at "Structure response and damage produced by ground
vibrations from surface blasting", RI 8507, USBM, 1980.
the Lignite Center of Ptolemais-Amydeon use
Tsampis, K., Vibration measurements at the South Field
considerable amounts of explosives per annum. In an Mine, Ptolemais, Greece, Diploma thesis. Technical
effort to optimize blasting with respect to ground University o f Crete (in Greek), 2000.
vibrations and noise, the PPC has initiated a number Tsoutrelis C.E., N. Gikas & P. Nomikos, "Safe levels o f
of vibration monitoring programs. This study Blasting vibrations for structures - A proposal to amend
presents the results from the first such monitoring the relevant article o f the Greek Mine and quarry
program, which was completed in 1996. From these regulation. Mineral Wealth, Vol. 114, pp. 33-44 (in
results the following conclusions can be drawn: Greek), 2000.
• The depth of the blastholes and the presence of
water in the holes do not seem to affect ground
vibrations.
• Higher vibrations seem to correspond to
blastholes loaded with gelatin dynamite.
• PPV values do not correlate well with scaled
distance. This can be attributed to the highly
inhomogeneous overburden material, where
hard and semi-hard materials alternate with soft
soils (Figure 2). As a result, waves originating
from the source may cross a multitude of hard /
soft interfaces, thus producing a variety of
reflected and/or refracted waves. Also, it is possible
for a particular wave to be trapped in a "soft
channel" between two hard formations (or in a hard
channel between two softer formations), which may
act as a wave guide, thus resulting in higher particle
velocities at the target location. Clearly more
measurements are needed.
• The magnitude of the airblast does not show any
significant correlation to cord length or other
blast parameters. It should be noted that weather
parameters have not been quantified in this
study, to allow for a possible correlation with
air-blast data.
• In all cases the maximum PPV value was about
34mm/s, i.e. below the limit of 50mm/s set by
the Greek and the US regulations (Tsoutrelis, et
al., 2000). Also, most of the recorded values are
below the limits set by the German regulations
for industrial buildings.

REFERENCES

Agioutantis, Z. & C. Kavouridis, "Technological enhance­

ments in the drilling and blasting procedures for
removing hard formations at the South Field Lignite
Mine, Ptolemais, Greece", Proceedings, 7^ International
Symposium on Mine Planning & Equipment Selection,
1998, Calgary, Alberta, pp. 173-177.
Dowding, C.H., Monitoring and control o f blast effects.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The transportation planning to the new panel o f the longw all m echanized
equipm ent in Tungbilek Coal M ine

H iiniyet Akda§ & Mahmut Yavuz

Mining Engineering Department, Osmangazi University, Bademlik, Eski§ehir, Turkey
Recep ^elik
GLI Omerler Coal Mine, Tungbilek, Kutahya, Turkey

ABSTRACT: Tun9bilek Lignite reserve located at west part of Turkey is one of the important lignite de­
posites. Recently, pilot fiill mechanized longwall application has started to increase production in Omerler
Coal Mine in this district. The mechanized longwall equipment was transferred to the new panel because first
panel was mined out. In order to follow all activities during face move, the Critical Path Analysis was used to
evaluate the transportation project. The transportation of the mechanized system was completed in 84 work­
days as total duration time. Fifteen activities were defined as critical activity. It could be concluded that the
longwall face move would be completed shorter duration time by effective planning of all activities and pre­
move organization in this mine for füture.

1 INTRODUCTION 10 m in thickness. Immediate roof layer is a soft

Coal production from longwall stops when one panel
has been completed for coal extraction. All mecha­
nized system in extracted panel should be moved to
the next planned panel. Before the old panel extrac­
tion is completed, the new panel must be ready in
terms of roadways, move plans, transportation
equipment, planning jobs etc. In order to keep unin­
terrupted production, it is possible to have an extra
set of mechanized longwall system. This extra set
also provides sufficient time to check out the me­
chanical system members for repair, management
and organization. Because an extra set of mecha­
nized longwall system is expensive investment, most
companies can not use the extra set and generally is
not economical investment in most cases. Therefore,
mechanized longwall system used the old panel will
be moved to the new panel within possible short
time. Detailed planning and organization bring eco­
nomical and safety operations about mechanized
longwall equipment.
It is obvious that face move procedure, duration and
planning may change in local conditions. The object
of this paper is to present obtaining results of
mechanized longwall face move that were per­
formed first time in Omerler Coal Mine in Turkey.
2 TUNgBiLEK-OMERLER COAL MÍNE
Omerler Coal Mine of the Western Lignite of State
Coal Agency started the production in 1985. Coal
seam with the inclination gently varying 0-8^ has 8-
limestone (50 cm thick) and main roof layers consist
of marl and limestone formations. Coal seam has
1.44 tW average density and 2500-4500 Kcal/Kg
calorific value. Produced coal is consumed at power
station for electricity in same district. Future plans in
Tungbilek underground mines are to increase the
production by mechanized longwalls for deeper
thick coal seams. Therefore, six coal panels have
been planned to application of pilot mechanized
longwall in Omerler Coal Mine. First panel called
Ml was mined out in 1998 (Figure 1). Applied min­
ing method is a retreating fUll mechanized longwall
with sub-level caving. This method is applied to ex­
tract coal seam with a 5 m of thickness or more
(Figure 2). The Length of panels is 450-600 m as
limited by major faults. Longwall face includes 58
support units which are lemniscate shield type and
longwall is 90 m in length.
3 FACE EQUIPMENT
The face powered support is important equipment
for fully mechanized longwall for thick coal seams.
The face support has three hydraulic legs. One of the
legs which is in the middle of the support unit oper­
ates the groove (1750x800mm) to recover the roof
coal. These powered supports are arranged along the
coal mining work face with 1.5m of the center dis­
tance between each two supports. A telescoping
forward canopy with 600 mm of the full stroke is
provided to upkeep the newly - exposed roof seam

11
 safety working space, maintaining conveyor head &
stage loader and recovery of roof coal in the back of
roadway (2).
Face conveyor (1500x730x222 mm) has 800 t/h ca­
pacity. Shearer type is EickhoffEDW-150-2L which
has some technical features such as 25 t weight, 1.8
m the diameter of shearer head, 0,7 m the depth of
cutting, 3.5 m maximum cutting height etc.

4 AUXELLARY EQUIPMENT

In Omerler Coal Mine, some additional transporta­

Figure 1. Plan of mechanized panels in Omerler
Underground Coal Mine (not scale).
tion equipment has been installed for coal produc­
tion and material handling. One of the transportation
equipment is the rope haulage trapped rail transpor­
tation system to use moving the heavy materials.
The rope monorail transport system installed to roof
-I- steel profile supports is utilized for the transpor­
tation of necessary materials to the longwall face via
roadways. In addition to have stage loader, belt con­
veyor and electrical equipment, automatic commu­
nication and monitoring systems have been serving
for mine personnel.

5 PLANNING AND ORGANIZATION OF

LONGWALL FACE MOVE

Figure 2. Mining method in Omerler Coal Mine. Generally, the longwall face move can be divided
into the four steps; pre-move preparation, move
preparation, move and installation (3).
by extending the telescopic canopy before coal wall Pre-move preparation includes the preplanning,
is to spoil off. Some technical features of the face manpower organization, preparation of supplies,
powered supports are as following (2) : tools and equipment. In addition to selection of
transportation route, all possible problems should be
Support height.................... 1.2-3.2 m discussed. Move preparation consists of the erection
Support width..................... 1.434-1.5 84 m of a recovery room, selection of the type face move,
Center distance................... 1.5 m and inspection and repair of the face equipment.
Support density...................0.865Mpa (2800mm)
Setting load....... ................. 2804kN (2800mm)
Yield Load.......................... 3300kN (2800mm) Table-1. Manpower organization for longwall face
Floor contact specific pres.. 1.48 Mpa move.
Conveyor Push Force........ 291 kN Manpower Panel Ml Panel M2
Support Pull force...............462 kN Supervision 1 1
Support working height......2700-2900 mm Dismantling for shield 1 1
Support applicable angle.... <10^ support
Overall size of support..... 5450x1500x1900mm Dismantling for support 5 -

Load on the tip of forward canopy 157 kN Installation for support - 4

Pump station pressure.........300 bar Winch operator 1 1
Support weight.................. 16.2 ton Mechanic 2 2
Security 4 -
Face end supports are installed at the end of long- Pump station 1 1
wall. They are layed out between the end of working Electrician 2 2
face and roadway. Additionally, they can supply an 4
Move and load of supports
enough large space for conveyor head except the
functions of working face support (2). Cleaning and inspection of 4
A powerfiil face end support with tlwee sets upkeeps supports
the roof seam of the coal face end in roadway. This Operator 1
unit (6400x3000x2000 mm) supplies operators a Monorail operator 1

12
Table 2, Activities and estimated duration times for Longwall face move in Omerler Coal Mine.
Ac­ Estimated
Activity tivity duration TF
Code (day) ES LS EF LF
Opening area with 4,5x2,9 m cross section in face and
0-1 25 0 0 25 25 0 •
supporting by ■■I -steel profiles
Withdrawal the chain conveyor and face supports to
1-2 2 25 25 27 27 0 •
opened area
Preparation for shearer and transferring the shearer to
2-3 5 27 27 32 32 0 •
surface shop
Set up the shunting trolley 3-4 1 32 32 33 33 0 •
Dismantling of belt conveyor 4-5 1 33 34 34 35 1 -

Dismantling of face chain conveyor 4-6 3 33 33 36 36 0 •

Dismantling of stage loader 5-6 1 24 35 35 36 1 -

Installation of monorail in the M2 panel tailgate 3-7 2 32 51 34 53 19 -

Installation of another chain conveyor to Ml panel 6-8 3 36 36 39 39 0 •
No activity 8-9 0 39 49 39 49 10 -

No activity 8-10 0 39 49 39 49 10 -

Belt conveyor move and setting up its tail parts in M2

panel 9-13 4 39 49 43 53 10 -
Stage loader move and installation 10-13 3 39 50 42 53 11 -

Opening area with 2,7 m width along the face for mov­
8-11 10 39 39 49 49 0 •
ing supports
Dismantling of trapped rail system from Ml and
installation in M2 11-13 3 49 50 52 53 1 -
Installation of loading platform and set up I profile-
11-12 2 49 49 51 51 0 •
cancret applications
Installations of three winches and rail installation in the
12-13 2 51 51 53 53 0 •
tailgate of Ml
Dismantling the face-end-support with three sets, move 13-14 4 53 53 57 57 0 •
Installation of hydraulic pump and two winches, placed
wood on floor and installation of shunting trolley 7-13 4 34 53 38 57 19 -
Installation of face chain conveyor in M2 and get ready 14-15 10 57 66 67 76 9 -
Move, inspection, repair, maintenance and setting up
14-16 19 57 57 76 76 0 •
powered supports in panel
No activity 15-16 0 67 76 67 76 9 -

Preparation works for shearer in M2 and dismantling of

16-17 4 76 76 80 80 0 •
tail section of chain conveyor
Move shearer to M2 and installation on conveyor 17-18 2 80 80 82 82 0 •
Installation of the tail section of face conveyor and get
18-21 1 82 82 83 83 0 •
ready
Connection of the tail section of stage loader with face-
end-support 14-19 2 57 74 59 79 20 -
Adjustments for stage loader and belt conveyor 19-20 3 59 76 62 79 17 -

Move and installation of all electricity systems 16-21 5 76 78 81 83 2 -

Maintaining works of belt conveyor system and con­

trolling 20-21 4 62 79 66 83 17 -
Move and installation of main hydraulic pump 17-21 2 80 81 82 83 1 -

Starting the trial works 21-22 1 83 83 84 84 0 •

ES: Earlier starting time, EF: Early finishing time, LS: Latest starting time, LF: Latest finishing time.
TF: Total float time, • Critical activity.

13
Move procedure includes the removal and transport
of the shearer and powered supports. The shearer
move method and auxiliary used equipment should
be determined. Especially, during the removal of the
powered face support, it is important to control the
roof and to prevent the caved fragments in the roof
and gob from entering into the face area. Some addi­
tional materials such as cribs, individual hydraulic
props, wire mesh, steel beams etc. could be used for
removal the face support (3).
Before installation of the equipment, some prepara­
tions are necessary to have easy installation such as
smooth floor, the straightness of the face line, auxil­
iary individual hydraulic props, wood posts, cribs,
ect. in new longwall face. All equipment to be as­
sembled must be inspected in terms of their per­
formance and specifications in underground or sur­
face workshop.
ate roof on powered support is coal seam. This
means that immediate roof is weak and unstable.
Therefore, new techniques should be developed for
better roof control in terms of saving duration time,
safety requirements and easy withdrawal operations.
The completion of the all transportation activities
has been calculated 83 workdays as total duration
time. Realized transportation were totally 84 work­
days which is very close as in planned. But it is
known that total duration time is long for this kind
of operations. On the other hand, mine personnel
have gained great experience and training.
Move procedures of all face equipment except pre­
move preparations took 54workdays. Some devel­
opments can be done for equipment transfer proce­
dures too.
Finally, it is strongly believed that all face equip­
ment move could be reduced 20-25 % in total dura­
tion time for future moving projects.

6 APPLICATION OF THE CRITICAL PATH

REFERENCES
METHOD
Uzuner, M. 1999. Tun^bilek Omerler Bolgesinde
The Critical Path Method (CPM) is very common
Mekanize Uzunayagin Yeni Panoya Ta§inmasmin
method for transportation project scenes. In order to
Planlanmasi, Yiiksek Lisans tezi, O. U. Fen Bilim-
evaluate transportation scenes of longwall mecha­
leri. Enstitiisu (Turkish).
nized system, the critical activities and whole trans­
portation duration, the CPM which is a deterministic Materials of Longwall Equipment supplied to Tur
approach to the determination of task duration has key. Volume 1-10 CME, China National Coal
been selected and applied. CPM provides the mine Mining, April 1996.
manager with information to aid transportation plan­ Peng, S. S.& Chiang, H. S. 1984. Longwall Mining,
ning and controlling. Description, classification, se­ John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Arioglu, E. & Biron, C. 1983. Design o f Supports in
quence of the all activities and schedule manpower
Mines, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
are necessary to determine and organize for success­
Eskikaya, §. 1979. Tam mekanize Ayaklarda
ful transportation of longwall mechanized equip­
Yuriiyen Tahkimatin “S6kum-Qekim-Ta§ima” i§-
ment. All transportation activities and estimated du­
leri, Tiirkiye Madencilik Bilimsel ve Teknik 6.
ration times for each activity are defined. Due to
first time longwall face move in this mine, special Kongresi, 19-23 §ubat 1979, Ankara (Turkish).
attention has been given for safety in operations and
training for mine personnel. Therefore, some dura­
tion times could not been optimistic in this transpor­
tation project. Table-1 shows the scheduled man­
power in longwall face move. All defined activities
and estimated duration times are given in Table 2 as
summary in Omerler Underground Coal Mine.
Also, all activities during the transportation project
scenes have been followed by using L. H. Gantt
chart which is not given in this paper.

7 CONCLUSIONS

The longest critical tasks (30 workdays) in transfer­

ring the face equipment involve pre-move prepara­
tions in mined out panel. It is necessary to develope
pre-move preparations in order to reduce total dura­
tion time.
Second longest critical activity is the withdrawal and
move powered support in mined out panel. Immedi-

14
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

N ew design approaches for m ine ore passes based on reduced-scale

laboratory testing, field experim ents and computer m odeling

M.J.Beus & S. Iverson

National Institutefor Occupational Safety and Health, Spokane Research Laboratory, Wash., USA

ABSTRACT: This paper describes results o f research at the Spokane Research

Laboratory (SRL) o f the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
to assess hazards and improve design criteria for ore passes in underground mines.
A nalysis o f M ine Safety and Health Administration (M SHA) accident statistics has
identified ore pass hazards as a significant safety problem in U.S. underground metal
mines. Dynam ic loads induced by large, falling masses o f ore or waste rock and removal
o f blockages by blasting can cause structural or functional failures in control gates and
chutes. Existing design standards for ore passes are essentially rules o f thumb based on
simplified equilibrium analyses, model experiments, empirical observations, and
experience. The overall goal o f this project is to prevent injuries and fatalities through
assessments o f ore pass hazards, experimental and computer analyses o f current designs,
and laboratory and field measurements o f loads and structural responses in ore passes.

1 INTRODUCTION truck loadout with integrated storage

capability.
Mine openings constructed within the The hazards related to the operation
rock mass for the purpose o f vertical o f ore and waste rock passes
transfer o f ore and waste rock from
stopes or development headings are
com m only referred to as ore passes.
They function as a mining structure to
deliver material to a lower haulage level
or to a shaft loading pocket for hoisting
to the surface. Ore passes serve two
important purposes — transport and
storage. Components o f the ore pass
system include the ore pass itself
connecting the two or more levels in a
mine, “top-end” facilities incorporating
material size and volum e control
mechanisms such as grizzlies, crushers
and surge chambers, and “bottom-end” Figure 1. Typical mine ore pass with tmck
structures to control material flow and loadout and LHD dump.
enable loadout. Figure 1 shows a
typical ore pass for LHD loading and

15
have been identified as a significant design involves evaluation o f the
safety problem in underground metal stability o f the ore pass itself and
mines in the United States. Applicable incorporating appropriate factors o f
ore pass safety and design criteria are safety into the transition structure (i.e.
defined in the Code o f Federal chute or hopper) and control gates at the
Regulations 30 CFR parts 57.9310 and bottom o f the ore pass. Structural
9309. The most significant hazards are integrity o f the chute, hopper, and
associated with ore or waste rock hang­ control gate or feeder system at the
ups collapsing spontaneously or during bottom o f the ore pass are dependent on
freeing operations. Dynamic loads the static and dynamic loads from ore
induced by large falling m asses o f ore or and waste material. The Janssen
waste rock and removal o f blockages by equations, (1895) to determine internal
blasting can cause structural or pressure from the contained material in
functional failures in control gates and bins and silos, may be used to calculate
chutes, resulting in accidents during the static stress normal to the control gate o f
loading-unloading cycle. Other hazards a vertical or inclined ore pass is as
include structural failures within the ore follows:
pass itself, blocked gates causing
spillage o f large volum es o f material, = ^Nmaxt ^ '^Nmax]» (1)
and water and mud inundation. Falling
muck from a released hang-up can cause and <^Nmax ^ yRsin[3/Ktan5 (2)
excessive loads and damage from an air
blast. Water flow ing into an ore pass where
can result in catastrophic muck flows
ajsj = normal pressure on
and inundation.
Evaluation o f Mine Safety and a^max ^ maximum normal pressure
Health (M SHA) statistics related to ore
passes, particularly narratives from R = hydraulic radius
investigative reports, are useful for
K = lateral-to-normal stress,
identifying the underlying cause o f
accidents, and have been integrated into Y = unit weight of rock
design considerations.(Beus et.al. 1998)
For example, M SHA data indicates that z = height of ore above gate,
75% o f injuries related to pulling or
freeing o f ore pass chutes for the twenty P = ore pass inclination, and,
year period 1975-1995 are related to the
6 = angle of friction between
use o f hand tools and falls o f broken the wall of the ore pass and the ore.
rock, including hangup removal.
Solutions to determine dynamic load
factors are typically based on solutions
2 ORE PASS DESIGN derived by Gere and Timeshenko (1997)
and found in most engineering
Ore pass design may be conveniently handbooks. It can be shown that
divided into structural and functional dynamic stress (ad) produced in a
considerations, with one often affecting structural member resulting from the
the other and vice versa. Structural impact o f a falling body from a height

16
(h) is greater than the static stress (ast)
and static deformation (5 st) produced by
the same body applied as a static load in
the ratio o f
^ = i . ( i . 2 h / 5 , r (3)
It is assumed that the energy losses o f
material falling down an orepass are
very high and therefore, the dynamic
stress on the chute gate in an empty ore
pass can be approximated by a case o f
sudden loading (h=0), which results in
dynamic stress higher by a factor o f 2
over static stress.
Functional design considerations,
ensuring mass flow o f the mined
material and minimizing malfunctions in
flow such as hangups, piping, and funnel
flow, relate primarily to maintaining
adequate ore pass opening and material
size relationships. Ore and waste
material can be w ell graded or com posed
o f a large and highly variable particle
size distributions, is irregular in shape
and angularity, and is subject to a wide
range o f moisture content, deformation
modulus, strength. Aytaman 1960;
Jenike 1961; Pariseau 1966; and others)
indicate ratios o f ore pass diameter to
maximum particle diameter o f 3 to 5 to
insure against boulder arch formation. It
may be acceptable then that a ratio o f ore
pass diameter to maximum particle size
o f 5 will very likely result in flow in the
ore pass proper, while a ratio o f less than
3 is very likely to result in hang-ups.
3 ORE PASS TESTING FACILITY
A reduced scale laboratory ore pass
testing facility has recently been
completed to facilitate ore pass testing in
a controlled environment. (Beus and
Ruff, 1996). This fully automated
17
facility utilizes a 18.3-m hoist tower to
simulate the headframe and shaft (Figure
2). A 5.5 m deep underground "shaft"
lined with concrete sections houses a
loading pocket and measuring cartridge.
A 1.3 m diameter-corrugated culvert
simulates the ore pass, which can be
inclined up to 65 deg. from vertical in 5
deg. increments. Design o f the chute
support frame, I-beams, hanger bolts,
and saddles are identical to an ore pass
and chute/control gate assembly which
was instrumented in one o f the field
tests. Ore or waste material is loaded
through a grizzly and into the skip for
hoisting. The skip hoists the ore to
the top o f the headframe where it is
discharged into a hopper and chute
assembly, which routes it to the top o f
the “ore pass”.
Initial testing utilized standardized
test material to minimize test variables.
Tests results for a vertical “ore pass”
using minus 3/8 pea gravel indicated a
peak dynamic load o f up to 1.4 o f the
static load. Figure 2 is representative o f
some o f these tests. Several large
Figure 2. Loads measured with the test ore pass
facility.
“plugs” o f material were also dropped,
simulating a large boulder or released
hangup directly impacting the control
gate. These tests resulted in dynamic
load o f up to nearly 3 Ox the static load.
A full-scale mockup o f the
reduced scale chute and gate assembly
was also constructed, based on design o f
an actual ore pass chute and gate used in
a mine. Dynamic tests consisted o f
dropping a load o f mine waste rock
ranging from about 800 to 1400 kg from
a height o f 183 cm into a 2.4-m -wide,
steel-reinforced container sitting on the
mockup chute assembly. A front-end
loader equipped with a clam shell bucket
was used to drop the material into the
container. After each drop, the container
and material were lifted and weighed.
Results o f three tests indicated a
maximum dynamic load o f 2.2.
Blight and Haak (1994) also
conducted impact tests on vertical and
inclined ore pass models. Their data
indicated that the impact factor, which
they define as the ratio between peak
pressure measured on the control gate
and pressure at equilibrium, ranged from
1.09 for a 50 degree inclined “ore pass” ,
and that peak impact load factors may
exceed 4x the static load in vertical ore
passes.
4 FIELD TESTING
An initial field test was conducted at
a deep mine site in N. Idaho, USA.
Tensile strains produced from strain-
gauged Dywidag rock bolts which
supported the ore pass chute and gate
provided a measurement o f the total
vertical force acting on the structure as
material was dumped into the ore pass.
Fourteen loads o f damp waste rock from
load-haul-dump (LHD) units at 1.53 m^
per load were dumped into an empty ore
pass. Twelve o f the dumps averaged
from 2,270 to 2,730 kg o f material; two
o f the dumps were material from
18
cleaning up the drift and weighed about
270 kg each.
The weight o f material dumped in
the ore pass was in excess o f 27,300 kg;
however, a maximum static load o f only
6,800 kg was measured. This load was
approximately the weight o f waste
material required to fill the chute. The
rest o f the static load was carried by
timber adjacent to the chute assembly
and the ore pass walls. Dynamic load
ranged from 1.06 to 1.33 o f the static
load on the chute and gate assembly and
were reduced significantly because the
chute was offset from the ore pass.
A second field test at a different test
site involved monitoring gate support
bolt loads on a chute and gate support.
During the experiment, the ore pass was
consistently “hung-up” and required
blasting directly in the chute at the
bottom o f the ore pass to free the
material. Data indicated large dynamic
components from blasting and ultimately
nearly 90% o f the initial gate support
bolt load was lost. Maximum dyamic
loads from release o f blasted material is
unknown. Data indicated that the
shockwave from blasting had more
effect on chute structural integrity than
rock impacts. Limited test results in a
mine by Blight and Haak (1994)
indicated a peak dynamic impact factor
o f 1.58 o f the static load.
5 COMPUTER MODELING
Computer modeling is being used to
simulate dynamic and static forces
measured in the field on the chute gate,
as well as overall particle flow
phenomena and the potential for hang­
ups. Two- and three-dimensional
particle flow codes PFC^^ and PFC^^
(Itasca Consulting Group, Inc., 1995b)
were used to simulate flow and compute
dynamic loads in the ore pass test
facility as w ell as the ore pass and truck
chute instrumented in the field tests.
Computer modeling to compare
computer results with field
measurements show the effect o f 40
Figure 3. Measure and computed results from
initial field test.
loads from an LHD o f about 7 mt o f
material each for a total weight o f about
280 mt. The rate o f increase in gate
loads dropped dramatically after about
one-third (10 to 15) o f the LHD loads
had been delivered. The accumulated
control gate forces resulting from the
first 14 loads are compared to the actual
results from the field test (Figure 3).
Analysis indicates that dynamic loads
were a factor on the control gate only
during the first three to five dumps.
Single dumps in a PFC^^ model o f the
1/3 scale ore pass were compared with
load data collected at the ore pass test
facility. Shaped particles and
appropriate stiffness and friction
properties were used from Larson, et.al.
(1998). A damping constant was
included to account for energy loss
during particle impacts. The particles
were formed by clumping four balls
together in a tetrahedral geometry.
Realistic impact rebound trajectories and
19
particle rotations were achieved. An
improved impulse curve compared well
with actual dynamic load data from the
ore pass test facility. Figure 4 illustrates
the dynamic load response on the chute
gate over the impact period. Note that
the first particle impacts have very high
dynamic loads while the later particle
arrivals are cushioned by the initial
material.
1000
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Time, seconds
Figure 4. PFC3d model of dump of tetrahedral
particles showing impact load on gate.
Comparison o f measurements and
computer results using particle flow
codes indicate that several difficulties
remain before realistic determination and
modeling o f the dynamic effects during
particle flow in ore passes and impact
loads on the gates can be achieved.
Computer analyses can overestimate the
dynamic impact from the rock compared
to impact loads measured in field tests if
energy losses during impact are not
account for in the simulation. Obviously
uniformly graded, smoothly rounded
particles used in the PFC codes are not
found in a freshly blasted muck pile
which is transported to the ore pass The
shape and particle size distribution
affects all of the behavioral
characteristics o f the falling muck
column. Incorporating more realistic
rock particle shape and distribution o f
particle sizes in numerical models will
improve rocklike characteristics during
fall and impact. Other factors difficult
to model are rock durability, angularity,
and rebound characteristics following
impact.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The simplified dynamic relationships to
maximum static load greatly simplify the
determination o f loading conditions to
which the structure w ill be subjected.
However, the impact loads can exceed
the static weight o f the material by a
factor significantly higher than what is
generally accepted. Based on
experimental results and computer
modeling, currently used design
relationships for dynamic design loads
acting on ore pass chutes and gates need
refinement. Research results by the
authors and others indicate dynamic load
factors ranging from approximately the
same as the static load to nearly 30 time
the static load. Considering the highly
variable structural and functional
conditions between different mining
scenarios, and even within the same
mine, significant uncertainties are
evident in terms o f safe ore pass design
procedures. To accommodate this
uncertainty, high safety factors are
commonly assigned to the chute and gate
infrastructure.
REFERENCES
Aytaman, V. 1960. Causes o f
hanging in ore chutes and its
solution. Canadian Mining
Journal. Vol. 81. pp 77-81.
Beus, M. and Ruff, T.L. (1996).
Developm ent o f a Mine Shaft and Ore
Pass Research Facility, U.S. Bur. Mines
R I9 6 3 7 , 12 pp.
20
Beus, M.J., Iverson, S.R. and Stewart,
B.M. (1998). Design Analysis o f
Underground Mine Ore Passes: Current
Research Approaches. Presentation at
100^*^ Can. Instit. Min., Metall., and
Petro., Montreal, PQ, May 2-8, 1998, 8
pp. Available on CD-ROM from CIM,
Montreal, PQ.
Blight, G.E. and Haak, B.G. (1994). A
Test on Model Underground Ore Passes.
Bulk Solids Handling, Vol. 14, No. 1. pp
77-81.
Gere, J. M. and S. P. Timoshenko (1997)
Mechanics of Materials. PWS
Publishing Co., N .Y., pp 658-660.
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc. (1995).
PFC^^ (Particle Flow Code in 3
Dimensions), Version 1.1, Minn., MN.
Janssen, H. A. (1895). On the Pressure
o f Grain in silos. Inst. Civ. Engr., vol
124, pp 553-555.
Jenike, A. W. (1961) Gravity
Flow o f Bulk Solids. Utah Engr.
Exp. Sta. Bull. 108, 309 pp.
Pariseau, W. G. (1966) The Gravity
Induced Movement o f Materials in Ore
Passes Analyzed as a Problem in
Coulomb Plasticity. Ph.D. Theses.
University o f Minnesota, 218 pp.
Pariseau, W. G. (1983) Rock Flow in
Ore Passes. In: Guidelines for Open-pit
Ore Pass Design. Vol. I: Final Report
U.S. Bureau o f Mines. Contract
J0205041. Engineers International, Inc.
259 pp.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A ssessm ent o f explosive perform ance by detonation velocity measurements

in Turkey

A .B ilgin & S .E sen

Department of Mining Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey

ABSTRACT: Real performance of an explosive can be determined by conducting continuous velocity of

detonation (VOD) measurements in full scale blast environments. This paper presents and discusses the res­
ults of continuous VOD measurements of five different blasting agents carried out at three mines in Turkey.
The results show that VOD of a blasting agent varies depending on mainly the rock properties (confinement),
presence or absence of sensitizer (chemical formulation), blasthole diameter, and type of primer. The method
of continuous VOD measurement is an indispensable and invaluable tool in explosive and primer selection.

1 INTRODUCTION specific rock and test conditions. Since VOD is a

Blast optimization studies attract more attention than
before due to increasing economical pressures.
Inadequate blast designs besides environmental
hazards can cause decreased efficiencies in loading,
hauling, crushing and grinding cycles and lead to
increase in the unit cost of overall operation. A blast
design implemented according to the site specific
conditions and mine objectives may decrease overall
operation cost together with provision of safety and
elimination of environmental hazards.
With new PC based blast monitoring
instrumentation systems and recently introduced
new analytical methods of analysis, the operator can
easily eliminate most of the guess work involved in
designing efficient blasts and in evaluating explosive
performance in any mining environment (Chiappetta
1998).
Within the scope of a research and development
project on explosives and blasting techniques, over
70 continuous VOD measurements were conducted
at seven different blasting sites till now. However,
this paper presents a summary of continuous
velocity of detonation (VOD) measurements
conducted at only three mines. It is intended to
investigate the performance of five different blasting
agents in full scale in three mines having different
rock types and its impact on the blast results.
2 VOD INSTRUMENTATION
Velocity of detonation of an explosive can be used
to evaluate the performance of a product under
direct measurement of the source function, it can
provide valuable information with respect to shock,
stress waves, kinetics, ground vibration, airblast,
fragmentation and undesirable noxious fumes. If
VOD is not monitored and an explosive product is
assumed to perform as specified, the interpretation
of other measurements (if any) could be erroneous
when product malfunction occurs. Thus, it is
important to correlate the product’s VOD
characteristics to the rock environment, blast design,
and other measurements (Chiappetta 1993 & 1998).
Field VOD measurements were performed with a
continuous VOD recorder (VODR-1) developed by
EG&G and BAI. The VODR-1 is a commercial
version of the CORRTEX system, which was
originally developed by Los Alamos National
Laboratory (USA) to measure shock wave
propagation in nuclear tests to determine nuclear
explosive yield. In the measurement of explosive
performance, a coaxial cable is placed in an
explosive filled borehole with the far end of the
cable taped on the primer. Operation is similar to
that of RADAR where a pulse of radio waves is sent
out and an echo or reflected pulse is returned to give
ranging information. The VODR-1 uses standard
coaxial cables to carry a fast rise time electrical
pulse back and forth every 5-200 ps. Displacement
versus time data can be obtained for the entire length
of explosive column and the stemming region to
determine explosive VOD, cap timing, shock wave
transmission, etc. (Chiappetta 1993, Bilgin & Esen
1999).

21
3 CASE STUDIES
Three case studies are included in this paper. These
are Etibakir Küre Copper Mine which is an open pit
mine, Ba§ta§ Limestone Quarry and Yeniköy Open
Cast Coal Mine. Continuous VOD measurements in
these full scale blast environments are presented.
Five different blasting agents namely ANFO,
ELBAR-5, BARANFO 50, ELBAR-100 and
BARANFO 100 are tested. ANFO is a locally
prepared one using porous prills of ammonium
nitrate (AN), whereas the other four are produced at
factory. ELBAR-5 is a slightly sensitized ANFO.
ELBAR-100 is a water resistant ANFO that contains
some sensitizer and water proofing agent.
BARANFO 50 is produced partly by using porous
prills and partly by crushed AN. BARANFO 100 is
consisting completely of porous prills of AN. These
blasting agents are basically ANFO having different
ammonium nitrate size and type and/or sensitizer.
3.1 Etibakir Küre Copper Mine
VOD measurements were conducted while blasting
massive copper ore which was classified as high
strength rock. Performances of four blasting agents
(ANFO, ELBAR-5, BARANFO 50 and ELBAR-
100) are evaluated by these measurements. Blast
design parameters are given in Table 1.
ANFO and Powergel Magnum (an emulsion
explosive, 90x200 mm) were the blasting agent and
primer respectively in the first test. A single hole is
monitored by VODR-1 system. A zoomed-in raw
VOD record is illustrated in Figure 1.
The following results were obtained by analyzing
the single hole record and from observations:
run-up distance (the length of explosive column
detonating at low velocity and measured from
the point of initiation to the point where steady
state VOD is reached) is 1.47 m.
Table 1. Blast design parameters at Etibakir Küre
Copper Mine.
Blasthole diameter 159 mm
Bench height 12 m
Hole depth 13.5 m
Burden (B) 3m
Spacing (S) 3m
Stemming length 4.5 m
Blasthole inclination Vertical
Charging configuration Bottom priming,
continuous charging
Blasthole pattern Square
Initiation system used Shock tube
Initiation pattern Square V
Delay between rows 25 ms
22
Displacement, m
Time, ms
Figure 1. Zoomed-in raw VOD record for ANFO.
- the start-up VOD at the hole bottom is 2525 m/s
(Fig. 2).
low order detonation at the hole bottom results
from poor priming and causes toe problem,
average VOD of ANFO is 4141 m/s.
- poor fragmentation is observed by qualitative
visual analysis of the muckpile. It is due to the
poor detonation performance of ANFO at the
hole bottom, and improper drilling pattern. Later,
by changing the drilling pattern to 3.5 m x 5.5 m,
fragmentation is improved by blast optimization
studies (Esen et al., unpubl.).
- bad muckpile profile resulting from the blast
causes difficulties in loading operation.
a few number of electronic noise in the VOD
record shown in Figure 1 indicates quite clearly
that the rock mass surrounding the length of the
explosive column was quite intact with very
minor structural discontinuities and no soft
formations.
VOD measurements for ELBAR-100, BARANFO
50 and ELBAR-5 were carried out to select the best
blasting agent for the mine. These explosives were
charged into 3 different holes in the order given
above. These were primed by Gelatinous Dynamite
(90x100 mm) and initiated by shock tube. A single
row consisting of three holes is prepared for VOD
measurements and a different blasting agent is
charged into each hole. The results of the
measurements are given in Table 2.
The following results were obtained from three
hole, one row shot VOD record and from
observation;
- high VOD recorded at hole bottom in each blas­
thole indicates good priming of ANFO. So,
Gelatinous Dynamite is a suitable primer.
 VOD, m/s

Time, ms
Figure 2. VOD-time graph of raw VOD record for locally prepared ANFO.

Table 2. Comparison of VOD results at Etibakir the explosive column, but the decrease is not
Küre Copper Mine. much and seems acceptable.
- The minimum reduction in VOD is obtained for
ANFO EL­ BAR­ EL- the explosives BARANFO 50 and ELBAR-100
BAR- ANFO BAR-5 (Table 2).
100 50 Explosives having high VOD and low attenuation
Density, 0.810 0.994 0.928 0.803 in VOD are generally preferred for massive high
g/cm^ strength rocks. So, the most suitable blasting agent
Primer Power- Gel. Gel. Gel. for this blast environment is BARANFO 50 and/or
ELBAR-100. Since ELBAR-100 has higher VOD,
gel M. Dyn. Dyn. Dyn.
density and unit price, it may be utilized as bottom
Average 4141 5041 4832 4184 charge, whereas BARANFO 50 may be used as
VOD,
column charge. ANFO consisting completely of
m/s
porous ammonium nitrate prills is not recommended
VOD at 2525 5163 4859 4379
hole bot­ as a blasting agent for this mine as it has lower VOD
tom, m/s and density and much greater reduction in VOD
VOD at 3810 along the explosive column.
4871 4782 3983
the top of A research study conducted by Esen et al. (2000)
explosive has shown that coarser fragmentation is obtained by
column, utilizing ANFO containing only porous AN prills in
m/s hard rock environments due to its lower shock
energy. Blasting agents with high shock energy
(high VOD and density) such as BARANFO 50 and
ELBAR-100 are recommended in these blast en­
Due to high VOD at hole bottom, no toe problem
vironments. Blasting agent selection based on the
was observed during and after mucking.
VOD measurements agrees well with the findings of
Figure 3 shows VOD-time graph for the second
Esen et al. (2000).
hole where BARANFO 50 was the blasting
agent. VOD is not constant and decreases along

23
 VOD, m/s

Time, ms
Figure 3. VOD-time graph of BARANFO 50 at Küre Copper Mine.

3.2 Ba§ta§ Limestone Quarry records are evaluated, high VOD at the hole bottom
Performances of blasting agents ELBAR-5, is observed showing good priming of the blasting
BARANFO 50 and ELBAR-100 are evaluated by agents tested. ELBAR-100 and BARANFO 50 are
conducting VOD measurements also at Ba§ta§ suggested for parts “as” and “uy” respectively by
Limestone Quarry at two different blasthole considering the measured velocities (Table 3).
diameters (89 mm, 165 mm) and at two separate Proper selection of blasting agent and primer have
parts of the quarry coded as “as” and “uy” which led to good fragmentation and elimination of toe
were classified as high strength and medium strength problems at the quarry.
rocks, respectively. Results of the VOD meas­
urements are shown in Table 3.
3.3 Yenikoy Open Cast Coal Mine
It is proven once more that VOD of a commercial
explosive material varies depending on hole VOD measurements were also conducted at Yenikoy
diameter and confinement (Table 3). When the VOD Open Cast Coal Mine to evaluate the performances
of ELBAR-5, BARANFO 50 and BARANFO 100 in
weaker rock environments. Measurements were
Table 3. VOD results at Ba§ta§ Limestone Quarry. conducted at Ikizkoy District of the mine where
stripping operations were carried out. Marl is the
Blasting Hole Dia­ Rock Average principle rock type blasted during overburden
Agent meter, mm Definition VOD, m/s loosening which is subsequently removed by shovel
Elbar-5 89 as 3240 truck combination. It is classified as low strength
165 as 4268 rock. Blasthole diameter, burden, spacing and hole
165 uy 4171 length are 235 mm, 9 m, 9 m and 9.6 m,
BAR- 89 as 3735 respectively. 100 kg blasting agent is charged into
ANFO 50 165 as 4588 each blasthole. Blasting agents tested were primed
165 uy 4229 by either 100x90 mm Gelatinous Dynamite or
Elbar-100 89 as 4017 90x150 mm Powergel Magnum cartridges. Results
165 as 4900 of the VOD measurements are given in Table 4.
165 _____ UY___ 4749

24
Table 4. Results o f the VOD measurements at 4 CONCLUSIONS
Y enikoy Open Cast Coal Mine.
1. VOD of a blasting agent depends heavily on
Blasting Primer Average Run-up formulation characteristics, rock properties
Agent VOD, Distance, (confinement), blasthole diameter and priming.
m/s 2. A VOD record can provide excellent information
ELBAR-5 Gelatinous 4550 on the integrity, structural and geomechanical
Dynamite condition of the surrounding rock mass.
ELBAR-5 Powergel 3895 35 3. When an explosive is primed adequately, VOD
Magnum at hole bottom is high and decreases towards the
BARANFO Gelatinous 4675 end of the explosive column. So, VOD of a
50 Dynamite commercial explosive is not constant.
BARANFO Powergel 4350 62 4. Low VOD at the hole bottom indicates poor
50 Magnum priming of blasting agent. Inadequate priming
BARANFO Gelatinous 4175 creates low order detonation resulting in poor
100 Dynamite explosive performance at the hole bottom. It
BARANFO Powergel 3811 38 leads to hard toe (difficult digging) and coarse
100 Magnum fragmentation.
5. BARANFO 100 is the most suitable explosive
for the low strength rocks of Yenikoy Open Cast
Bulk densities of ELBAR-5, BARANFO 50 and Coal Mine. BARANFO 50 is the most proper
BARANFO 100 are 0.803, 0.928 and 0.714 g/cm^ explosive in blasting medium strength rocks.
respectively. Higher VOD (higher shock energy) and higher
The following conclusions are drawn both from density explosives such as ELBAR-100 and
Table 4 and field observations: BARANFO 50 having low attenuation in VOD
no run-up distance is measured when blasting are proven to be suitable for blasting operations
agents are primed by Gelatinous Dynamite in hard rock environments such as seen in
showing adequate priming. The initial high VOD Etibakir Küre Copper Mine.
at the hole bottom proves that Gelatinous 6. Since performance of primer and blasting agent
Dynamite is a suitable primer, affect blasting results, selection of explosives
run-up distances were measured only when should be made properly for each blasting site.
Powergel Magnum (an emulsion explosive) is VOD measurement carried out at full scale is an
used as a primer. Therefore, Powergel Magnum excellent and indispensable tool for the selection.
is not as good as Gelatinous Dynamite as a 7. VOD measurements conducted during full scale
primer. blasting certainly offers important information to
presence of run-up distance indicates poor be used in blast design optimization and the
performance of the blasting agent at the hole bot­ detection of low order detonation, deflagration
tom. For example, run-up distance of and misfire.
BARANFO 50 due to poor priming is 62 cm,
that is, about 25 kg explosive is wasted during
detonation. REFERENCES
low VOD at the hole bottom causes low
productivity in excavation during stripping Bilgin, H.A. & Esen, S. 1999. Assessment of the
operation. The result is an economical loss for performances of some commercial explosives in
the mine. blasthole at Ba§ta§ Quarry. The 2nd National
- type of primer affects the detonation velocity Aggregate Symposium, Istanbul, Turkey: 157-168
even if the explosive type, the rock type, the (in Turkish).
diameter of the hole and the initiator are the Chiappetta, R.F. 1993. Continuous velocity of deto­
same. Average VOD’s of BARANFO 50, nation measurements in full scale blast
BARANFO 100 and ELBAR-5 primed by environments. Proceedings o f the International
Gelatinous Dynamite are 4675, 4175 and 4550 Congress on Mine Design, Kingston, Ontario,
m/s, respectively. That of these explosives Canada: 759-785. Rotterdam: Balkema.
primed by Powergel Magnum are 4350, 3811 Chiappetta, R.F. 1998. Blast monitoring instrumen­
and 3895 m/s, respectively. tation and analysis techniques, with an em­
Explosives having low VOD and density are phasis on field applications. FRAGBLAST-
generally preferred in low strength rocks. Therefore, International Journal o f Blasting and Fragmenta­
BARANFO 100 is selected for stripping operations tion, Voi. 2, No. 1: 79-122. Rotterdam: Balkema.
of the mine due to its low VOD and density. Esen, S., Bilgin, H.A., Erko9, Ò.Y., tpek, T. & Al­
das, G.G.U. 1999. Report on experimental blast-

25
 ing studies at Etibakir Küre Copper Mine. An­
kara, Turkey. 10 pages (unpublished report in
Turkish).
Esen, S., Bilgin, H.A. & BoBo, T. 2000. Effect of
explosive on fragmentation. The 4^^ Drilling and
Blasting Symposium, Ankara, Turkey: 63-72 (in
Turkish).

26
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A contribution to a better design and control o f surface blasting

A.Bortolussi
Mineral Science Study Centre, National Research Council, Cagliari, Italy
R.Ciccu, S. Forte & B.Grosso
Department of Geoengineering and Environmental Technologies, University of Cagliari, Italy

ABSTRACT: Bl2isting data from a number of Italian quarries involved in the production of raw materials for
cement manufacturing and characterised by different conditions (kind of material, structural features of the
rock and site location) have been properly processed in order to put into light the relationships existing
between the various issues. Through the study of statistical correlation a straight linear function has been
found to exist between the specific consumption of explosive and a global parameter accounting for the rock
properties, the blasting geometry and the type and loading conditions of the explosive used, in which all the
pertinent variables appear as factors to a fractional power. The influence of individual issues according to the
model is discussed and the outcome is explained on scientific grounds. The reliability of the model appears
very good to the extent that it can provide the base for a predicting tool in blast design and control.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 ANALYSIS OF BLASTING DATA

The accurate design of drilling and blasting is of a
capital importance in modem quarries which are
characterised by high production levels, implying the
use of larger blastholes, taller benches and wider
drilling grids, in presence of severe environmental
constraints.
Although surface blasting has been the object of a
great number of studies and investigations [1, 2], a
reliable comprehensive model capable of describing
the rock-explosive interaction is not yet available,
with the consequence that blasting results are
difficult to predict, due to the complexity of the
system, the great variability of the conditions
encountered as well as the difficulty of defining in
advance some of the influencing parameters,
especially those related to the characteristics of the
rock. In practice, the optimum blasting plan for a
given quarry is always the result of a series of field
trials leading to the constmction of empirical
relationships between variables and parameters [3,4].
The present investigation is founded on the
statistical analysis of blasting results obtained in a
number of Italian quarries involved in the
production of limestone and marl for cement
factories. In these quarries the blasting plan has been
refined by the daily practice and it can be considered
as optimal for the particular site conditions.
The information collected in the field concerns the
various parameters and variables of bench geometry,
drilling pattern, explosive used and loading
configuration, firing sequence, rock mass excavated
as well as the blasting results obtained in typical
rounds, including the size distribution of the product.
Data used in the present investigation have been
collected in ten quarries located in different regions
of Italy and are the average values of long-period
records (more than two years, corresponding to at
least 100 blasts). A variety of explosives are used:
- Bottom charge: Slurry (Tutagex 211 in 6 quarries.
Dynamite (Gelatine 1 or 2) in 3 quarries and a
granular explosive (Triammite) in the last one;
- Column charge: Granular explosive (Cava Extra 2,
Geostak or Cava 1) in 6 quarries and ANFO
(ANFO 5 or EURANFO 77) in the other 4.
The parameters taken into consideration can be
distinguished into “measured”, i.e. directly obtained
from the blasting plan, and “calculated”, through the
elaboration of crude data.
2.1 Measured parameters
Conventional parameters for bench basting
geometry, charging configuration, explosive
properties and rock characteristics are reported in
table 1.

27
Table 1. Measured parameters of bench blasting geometry.
Bench Geometry Loading, configuration Explosive properties Rock characteristics
Hole diameter O [mm] Top stemming Bs [m] Bulk density 6e [kg/dm^] Volumic mass pr [kg/dm^]
Bench height K [m] Intermediate stemming Bi [m] Charge diameter Oe [mm] Compr. strength Oer [Mpa]
Hole length H [m] Total charge Q [kg] Detonation velocity Vd [m/s] P-wave velocity c [m/s]
Burden V [m] Total charge height Lc [m] Specific energy 8ev [MJ/kg] Work Index W, [kWh/t]
Spacing E [m] Column charge load Qc [kg] Explosive impedance L = 5e Vd Rock impedance Ir=PrC
Subdrilling U [m] Column charge height Lee [m] flO^kg/m^sl [lO’kg/m^sl
Hole inclination i° [ °] Bottom charge load Qb [kg] Blastability constant s
Bottom charge height Leb [m]

The results of bench blasting are defined by
considering the size of the broken material, in
particular its top dimension (Dmax [m]) and the
values Dgo [m] and D50 [m] of the size distribution,
which have been obtained from the records taken at
the crushing plant.
qualitative evaluation. Moreover, the system is
greatly complex and the significance of the many
variables and parameters is not univocal. In these
conditions predictive models are not easy to build,
whereas a deterministic approach to the problem
may not be realistic.

2.2 Calculated parameters

Some of the crude data of bench blasting collected in
the quarries have been elaborated by calculating the
conventional parameters and indexes commonly
used for evaluating the efficiency of the blast, such
as;
Blasthole productivity [m^/hole]: ratio between
the total blasted volume and the number of
blastholes in the round;
Specific drilling S [m/ m^]; drilled metres per
cubic metre of rock;
Specific charge q [g/ m^] or [g/t]: explosive BLASTHOLE DIAMETER F [mm]

consumption per cubic metre or ton of rock; Figure 1. Bench Height vs Blasthole Diameter
Decoupling ratio : ratio between the
diameter of explosive charge and that of
drillhole;
Bottom charge concentration Ib [kg/m]: weight of
explosive per metre of bottom charge;
Column charge concentration Ic [kg/m]; weight
of explosive per metre of column charge
Ratio between rock and explosive impedances.
For all the quarries taken into consideration the
measured and calculated parameters have been
found to fall within the range suggested for similar
situations, confirming that the blasting plans adopted
are generally adequate. The points representative of BURDEN / DIAMETER RATIO

each quarry are given in figures 1 to 4 within the
lines delimiting the field of variation reported in the
literature [5, 6].
3 STATISTICAL CORRELATION
The various issues influencing the outcome of bench
blasting are different in origin and often the
numerical values assigned to them are the result of a
Figure 2. Relationship between Burden and Blasthole
Diameter
The solution proposed in the present work
consists in a comprehensive mathematical model
where all the relevant variables and parameters
characterising the different issues involved in the
process are taken into consideration. The model
enables to evaluate their relative influence on

28
 type of such factors and their mathematical form
have been evaluated by considering each issue and
its theor etical influence on specific charge.
The model has been built trough a trial-and-error
procedure based on best fitting of field data
collected in the quarries [7]. Based on the results
obtained from such analysis, the following issues
have eventually been taken into consideration:
Rock related parameters
- Work index: Wi
Figure 3. Blasthole Spacing vs Burden - Volumic mass [kg/m^]: Pr (2.40)
- Blastability constant: S (0.536)
Size of the product [m]: Dgo (0.38)
Variables o f bench blasting geometry
- Hole diameter [mm]: O (108)
- Specific drilling[m/m^]: s (0.066)
- Burden/spacing ratio: V/E (1.04)
- Bench height [m]: K (14.7)
- Hole inclination [°]: i° (20.5)
Explosive-related parameters
- Specific energy: 8ev
Energy transmission efficiency indexes
- Decoupling ratio: Oc/O (0.8)
SPECIFIC DRILLING [m/m3]
- Impedance ratio: lÆ (2.34)
Their average value for the set of quarries taken
Figure 4. Specific Drilling vs Blasthole Diameter into consideration is shown between brackets.
The exponent appearing in each factor of the
blasting results, under the hypothesis that collected expression of P has been determined by maximising
data are obtained from optimal blasting plans. the correlation coefficient of the linear regression
Specific charge, i.e. the amount of explosive analysis of the field data, excluding the anomalous
consumed for each cubic metre of rock has been point representing a quarry with a very low specific
considered as the most significant parameter of charge (181 g/m^), on the grounds that in this
blasting, from both technical and economical point particular case the quantity of explosive is limited by
of view. In fact the knowledge of specific charge for environmental restrictions (vibrations) and
each field of application of the explosives excavation is carried out according to a combined
(production blasting either at surface or method of blasting and drag scraper.
underground, tunnelling, trenching, presplitting, etc.)
provides an immediate evaluation of the efficiency 450
♦
of the blast, when compared with the corresponding 400
values obtained by the experience or reported in the 350
literature. y = 0,4 35x + 207,62
300
Therefore, in the construction of our model it has S
D-
= 0,9941

been assumed that specific charge could be 0) 250

O)
expressed as a linear function of a suitable global ra 200
sz
K*r
Ü
o
parameter accounting for the various relevant issues •>i= 150

of the blasting plan. Accordingly, the general form 1CO 100

of the relationship searched is the following: 50
q = kiP + k2 (1) 0
where ki and k2 are constants typical of the field of 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
application and P is the global parameter. Global param eter p

It has also been assumed that the various issues Figure 5. Correlation line o f Specific Charge as a
are represented in the global parameter P as factors function o f Global Parameter P for the quarries
to a fractional power to be determined through a examined.
statistical analysis of available data. The number and

29
 The equation obtained with a high correlation
coefficient (r^ = 0.994) is the following:

q = 0.405P + 207.6 (2)

where;
P = [(W.p ,) ' s-'D8o' 1 [0'^S'^(V/E)'^K-'^(siniy]
[8ev-^(d)e/0)-"(yie)"1 (3)

The correlation line of specific charge as a

function of the global parameter P is shown in
Figure 5.

4 DISCUSSION Figure 7. Specific Consumption vs. Blastability Constant

The mathematical expression (3) found for

parameter P enables to evaluate the influence of the
various issues on the blasting process. This is shown
in figures 6 to 16 where specific charging as a
function of each variable or parameter is calculated
for the average value of the remaining ones.
Among rock-related parameters, the work index
referred to the unit volume of rock Wipr has a great
influence on specific charge, which increases
considerably with it, thus corroborating the blasting
theory based on energy balance. In fact the work
index, commonly used in the design of mineral
comminution machines, represents the specific Figure 8. Specific Consumption vs Product Size Dgi
energy required to crush the material from a given
feed size to a given product size. The higher that
value, the larger is expected to be the amount of
explosive needed to fragment the rock to a given
reference size Dgo-
The influence of the work index is in some way
balanced by the blastability constant s which
describes the structural features of the rock. A
homogeneous compact rock with no fractures (s <
0.4) requires much more explosive than a very
jointed and fissured rock (s > 0.6) for achieving the
same product size.
Blasthole diameter F [mm]
Figure 9. Specific Consumption vs. Hole Diameter

Figure 6. Specific Consumption vs. Bond Index

Figure 10. Specific Consumption vs Bench Height

30
 The size Dgo of the blasted material, obtained
from the size distribution curve at 80% undersize
cumulative frequency, is the conventional parameter
for assessing the quality of the blast product. Of
course smaller quantities of explosives are required
the coarser the fragments to be obtained.
Concerning bench blasting geometry parameters,
hole diameter and bench height appear in the
formula with a negative exponent, indicating their
positive influence (the higher their value the lower
specific charge will be), while specific drilling and Specific energy [MJ/m^]
burden/spacing ratio seem to have a negative
Figure 13. Specific Consumption as a function o f the
influence on specific charge all the other conditions
explosive Specific Energy
being the same, as it is well known from the blasting
practice. A decrease in hole inclination with respect
to the horizontal plane is always favourable provided
that drilling accuracy is maintained.

Figure 14. Specific Consumption vs Specific Drilling

B la s t h o l e in c lin a t io n i“ [ “]

Figure 11. Specific Consumption vs H ole Angle

Figure 15. Specific Consumption vs Decoupling Ratio

Figure 12. Influence o f drillhole Grid Shape on Specific
Consumption
Explosive is characterised by its specific energy
by mass,, which has a positive influence on specific
charge, decreasing when a more powerful explosive
is used. This is a clear physical effect (more energy
contained in a smaller mass).
Regarding the parameters of energy transmission
efficiency, the value of decoupling ratio should be
kept high and impedance ratio as small as possible
(close to 1) in order to reduce specific charge. Bulk
density of the explosive loaded into the blastholes
and detonation velocity are incorporated in this latter
parameter.
The indications given by the model are in perfect
agreement with the well known thumb rules for the
safe handling and best use of explosives.

31

R o c k / E x p l o s i v e I m p e d a n c e r a tio l/ U
Figure 16. Influence o f Impedance Ratio
The model here proposed can be adopted either
for survey purposes or as a predictive tool.
In the first case, the information defining a
blasting plan under evaluation are introduced into
the model as input data for calculating the
theoretical specific charge to which the real specific
consumption is compared. If the difference between
the two values is within acceptable limits, the
blasting plan can be considered optimal. However if
that difference is statistically significant, this means
that one or more parameters of the blasting plan are
likely to be out of their optimal range, and
consequently some technical or/and economic
drawbacks are suffered, calling for suitable
adjustment measures. The advantage of such survey
derives from the need to define clearly all aspects
involved in the blasting process.
In the second case, the model can be applied as
the starting point of a predictive procedure according
to which each one of the variables of the system is
calculated taking into account the characteristics of
the rock (fixed data), while the other variables are
set at their average value. This kind of procedure can
provide a very important information on the
combined influence of the various issues, indicating,
through a specific sensitivity analysis, their optimal
range of variation.
Moreover it also enables to put into light the
sensitivity of the blasting outcome to each of them,
considered individually.
In a next step of the research in course, a larger set
of quarries of the same kind will be considered in
order to improve the reliability of the model. Further
on, the model will be applied to rocks having
different characteristics aiming at extending its
applicability to all instances of surface mining
operations.
Finally it the research can be addressed to other
field of application of explosive blasting, including
underground excavation.
32
The proposed model linking the specific charge to
the other various blasting parameters and variables has
shown a statistical validity confirmed by a high
correlation coefficient. Their individual influence has
been quantitatively defined through the analysis of the
factorial power values appearing in the mathematical
expression of the global parameter.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The model here described represents a valid tool for
survey purposes in well established quarrying activity
and a useful instrument in blasting design.
Although the reliability of the relationships found
is only proven for the set of quarries examined in the
present study, it is believed that their applicability can
be extended to other quarries of the same kind with a
good level of confidence. Moreover, the validity of
the model can be generalised by adding new data
collected at other surface mining operations into the
statistical process, although at the expense of
accuracy.
The methodology followed can be applied to other
instances of rock blasting, in order to define the
specific models having the same mathematical
structure but different constants.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work has been carried out according to the
research programme of CNR (National Research
Council) and MURST (Ministry for University and
Scientific and Technological Research). The co­
operation of Italcementi S.p.A. is highly appreciated.
REFERENCES
1. Langefors, U. & Kinlstrom, B. 1963. The modern
technique o f rock blasting. Stockholm: Almquist
& Wiksell.
2. Seguiti, T. 1969. Le mine nei lavori minerari e
civili. Roma: Ed. “LTndustria Mineraria”.
3. Berta, G. 1983 L'esplosivo e la roccia. Milano:
Italesplosivi
4. Berta, G. 1985 L'esplosivo strumento di lavoro.
Milano: Italesplosivi
5. Atlas Powder Company. 1987. Explosive and rock
blasting. Dallas, USA.
6. TAMROCK: Surface drilling and blasting (J.
Naapuri Ed.)
7. Bortolussi, A., Ciccu, R., Forte, S., Grosso, B.: A
blasting survey in limestone quarries.
Proceedings of the International Mining
Symposium Beijing 1999
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Investigation o f interrelationship o f internal and external factors

and parameters o f ‘opencast’ system

D.G.Bukeikhanov, B.D.Lerman, T.G.Gabdullin, S.Zh.Galiyev & V.F.Siedin

Kunaev's Institute o f Mining, National Academy of Sciences, Almaty, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT: On the basis of system approach the factors are classified and their influential in a system «open-
pit» are taken into account. The creation of model of a system «open-pit» grounded on principles of construct­
ing and operation of open systems, the pattern ensures which one continuous changes of aircraft attitude end
augmentability of a system for its adapting to varying conditions of open-pit operation.

INTRODUCTION - automation of process of forming of current and

Diversity of deposits of solid useful minerals,
their distinctions and parameters which are immedi­
ate objects of mining, variety of ecological require­
ments of natural surroundings to opencast’s operat­
ing, constantly normative-legislative basis of min­
ing industry and also dynamism of supply and de­
mand, prices of consuming materials, transport and,
production, producing at opencast, state problem of
investigation of interrelationships and interaction of
internal and external factors and parameters of
«Opencast» system for creation of scientific-
methodical basis of system of computer-aided de­
sign and planning of mining operations and its data
bases.
And it should lay emphasis on the following
principles:
- selection and maximization of technologically
stable periods within shifts, twenty-four-hour
periods, months, years and so on which allow to
concentrate auxiliary works in common small time
intervals, and productive operating of the key
mining-transport equipment - without interferences
in more long period;
- forming of rocks and ore fiows by all
technological zones (lines) of opencast with
miimum qualitative and quantitative losses of useful
minerals when carrying out of processes of
loosening, extraction and loading, transportation to
storehouses and consumers, storing and re-loading
with ensuring of stability of characteristics of ore
arriving for processing;
- minimisation of expenses for mining-transport
operations and ensuring technical and ecological
safety;
perspective plans of mining operations.
Organization-technical systems of computer-aided
design and planning of mining operations will
ensure:
- increasing of quality of plans of mining operations
and technical decisions when timely, current and
perspective planning at the expense of optimization
of mining-transport operations;
- cretion of high-developed marketing, directed on
getting of maximum profit when deposit mining.
Modem opencast is a complex technological sys­
tem continuously developing in time and in a space
earth strata which includes deposit of useful miner­
als. It shows high variety of elements, aggregates
and subsystems of different nature, which are in­
cluded in it, polyfactoral and multychannel interre­
lationship between them and complex character of
their interaction. Besides, elements, aggregates and
subsystems of «Open-cast» system interact actively
with parameters of external mediums, including pa­
rameters and indexes of geographical, geological,
financial-economic, market, ecological and norma­
tive-legislative mediums (Bukeikhanov, D.G. and
the others, 19). These interrelationships it is neces­
sary to take into account when determine of
boundaries of open-pit fields and the main parame­
ters of open-cast s, when taking decisions about
mining methods, direction, intensity, regime and
calendar planning of mining operations at open-
casts; when choosing technology and structure of
complex mechanization, methods of opening-up and
working levels preparation; and also when creating
of organizing-technical system of planning and con­
trol by production processes (fig.l).

33
Fig.l Scheme o f interrelations o f internal and external subsystems and elements o f “Open-cast” system
 Fig. 2 Structural scheme of open-cast’s designing
At the Kunaev’s Institute of mining methods were
worked out of simulation and search of optimal de­
cisions on open mining of useful minerals deposits
(fig.2).
They are realized in a form of program-functional
complexes, being an interacting sat of programs of
mining-geometrical analysis of deposits and open-
pit fields, simulation of mining-transport complexes
operation, placement of objects and service lines at
open-cast and at a day surface, control by produc­
tion quality. The first complex solves problems of
choice of final and intermediate boundaries of open­
cast, development of mining operations, determina­
tion of production capacity by useful mineral and
stripping and calendar planning of deposit mining.
The second program-functional complex represents
drilling, blasting, extraction and loading, transport
and dumping processes by different technological
schemes by the way of their simulation. It includes
blocks of programs of schemes of forming of rail­
way propagation; placing of connective service
lines at benches and mining and transport equip­
ment at dump; evaluation of utilization of techno­
logical transport communications, analysis of inter­
vals of movement of movable transport units with
freight and without it with due account of pass of
household equipment and auxiliary equipment; de­
termination of energy effectiveness of current and
timely plans of mining operations and also numeri­
cal proportion of mining and transport equipment,
which is in operation.
The third complex supposes a creation of neces­
sary technological lines on the basis of investigation
of forming and operating open-cast freight flows
and purposeful selection of technological zones
with due account of geographical and geological
characteristic properties of mine take and deposit.
35
and also geometry of forming opencast; placing of
production objects at a day surface and in opencast
with due account of dynamics of processes of open­
ing-up and working levels preparation. The fourth
complex includes simulation of processes of form­
ing of production quality when carrying out of drill­
ing and blasting operations. Here the process is
studied from the point of view of expediency of
complete and selective blasting of ore and overbur­
den rocks. And location of contacts of ore and en­
closing rock in mass and in bulk is taken into ac­
count.
With due account of these positions complete and
selective technology of extraction-loading
operations is simulated. Besides the complex ensure
simulation of processes of stabilization of
production quality in ore flows at loading
storehouses and also in a process of primary ore
processing.
Using of worked out models and also models of
ecological estimation of decision taking allowed to
study problems of interaction of variety of factors
having on effect in behaviour of “Open-cast” sys­
tem.
Systematization of factors, affecting the interac­
tion of parameters of open-casts and mining-
transport complexes with subsystems and elements
of external mediums and having an effect on min­
ing-transport complexes operation is presented on
figure 2. It based on the following. Factors are clas­
sified into internal within boundaries of mining-
transport complexes and external, and the last fac­
tors- into common to the open-cast, connecting with
mining technology and parameters of open-cast, and
out of open-cast, connecting with parameters of ex­
ternal surroundings and markets. Systematization
of factors was formed by groups of internal and
Fig.3. a) The system of internal factors, b) the system o f external factors.

36
external (subclasses common to open-cast and out
of open-cast) factors, ftxrther distribution was car­
ried out by classes and sub-classes types and sub-
types in accord with the main principles of classifi­
cation. In is necessary to note then in connection
with different. Nature of factor being among groups
of internal and external factors, a cause for their
comparable distribution is absent. That is why
aforenamed groups are distributed on structural
elements of systematization by different basis
(fig. 3).
Besides, creating system must interact with ele­
ments and subsystems of external mediums: geol­
ogy, geography and climate, technical, technologi­
cal, organizing and technical-economic, ecological-
surroundings and normative-legislative medium
(fig.l).
In these models interrelationship and interaction of
elements of system, its sub-systems and aggregates
with external mediums is carried out by their pur­
pose, target-orientation and functions, and proper­
ties of internal organization cause integrity of their
boundaries, which characterizing by composition,
the main, including system-forming properties of
components, structures of sub-systems and compo­
nents. They ensure organizing and realization of
given set of inter- component relationships in the
system.
As a whole, model of “Open-cast” system is pur­
poseful assemblage of objects of complex, forming
complete unity, every object of which has property
to carry out or organize one of units of activity for
forming of decision or its fragments, to realize ser­
vicing process of the system, in which computer is
used a means, and models of objects are used as
items. System-forming relationships between them
are carried out by computer. This allows to find sta­
ble reproducing organization and realization of
technology of forming and function of open-cast
complexes ensuring computer-aided design, plan­
ning and control by mining operations, including
technological processes at open-casts, with receiv­
ing interacted optimal technical and technological
decisions.
When this model creating we proceeded from
principles of construction and function of open
systems, structure of which ensures continuos
evolution and ability of the system to expendtion for
its adaptation to changing conditions of open-cast
operation; forming of a set of solving problems,
their identification registration and exception;
planning of flow of problems, solving in parallel
and and step-by-step, and possibility of
37
decentralized making decisions on every separate
problem or a complex of problems, including in a
flow; hierarchical multi-level and modular
organizing of systems, structures of which are
maximum independent and have functionally closed
separating parts, ensuring increase of reliability of
function of the system, its sub-systems and
elements; possibility of using not fully, not rigorous
information resources; maximum aggregativeness
unification and typification means of the system,
compatibility and continuity of formed organizing
and realization of process of decisions making.
Besides, the model of system ensures ability to
control by processes and actions for forming of de­
signing and planning decisions - possibility of re­
duction of problems and objects from any current
condition to given or preferable conditions, includ­
ing return to earlier achieved and passed and also
assumed their conditions; possibility to observation
fixing information about intermediate and achieved
conditions of objects in assigned points of the proc­
ess, making decision of computer-aided design and
planning; target-orientating-forming pronounced
target- oriented orientations of objects for given
purposes.
CONCLUSIONS
Worked out program-functional complexes for
simulation of «Open-cast» system and mining-
geometrical analysis of deposits and open-pit fields
allowed not only study basic properties, essence and
interaction of phenomenon and process of open
mining operations, but allowed to create scientific
basis of development of present-day and perspective
open-casts, ensuring production of competitive
products in conditions of carrying out of economic
reforms, resources and ecological limits; to study
effectiveness of creation of new types of high-
production mining-and-transport equipment, to
work out theory of computer-aided design, planning
and control by mining-and-transport operations.
REFERENSES
l.Bukeikhanov.D.G., Galiev. S.Zh., Akhe-
dov,D.Sh., Dzhaksybaev,A.Kh. Investigation of in­
ternal and external interrelationships and interaction
of parameters of mining-transport systems of open-
casts /Proceedings of Academy of Sciences the Re­
public of Kazakhstan. 1999.JSfo 2 P.63-69.
2. Bukeikhanov. D.G., Galiev. S.Zh., Tsoi, G.,
Dzhaksybaev,A.Kh. Concept of imitative simula­
tion of extraction-and-loading operation in a system
of excavator-railway complex of opencasts. Actual
problems of modem science and technique. Col­
lected volume. Part 1: Almaty. 1994. P. 150-155.
3. Bukeikhanov. D.G., Sjedin, V.,F., Schekin, V.K.,
Goryunov, N.,V. CAD of open mining of deposits
of mining-chemical raw materials. Mining Journal.
1989.JVo5 P.19-21.

38
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

G eological m odeling and m ine planning for dim ension stone quarries

A.Caranassios
CETEM, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
G.de Tomi & N.Senhorinho
Departamento de Engenharia de Minas, EPUSP, Sao Paulo, Brazil

ABSTRACT: The paper describes the development and implementation of a sequential process for geological
modeling, resource estimation and mine planning for dimension stone quarries. The methodology was
specifically developed for a multi-site dimension stone project, which involved 8 different quarries located in
the state of Ceara in Brazil, and it included quarry output, market projections and cost analysis for different
production and equipment scenarios.

1 INTRODUCTION dimension stone mine planners in their tasks of

During the last few years, mining sofl;ware has
become increasingly more popular among medium
and small-scale mining companies and operations.
The expression mining software is commonly used to
describe integrated computerized systems used in
mining operations.
Typical applications of mining software include
field data handling and processing, mine surveying,
geology, mine planning, production scheduling and
other aspects such as geotechnical and
hidrogeological analysis. These integrated systems
provide the tools for the mine planner to quickly and
dynamically build realistic models of the mining
operation, which will allow simulations and
predictions of the geological resource and mine
production.
Geological and mine models may also be easily
reconciled with production data and field
observations, allowing the user to obtain increasingly
better models and better results out of the use of
mining software.
The application of mining software in the
dimension stone sector is gradually becoming more
popular. Although the mining concepts and practice
of this industry are somewhat different than quarries
and metal mines, many control parameters are
equally important for the mining operation, such as
structural features (faults, joints, fractures),
intrusions, and mineralogical patterns. There is,
therefore, a significant requirement for proper
planning in the extraction of dimension stones blocks
with a view of maximizing mineable reserves
(maximize the volume of extracted blocks). Mining
software provide the appropriate tools to assist the
geological resource modeliug, evaluation, mine
planning, production scheduling and mine operation
(Lima, 1998 and Caranassios, 1990).
2 PROJECT BACKGROUND
This paper describes a comprehensive evaluation
project carried out for a Brazilian dimension stone
company. A total of eight dimension stone sites for
which the company has exploration and mining rights
were studied and evaluated. The dimension stone
under study is granite, which occurs in all eight sites
in different conditions and aspects, thus are
considered different products.
The objective of the project was to assess
geological resources and reserves, market projections
and production conditions for each of the products
available. This has enabled the company to apply for
financing to international investors. All project
development was documented in a Project Logbook,
containing descriptions of all information and data
exchange with the company, together with details of
the procedures for data entry, processing and
modeling.
3 GEOLOGICAL MODELING AND
EVALUATION
Prior to the evaluation of geological resources, a füll
review of property and official permits was carried
out for each dimension stone site. Individual property
location, access and history were also reviewed and
registered. Travel distances were registered from

39
each site to Fortaleza, the state’s capital, located at As part of the modeling task, each individual
the seashore. Fortaleza has a port from which the granite structure was geologically identified.
entire granite production can be shipped overseas. According to the literature some of these granites are
The company is planning to build a storage building classified as Pre-Cambrian undifferentiated, igneous
near Fortaleza’s port. granular rocks. The entire area constitutes a variety
Geological evaluation was based on computerized of structures, including monzogranite, an igneous
geological models built for the granite deposits of the rock with holocristalin course structure, with
eight sites being studied. Each deposit was modeled porphyries of feldspar with colors ranging from gray
individually, and the resulting geological models to pink well distributed on a matrix of quartz, biotite
were both regional (for indicative geological and plagioclase, as well as other granites. There are
resources) and local (for both measured and outcrops in several places as massive formations and
indicated resources). A total of 19 three-dimensional boulders.
geological models were built. The general sequence The computerized geological modeling started
of activities followed to build the models is with the digitization of the surface topography of
summarized in Figure 1 below. each site, which were modeled as a triangulated
digital terrain models with the support of
mathematical methods.
Data Validation &
The contacts of the granite outcrops with the
I Data Entry Data Analysis
overburden were then modeled and projected three-
dimensionally downwards. Individual models were
Surface Topography
Data Processing (3D)
built for the regional model and for the local targets.
For modeling purposes, each site was divided into
Geological Mapping
individual local targets, all sharing the same
Geoiogicai interpretation geological context.
and Modelling
All individual models included general topography
Site Information
and granite outcrops. During the period the project
was carried out, some of the local targets were under
Digital Terrain Modelling
Other Sources production, and the actual quarries were modeled
together with the surface topography.
Figure 2 shows a three-dimensional view of one of
Geological the quarries, the granite outcrop and the surface
Resources topography of one of these targets. The extensions of
Figure 1. Sequence of Activities for Geological Modeling. this model are approximately 100 m W-E and 60 m
S-N, with a bench height of up to 4 meters.

Data from maps (geological and topographical)

was entered into digital format through a 3D
digitizer. Information from other sources was added
onto the database. Each individual deposit had its
own database. The original data was carefully
checked and validated before proceeding to the
modeling stage. Data validation and analysis
followed industry standards for due diligence (JORC,
1999). It included statistical analysis to identify
isolated values and graphical validation, especially for
elevation values. The classification of resources into Figure 2. Quarry topography of one of the local targets.
measured or indicated was carried out according to
the principles listed in Table 1 below.
Individual geological models were built for each
site and its targets, using variable dimensions in the
Table 1: Classification of Geological Resources
X, Y and Z-axis. Measured resources for each target
Resource Class Definition
model were computed from the top down to 5 m
Geological resource well defined in
Measured three dimensions below known contacts of granite. For indicated
Reasonably defined in three-dimensions resources, it was considered an additional depth of
Indicated and continuity can be predicted to a 10 m. Geological resources were computed
reasonable degree. according to the standards suggested in the JORC
Code (JORC, 1999), registering measured and
indicated resources, all in m^. All results from the
evaluation of the geological models were compiled

40
into an overall geological resource table for the
project.
4 MINE PLANNING AND EQUIPMENT
SELECTION
In order to offer the appropriate commercial support
for receiving and distributing the production from the
quarries in the different project sites, a storage center
was conceived for Fortaleza, near the port. This
feicility was designed to have approximately capacity
of 50,000 m^, to include office and maintenance
facilities to support all technical, administrative,
marketing and production-oriented activities of the
company.
Mine planning and equipment selection was based
on the Measured Resource values computed in the
previous section. In order to establish production
levels and equipment to be employed at each site, the
project team took into account a number of technical
and market-oriented aspects, both general and site-
specific. The general details are presented below.
Equipment selection had the objective to conform to
industry standards for current technology with low
cost and high performance profiles.
Production of each product was adjusted to
market demand projections and the quarrying method
adopted would have to be flexible enough to handle
that. Therefore, a combination of the mining
methods of benching and selective mining was
selected. Production will be normally based on
vertical panels of approximately 9 m, which will be
overthrown and selectively cut into blocks. Due to
the local conditions, mining recovery should be
relatively low, and in this project it was considered to
be between 40% and 60%. The extension of road
and access construction was estimated for each
individual site.
Several faces will be open and ready to mine on
each particular bench, with quarry advance more
significant horizontal rather than vertical. Due to the
low recovery, placement of quarry waste will have to
be carefully planned prior to the mining activities.
Benching advances horizontally in mono-
blocks/benches, allowing different faces in each level.
Average dimensions are length 15 m, width 9 m and
height 9 m, advancing according to production
requirements. Once the vertical panels are isolated,
they are overthrown to their sides using the front-end
loader, hydraulic jacks and crane. There, the panels
are cut into commercial-size blocks using mechanical
induced cuts.
Another mining method proposed for some of the
sites is contour mining in multiple benches from the
outcrops. This enables a high flexibility in production
and ensures a relief in the “in-situ” stress state, which
in turn may allow for a higher mining recovery than
the expected average. For these cases, mining will be
developed downwards in multiple, articulate benches.
41
with bench dimensions of 20 m in length, 9 m in
width and 6 m in height.
Front-end loaders and bulldozers will handle the
extracted material (both waste and economic blocks).
Blocks with acceptable quality are then stored at the
block storage area prior to their loading and
transport by truck to Fortaleza.
5 INVESTMENT AND OPERATING COST
ESTIMATES
The previous section described the mining methods,
equipment and supplies requirements for the
production of granite at each of the eight project
sites. The overall investment estimates for each site
also include the following: (1) site preparation for
production (overburden removal, initial cuts, etc); (2)
production equipment and auxiliary equipment
(including import duties, taxes and site delivery fees);
(3) building construction and electrical-mechanical
set-up; (4) freight, set-up taxes and insurance; and
(5) contractors and external consultancy services.
Investments were estimated for the central site at
Fortaleza, from where all production will be stored
and distributed, and for each of the production sites.
The specific items considered included front-end
loaders, motor-graders, dump trucks, staff and light
equipment transport, roto-block storage, rolling
bridges, washing units, bulldozers, vertical loaders,
drilling equipment, slim-bar type block-cutter units,
block-cutter double units, diamond wire machines,
down-the-hole drilling equipment, site roads and
access preparation, detailed geological mapping prior
to mine production, mine preparation, production
base-level preparation (when changes of bench are
required), contractors and consultancy services
(legal, environmental, mine planning, technical,
production, and staff training).
Operating costs were estimated for the production
sites and for Fortaleza’s central site, based on the
production requirements, equipment and the
activities taking place at each site. The main
categories considered were: (1) handling, transport
and auxiliary equipment; (2) production equipment
(drilling and cutting); (3) maintenance; (4)
administration; and (5) marketing.
All estimates had costs estimated for a reference
year and a yearly adjustment factor was applied to
the calculations. A contingency factor was applied to
the yearly investment sub-totals. Net Present Values
of the operating costs were computed using a pre­
defined discount rate. An average yearly operating
cost was calculated for each year for each site, based
on the total cost and the total production.

AvBibliil»
Rock1yp*s
Figure 3: Overview o f the Integrated Mine Information
System for dimension stone quarries
6 CASH FLOW AND MARKET ANALYSIS
As shown above, estimates of site investments and
site operating costs were computed for all sites
studied in the project (eight producing sites and
Fortaleza’s central site). These estimates include a
contingency value and an adjustment factor.
With the appropriate estimates and values, the
pre-tax NPV for the investment and the operating
costs for each site were computed. Finally, current
prices were projected during mine life for each
specific site, together with sales projections. This
enabled the computation of the pre-tax NPV of sales
of each product. An overall project life of 13 years
was adjusted to all sites. Analyses of the mineable
reserves have determined, however, that production
of some of the sites should start after stop before the
end of the 13-year project life.
Estimates of revenues were computed with
reference on current and projected market prices for
the different products adjusted annuaUy at a
conservative rate of 2%. Sales forecast were based
upon a detailed market analysis study, carried out for
the different products of the project sites. The
forecast considered that dimension stone market
prices have a high degree of variation according to
the destination of the products, either for internal
consumption and international exports (Vale, 1998).
Worldwide production of dimension stones has
increased significantly in the period fi*om the 1920s
to the 1990s, with an average annual growth rate of
over 4%. From the mid 1980s, this rate has
increased to a level of 7% yearly, considerably higher
than the average global economy growth. Within the
dimension stone industry, granite is the sector with
the highest production increase rate, above marbles
and slates.
42
7 DIMENSION STONE MARKETING
The dimension stone industry has a complex
distribution structure, due to the presence of a wide
range of materials, with different prices, looks and
availability. In general, blocks are carefully selected,
normally on-site, and their commercialization is done
via pre-established channels and, sometimes through
re-sellers.
The emphasis on specific features of each product
is important, and this requires a careful process of
selecting appropriate names for specific products.
Marketing of the products and their names is done
via standard methods. Polished samples are also
normally available. It is becoming popular the
association of a particular product with a famous
building or construction (such as shopping centers,
museums, etc). One important practical rule is that
when the company has a successful leading-product,
the other products of the conq)any normally have a
better acceptance. The dimension stone industry has
a complex distribution structure, due to the presence
of a wide range of materials, with different prices,
looks and availability. In general, blocks are carefully
selected, normally on-site, and their
commercialization is done via pre-established
channels and, sometimes through re-sellers.
8 MULTI-SITE INTEGRATED INFORMATION
SYSTEM
The project also considered an integrated
information system to assist the company in
successfully identifying resources, producing and
marketing its granite products to customers
worldwide. Detailed models of the project sites
quarries, including geology and mine planning will
enable the company to show rock quality and
quantities available at any time scale desired by a
particular client. This integrated system will allow
access to the computerized models of any of the
production sites at the central site or virtually
anywhere else required.
This system will allow customers to access the
most up-to-date computer model and study the rock-
types available within a user-defined time-fi*ame, and
to select the ones available for purchase according to
the customer’s own requirements. The proposed
operational set-up is shown in Figure 3 below.
In addition to volumes, the geological model can
easily and effectively store other regional and local
attributes of the granite, such as visual aspect, grain
size, color, and many others. These attributes may be
sampled and estimated for the entire model using
both modem mathematical and geo statistical
methods, commonly used in the mining industry. The
final model may therefore represent not only the
measured and indicated volumes available, but also
their detailed quality parameters, allowing the Lima, W.B.C.; Lima, A.A.; De Tomi, G. & Silva, A.H.M.;
customer to select the rock-types required which are 1998. Posicionamento Automático de Blocos de Lavra em
available at the producing faces of the quarry. Rocha Ornamental (in Portuguese). In; Anais VI Workshop
DATAMINE no Brasil^ pp. 63-68, DATAMINE Latin
América (ed), Sao Paulo, Brazil.
9 CONCLUDING REMARKS Vale, E., 1997. Mercado Internacional de Rochas
Ornamentáis (in Portuguese), Volume 4, Instituto E. Lodi
(ed), Fortaleza, Brazil.
The multi-site granite evaluation project included (1)
a detailed review of the legal status of the properties;
(2) field visits by the technical team involved; (3)
data processing and validation using modem
principles of due diligence; (4) geological modeling
using the most advances techniques and
computerized tools; (5) geological resource
evaluation carried out by experts on the subject; (6)
mine planning and production scheduling; (7)
investment and operating costs estimates for blocks
extraction using the most modem and cost-effective
technologies; (8) cash flow analysis, on a site-by-site
and overall basis; (9) market analysis; and (10)
preliminary specifications for an integrated mine
information system.
All estimates used conservative but realistic
factors and parameters. The results obtained were
extremely encouraging, demonstrating a highly
valuable project. For a 13-year project life, the
overall granite production will be over 1.3 million m^
with sales totaling US$ 180 million.
Production and sales will be headed by two
leading-products, which will ensure the proper
development and distribution of other products so a
wide range of qualities will be available to the
customers. It is an observed mle of the market that
when a company has a leading-product, the other
products of the company normally have a better
acceptance. This will enable the company to compete
at an advantageous level with producers in Asia and
Europe.
Complementing the detailed study and the
throughout analysis of local geology, mine planning
and equipment selection, this project also describes
the plan to set up an integrated mine information
system for dimension stones, a pioneering idea to
promote sales using new and efficient technology.
The integrated system will enable remote connection
to the quarry and geological model, allowing the
customer to check quantities and qualities of
particular varieties of granite in a specific site.

REFERENCES

Caranassios, A., 1990. Prospettive di Innovazione Tecnologica

nelle Cave di Granito (in Italian). In Proceedings o f r
Convegno Minerario Italo-Brasiliano, Università di
Cagliari (ed), Italy.
JORC, 1999. Guidelines to the Australian Code for Reporting
o f Identified Mineral Resources and Reserves. The
Australian Institute o f Mining and Metallurgy, Victoria,
Australia, Revision o f September 1999.

43
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Planning nuggety vein-gold operations: Underground exploration, bulk

sam pling and resource reporting

S.C.Dominy
Department of Earth Sciences, Cardiff University, UK
B.W.Cuffley
Reef Mining NL, Tarnagulla, Vic., Australia
G.E Johansen
Bendigo Mining NL, Vic., Australia

ABSTRACT: Nuggety veins are characterized by localized, erratic, high-grades and coarse-free gold. Core
drilling is generally an effective measure of geological continuity, however grade data can only be reliably
obtained from underground development. In general terms it is only likely that an inferred resource can be
estimated from drill data alone. Underground development with closely-spaced in-fill drilling and bulk
sampling will be required to delineate indicated and measured resources. Further closely-spaced development
and trial mining is likely to be the best way to determine reserves. Thus a key part of the evaluation process
will involve exploratory underground development which will often occur prior to formalization of a mine
production plan. Resource tonnages can generally be calculated from diamond drill and development
information with a reasonable degree of confidence. However, grade is much more difficult to define with
confidence because of its erratic and discontinuous nature. Bulk sampling will be required to assess likely
resource grades.

1 INTRODUCTION grade uncertainties is given within the framework of

Nuggety deposits are characterized by the presence
of localized high-grade ore shoots and in most cases
coarse-free gold. The quartz-dominated veins show
variations in width from narrow up to 25 m or more,
and display grade and sometimes-geometrical
complexities. Run-of-mine grades are generally in
excess of 8 g/t and can be as much as 30 g/t with
resource tonnages of a single vein ranging from
small (<100,000 tonnes) to relatively large
(>500,000 tonnes). Classic regions for this style of
mineralization include the slate-belt hosted, world-
class Central Victorian Goldfields (e.g. Tarnagulla,
Bendigo & Ballarat), Australia (Cuffley et al. 1998;
Johansen 1997,1998; Dominy et al. 2000a,c) and the
small Dolgellau Gold-Belt, North Wales, United
Kingdom (Dominy et al. 1996; Dominy et al.
2000a).
Surface diamond drilling alone is often only able
to define exploration results or an inferred resource
(JORC 1999). Underground development is required
to define indicated and measured resources and
reserves {proven 8c probable).
To investors this style of mineralization is viewed
as high risk, because of the associated high cost of
evaluation, low confidence in the grade estimate and
general paucity of reserves at project start-up. As a
consequence it can often be difficult to raise funding
for such projects.
In this contribution the problems of evaluating
nuggety gold veins are discussed with emphasis
placed on underground development as a critical part
of the exploration/evaluation programme. The use of
bulk sampling is discussed and its role as the most
effective way to assess likely mineable grades. The
inherent problems in reporting nuggety resources are
discussed and a method for better quantifying the
the Australian JORC (1999) code.
2 GRADE DISTRIBUTION
This style of mineralization is dominated by the
presence of coarse gold (100-2000 pm) and often
very coarse-gold (>2000 um). In many cases 80% or
more of the contained gold is greater than 100 pm in
size. The gold is generally locked in quartz and may
be associated with sulphides (e.g. gaiena, sphalerite
etc.). The geometric nature of gold grains affects the
nuggetiness of the deposit ranging from individual
disseminated grains (or specks) from 100-2000 pm
(e.g. Tarnagulla) through to larger masses (nugget­
like) greater than 2000 pm (e.g. Bendigo).
The complex nature of gold grade distribution in
veins is well known and typically displays strongly
positively skewed populations with an excess of
nigh values. To add to the complexity, outliers are
also very common, i.e. abnormally high values lying
beyond and detached from the mam population.
Potentially mineable values are generally related
to oreshoots of high-grade mineralization
surrounded by barren or low-grade areas. A vein can
contain a number of oreshoots, which may coalesce
to form a larger mass. Individual shoots can contain
from 500-500,000 tonnes of rock and up to 15
tonnes of gold.
3 EVALUATION PROCESS
The aim of any resource evaluation programme is to
f)rovide an effective estimate of grade and tonnage,
n many metalliferous deposits this can be
undertaken on the basis of moderately spaced (>30-

45
60 m) diamond drill holes. However, for nuggety
systems because of their grade (and often
geological) complexities evaluation and exploration
run hand-in-hand. Diamond drilling gives a good
indication of vein location and structure, but is not
an effective measure of grade.
The reliability and accuracy of a resource
estimate is dependent upon manv factors including
geological understanding, assay data quality, sample
density and distribution and method of estimation.
The most important aspects of nuggety-vein
evaluation are the understanding of grade and
geological continuity. For this reason a key part of
the exploration process is geologicallv controlled
underground development (Dominy et al. 1997).
Grade estimation techniques for nuggety systems
are generally based on classical methods (weighted
averages and polygonal and sectional models).
Inverse distance block modelling techniques have
been used in some instances, though generally when
substantial production data is available. Computer-
based 3D geological and resource modelling is being
applied to this style of mineralization more, and is
particularly useful when attempting to interpret and
integrate historical stoping/geological information
with modem data.
4 PROBLEMS OF SAMPLING AND ASSAYING
4.1 Drill core sampling
Core drilling gives a good indication of vein location
and stmcture, but is not an effective measure of
grade in nuggety veins. In general it is preferable to
use the largest core size available, in the attempt to
keep samples larger and more representative and to
reduce the variance of the database. In some cases
companies have sampled the whole core, though this
practice is at odds with industry exploration
standards following the Bre-X scandal. Increasing
the size of drill core is generally not enough to
combat the nuggety nature of the mineralization
(Bird 1991). In this case to be more representative of
grade, the core is likely to need to produce >25 kg/m
of rock. Surface holes generally use HQ-core («8.4
kg/m), though in practice it is often too expensive
and cumbersome. NQ-core («4.8 kg/m) is usually
the best compromise. Underground drilling typically
utilizes BQ-core («2.7 kg/m). A number of multiple
or twinned holes should be considered to investigate
small-scale grade variability. Drill spacings tend to
be in the range 30-60 m, though for nuggety gold
veins <10 m intervals are likely to be more
appropriate.
4.2 Underground sampling
The standard grade control-type methods for
underground vein sampling include channel, linear-
chip and panel-chip methods. Channel samples are
enerally more representative (larger size) and of a
G igher quality. Chip sampling is more common with
a more representative sample being gained from a
series of panels. Correct sample size is critical, as
coarse gold-bearing veins require larger sample sizes
than fine-grained gold-bearing types (Dominy et al.
2000a/b).
46
Underground sampling also involves bulk
sampling of horizontal and vertical development and
trial mining of stopes. These methods provide a
better estimate of grade and will be discussed in
section 6.
4.3 Assay preparation and sample size
Assay data from nuggety veins generally displays a
shotgun pattern of extremely poor repeatability, even
with assays from the same sample pulp. In a
comparison of traditional fire assay (TFA), screen
fire assay (SFA) and bulk teachable extractable gold
(BLEG) analysis of coarse gold-bearing samples,
Johansen (1997) found that TFA understated the
SFA and BLEG assays. A review of the data led to
the conclusion that the consistent increase in grade
with a larger assay charge and the extremely poor
repeatability of fire assays was a result of poor
laboratory sample preparation.
4.4 Comparison o f sample types
Johansen (1997) reports a comparison between
surface diamond drilling and bulk sampling and
underground chip-channel and bulk sampling. In
both cases the results indicated that the drilling and
chip-channel samples consistently understated the
bulk sample grades. Studies reported elsewhere
agree with these findings showing that the greatest
understatement of grade comes from surface
diamond drill holes and the least from bulk sampling
(Dominy 1996). In summary:
• assays using small assay charge sizes (25-100 g)
consistently understate assays using large assay
charge sizes (1.5-3 kg);
• wide-spaced drilling results consistently
understate close-spaced drilling results;
• close-spaced drilling results consistently
understate bulk sample results; and
• grade control-type sample results consistently
understate bulk sample results.
The key result of these findings is that bulk sampling
provides the best way to determine grade in the
nuggety gold environment.
5 UNDERGROUND DEVELOPMENT
5.1 Underground development
Underground development allows detailed moping
and sampling, the results of which enable grade and
geological continuity to be assessed. Development in
Itself permits evaluation of the orebody by batch
milling of parcels of rock. Depending upon the
geomet^ of the oreshoot and distribution of grade
within it, drives and raises can be placed in a regular
pattern to block-out ore before stoping. veins
showing the highest nugget effect will need closely
spaced development (potentially 20 m; Dominy et
al. 2000a) to enable high-grade areas to be
intersected. The development pattern will also need
to reflect grade anisotropism. Spacing will need to
be balanced with cost and the proposed mining
method.
5.2 Underground drilling
Planning underground drilling in nuggety systems is
difficult, as there is rarely (if ever) enough data to
hilly understand grade range and anisotropy; thus
effective drill spacing. A pragmatic must be taken
based on geological experience.
Drilling provides critical information on vein
location and continuity and allows the tonnage
estimate to be uprated. Fan drilling is most likely to
be undertaken from decline access. As the target
area is approached the drill spacing can be reduced.
In the New Bendigo Project (Johansen 1998) initial
fan drill spacings from the decline are at 120 m, and
will be reduced to 60 and 30 m as the target is
approached. This final spacing (in a geologically
continuous regime) will provide data for local mine
planning. In general terms, the siting of closer
spaced holes (<30 m along strike) and multiple
intersections (<15 m down-dip) will provide better
information on local grade variability.
6 BULK SAMPLING
6.1 General considerations
Bulk sampling generally provides the most effective
way to assess grades in nuggety gold veins;
producing samples in excess of 1 tonne. Compared
to grade control-type samples, bulk samples are
restricted in scope and are only appropriate to help
evaluate the grade of a particular zone. They will
generally not be representative of the whole deposit.
Before bulk sampling commences, the nature of the
mineralization (geological and grade continuity)
must be established. If several grade and/or
geological domains are present then more than one
sample will be required. Bulk samples collected
from sites where the values are lower than the mean
can thus provide erroneous information. These
considerations show that it may be meaningless to
carry out bulk sampling at only one site.
6.2 Sample location
When placing a bulk sample(s) it is important to
consider the size and nature of oreshoots present.
Preliminary assessment will usually be from on-vein
development and/or drilling. Bulk samples of 100
tonnes taken from an oreshoot with relatively even
spaced erratic high-grades is likely to be more
representative than that of a shoot with erratic
localized extreme highs within a lower-grade
background.
As noted in section 6.1, pre-bulk sampling studies
will be concerned with understanding the nature of
the geology and grade (this importance of this
cannot be over emphasized). This can effectively be
undertaken by drilling from a parallel drive or
decline. Detailed drill coverage prior to on-vein
development is critical; allowing the bulk sample
results to be compared to the drill data. The drill
spacing through the bulk sample should be denser
than elsewhere in the deposit.
There is a general tendency to bulk sample high-
grade areas, however lower grade areas may well
produce ore that needs to be effectively assessed. In
47
order to assess the mineralization it is essential to
collect the bulk samples from a number of sites.
It is therefore important to consider bulk
sampling both high-grade and low-grade regions of
the shoot. It is also important that the bulk sample
permits effective lateral and vertical coverage of the
oreshoot.
6.3 Sample size
There are principally four types of bulk sample used
when evaluating vein-gold systems (Table 1).
Table 1. Types of underground bulk sample (after
Dominy 1996). Trial mining is included for
completeness, as it represents a large highly
Type Minimum Comment
tonnage
Drive round 20 Drive and raise
Raise round 10 development
permits lateral and
vertical coverage of
the ore zone. Wider
coverage than trial
mining
Box-cut 10 Typical in narrow
round veins, single raise
round fired into
drive back
Trial mining 500 Full-scale mining
of a stope block
The size of the bulk sample must be carefully
controlled by geological knowledge. John &
Thalenhorst (1991) suggest a general minimum size
of 0.5-1% of a total d^osit, that is 500-1000 tonnes
of sample per 100,000 tonnes of resource. This
contrasts with the 2-3 tonnes of BQ core that will
result from drilling a deposit on 25 m centres, or 8-
12 tonnes on 12.5 m centres.
In some cases bulk sample size will be prescribed
by the minimum run required in the pilot plant. This
is not good; the plant should be designed for the
sarnie programme and not vice versa.
ihQ largest individual samples come from trial
stopes that can yield up to 10,000 tonnes. Drive,
raise and box-cut rounds typically yield between 10-
100 tonnes, however, combining material from any
number of these sources will increase the total bulk
sample size. In such cases the choice to use
development rock as bulk sample should be based
careful on geological control involving both
mapping and linear/panel sampling. Rounds may
need to be handled separately and stored temporarily
at surface prior to being sent to the mill.
In general terms the size of the bulk sample will
be controlled by the nature of the gold distribution.
The larger the nuggets and lower the concentration,
the larger the sample size will need to be.
6.4 Sample treatment
The most effective bulk sample will be treated in a
dedicated gravity-based plant. The greatest problem
of milling nuggety ores is gold particle lock-up in
the grinding circuit (e.g. within ball/rod liners). This
can be controlled to some extent by flushinjg the mill
through with waste after cleaning the liners and
between samples (Dominy 1996T The use of a
hammer-type mill will dramatically reduce, if not
eliminate gold lock-up.
The reduction of bulk samples to a samplers)
suitable for fire assay is less likely to be
representative of a nuggety vein due to inherent
errors and deficiencies in the process (Bird 1991). In
some cases bulk samples have been reduced via the
use of a sampling tower system such as that used at
Hoyle Pond Mine, Canada (Labine 1991). In this
example, a 16,000 tonne development bulk sample
was reduced to 180 22-kg samples that were further
reduced in weight for assay. An alternative is to
reduce the bulk-sample (e.g. 100 tonnes) after
crushing, into a smaller bulk-sample (e.g. 10 tonnes)
using a statistically valid in-stream sampler prior to
treatment.
The reduction in size of a bulk sample must be
carefully considered in the light of the sampling
theory of broken rock (e.g. Gy - reported in Vallee
1992). Whatever technique employed, it is critical
that the bulk-sample size only be reduced after
particle size reduction (e.g. after crushing to -15
mm).
6.5 Planning considerations
Bulk sampling requires both appropriate planning
and implementation. The planning stage must:
1. Delimit the nature, extent and the grade of
mineralization with development sampling;
2. Characterize ore mineralogy (with respect to free
and refractory gold); and
3. Define the size oi bulk sample required being
mindful of milling and resource estimation
requirements.
The bulk-sampling programme will require close
supervision with the following requiring particular
attention:
1. Checking of the relationship of bulk sample(s) to
its host grade/geological domain and to the
overall deposit (detailed geological mapping
etc).
2. Systematic sampling, both in relation to the bulk
sampling itself and its integration into resource
estimate:
• the bulk sample zone should be drilled on a
close grid to allow comparison with the bulk
sample results to allow data to be applied to
the resource estimate. This is a particularly
useful exercise when undertaking a trial
stope;
• the bulk sample should be accompanied by
grade control-type sampling to compare the
results and appropriateness of various
sampling methods; and
• comparisons should be made between grade-
control, broken-rock (e.g. grab samples) and
the bulk sample(s).
3. During milling the process should be supervised:
48
• the total mass of sample(s) entering the plant
should be recorded;
• mill feed, tails and other areas should be
sampled to ensure valid estimation of both
grade and mill recovery;
• ensure that the mill is cleaned between
batches to minimize trapping of coarse gold
in the circuit; and
• ensure that the mill results are realistic and
will be reproducible.
6.6 Handling bulk sample data
Using bulk sample data to determine a grade for
resource reporting is deposit dependent and should
be based on the maximum number of samples
possible (Dominy et al. 2000c). Standard statistical
analysis should be undertaken to determine the
nature of data. It must be remembered that the
variance for such samples would be considerably
less for drill hole or grade control samples. This
difference in support must be noted if trying to
compare different sample types.
In the simplest case, a series of bulk sample
grades can be used to calculate a weighted average
grade for a particular resource block(s). The bulk
sample values obtained will give a likely range of
graaes that can be expected.
Bulk sample results will generally yield a
resource grade that will need to be modified to yield
a mineable reserve grade. The results of trial mining
will usually provide a reasonable estimate of
mineable grade.
7 REPORTING IN THE NUGGETY GOLD
ENVIRONMENT
7.1 Problems reporting in nuggety systems
The classification and reporting of reserves and
resources in a nuggety gold system is not
straightforward. In most cases the following
characteristics are observed:
• the tonnage of mineralization can be defined
with reasonable accuracy;
• gold grade is difficult to determine with the same
confidence as tonnage; and
• drilling and other small volume sampling
techniques significantly understate bulk
sampling grades and most likely the true grade
of the mineralization.
It is arguable that in some cases measured
resources and proved reserves can only be defined
after mining, or at least after substantial
underground development. It is likely that only
probcwle reserves can be defined. In some cases it is
still impossible to estimate the grade of a block even
when it is fully developed and sampled (Dominy et
al. 2000a). In this case grades from historical
production data will probably form the basis of the
estimate. It may be possible to estimate a low block
rade with the probability that the true grade will be
figher. The resource can be at hQst-indicated, but
with additional confidence given by the inferred
continuation of an oreshoot and/or other geological
criteria.
 To raise money investors and financiers want to
see significant tonnages of measured resources
proven reserves. At the commencement of a project
It likely that most of the resource is within the
inferred category. The definition of higher
confidence categories is generally prohibited by the
cost of development for which funding is being
sought. Without substantial reserves it can be
difficult for a company to raise funding (Battersby
1993).
7.2 Reporting terminology
It is difficult to report resources for nuggety
veins especially at the surface exploration/imtial
project stage. The JORC (1999) code allows for the
reporting of exploration data under the term
exploration results which is partially identified
mineralization considered worthy of further
exploration (Stephenson & Miskelly 1998; JORC
1999). This term does not permit the reporting of
grade or tonnage. Prior to 1996 the term pre­
resource mineralization was used in successful
money raising bids (e.g. Cuffley 1994). Pre-resource
mineralization better meets the needs of the nuggety-
operator as a description of mineralization in which
he/she is not confident enough to class as a resource,
but which is considered likely to yield an inferred
resource after further work (Dominy 1998). In many
cases the pre-resource mineralization is based upon
historical production information and some recent
drill intersections (e.g. Reef Mining prospectus;
Cuffley 1994).
The classification of inferred resource has some
confidence in assumptions of geological continuity
but possibly doubts regarding grade continuity
(Stephenson & Miskelly 1998).
Indicated and measured resources require much
higher levels of sampling that are only achievable
after underground development.
7.3 Reporting tonnage and grade
Tonnage can often be determined with a
reasonable level of confidence based on surface drill
intersections and/or underground development.
Grade however, generally has considerably less
confidence attached to it. It is recommended that a
grade range be presented in a bankable document as
well as a grade estimate (Table 2: Johansen 1997;
Johansen & Stephenson 1999; Dominy et al. 1999;
2000a/b).
Table 2. Underground inferred resource
classification of Bendigo Mining NL (July 1999)
showing proposed use of grade range (Source:
Inferred Resource
Reef Tonnage Grade Grade Range
Sheepshead 380,000 5.5 4-6
New Chum 100,000 7.0 5-9
Deborah 800,000 6.6 5-8
Williams 120,000 7.9 6-10
Both grade and tonnage figures will be rounded
to reflect the levels of precision of the estimations.
For instance grade may be rounded to one decimal
49
place within a grade range rounded to the nearest
gramme/tonne. Tonnage may be rounded to the
nearest 10,000 tonnes. It is felt that this approach
better reflects the current situation than reporting a
single grade, and as a consequence better informs
investors and the stockmarket.
8 MINE PLANNING
As previously stated, this style of mineralization
rarely possesses large tonnages of reserves at project
start-up (Battersby 1993; Dominy et al. 2000a).
Geological/historical study, together with surface
diamond drilling is likely to have defined the
approximate geometry of the structure and an
inferred resource. Considerable underground
development will be required to up-rate this
preliminary resource to a higher level of confidence.
From this preliminary model an underground
exploration programme must be planned to
investigate the detailed deposit geology and grade
(Battersby 1993; Sharpe 1988; Johansen 1998;
Dominy et al. 2000a,b,c).
At the earliest stage, planning must be concerned
with access to mineralization (ramp or shaft?),
development method (tracked or trackless?) and
mine infrastructure. In recent Australian projects
(e.g. Charters Towers, Tamagulla, Bendigo &
Ballarat) ramp access has been preferred over the
rehabilitation of small century old shafts.
Consideration must be given to tne likely annual
tonnage output for a full mining operation. The
operations will be driven by the need to
continuously “block-out” resources and up-rate
geological understanding. Bulk sampling and/or trial
mining will form a critical part of the process so an
adequate pilot plant is required. In some instances
this plant may be best located underground (e.g.
Benaigo).
Underground exploration will hopefully result in
the definition of indicated resources and probable
reserves (or higher). At this point, if a reasonable
tonnage is defined (exceeding 12 months
production), then full mining can commence if the
required capital is available. Whilst mining is in
progress exploration can continue to develop the
resource base.
The costs of project planning and underground
exploration vary depending upon project size. A
small project may cost L)K£1 million (e.g.
Gwynfynydd, Wales), through UK£17 million (e.g.
New Bendigo, Victoria).
9 CONCLUSIONS
Nuggety gold veins are one of the most challenging
types of deposit to evaluate. Their characteristics
are:
• potentially complex geology; and
• erratic, highly-skewed gold grade distribution
As a result, surface drilling is a good measure of
geological continuity but a poor indicator of grade.
Substantial underground development is required to
facilitate resource evaluation including:
• bulk sampling;
• trial mining;
• close spaced core drilling; and
• on-going geological study.
Early resource estimates are generally restricted to
the inferred resource category because of the low
confidence in grade. Following underground
development and bulk sampling the resource
category can be up-rated to indicated or measured.
When reporting tonnage and grade:
• tonnage should be rounded to the nearest 10,000
tonnes;
• the grade estimate should be rounded to the
nearest decimal place; and
• also should be presented with a grade range to
give a measure of the uncertainty.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This on-going work benefits from the support of
Cardiff University, Reef Mining NL, Ironbark
Mining Pty Ltd, Bendigo Mining NL, Welsh Gold
PLC and OCX Resources. Discussions with staff
from Ballarat Goldfields NL, Charters Towers Gold
Mines NL, MinMet PLC and P.R. Stephenson Pty
Ltd are acknowledged. Dr AE Annels (SRK), RFG
Phelps (Welsh Gold PLC) and GS Camm
(Camborne) are thanked for their comments on this
manuscript.
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Timmins, Canada. In Sampling and Ore
Reserves: 131-141. Toronto: Prospectors and
Developers Association of Canada.
Sharpe, E. 1988. Bendigo gold project. In
Bicentennial Gold 1988 Excursion Handbook:
Central Victorian Gold Deposits: 32-38. Perth:
University of Western Australia.
Stephenson, P.R. & Miskelly, N. 1998. The JORC
Code 1987-1997. In: Geology o f Australian and
Papua New Guinean Mineral Deposits: 45-51.
Melbourne: Australian Institute of Mining &
Metallurgv.
Vallee, M. 1992. Guide to the evaluation o f gold
deposits. Montreal: Canadian Institute of Mining
& Metallurgy.
Correspondence address:
S.C. Dominy, Department of Earth Sciences,
Cardiff University, PO Box 914, Cardiff CFIO
3YE, Wales, United Kingdom. Fax: +44 (0)29
2087 4326; E-mail: dominys@cardiffac.uk
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

EOLAVAL, a m ine ventilation planning tool

Kostas Fytas, Sebastien Perreault & Bernard Daigle

Department o f Mining and Metallurgy, Laval University, Quebec City, Que., Canada

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the new version of EOLAVAL, an interactive mine ventilation design
software. In its new expanded version it is a user fnendly and fully interactive computer package. The fea­
tures of the new version are a graphics interface, compatible with AutoCAD files, an integrated database of
fan characteristics and the optional use of the thermodynamic approach in carrying out network simulations.
This software can be used in underground mine ventilation planning: mine ventilation network analysis and
simulation, economic design of airways, auxiliary ventilation design, calculation of a mine air heating plant,
and evaluation of the natural ventilation and pressure losses in a mine shaft. This paper presents a case study
illustrating the use of the computer package in mine ventilation design.

1 INTRODUCTION Windows application. It is hoped that this feature

Mine ventilation planning is an important part of the
overall mine planning process. Computer simulation
of ventilation networks has been one of the earliest
applications of computer technology into mine plan­
ning. Since then computer assisted ventilation plan­
ning has become a routine practice in all under­
ground mines used mainly in evaluating various
alternatives in mine ventilation (Hartman, 1997 and
Fytas et al, 1997).
Eolaval, since its initial conception fifteen years
ago, has been a very useful ventilation planning tool
in Quebec mines. Its initial DOS version has been in
use by the Quebec underground mines since 1988
(Fytas et al, 1995). The Windows version of Eolaval
(written in 1996) was coded using Basic and Visual
Basic. That was satisfying at that time, since no
heavy graphical manipulation had to be accom­
plished. This new version of Eolaval has been com­
pletely re-coded using C++ and an object-oriented
approach since we wanted to gain speed in both
graphical display and simulation.
2 PROGRAMMING
will make end users more comfortable with Eolaval
and will decrease the learning time.
2.1 Graphics interface
The graphics interface is powered by OpenGL. This
is an environment for developing 2D and 3D graphic
applications. Developed by Silicon Graphics, it is
widely used in most CAD packages. It is a very
powerful tool and it is supported by most of the
video board developers.
The graphics interface was programmed using
ClassGL. It is an OpenGL wrapper class developed
by Solid Graphics. This wrapper makes the use of
OpenGL with MFC easier. It eliminates a large part
of the overhead necessary to use the OpenGL library
with MFC.
2.1.1 Spreadsheet
In order to display the branches and nodes parame­
ters a spreadsheet was used that has been developed
by Christ Maunder and it is distributed freely on the
Internet. It has been programmed using MFC.

The Microsoft Foundation Class Library (MFC) was

used to create the main frame of Eolaval. Microsoft 2.2 Simulation
distributes this library and it is the core of Windows.
It makes available a range of tools that enable the The purpose of the simulation of a mine ventilation
user to create a program that looks like a standard network is to analyse mine air quantity. It is carried

51
out in order to perform the following tasks (Hart­
man, 1997):
• Evaluation of alternative ventilation paths.
• Evaluation of alternative shapes and sizes of
ventilation raises and shafts.
• Selection of appropriate type and location of
mine fans.
• Selection of appropriate fan and duct types for
auxiliary ventilation
The first step of every simulation of a ventilation
network is the creation of the 3D model of the net­
work (that places all branches and nodes in 3D
space). A branch is defined as any mine opening
such as raise, shaft or drift. A branch can be con­ , out / I
sisted of one or more serial segments. These seg­
ments must share the same geometrical and ventila­
tion attributes. A node is defined as the junction ;_____ ___:__ L--::_________ -_____________
point of 2 or more branches. Figure 1. Definition of branches and nodes

In the previous version of Eolaval, the user had to the characteristic curves of most commonly used
manually type in all the parameters for each branch fans in Quebec underground mines.
of the network. Since no graphics were involved,
node parameters were not required. The input of that The third and last step is the numerical simula­
information was a tenuous task with the risk for tion. The user has the choice among 3 types of simu­
clerical errors. In the current version the user has to lation:
place branches and nodes in the graphical environ­ • Conventional simulation
ment. This can be achieved either directly in Eolaval • Gravimetric simulation
or in any CAD Mining package. If the latter option • Thermodynamic simulation
is used, data needs to be imported into Eolaval in the
form of a DXF file. This process concerns only
geometrical data. 2.3 User Interface

The second step is to assign to branches and
nodes the following ventilation parameters (Figure
1):
• Branch surface
• Branch perimeter
• K factor
• Shape factor
• Branch length
• Resistance (it can optionally be calculated by the
program)
The user needs to specify the branch type. The
options are:
• Variable air quantity branch
• Fixed air quantity branch
• Branch with a booster fan
The use of booster fan branches is a new feature
of the new Eolaval version. When a booster fan
branch is selected, the user needs to specify the fan
model (choosing from within a built-in f ^ data­
base). The program computes the pressure drop ac­
cording to the fan selected. Fan parameters are lo­
cated in the built-in fan database. This database
contains
The user interface is always a critical aspect while
designing new software. Many sophisticated systems
without a proper interface are under-used. Mine staff
can feel lost in front such a software. A good user in­
terface should be intuitive, easy to learn and user-
friendly. We put a special attention to respect these
criteria.
Eolaval’s user interface offers most of the stan­
dard Windows functions and features. It is possible
to move, add and dock toolbars. There are ToolTips
and status bar help strings to help the user under­
stand the purpose of a menu command. An unlimited
undo/redo system has been implemented. A html
help system is available.
Eolaval’s user interface is divided in 2 main
views. The first one is used to visualise the ventila­
tion network in 3 dimensions (Figure 1). The second
view shows the network under a spreadsheet form
(Figure 6).
2.3.1 Graphic view
The graphic view of Eolaval is a simple CAD inter­
face. It allows the user to retrieve graphical data

52
from mining CAD packages, to manipulate and edit 5 CREATING AND EDITING OBJECTS
graphically the branches and nodes of the network
and to visualise the simulation results.
The user can create a new branch or a new node. It is
possible to either pick a location on the screen or to
type in the specific co-ordinates.
3 INPUT
Objects can be deleted at any time. The program
has tools to edit an object or to change its elevation.
Eolaval can use either a DXF (Drawing Exchange
Format) file as input or the user can build the net­ Eolaval features also some drafting aids:
work from scratch. The program supports:
• Cursor position at the bottom of the screen.
• Points • Axis system that shows view orientation
• 2D and 3D Polylines • Snap object that shows selected object
• Lines
• Polyfaces
• 3D Meshes 6 MESSAGE WINDOW
• Layers
The message screen is under the graphic view. All
4 VIEW CONTROLS messages related to the graphic view are shown in
this window. It gives instructions about the current
command and it notifies on errors.
Eolaval offers several options to navigate around the
network. It makes it easy for the user to find the best
3D view in order to visualise any network (Figure
2). Tools available include: 7 PREFERENCES
• Zooming (in, out, real time, windows, extend)
• Panning in real time. EOLAVAL is highly customisable. The user can
• Rotation in real time. adjust preferences to make the software work ex­
actly the way he wants. For example, the user de­
It is possible to name and save special views or to
cides what type of information he wants to be dis­
return to a previous view. played on the screen by modifying the display
preferences (Figure 3).

Piéféiences Eolaval

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------rsis—!*
m -"
C ® *“ ■

? " Rémfesoœ
P IT mpétükxMtt hAjmlde

IT $hàm

Figure 2. Graphic view iflIP

______ -;- .......i
------ ------------ -
---- -----------------
Eolaval uses the layers system. Like AutoCAD, it
is possible to group objects on a layer and to modify
OK Jj A rriiôf
I ; itipSîlUe J'i _ Akie'

object properties by modifying layer properties.

Figure 3. Display preferences

53
7.1 Spreadsheet view
The spreadsheet view is a window that contains an
Excel like grid. It is possible to edit any property, to
add a new branch or to delete an existing one. It is
through this view that the user can balance the net­
work and carry out the simulation.
static head of the main fan, the static head developed
by the booster fans and the head losses of the regula­
tors within the network.
Table 1 shows a summary of the input data and
simulation results, namely the fixed air quantity
branches, the necessary regulators and fans.
Table 1. Input data and simulation results o f the case study

Branch No. Fixed air Regulator/Fan

8 CASE STUDY quantity (Pa)
(m^/s)
Raise 1 160 Without raises 948 Fan
The following part of the paper presents a practical With raise 3 842 Fan
case study where the potential of the new version of With raises 3&5 697 Fan
EOTAVAL in designing mine ventilation systems is 2 28 348 Regulator
illustrated. Figure 4 presents the mine ventilation 3 15 444 Regulator
network of an underground mine. The objective of 4 15 313 Regulator
this case study is to calculate the air quantity distri­ 15 292 Regulator
5
bution in the network in one hand and to evaluate the 12 256 Regulator
6
impact of adding two ventilation raises (raise no.3 10 Regulator-
7 5
between levels 3 and 4 and raise no.5 between level
8 12 226 Regulator
4 and surface) on the fan requirements. In order to
9 20 99 Regulator
facilitate modeling of the mine ventilation network,
10 5 135 Regulator
it is recommended that the user take into account
11 12 148 regulator
only the main ventilation airways. The user inputs
the total air quantity entering the mine and the fixed
air quantities where necessary and the program bal­
ances all air quantities automatically before the Figure 5 shows the direction and quantity of air
Hardy- Cross simulation starts. flowing in each branch. In this case study, we can
notice that by adding the two raises (raise 3&5) the
necessary static head of the main fan (raise 1) is de­
creased by 251 Pa (26%).

Figure 4. Mine ventilation network of case study

Following the creation of the network data files,

EOLAVAL creates the simulation input data file by
calculating the resistance of each airway and by veri­
fying if the quantity of air is balanced at each node.
The next step is the simulation itself The conven­
tional simulation through the Hardy Cross iterations
will produce the final air quantity and its direction in
each branch. The program will also calculate the

54
 ■mm voh ^ Z
Figure 6. Sample of a database o f branches and nodes of a ventilation network
This case study shows how the program allows
the user to select a fan that meets the air quantities
and static head requirements and also to correctly
calculate the regulators dimensions. The program
can also be used to predict the effect of adding new
branches in the network as the mine develops
through time (ventilation raises no. 3 and no. 5 in
our case study). Figure 6 shows a typical example of
a database of branches and nodes used by Eolaval.
Another question that needs to be answered in
this example is: what is the economic size of the
raise no. 5 ? In order to answer this question, we can
use EOLAVAL to calculate the optimal economic
dimensions of the raise. The optimisation of the di­
mensions of a ventilation raise is a trade-off between
excavation costs (proportional to the excavated vol­
ume) and the fan operating costs (electricity costs).
Normally, as we increase the surface of a ventilation
raise, construction costs increase whereas friction
losses, therefore electricity costs, decrease. EO­
LAVAL requires the following input data for this
optimisation:
Length of the raise no. 5 (200m);
Mine life (10 years);
Interest rate (7 %);
Air quantity through the raise (37 m^/s);
Operating hours per year (5840 hours);
Electricity cost (0,4$/kwh);
The program has built-in several options of raise
shape and raise size with their corresponding exca­
vation costs. The program is built in such a way that
55
the user can change any of these values (dimensions
or excavation costs). The program produces the to­
tal cost per year for one raise or two parallel raises.
The results obtained from EOLAVAL indicate that
the optimal dimensions of the ventilation raise no. 5
are 3mx3m that correspond to a total annual cost
(construction + electricity) of 1 681 $/year.
The user should be aware that the precision ob­
tained depends on the accuracy of the data used. It
is also very useful to compare the simulation results
with the ventilation survey data (in the case of an
operating mine) in order to verify the precision of
the simulation and correct in necessary the K factors.
9 CONCLUSIONS
The new graphics enhanced version of EOLAVAL
has been developed at the Department of Mining &
Metallurgy at Laval University in collaboration with
the Québec Mining Association in order to provide a
practical and easy to use mine ventilation planning
tool to the Québec Mining Industry. The whole pro­
ject has been financed by the Quebec Research Insti­
tute on Occupational Health and Safety (IRSST).
Eolaval’s beta version has been distributed to many
mines in the province of Québec in order to be tested
extensively. It is expected that the final version will
soon be available for final distribution. The software
has always been used as a teaching tool at Laval
University since its conception.
 Possible areas of applications of EOLAVAL are:
1 .Designing the ventilation system of a new mine:
• evaluation of alternative ventilation configu­
rations;
• optimisation of airway shape and size;
• design of auxiliary ventilation systems;
• design of mine air heating plants;
• evaluation of mine shaft pressure losses;
• evaluation of natural ventilation pressure;
• evaluation of the effects of air density fluc­
tuations on the fan operating point.
2.Design of ventilation network expansions as the
mine evolves through time.

10 REFERENCES

Hartman, Howard, Mutmansky Jan and Wang Y., Mine Venti­

lation and Air Conditioning, Wiley Interscience, 1997.
McPherson, Malcolm, Subsurface Ventilation and Environ­
mental Engineering, Chapman & Hall, 1993.
Kostas Fytas & Pierre Thibault, EOLAVAL - An integrated
Mine Ventilation Design Software, Proceedings of
CAMI’95 - Third Canadian Conference on Computer Ap­
plications in the Mineral Industry, Montreal, Quebec, Octo­
ber 22-25, Université McGill, 1995, pp. 689-698.
Kostas Fytas & Pierre Thibault, EOLAVAL: A Mine Ventila­
tion Design Software, presented at the First International
Conference on Information Technologies in the Minerals
Industry (via the Internet), organized by the National Tech­
nical University o f Athens, Greece, 1-12 December 1997.
Kostas Fytas & Pierre Thibault, Proceedings of the Seventh In­
ternational Symposium on Mine Planning and Equipment
Selection (MPES), Calgary, October 6-9, 1998, A. A.
Balkema, pp. 795-802.

56
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The influence o f strategic developm ent options on the long-term quality

variation o f m ined lignite - The case o f the South Field M ine in Ptolem ais,
G reece

M.Galetakis & Z. Agioutantis

Department of Mineral Resources Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Mania, Greece

ABSTRACT: During the design phase of any mining operation, it is very important to ensure ore production
with specific quality characteristics, which are mainly established by the standards of each consumer. While
high and medium frequency quality variations of the ore, can usually be compensated using homogenization
and/or mixing techniques, and appropriate short-term production planning, low frequency variations can be
reduced by appropriate mine planning and design to ensure constant production quality throughout the whole
operation, which may last a few decades. In this study, the influence of two strategic development options
(scenarios) on the long-term quality variation of lignite extracted from the South Field mine at the
Ptolemais-Amydeon basin, are examined. In both scenarios the continuous mining method is applied. In the
first scenario, the field is divided in 10 sectors and pivot operations are applied for 2 sectors and parallel
operations for the remaining 8 sectors. In the second scenario the field is divided in 11 sectors and pivot
operations are applied on all sectors. Simulation results showed that the second scenario is better for reducing
the long-term variability of lignite quality.

INTRODUCTION South Field Mine can reach 20Mt of lignite, while

overburden total annual excavations of 90Mm3 of
The Lignite Center of Ptolemais - Amydeon (LCP- earth material are usually achieved in this mine
A), operated by the Greek Public Power Corporation alone.
(PPC), is located in northern Greece, about 110km The majority of the lignite mined at the South
west of the city of Thessaloniki. The lignite deposits Field Mine is fed to the nearby power plant of Agios
under exploitation cover an area of 120km^, Dimitrios, with a nominal output of 1585 MW
including 4000Mt of proven geological reserves and (Figure 1). The quality, however, of the mined
2500Mt of exploitable lignite under current lignite varies significantly and does not always meet
economic and technological criteria. Today, the the power station specifications. The intensive
LCP-A manages four large active mining units, variations of the basic quality characteristics are
which produce lignite to cover 62% of the power
production in Greece. At the present rate of
extraction, 50Mt of lignite are produced annually, by
moving a total of 250Mm^ of earth material.
The South Field Mine is the largest of the four
operational surface lignite mines at the LCP-A
covering an area of 24km^ (Figure 1). The original
lignite deposit in the area was estimated at 1.2
billion tons of lignite. Mining operations Dimitrios
commenced in August 1979 and currently the mine 'ower Station
operates on ten benches, using mainly the
continuous mining method, which employs bucket 1 5 8 5 MW^
wheel excavators (BWEs), conveyors and stackers.
Also conventional mining equipment including big
trucks, front-end loaders, electric rope and hydraulic Figure 1: Map of the location of the South Field Mine
shovels, dozers, are utilized for mining the hard rock and the Agios Dimitrios Power Station.
formations which are encountered in the overburden
strata. The scheduled annual lignite production at the

57
 - 1 6 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 5 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 4 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 3 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 2 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 0 0 0 0 .0 0 -9 0 0 0 .0 0 -8000.00 -7000.00
Figure 2: Contour map for ash content in dry basis (AWF) of exploitable lignite.
related to the nature of the lignite deposit, which is a
multiple-seam formation with successive lignite and
waste material bands of variable thickness and
chemical and petrographic composition. In some
cases, the situation is further deteriorated due to the
contamination that results when using the high
capacity BWEs, that have been installed in order to
achieve the required production targets, for selective
mining of thin or interbedded lignite seams.
2 QUALITY VARIATION, PRODUCTION
SCHEDULING AND MINE PLANNING
Quality variation is closely related to the formation
characteristics of each deposit and the mining
conditions, and can be described as short-term
variation or high frequency, middle-term variation or
medium frequency and long-term variation or low
frequency. In essence, short-term variation is
defined as the variation in the elementary prism,
which is reclaimed by the reclaimer in one step
(representing a few minutes to about one hour of
production), while middle-term is defined as the
variation between the mean values of the
homogenization piles (representing 5-7 days of
production). The long-term quality variation is
58
defined as the variation between mean values of long
period production (mean value of six month or
annual production).
High and medium frequency variations can
usually be compensated using homogenization
and/or mixing techniques and appropriate short-term
production scheduling. In the case of lignite mining,
a number of homogenization methods can be applied
mainly through the formation of large piles. The vast
majority of coal stockpiles are longitudinal, arranged
in series, in parallel or in series/parallel. Circular
piles are not common in coal industry, although they
have some important advantages, such as high
homogenization efficiency (the end cones problem
does not exist), fully automated - continuous
operation and optimal exploitation of the available
space. The main weaknesses of circular stockpiles
are the difficult installation in existing plants, the
problematic future enlargement and the sensitivity of
homogenization efficiency in long-term variations of
the coal properties. Coal stacking can take place
according to the Chevron method and the Windrow
method According to the first and most commonly
used method, coal is stacked continuously along the
central axis of the stockpile in such a way that a
continuously growing triangular shaped pile is
formed. The Windrow method of stacking is applied
 -1 4 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 3 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 2 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 1 0 0 0 .0 0 -1 0 0 0 0 .0 0 -9 0 0 0 .0 0 -8000.00 -7000.00
Figure 3: Mining sequence and operations in the first scenario.
in cases, where homogenization is required and the
installed equipment does not allow the use of the
Chevron method (i.e. where side scraper reclaimers
exist). The conical method is used in cases where
homogenization is not under consideration, while the
stratified method is usually applied in stockyards
where side scraper reclaimers are installed
(Pavloudakis & Agioutantis, 1999, Galetakis &
Kavouridis, 1999).
Long-term variation can be compensated only by
appropriate mine planning and design to ensure
constant production quality throughout the whole
operation, which may last a few decades. As a
result, planning and production scheduling
calculations are often difficult, especially when more
than one parameter define the required specifications
of the run-of-the-mine product.
As a general sequence, the first step in a planning
process is the determination of the deposit
boundaries using data obtained from boreholes
within the potential mining area. This is a computer-
aided procedure in order to cope with the volume of
59
data in a timely and cost effective manner. A
computer model of selected deposit attributes can
thus be created by discretising the deposit into small
blocks and by assigning a number of attributes or
properties to each block. The developed model is the
basis for all the other planning steps.
In a second step, various mining methods and/or
production scheduling algorithms can be applied on
these mining blocks and the average quality of the
product can be determined based on the quality
characteristics assigned to each elementary block.
3 MINE PLANNING AT THE SOUTH FIELD
MINE
As already indicated, the quality of the mined lignite
at the South Field Mine, is of varying quality due to
the non-uniform, multiple-seam lignite deposit. In
order to ensure a normal and efficient operation of
the power plants fed with this lignite (especially the
Agios Dimitrios Power Plant), it is necessary to
reduce the variation of the mined material.
Figure 4; Mining sequence and operations in the second scenario.

Figure 5: Division of sector 2 in segments corresponding to annually excavated areas volumes and estimation of
the mean AWF using the developed 2D model.

60
Figure 6: Temporal variation of average annual AWF of excavated lignite, during the entire mine life.
Short-term solutions that have been applied to date
include use of auxiliary fuels and an attempt to
homogenization, subject to equipment availability
and demand for feedstock.
For long-term planning, the application of
computer models was considered appropriate. To
this end, raw data were collected which include a
large number of boreholes that cover all the study
area. Based on this data, the volume of the lignite
and overburden as well as their spatial distribution
within the strata can be calculated. In addition
quality parameters such as calorific value, ash
content, and moisture are available for each borehole
location. For a more realistic production model, the
mining losses should also be considered. The term
mining losses implies the lignite that can not be
extracted due to irregular boundaries or adverse
extraction ratios, or the lignite that has to be
extracted with the waste material. Dilution is also an
important factor and includes the unavoidable
contamination of the mined lignite by mining some
of the intermediate waste layers. Both these effect
can be estimated based on the thickness of the
individual seams and the intermediate waste layers.
The boundary of the field is also a dynamic
parameter and was modified several times during the
initial stages of this planning process, since, for
economic reasons, the extraction ratio (overburden
to lignite ratio) has to remain below a certain value.
Careful analysis revealed that the most
representative quality parameter of the mined lignite
is the value for ash content in dry basis. Thus, a 2D
model was constructed where the AWF was defined
as attribute to each mining block. The model was
based on 480 boreholes, with a borehole spacing of
approximately 250m. The model consists of 16709
blocks 50x50m^ each. The contour map for AWF is
shown in Figure 2.
61
Table 1: Borehole Evaluation parameters (Galetakis &
Kavouridis, 1998)
Minimum thickness of lignite layer for 0.50m
selective excavation (m)
Minimum thickness of intermediate 0.30m
waste layer for selective excavation (m)
Maximum allowable AWF of the 55%
exploitable lignite
Dilution factor 7%
Mining loss 5%
After determining the appropriate block model
for a deposit, the mining method should be
determined (Durst & Vogt, 1988). The most
common patterns in continuous mining systems are
the parallel and pivot operations. Mine planning has
to determine the number of sectors to divide the
deposit, the pattern to apply to each sector as well as
the sequence of mining each sector (where
applicable).
In this study, the influence of two different mine
planning scenarios are examined in an effort to
mitigate the expected quality variations of the lignite
extracted from the South Field Mine. In the first
scenario, the deposit is divided in 10 sectors and
pivot operations are applied for 2 sectors and parallel
operations for the remaining 8 sectors (Fig. 3). In the
second scenario the field is divided in 11 sectors and
pivot operations are applied on all sectors (Fig. 4).
For the estimation of the mean quality of lignite
mined annually, the following methodology was
used:
• For the evaluation of the borehole data, thin
layers of lignite and partings are grouped using
specific criteria regarding thickness and ash
content, to form the exploitable blocks. The main
criteria used for the evaluation are the minimum
thickness of lignite and waste layer that can be
excavated by selective mining, and the limits of
the quality attributes of the exploitable lignite
blocks (Karamalikis, 1992). Dilution and mining
losses were also taken into account. The values
of the borehole evaluation parameters are listed
in Table 1 (Galetakis & Kavouridis, 1998).
• Assuming a constant annual production of 20 Mt,
the excavated area for every year for the entire
mine life was determined. The remaining
exploitable reserves, which are 900 Mt, ensure
mine operation for about 45 years (e.g. fi*om
2000-2045) assuming that the current output
capacity will remain constant in the future. The
mean ash content of excavated lignite for every
year, was calculated by averaging the ash values
of individual blocks within the corresponded area
(Figure 5).
The variation of the AWF during the mine life is
shown in the diagram of Figure 6. The upper specifi­
cation limit of AWF ( 33.6%) is also indicated in the
same diagram.
REFERENCES
Durst W. & W. Vogt, 1988, "Bucket Wheel Excavator",
Trans Tech Publications, Clausthal, Germany, pp.
291-297.
Galetakis M. 1996, Determination o f lignite quality mined
from multi-layer deposits applying continuous open cast
methods, Ph. D. Thesis, Technical University o f Crete.
Galetakis M. & C. Kavouridis, 1998, "Quality Control o f
Lignite Produced by Continuous Surface Mining using
Statistical Methods", Technical Chronicles, Scientific
Journal o f Technical Chamber o f Greece, Vol. 1-2, pp.
49-59.
Galetakis M. & C. Kavouridis, 1999, "Homogenization o f
Quality o f Lignite Mined from the Ptolemais -Amynteon
Lignite Basin", Technical Chronicles, Scientific Journal
o f Technical Chamber o f Greece, Vol. 1-2, pp. 41-52.
Karamalikis N., 1992 "Computer software for the
development and application o f lignite seam models".
Mineral Wealth, No 76, Jan-Feb, pp. 39-50.
Pavloudakis F. & Z. Agioutantis, 1999 "Computer aided
coal quality control and h om ogenisation; A
state-of-the-art review". New Technologies for Coal
Quality Control and Homogenization, International
Workshop, Thermie Program, Europ. Com. DG XVII
Energy, Athens.

4 RESULTS - CONCLUSIONS

As it shown on Figure 2, the quality of lignite de­

creases significantly at the northeast part of the mine
(sectors marked as 4 and 7 for the first scenario, or 4,
5 and 6 for the second scenario). This is due to the
inferior deposit quality as well as the difficult
mining conditions in this area. More specifically,
the lignite deposit at this location is divided into
many thin lignite and intermediate waste layers
which increases the dilution effect due to the un­
avoidable contamination by intermediate waste lay­
ers during selective mining (Galetakis, 1996).
In first scenario the fluctuation of lignite quality
corresponds to two different time periods (2006-
2009 and 2022-2025) that last 8 years, when
significant quality deterioration is expected.
In the second scenario a decrease in quality is
expected during a 7 year time period (2020-2026). In
addition the second scenario achieves a more
uniform quality variation (standard deviation of
annual mean AWF is 10% less than in the first
scenario) therefore a smaller decrease in cycle
efficiency of the power plant is expected. Simulation
results showed that the second scenario is better for
reducing the long-term variability of lignite quality.

62
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

O pen stope cavity m onitoring for the control o f dilution and ore loss

A .P Jarosz & L. Shepherd

Mine Surveying Program, Western Australian School of Mines, Curtin University, Kalgoorlie, W.A, Australia

ABSTRACT: The Cavity Monitoring System (CMS) developed by Noranda Technology Centre (NTC)
jointly with Optech Systems, Canada, has become one of the basic tools used by underground mine surveyors
to determine the extend and progress of mining in an open stope environment. In this paper authors focus on
the utilisation of CMS for determination of ore dilution and ore lose. The experiences gained from surveys
and data processing are presented.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 STOPE SURVEYS

The design of an underground stope is a complex Traditionally the survey of open stopes presented a
process with many variables to consider. The quality significant challenge to mine surveyors and mining
of a stope design or its effectiveness can to a large engineers who endeavour to monitor accurate prog­
extent be measured by comparing the design dimen­ ress of mining and the stability of stope openings. In
sions of the stope to actually mined. The physical fact, the use of classical surveying methods was in
dimensions of a stope can be effected by many fac­ many cases not possible due to safety requirements
tors including blast design, drilling accuracy of blast and inaccessibility of stope openings. The surveys,
holes, geo-technical conditions and ground support if conducted, were time consuming, produced low
techniques. Comparing the physical extent of the quality data and were likely to cause considerable
stope against the design can help analyse these fac­ delay to the mining cycle.
tors.
In most cases the volume of ore extracted from un­
derground stopes is above that of the design volume.
This is a situation of stope over break and has the ef­
fect of diluting the ore body being extracted. Ore
dilution can have a significant bearing on the profit­
ability of a mining operation.
In many mining operations the dimension of an un­
derground stope can be measured quickly and safely
with the use of the Cavity Monitoring System
(CMS) developed by Optech, Canada. This device,
widely used in Australia, can scan the extent of the
stope from a position within the stope, giving it sig­
nificant advantages over more conventional survey­
ing methods. However, the raw data collected by the
CMS is essentially a large number of coordinated
X, Y,Z points of the walls of the stope. This data has
then to be processed to form sections and three-
dimensional models. The processing of this data
needs to be quick and accurate if results are to be of
value to the mine design team. Figure 1. Conventional surveys of open stope.

63
This situation improved with the advent of reflec­
torless electronic distance meters (eg. DIOR3002)
that were coupled with theodolites to form the re­
flectorless total stations. However, according to R.
J. Gilbertson (1995), this equipment setup still had a
lot of operational and safety problems. The surveyor
and instrumentation had to be positioned often in
close proximity to the edge of an open stope for ex­
tended periods of time. A typical open stope can be
accessed from two to four drilling and extraction ho­
rizons, that are used to acquire surveying data (Fig.
1). As stope panels are usually extracted in retreat­
ing order they may be accessed from one side only,
and the visibility of open stope walls is limited. This
creates the major problem to cover all stope walls
with surveying points and to produce accurate defi­
nition of an open stope cavity.
The above mentioned disadvantages of the classical
surveying method are the main reason that the No-
randa Technology Centre (NTC) jointly with Optech
Systems, Canada, developed the Cavity Monitoring
System (CMS). This greatly improved safety and
quality of stope surveys. Over the last decade this
surveying instrument has been in common use in
Australia, including the Eastern Goldfields, Western
Australia. The CMS consists of a computer con­
trolled, motorised scanning head that attaches to 8
metre long boom (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. Components of Cavity Monitoring System (CMS).
The motorised servo-driven head includes reflector­
less laser rangefinder, visible laser pointer and
reading system providing inclination and rotational
position of rangefinder. During a survey the boom
with scanning head is inserted into the stope cavity
64
to a position where the outline of the void is visible
and can be surveyed (Fig. 3). The ability of CMS to
survey a void from a vantage point located within
the stope gives it a significant advantage over con­
ventional survey methods.
Figure 3. CMS positioned for stope survey.
A CMS survey is a relatively simple procedure.
Equipment, although bulky, is easy to erect and set
up. The computer interface is user friendly, how­
ever, precautions should be taken around open
stopes to ensure the safety of personnel as well as
the scanning head. There was an incident in Western
Australia where rock was tipped onto a CMS unit
extended into a stope.
The CMS collects data by taking X,Y,Z coordinates
of points in a circular sweep of the void. Once a
sweep is completed the scanning head increments it's
inclination by a predetermined angle, usually 2 or 3
degrees, to perform another circular sweep of the
void. The initial position of the CMS head is gained
by conventional survey means. Two control points,
one located near the surveying head and a second
close to other end of the boom, are surveyed to gen­
erate coordinates for the head position. The end re­
sult of a CMS survey is a file consisting of up to 140
rings of 360 points each with X, Y,Z coordinates, that
represent the extent of the void (Fig. 4)
3 CMS DATA PROCESSING
Although these rings give a good representation of a
stope the CMS file created inherently contains large
numbers of points. A normal CMS file with an in­
crement of 1 degree will have 212,000 readings
pertaining to over 50,000 points. This amount of
data can create problems when manipulating data in
mining software using conventional PC. In order to
make these files more manageable excess points ence suggests that the distance should be more than
need to be eliminated. 0.2 m and deflection angle less then 90° (Fig. 5).

er -
\

\)

Figure 5. String conditioning (number of points was reduced

from 730 to 280 without compromising integrity of shape)

Figure 4. Results of CMS survey (string objects)

4 PRESENTATION OF SURVEY RESULTS
The CMS instrument records data that can be ex­
ported as ASCII raw data or transformed to DXF The determination of stope position in 3D space,
format. These formats are readily imported into based on local or real world coordinates, allows the
mining software packages such as SlIRPAC and presentation of survey results in a variety of ways,
DATAMINE. The process of creating meaningful especially when computer based 3D modelling is
results from the raw data generated by the CMS re­ utilised. The wireframes representing stope openings
quires a significant degree of experience and a mod­ can be combined with wirframes representing devel­
erate understanding of the tools provided by the opment drives and further with other objects repre­
mining software. For example a special function is senting the geology and extend of orebody (Fig.6).
required to create the 3D wireframe representing a
stope cavity from the strings (rings) that the CMS
generates. This function should utilise an algorithm
that joins sequential rings rather than the conven­
tional wireframe creation algorithm that focuses on
generation of equilateral triangles. Normal DXF to
wireframe conversions may create a “fish-bone” ef­
fect rather than a desired “shell effect”.
The wireframe (DTM) created from the raw data
also is a large file with points and triangles that by
far exceed the amount required for creation of
meaningful, practical models. Some erroneous data
may be generated from the effect of shadowing. To
make the raw data workable it is essential that the
initial wireframe be cut along a predetermined
planes (usually the ring design planes) and the re­
sultant sections be inspected individually and edited.
This, somewhat subjective process based on the ba­ Figure 6. 3D representation of designed and surveyed stope and
sic knowledge of the stope by the surveyor, provides development drives. The overbreak is clearly visible on foot-
wall of open stope.
sections with better spatial integrity. Editing of data
generally involves the process of eliminating excess
points and the smoothing of string outlines. It is Such complex representations may be viewed from
achieved by constraining the distance and deflection any angle and distance, as well as, projected on any
angle between consecutive points. Authors experi- predefined projection plane to create level plans or

65
cross-sections. Consecutive surveys may also be
combined to represent stope development over time.
5 DETERMINATION OF ORE DILUTION AND
ORE LOSE
The Australian Centre for Geomechanics defines
over break, or more precisely dilution, with the fol­
lowing equations (Pakalnis et al. 1995):
• Dilution 1 = (tonnes waste rock mined) / (tonnes of
ore mined)
• Dilution 2 = (tonnes waste mined) / (tonnes ore
mined + tonnes of waste mined)
To establish the dilution in an open stope the ton­
nages or volumes of mined rock are needed. In un­
derground situations, dilution and mine recovery can
be analyses by comparing the design stopes with
stopes actually extracted. This comparison can only
be realistically achieved by comparing stope vol­
umes using computer generated 3D models.
Our initial attempts to achieve this were focused on
determination of intersection between solids repre­
senting the designed and mined stopes. However,
the complexity of voids involved resulted in long
calculation times (on standard desktop workstation)
and frequently erroneous results. It became quiet
clear that the involvement and analytical abilities of
the human operator were required.
The best results were achieved when the process of
over-break and ore lose determination included the
following steps:
I.Slicing - in this step the intersection strings be­
tween solids representing the designed and mined
stopes were determined (Fig. 7).
2.Outlining of overbreaks and ore lose areas.
3. Creation of solids representing overbreak or ore
lose by linking the outlines in sections.
4. Calculation of volumes and tonnages for overbreak
and ore lose solids.
The determined tonnages were utilised to calculate
dilution factors for whole panel or on a ring by ring
bases. The example calculation results are presented
in Table I.
Table 1: Calculated dilution factor.
Panel/Ring Design Mined Dilution 1
Tonnage Tonnage
Panel 3 40,497 41,499 1,002 (2.5%)
66
Figure 7. Shaded areas representing overbreak.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Dilution and ore lose are important factors affecting
the profitability of mining operations. A dilution
control action plan should include definition and
identification of dilution sources, but also proce­
dures for monitoring (surveying) and control actions.
The Cavity Monitoring System (CMS) in combina­
tion with computer based 3D mapping and mine de­
sign software is the practical answer to survey data
requirements of the dilution control process. How­
ever, the data processing is rather complicated and
fragmented, involving usage of processes from dif­
ferent software packages. The further integration and
streamlining of survey data processing, dilution / ore
lose reporting and stope (ring) design may be a valu­
able addition to the range of tools that are available
for mine surveyor and mining engineer.
REFERENCES
Gilbertson, R.J. 1995. The application of the Cavity Measure­
ment System at Olympic Dam operations. Proc. Under­
ground Operators Conference, Kalgoorlie, Western Aus­
tralia, 13-14 November 1995: 245-252.
Optech Systems Corporation. 1996. Cavity Monitoring System
(CMS). User Manual, Version 2.3, May 1996, North York
(Toronto), Ontario, Canada.
Pakalnis, R., R. Poulin & J. Hadjigeorgiou 1995. Quantifying
the cost of dilution in underground mines. Mining Engi­
neering, December 1995: 1136-1141.
Revey, G.F. 1998. Effects and control of overbreak in under­
ground mining. Mining Engineering, August 1998: 63-67.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

M ethane safety o f coal m ining

N.O. Kaledina
Department of Mine Aerology and Safety, Moscow State Mining University, Russia

ABSTRACT: Providing of Methane safety on coal mines is a complex engineering task. It is necessary to
take into accounting all defining factors: technological ones, aerodynamic ones, and dynamics of gas and coal
dust. Besides, this problem must be decided with accounting the environment issue. The method of planning of
methane safety system is described.

1 CONCEPT OF METHANE SAFETY
It is impossible to provide safety with external
measures, it is shown as internal property of the
systems following from coordinated functioning all of
it elements with the purposes, given by the man.
Therefore decision of this problem is not achieved by
prohibitive measures. As shows experience, it is
impossible to provide rules of behavior for all
occasions. If we install the greater number of
interdictions, the probability of their infringement
grows.
Hence, the organizational measures should
supplement technical ones, establishing boundary
meanings of parameters determining technological
process, which "transition" creates conditions for
development of accident. What about methane
safety, such parameters are the allowable
concentration of methane and speeds of air
movement.
The maintenance of these parameters in
allowable limits in mines is provided with systems of
ventilation and degassing. However, if the system
technological decisions at designing were accepted
incorrectly, even at the very large expenses of energy
and finance, these systems will not ensure a required
level of safety. It means, that the decisions on the
circuits of ventilation and degassing and modes of
their work should be closely coordinated to coal
mining technology.
The colliery is complex large system, its
development submits to the laws of large systems.
The researches which have been carried out by the
Soviet and Russian scientific school of mine aerology
establish the basic laws of methane emission in
underground workings: laws of methane emission
from districted rocks, influence of technology factors
on intensity methane flow, influence of an
aerodynamic mode on gas flow from the gob areas at
stationary and non-stationary (transitive) gas
dynamics processes. These results give a possibility
of decision of a coalmine methane safety problem
from system positions. Known interrelations between
separate elements of the technological circuit allow
to definite how the change of their condition will
affect to stability of functioning of system as a whole.
The methane safety concept, developed in
Moscow State Mining University (MSMU),
considers a coalmine as complex system in its
interrelation with an environment. Historically
methane is a main enemy for the miner. But it can be
useful as chemical raw material, as ecologically pure
fuel to power system and vehicle. Besides if we shall
learn it to catch and to use instead of letting out in an
atmosphere, we shall lower its adverse influence on a
climate of the Earth, i.e. we shall receive also
ecological effect. In this context the system decision
of a problem methane safety should be carried out on
the following basic directions.
1.1 Maintenance o f technological safety
Acceptance of the basic technical decisions
determining a way and the order of a deposit
improvement should be guided on:

67
 • Decrease of common (absolute) methane
flow in a mine atmosphere;
• Possibility of fast rescue of the people in
case of failure;
• Minimization of damage from possible
failures.
It means, that a choice of a rational way of
opening and development, and also about mining
method and the method of development should be
based on knowledge of interrelation between the gas
dynamic processes and mining technology (Figure 1).
The researches of gas balance dynamics of
methane coal mines show, that the upward order of
68
development of layers in strata, and also working to
the dip or to the rise of a layer, in comparison with a
working to the strike, reduce gas danger. When using
the retreating systems the contribution of gas flow
from gob area decreases, in comparison with
advancing systems. In the first case a contribution of
development workings in common methane balance
of mine also grows, achieving 60 %. Thus, already at
a stage of a choice of basic elements of the
technological scheme it is necessary to mean their
influence on methane safety.
The second major design stage - synthesis of
the safe and highly reliable ventilation scheme of
extraction units and mine as a whole. The most
effective scheme is advancing one, and it is most
safety, because it supplies two or more exits.
Rational interaction of mines ventilating and
degassing systems is necessary for reducing of gas
danger. Degassing is more prefer method, as it
allows using the gas from coal beds. High efficiency
of it is ensured, if aeration of gob area is minimal.
The aerodynamic regime is the main factor
controlling methane flow in mines. That ventilation
regime determines methane distribution in system
"workings - gob area - degassing holes", it is
characterized by integrated Reynolds criterion, which
can be determined on data of mine atmosphere
monitoring on the base of established laws of
leakage-flow through a waste zone.
It is established intensity of ventilation (in a
gob area - filtering) regime; spatial structure of
leakage-flow (i.e. ventilation scheme) and intensity of
gas-emitting source define the formation of a
methane concentration field, mainly.
Efficiency of gob area degassing much depends
on an aerodynamic regime or on intensity of leakage:
the increase of methane volume in ventilation flow
reduces gas volume and concentration in degassing
holes. The regime of air leakage plays also major role
in process of spontaneous combustion in gob areas,
since the leakage velocity defines a temperature
regime in a gob. Thus increased gas emitting reduces
concentration of oxygen O2, that is necessary for coal
oxidation.
Fig. 2. Scheme of interrelation between the subsystems of coal mine safety
69
Raising efficiency of gas drainage system, we
not only reduce danger of gas inrush. The basic
quantity of methane inflow is emitted from
undermined rocks massive, i.e. after the coal bed
extraction. The gob areas give 60 % and more of
total methane inflow. To take this gas with maximum
high content, the good insulation of the exhausted
sites is required. This condition also accords to
requirements of spontaneous combustion prevention.
The automatic monitoring and control of gas
flow from the basic emissions sources has to be used
as a mean of reduces of methane danger. The original
hierarchical method of mine pollutions monitoring
(including the methane) is elaborated in MSMU.
Methane monitoring system has to include both of
ventilating and degassing processes.
The coal dust monitoring and control is most
impotent element of methane safety system. The
presence of coal dust not only raises probability of
gas explosion, as it reduces the low limit
concentration of methane combustion, but also
aggravates weight of consequences of possible
explosion. The high efficiency of degassing allows to
get optimal air velocity reduced the dust airborne.
Thus, "adjusting" system under the factor of
methane safety, we simultaneously reduce danger of
coal self-ignition in gob areas and coal-dust
explosion, i.e. we reduce risk of the heaviest
accidents of mining accompanying with huge material
and social losses (Figure 2).
1.2 R a tio n a l u se o f c o a l d e p o s it p o w e r re s o u r c e s R EFER EN C ES

Development and introduction of methane extraction L.A.Puchkov & N.O.Kaledina. 1995. Methane
technologies have to be used at all stages of coal Dynamics in Coal Mine Gob Area. Moscow:
deposit mining: prior to the beginning mining at MSMU.
preliminary degassing, passing extraction at L.A.Puchkov & N.O.Kaledina. 1996. Aerodynamic
operation of mine and subsequent extraction from the control of coalmine gob area gas drainage.
old gob areas and exhaust spaces. Proceeding SWEMP’96, R. Ciccu (ed.).
At the first stage the methods of increasing of Margherita di Pula, Cagliari, Italy, 7-11 October,
coal bed gas-permeability 1996. Rotterdam: Balkema.
The second stage requires of development of L.A.Puchkov. 1993. Underground mining gob area
methods and means to operate by the methane flows aerodynamics. Moscow: MSMU.
in mine ventilating and degassing networks. These V.D.Ajurov & N.O.Kaledina. 1996. Hierarchical
methods must ensure a preparation of conditional balanced models of the coalmine monitoring
methane-and-air mixes, suitable for the consumer. systems. Proceeding 26th APCOM’96, Littleton,
Development of methods and means of Colorado, USA, September 16-20, 1996.
industrial usage of mixes with low concentration of Rotterdam: Balkema.
gas, including from mine air return, are perspective. V.M.Shek, N.O.Kaledina & V.D.Ajurov. 1997.
Hierarchical Inforanalitical Models Using in Coal
Mine Ecological Monitoring System. Proceedings
1.3 Maintenance o f ecological safety of the 2nd Regional APCOM'97 Symposium on
Computer Applications and Operations Research
The main quantity of gas is thrown out from mines in in the Mineral Industries. Moscow, 24-28 August
atmosphere with a ventilation flow, but in many 1997. Rotterdam: Balkema.
countries up to 30 % of general issue makes methane
from degasification systems and some of this volume
of gas is used for industrial purposes. In coal-
produced countries on the average of 20 % is given
by a coal cycle, in which the maximum contribution
is given by underground production - about 86 %.
With increasing of depth the total methane
emission of mines and contribution of gobs in their
gas balance are growing. The increasing of intensity
of ventilation so as degasification increases methane
issue into earth atmosphere, if methane is not
utilized. Methane utilizing is possible only at
maintenance of stable outputs and high concentration
of gas in air-gas mixture, which are reached only at
combined methods of control, including gob area
degassing control.
When the safety is supplied in an industrial
system, it means, that it functions steadily, that, in
turn, provides to it both ecological safety, and social
stability and economic efficiency. Therefore it is
possible to tell, that the safety is forming system
factor at a choice of the technical decisions of mining
technologies. It also is that "tuning fork", on which
we should adjust functioning of mining system.

70
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A nalyses o f valley fill stability and spoil handling techniques

in m ountainous areas

S.EB.KoUi&A.W.Khair
Department o f Mining Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WVa., USA

ABSTRACT: This paper presents analyses of valley fill stability and spoil handling techniques in mountain­
ous areas. The stability of the valley fills is assessed under various surface and subsurface configurations. The
spoil handling techniques are reviewed and an Approximate Original Contour (AOC) Model is presented. The
AOC model is used to determine the excess spoil disposal plans and valley fill final configuration criteria.
The analyses of excess spoil disposal plans and valley fill stability helps in developing better strategy for re­
ducing the impact of Mountaintop mining on the environment.

1 INTRODUCTION 2. Contour mining: Surface mining technique that

Surface mining of multiple seams by mountaintop
removal and contour mining is complex in the Ap­
palachian region of southwestern West Virginia,
USA. Owing to its unique mining operations, and
the environmental effects associated with it,
mountaintop removal method of mining has become
an issue of public concern. The pertinence of the
present mountaintop mining operations and recla­
mation techniques, with respect to being in compli­
ance with Surface Mining Control and Reclamation
Act of 1977 (SMCRA), as well as both Federal and
State regulations is at question.
The three major types of surface coal mining op­
erations carried out in Middle Eastern part of USA
are 1. Area mining, 2. Contour mining, 3.
Mountaintop removal. The public and the media
have often called these types of mines
“mountaintop-removal mines”, even though that
term applies only to one type of mountaintop opera­
tion in regulatory sense. There are certain related
terms to be defined with respect to mountaintop-
removal operations.
1. Mountaintop mining: Surface mining activities 5. Excess spoil: Overburden material that is dis­
where mining operation removes an entire coal seam
or seams running through upper fraction of a moun­
tain, ridge, or hill, by removing substantially all of
the overburden off the bench and creating a level
plateau or a gently rolling contour, with no high
walls remaining, and capable of supporting post
mining uses in accordance with the requirements of
section 785.14 of SMCRA, 1977.
makes a cut into a hillside, creating a level bench
with a high wall. A contour - mined area must be re­
stored to AOC, including elimination of the high
wall.
3. Approximate Original Contour (AOC): The
surface configuration achieved by back filling and
grading of the mined area so that reclaimed area, in­
cluding any terracing or access roads, closely resem­
bles the general surface configuration of the land
prior to mining and blends into, and complements
the drainage pattern of the surrounding terrain, with
all high walls and spoil piles eliminated. All mines
are to be returned to AOC, unless they receive a
variance from it [term defined in Subsection 22-3-
3(e) of WVSMCRA and Subsection 701(2) of
SMCRA].
4. AOC Variance: A regulatory authority may
grant a variance or waiver from the requirement to
restore a site to AOC if certain specified conditions
are satisfied. State and Federal law provides for the
following types of AOC variances: mountaintop re­
moval, steep-slope, thick overburden, and remined
areas.
posed of in a location other than the mine pit and
that is not needed to achieve AOC.
2 GEOLOGY
Mountaintop mining is carried out in an elevated
track of nearly horizontal and gently folded strata.

71
Lithologically, the rock units are composed mainly
of beds of sandstone, interspersed with beds of silt-
stone, shale, coal, limestone and fire clays. The typi­
cal lithology of the area where mountaintop mining
is employed is shown in figure 1.
The general rock sequence in the Applachia is
bound at the base by the Coalburgh sandstone. Other
significant stratigraphic units, in ascending order are
Stockton seam. Clarion seam, and Kittanning seam.
Within the numerous coal seams are various splits of
coal. The split thickness ranges from 10 to 32 in. To
be minable, a split of coal should be atleast 6 in.
thick.
Mine I
41*
Upper Kittanning
75
Upper Five Block
45
Lower Five Block
76*
Upper Stockton Rider
Stockton seam
73
73
II
Coalburgh seams (I-II)
1=1 I Cut *r is displaced
Tntp.rhiirflftn Coal
* Average interburden thickness in feet.
Figure 1. Geologic columns, active mines.
3 MOUNTAINTOP MINING OPERATIONS
Mining in Applachia, with its steep terrain and
complex geology, is not easy. Large surface mining
equipment, detailed planning is required to mine the
low-sulfur reserves economically. Mining operation
is carried out using draglines and shovel-loader
combination. The method of mining in mountainous
areas is shown in figure 2. The top of the mountain
is removed to uncover the most economically min­
able coal seams. The overburden and interburden
removed are placed in valley fills and backstacked
on previously mined areas as required to produce
coal. Under ideal conditions it is possible to extract
100% of the minable coal, and results in the move­
ment of more than 42 million cu-yd/year of overbur­
den and interburden. The general sequence of
mountaintop mining operations is as follows:
Phase# 1: The mining operation begins by clear­
ing the trees from the permitted area, and driving a
contour cut on the lowest minable seam.
Phase#2: After the contour cut is completed and
the appropriate drainage is in place, prestripping for
the dragline begins. Prestripping is performed with
shovel loaders and 284 T end dump trucks. Coal is
removed with loaders and 218 T end dump trucks.
Partings less than 6.5 ft. thick are removed with 85T
end dump trucks.
Phase#3: When prestripping is atleast 15 months
ahead of the dragline, the dragline is placed into op­
eration. Prestripping is continued to maintain the 15-
month gap with the dragline operation.
Phase#4: As each coal seam is uncovered, 13.5
cu-yd front-end loaders load coal into 77 T end-
dump trucks. Other spreads of front-end loaders and
end-dump trucks load and haul the thinner interbur-
dends between coal splits to waste.
Mine n
ORIGINAL SECTION
UPPER SEAMS REMOVED
(Area ready for Dragline operation)
A ^
e S 4 3 2
Beginning dragline operation
4
Begin regrading (Spoil from cuts 1,2,& 3 regraded)
5 Valley fill
Regraded section
a. Upper Kittanning, b. 6 block, c. 5 block, d. Stockton seams.
Figure 2. Method of mining.
In figure 2, section 2 shows the post stripping
scenario, where mountain peaks are removed by an
electric shovel, creating a flat surface for the dra­
gline operation. The mining area is divided into pits
for efficient removal of overburden. The overburden
removed is placed in the valley fill. Section 5, shows
the final pit configuration. The AOC variance al-
72
 Stockton Seam Dragline
Contour Cuts

Coalburgh Seam

Figure 3. Conceptual view of handling excess spoil with dragline advance.

lowed depends upon the terrain of the permit area. 4.1 AOC and Excess spoil determinations
A selection criterion of mining equipment depends
on many parameters such as geology, total spoil The key variables found in the AOC definition, in­
material to be handled, average hauling distance, av­ fluencing AOC determination are: configuration,
erage gradient of the haul roads, and slopes, varia­ backfilling and grading, disturbed area, terracing or
tions in coal split thickness, variations in interburden access roads, closely resembles, and drainage pat­
thickness. The equipment in fleet is shown in Table terns. These variables for analysis purposes can be-
1. logically grouped into 3 focus areas: 1) Configura­
tion, 2) Stability, and 3) Drainage. These focus areas
are addressed through a formula-like model that
Table 1. Equipment in fleet in a typical mountaintop- portrays these variables in a process for determining
removal mine. what post mining surface configuration meets the
Equipment (type/size) Fleet Deployment AOC definition.
Dragline (50 cu-yd / 104m) 1 Phase#3 AOC Model: Variables used in the formula are as
Shovel, electric (43 cu-yd) 1 Phase#2 the following:
Shovel, electric (38 cu-yd) 1 Phase#2 OC: Pre-mining configuration or volume of back­
Shovel, electric (33 cu-yd) 1 Phase#4 fill material to replicate the original contours of the
Front-end loader (27 cu-yd) 1 Phase#2 undisturbed area proposed to be mined.
Front-end loader (23 cu-yd) 1 Phase#2, & 1 SR: Backfill volume displaced due to compliance
Front-end loader (13.5 cu-yd) 4 Phase#4 with stability requirements.
Front-end loader (10 cu-yd) 2 Phase#4 DR: Backfill volume displaced due to compliance
Trucks, end-dump 2 8 4 1 10 Phase # 2 with drainage control requirements.
Trucks, end-dump 2 8 4 1 3 Phase#2, & 3 SCR: Backfill volume displaced due to compli­
Trucks, end-dump 2 8 4 1 2 Phase#4 ance with sediment control requirements.
Trucks, end-dump 2 8 4 1 4 Phase#4
Dozers, Crawler < 400 hp 3 Phase# 1
Dozers, Crawler > 400 hp 10 Phase#3
Drills, 10.62” 2 Phase#2
Drills, 7.87” 1 Phase#2, & 4
Drills, 3.87” 3 Phase#4

4 SPOIL HANDLING TECHNIQUES.

The first process in mountaintop-removal opera­

tion is to prepare a detailed plan of mining and rec­
lamation phase of the mine to be opened. The
amounts of excess spoil to be generated, and excess
spoil handling plans should be submitted with the
permit application. The first step in designing an ex­
cess spoil-handling plan is to determine the AOC
and the excess spoil to be generated. The conceptual
view of handling excess spoil is shown in figure 3.
Figure 4. Details of backfill volume displaced when complying
with performance standards.
AR: Backfill volume displaced due to compliance
with access/maintenance requirements.
AOC: Volume of backfilled spoil required to sat­
isfy the SMCRA regulations for approximate origi­
nal contour.

73
 Based on the terms given above, the following
formula determines the amount of backfill, which
must be returned to the mined area to satisfy AOC.
AOC = OC - SR - DR - SCR - AR (1)
Total Spoil Material (TSM): Total spoil material
is all of the overburden (OB) plus interburden (IB)
that must be handled as a result of the purposed
mining operation. TSM value is expressed as bank
cubic yards (bey).
TSM = (O B +IB )*B F (2)
where BF = Bulking factor.
Spoil Placement Areas: Spoil can be placed either
in decoaled area or backfill (BFA), or in excess spoil Figure 5. Valley slope configuration (as per federal
disposal area (ESD), i.e. valley fills regulations).
The Excess Spoil (ES) will be
E S = T S M -B F A (3)
5.1 Site specific results
BF: Backfill is the material placed in the mined
out area to attain original configuration (OC), or The slope stability analysis of 3 valley fills sites is
Approximate Original Configuration (AOC) carried out using XSTABL. The geo-mechanical
Therefore, from equations 1, 2, and 3 properties of the surface and subsurface layers of the
ES = TSM - AOC valley fills are determined by conducting laboratory
Thus the excess spoil determined is handled by experiments on borehole samples. The surface and
filling it in adjacent valley or by backstacking. The subsurface configurations are prepared from the data
valley fills so formed should be in compliance with obtained by reconnaissance, and survey of the site.
Federal regulations. The most important federal
regulations regarding valley fills are as the follow­ 5.1.1 S itel
ing:
1. A specification that final graded slopes on the The fill is situated in a narrow valley with a relief of
plateau portion of the operation not exceed 525ft. Figure 7 shows the arial view of the valley fill
lv:5h(20%). (This specification is in for the flat at sitel. Figure 8 is a plan view sketch of the fill.
plateau portion formed on the top of the valley fill.) The slope angle varies from 25.8® to 36®. The fill has
2. A requirement that plateau out slopes attain a a cover of natural soil over the competent rock. The
minimum static safety factor of 1.5 or that they not results from the analysis of the test boring and soil
exceed lv:2h (50%). (This requirement is shown in samples of valley fill sitel are given below:
figure 5. For the slope between terraces formed in
the formation of valley fill, a slope not greater than Boring # Fill thickness Natural soil thickness
lv:2h is required, as this is maximum safe slope for SI 70ft 33.5ft
operation of tracked-equipment.) S2 55ft 33.0ft
S3 41ft 23.5ft
5 ANALYSES OF VALLEY FILL SLOPE The valley fill profile, soil weight and strength
STABILITY parameters are entered into the XSTABL program.
The peizometric line is assumed based on the ground
The scope of work for the study includes an analysis water readings. The unit weight of ground water is
of stability characteristics of valley fill construction assumed to be 62.4 pcf. The soil properties used in
techniques used in the mining and reclamation ac­ the slope stability analysis of valley fill at sitel are
tivities carried out in mountainous areas of south given below:
western West Virginia, USA. The valley fills
formed are some of the largest earth constructions on Parameter Spoil Natural soil
earth today, with a relief of 450ft to 600ft and a Yw 124.2 pcf 131.3 pcf
stretch of 500ft to 2000ft. The slope angle of the fills <1> 2U 32®
varies from 18^ to 36®. Laboratory tests on repre­ c 0.16 tsf 0.06 tsf
sentative materials were conducted to determine
pertinent physical properties of material constituting Where Yw- Unit weight of material, (j): angle of internal fric­
the valley fills. Basic index properties such as grain tion, and c: cohesion
size distribution, direct shear strength, and moisture
content were measured.

74
 Y-AXIS (feet)

I: Overburden spoil, II: Most critical surface, III: Spoil lower

Figure 7. Arial view of valley fill at site 1. limit & Peizometric line.

Figure 10. Slope stability analyses of valley fill at site2.

Y-AXIS (feet)

I: Overburden Spoil, II: Most critical failure surface

III: Lower limit of spoil layer.
Figure 8. Plan of valley fill at site 1.

Figure 11. Slope stability analyses of valley fill at site2.

Figure 9. Plan of valley fill at site 2. Figure 12. Slope stability analyses of valley fill at site2.

75
The grid pattern used for sitel is shown in figure 10.
The outslope is steeper than the configuration laid
down by the regulations, and the height of the
benches does not agree with the design profile. The
minimum factor of safety (FOS) of 1.26 for the most
critical failure surface is calculated using Bishop’s
Simplified method of slices. The FOS of the slope is
less than 1.5 and is unsafe.
5.1.2 Site 2
Site 2 does not have a cover of natural soil over
the competent lower layer. The slope angles are less
than 25.8®. The height between benches is 40 ft or
less. Figure 9 shows the profile of the fill. The zone
between the backfilled highwall and the natural ter­
rain is more exposed in this case. The soil properties
used for the spoil in the slope stability analysis of
valley fill at site2 are: Yw• 124.2 pcf , (|): 21®, c: 0.16
tsf. No peizometric line is used in this case. The site
is assumed to be fully drained.
The grid pattern used for site2 is shown in figure
11. The outslope confirms to the regulations, and the
height of the benches agree with the design profile.
The minimum factor of safety (FOS) of 1.77 for the
most critical failure surface is calculated using
Janbu’s Simplified method of slices. The FOS of the
slope is greater than 1.5 and is safe. The slope will
not fail due to configuration, the affect of seepage
and surface run off need to be studied.
5.1.3 Site 3
Site 3 is a contour mining site where valley fills
were utilized for spoil disposal. This site has a relief
of 100 ft only, but has a stretch of 2000 ft. The clas­
sification test data show a wide range in particle
sizes. There are large rock fragments as well as silt
and clay.
The natural soil ranges in thickness from 6 ft to
25 ft. The peizometric line is assumed based on the
ground water readings. The unit of ground water is
assumed to be 62.4 pcf. The soil properties used in
the slope stability analysis of valley fill at site3 are
given below:
Parameter Spoil Natural soil
Yw 131.6 pcf 131.3 pcf
27.5® 39®
0
C 0.19 tsf 0.16 tsf
The grid pattern used for site3 is shown in figure
12. The outslope configuration confirms to the
regulations, and the angle of the slope does agree
with the design profile. The minimum factor of
safety (FOS) of 2.92 for the most critical failure sur­
face is calculated using Bishop’s Simplified method
76
of slices. The FOS of the slope is greater than 1.5
and is safe due to configuration.
6 CONCLUSION
The valley fill slopes in West Virginia are stable due
to configuration. The enormous weight of the spoil
placed over the incompetent natural soil tends to
consolidate over its own weight. The sliding of the
incompetent subsurface layers is not noticed. The af­
fect of surface infiltration, run off, ground vibrations
due to blasting on mass wasting in the valley fills is
to be studied. The need to develop overburden slope
stability analysis software is to be realized. Soil
slope stability analysis software provide fair analysis
of overburden spoil slopes, but the effect of void
spaces, highly diverse grain size distribution, non-
uniform spoil properties are to be considered for
better analysis of spoil slopes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Our special thanks go to Mr. Fernand A. Barata, PE,
for providing us information and insight on
mountaintop mining. Coal and Energy Research Bu­
reau (CERB) of the State of West Virginia, USA,
supported this project. Special thanks are due to
State of West Virginia. We also thank Office of
Surface Mining (OSM), and West Virginia Depart­
ment of Environmental Protection for providing us
with evaluation reports on AOC and Postmining
land use.
REFERENCES
Hoek, E. & Bray, J. 1974. Rock Slope Engineering. Lx)ndon:
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory. 1981. Envi­
ronmental Assessment of Surface Mining: Head-of-Hallow
Fill and Mountaintop Removal - Draft Final Report: Cin­
cinnati, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Office of Surface Mining. 1998. West Virginia Oversight Re­
port: U. S. Department of Interior, Charleston Field Office.
Office of Surface Mining. 1999. An Evaluation of Approxi­
mate Original Contour and Postmining Land Use in West
Virginia, West Virginia Oversight Report: U. S. Department
of Interior, Charleston Field Office.
Perloff, W. H, & Baron, W. 1976. Soil Mechanics: principles
and applications. New York: Ronald Press Co.
White, M.A. & Barata, F. A. 1995. State-of-the-art in
mountaintop removal and contour mining. Mining Engi­
neering: 1111-1114.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The m inim um total cost approach to optim um pit slope design

RA. Lilly
Western Australian School of Mines, Curtin University of Technology, Kalgoorlie, WA, Australia

ABSTRACT: In many large open pit mines, relatively small changes in slope angle usually result in corre­
sponding changes in project value that are measured in tens of millions of dollars. Most mining companies
select slope angles on the basis of a relatively arbitrary factor of safety. However, this approach does not pro­
vide a quantitative assessment of what the failure risk of the slope is and, therefore, does not permit the
evaluation of the penalty of failure on one hand, or conservative design on the other. Consequently, the deci­
sion to base a slope design on a particular factor of safety is most unlikely to yield the optimum economic
slope design.

1 RELIABILITY OF PIT SLOPES
The reliability (or probabilistic) approach to slope
design has been in use for well over twenty years.
This is manifested in the published work of a num­
ber of researchers and practitioners, including Tang
& others (1976), Harr (1977 and 1987), Lilly (1982),
McMahon (1985), Chowdhury (1992), Christian &
others (1994), Xu & Chowdhury (1999) and Xu &
others (2000), amongst many others. This approach
forms the basis for the economic analysis outlined in
this paper and, consequently, some background is
provided here for completeness.
In a mine slope it may be quite tolerable for large
displacements to take place and for the slope to re­
main serviceable. However, this same statement may
not be said for a slope adjacent to a major highway.
In this context, therefore, Harr (1987) has suggested
that "failure designates the inability of a system to
perform its intended function. All systems fail
eventually. However, from an engineering point of
view it is the survival time before failure that deter­
mines whether the system was successful or not."
In quantitative terms, the probability of failure
(Pf) of a slope can be defined as the probability that
some failure criterion is exceeded (Lilly, in prep). If
the failure criterion is, for example, displacement (5)
exceeding a critical level (5c), then:
Pf=P[5>5c]
If, on the other hand, a limit equilibrium technique is
used to estimate slope stability, then Pf becomes the
probability that the factor of safety (F) is less than
unity. That is:
P f= P [F < l] (1.2)
The reliability (R) of a mine slope is given by:
R = 1 - Pf (1.3)
R is interpreted as the probability that the slope
"would perform adequately for at least a specified
period of time and under specified operating condi­
tions" (Harr, 1987). In other words, reliability is the
probability of the slope design being successful.
2 COSTS AND BENEFITS
Figure 1, which is based on a diagram published by
Call (1992), schematically illustrates the changes in
costs and benefits as slope angle increases.
As the pit slope angle increases, the stripping ra­
tio (waste : ore) decreases. This results in a decrease
in total operating cost per tonne of ore mined. In ore
bodies that are open at depth, the decrease in cost
per tonne of ore mined usually means that pit depth
can increase until such time as the break-even strip­
ping ratio is again achieved. Thus, gross revenue is
( 1. 1) increased.

77

S lo p e a n g le (d e g r e e s )
— ♦ - - • B e n e fits
■- S lo p e in sta b ility c o s ts
— N e t b e n e fit
Figure 1; Cost-benefit of changes in slope angle
As a consequence of this, the net value of many
pits, particularly those associated with precious met­
als such as gold, is very sensitive to stripping ratio.
This means that the monetary benefits derived from
the project are sensitive to slope angle. For example,
in the case of an open pit gold mine with which the
author is involved as a consultant, a 1° increase in
overall slope angle adds almost $30 million of value
to the project.
However, as slope angle increases, there is gener­
ally an increase in Pf and associated failure volume.
There are a number of costs associated with failed
slopes, and these are discussed in detail in the next
section.
In summary, therefore, a cost-benefit analysis,
such as that shown in Figure 1, requires that pit op­
timisation, reserve estimation and gross revenue be
estimated for each of a number of slope configura­
tions. In parallel with the revenue calculation, an
estimate must also be made of the total cost of min­
ing each pit shell, including the cost of potential
slope failures associated with each slope configura­
tion.
78
3 ESTIMATING COSTS OF SLOPE FAILURE
There are a number of potential costs associated
with a slope failure in an open pit mine. The relative
importance of each depends upon the size and loca­
tion of the event. These costs are discussed in turn.
3.1 Clean-up
There are circumstances in which a slope failure
may be left in place if it has or continues to have no
significant impact on the operation or life of the pit.
Such a situation may exist, for example, where a pit
design contains a large flat section within the slope
profile and where the slope above this flat section
fails after mining has progressed below this level. In
this situation, it may be prudent simply to leave the
failure mass resting on the flat so that the cost of
clean-up is zero.
More commonly, however, the slope failure mass
needs to be cleaned up so that the production activi­
ties within the pit can be returned to normal in as
short a time frame as possible. In relatively soft or
weak materials that do not require blasting, the unit
cost of this clean-up operation (that is, the cost per
cubic metre) may be similar to that of free-digging
the original bank material. However, the writer usu­
ally applies an efficiency factor (typically 70% to
80%) to allow for the fact that the failure mass may
not present itself to the digging equipment in a fa­
vourable way, thus slowing down the process.
Where the rock mass in which the failure occurs
is strong and massive, clean up of the failed mass
can be fraught with difficulty. Very large blocks of
relatively intact rock mass may be perched precari­
ously within the failure mass. In this scenario, it is
conceivable that unit clean-up costs of the failed
material may be two or more times those associated
with the in situ rock mass.
3.2 Slope re-formation
Depending on the failure mechanism, the failure
scarp itself (the back of the exposed failure surface)
may be relatively steep. If the failure mass is cleaned
up, it is conceivable that further failures will propa­
gate behind the original failure scarp crest. This is
particularly the case with rotational failures through
weak (soil-like) or heavily jointed rock masses. In
such cases, re-formation of the slope behind the fail­
ure surface must take place in parallel with the clean
up process, typically as a top-down process.
 The costs of slope re-formation are often not that
different from those associated with conventional
limits formation. However, the ideal cut-back width
is often narrower than the minimum mining width of
the equipment at the mine. This means that either
specialised equipment needs to be brought in to un­
dertake the work, or additional material must be re­
moved during the cut-back to permit the mine’s
conventional fleet to operate safety. In either case,
additional costs are the outcome.
3.3 Haul road repair and re-access
Additional (consequential) costs are incurred where
slope failure occurs in a section of the pit wall con­
taining a haul ramp. Where the ramp is the only ac­
cess into the pit, then there will be consequential
losses in mine production caused by lack of access
to production benches. Where there is more than one
access into the pit, additional costs may be incurred
in redeveloping temporary access to reach strategi­
cally important areas. Clearly, all of these cost sce­
narios need to be evaluated when undertaking a de­
tailed cost analysis.
Failure could take place onto the haul ramp from
above, or failure could remove (or at least undercut)
the haul ramp from below. Whist both situations are
serious, the former is the lesser of the two evils since
access to the pit can usually be regained (albeit only
in part) relatively quickly. In addition, clean-up and
reformation can often take place while the ramp is in
use (provided common-sense risk and safety man­
agement principles are applied). However, there will
obviously be some disruption to truck haulage dur­
ing the process because of the restricted width of the
ramp and because cut-back operations are taking
place above certain parts of the ramp. The effects of
this disruption can be included in the form of an ef­
ficiency factor, the consequential cost of the associ­
ated marginal loss in production being the estimate
required.
Where the pit slope failure undercuts part of a
key haul ramp, or where the failure mass includes
part of the haul ramp itself, considerably greater
consequential cost is involved. Either the pit remains
unproductive until the entire wall (with its new ac­
cess ramp) is re-formed or a completely new access
is installed in some other part of the pit wall. In ei­
ther case, issues relating to minimum mining width
and equipment efficiency come into play and need to
be included in cost estimates, as do the consequen­
tial costs of lost production.
79
3.4 Equipment redeployment
In addition to access problems associated with slope
failures, it is also important to remember that
equipment will be utilised in the clean-up and cut­
back process that would otherwise have been used in
mine production. Where the slope failure location
and geometry are such that equipment cannot con­
tinue work in the pit anyway, then this issue is not as
significant. However, where a slope has failed at one
end of a large pit, for example, and production can
continue from other parts of the mine, production
cannot be expected to continue at the same pre­
failure rate unless:
• the mine has significantly more additional prime
equipment capacity than it actually needs (a very
rare phenomenon in modem open pit mines); or
• additional equipment is mobilised at the opera­
tion to deal with the failure mass and the associ­
ated cut-back.
3.5 Unrecoverable ore
It is not uncommon for pit wall failures to either
partially or completely cover the ore body. If the
mine has a number of pits supplying ore to the proc­
ess plant, the consequences of ore burial may not be
that great. However, where the ore body in a single
pit operation is buried, or where a slope failure cov­
ers a critically important part of the ore blend going
to the processing plant, then consequential costs can
become large since production ceases entirely until
the failure is remediated. Whilst the cost implica­
tions of this outcome may be similar to those relat­
ing to loss of ramp access, this is a completely dif­
ferent and very serious scenario since it has the
capacity to close the mine.
3.6 Damage to equipment and infrastructure
The cost associated with damage to or loss of
equipment working in the pit (and the potential for
injury to employees) at the time of the failure also
needs to be taken into consideration. There may also
be consequences for equipment and infrastructure at
the pit edge or infrastructure located in or on the pit
wall. Where this is the case, the consequences of
failure will be very much greater than those in other
parts of the wall where no such infrastructure is pre­
sent. Some examples include:
• decline portals (where these are located in or
close to pit walls);
• in-wall ramps;
• ore and waste stockpiles (commonly located 5 CASE EXAMPLE
close to pit wall crests);
• processing facilities; By way of example, consider the 120 m high eastern
• shaft infrastructure; slope in a pit with a planned life of three years. The
• key mine access roads; principal failure mechanism in this wall is planar
• public roads and highways; and sliding on a series of stacked shear structures dip­
• lease boundaries (where slope failure may cross ping to the west. Stability analysis of the slope
a boundary and precipitate legal action by the yields the relationship between Pf and slope angle
adjacent landowner). shown in Figure 2.

4 MINIMISING TOTAL COST The respective maximum and expected volumes

of failure (in terms of cubic metres of material per
The starting point for the optimisation of slope ge­ metre of slope face length) for a range of slope an­
ometry for a given part of a pit wall at a given time gles are shown in Figure 3.
in its development is to define the wall configuration
that offers the minimum total cost to the operation.
It is important to note that the optimum slope angle
will most likely change with time and with wall
height. In a long-life pit, therefore, the optimisation
process may need to be carried out for a number of
stages (or pit depths). For short-life pits (those
where the time value of money is not as influential
on project net present value), this analysis is nor­
mally applicable to the final pit limits only.
Within a particular geotechnical domain, and for
a particular slope height, Pf and maximum volume of
failure (Vf) are estimated from slope stability analy­
sis for each of a range of slope angles. This enables
relationships between Pf and slope angle to be ob­
tained for a given slope height.
Pf and Vf are then used to estimate expected vol­
ume of failure, E[V], for a given slope angle, as fol­
lows:

E[V] = Pf .Vf (4.1)

In effect, this process calculates the risk, where risk

is defined as the consequences of a failure (that is,
Vf) multiplied by the probability of it happening
(that is, Pf). In this way, relationships between E[V]
and slope angle are derived.
Based on knowledge of the initial costs of exca­
vating the slope, the cost of removing failed mate­
rial, and other costs associated with failure (dis­ Assume that excavation costs are $2.00 per cubic
cussed above), it is then possible to derive the metre, clean-up costs are $2.67 per cubic metre and
relationship between total cost and slope angle for a slope reformation costs are approximately $14,000
given slope height. per metre length of slope face. In the first instance
The desired slope angle is that for which the total we assume that there are no other costs associated
cost is a minimum. Minimum cost occurs where the with the failure. The minimum cost analysis is
decreasing costs of initial excavation (as slope angle shown in Figure 4.
increases) are balanced by increasing costs associ­
ated with a failure (as failure risk increases).

80

This simplified analysis suggests that the optimum
slope angle is 52°, and the probability of failure as­
sociated with this optimum slope is 5.6% (Figure 2).
Assume now that this slope design sector con­
tains the only haul road into the pit. When one takes
into account the consequential losses in production
resulting from the temporary loss of access, the
situation changes to that shown in Figure 5.
In this second more complex and more sensitive
scenario, the analysis suggests that the optimum
slope angle is 48° and the probability of failure as­
sociated with this optimum slope is 0.4%.
6 INTEGRATION WITH PIT DESIGN PROCESS
The minimum cost analysis presented above is only
part of the design process. In the opinion of the
writer, the overall process should include the fol­
lowing steps:
1. Establish through conditional simulation or a
similar process the variability in the ore body
model.
81
O
Oh
o
s"S
B
o
u
Slope angle (degrees)
—-X- - - Excavation cost
—-+ —- Cleanup costs
- - -A- - • Reformation costs
— ♦— Consequential costs
— ■----Total costs
Figure 4: Simple cost analysis
2. Establish the expected volumes of failure from
each of the optimised pit slope design sectors
based on the analysis described above.
3. Use the Lerchs-Grossmann algorithm (for exam­
ple using Whittle software) or a similar process
to provide a pit shell, based on the optimum
(minimum total cost) slope angles, for each of
the ore body simulations.
4. Schedule development and production, including
the expected failure volumes obtained from the
cost minimisation analysis. In other words, if the
engineer has gone to the trouble of estimating
failure volumes and clean up requirements, then
he or she should include these into the schedule.
5. Submit the output to a spreadsheet that incorpo­
rates a probabilistic analysis of input variables.
6. For each ore body model derive the distribution
of Net Present Value (NPV) or Internal Rate of
Return (IRR) or other relevant key performance
indicator.
7. If significant differences exist between the NPV
or IRR distributions so derived, then there is
clearly significant uncertainty in the ore body
model. This should then be remedied or other­
wise managed.

<u
a
o
U
Slope angle (degrees)
—-X- - - Excavation cost
—- + —- Cleanup costs
.. -A. -. Reformation costs
— ♦— Consequential costs
■ Total costs
Figure 5: Analysis inclusive of consequential costs
If only one ore body model is obtained (that is,
simulation is not used at this stage of the design pro­
cess), then the remaining steps can be still followed.
This results in an estimate of the likely distribution
of the NPV or IRR of the project that includes the
optimised pit wall geometries and makes allowance
in the production schedule for pit wall failure poten­
tial.
7 CONCLUSIONS
The methodology outlined in this paper is a risk-
based minimum total cost approach to slope design
that allows slope angles to be selected on the basis
of rational economic and safety criteria. The desired
slope angle is that for which the total cost is a mini­
mum. That is, minimum cost occurs where the de­
creasing costs of initial excavation (as slope angle
increases) are balanced by increasing costs associ­
ated with a failure (as failure risk increases).
When this optimisation process is integrated with
a proper risk-based approach to overall pit design
and planning, then a truly realistic assessment of
project value can be derived.
82
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank Professor Ernesto Vil-
laescusa. Dr Harry Speight and Dr Andy Haile for
providing a critical review of the paper. The author
also wishes to acknowledge his mining and civil en­
gineering clients, the support of whom over the
years has enabled many of these concepts to be for­
mulated and tested in practice.
REFERENCES
Call, R.D., 1992. Slope Stability. In H.L. Hartman
(snr. ed), SME Mining Engineering Handbook.
2"“ edition. Volume 1: 881 - 896.
Christian, J.T., Ladd, C.C. and Baecher, G.B., 1994.
Reliability applied to slope stability analysis.
Journal o f Geotechnical Engineering: 120(12),
2181-2207.
Chowdhury, R.N., 1992. Probabilistic risk analysis
in geomechanics and water engineering. In R.N.
Chowdhury (ed.). Geomechanics and Water En­
gineering in Environmental Management.
Balkema.
Harr, M.E., 1977. The Mechanics of Particulate Me­
dia - A Probabilistic Approach. McGraw-Hill:
543pp.
Harr, M.E., 1987. Reliability-Based Design in Civil
Engineering. McGraw-Hill: 290pp.
Lilly, P.A., 1982. The shear behaviour of bedding
planes in Mt McRae shale with implications for
rock slope design. Int.J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. &
Geomech. Abstr.: 19(4), 205-209.
Lilly, P.A., in prep. A general definition of excava­
tion reliability and its application in mining engi­
neering practice.
McMahon, B.K., 1985. Geotechnical design in the
face of uncertainty. Australian Geomechanics.
No. 10, December: 7-19.
Tang, W.H., Yucemen, M.S. and Ang, A.H-S., 1976.
Probability-based short term design of soil slopes.
Can. Geotech. J. 13:201-215.
Xu, D and Chowdhury, R.N., 1999. Probabilistic
analysis of structured rock/soil slopes - several
methods compared. In Yagi, Yamagami & Jiang
(eds.). Slope Stability Engineering. Balkema:
1089- 1094.
Xu, D., Lilly, P.A. and Walker, P.A., in press. Sta­
bility and risk assessment of pit walls at BHP
Iron Ore’s Mt Whaleback mine. GeoEng2000.
Melbourne. November.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

D rivage o f a new incline w ith a roadheader at O m bilin Coal M ine, Indonesia

K. Matsui, H. Shimada & M. Ichinose - Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

S. Kramadibrata - Institute Technology of Bandung, Indonesia
H.Z. Anwar-/?cS:D Centrefor Geotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Science, Indonesia
H. Furukawa Coal Energy Center (JCOAL), Japan

ABSTRACT: In 1998, in cooperation of Japan Coal Energy Center (JCOAL), PT. Tambang Batubara Bukit
Asam (PTBA) started a new project that a new underground coal mine, or Ombilin IH will start the mining
operation in the 2000s to meet the necessary demand for increasing the production of Indonesian domestic
coal.
This paper describes the importance of the joint research projects between Japan and Indonesia and
discusses the influence of geological and mining factors related to the performance of main incline drivage
with a heavy duty roadheader at Ombilin HI.

1 INTRODUCTION clean coal is produced annually. About 10 million

Mechanized tunneling technique using a roadheader
has become a predominant method of tunnel drivage.
Roadheaders have been used to an increasing extent
to drive both mining and civil engineering tunnels.
Compared with drilling & blasting method,
mechanized tunneling technique offers major
advantages such as continuity of operations,
reduction of manual content of the tunnel operations
and improved advance rate with reduced manpower.
It also offers improved ground control and an
environment leading to safer working conditions.
In 1998, in cooperation of JCOAL, PTBA started
a new project that a new underground coal mine, or
Ombilin HI will begin the mining operation in the
2000s to meet the necessary demand for increasing
the production of Indonesian domestic coal.
This paper describes the importance of the joint
research projects between Japan and Indonesia and
discusses the influence of geological and mining
factors related to the performance of main incline
drivage with a heavy duty roadheader at Ombilin
m.
2 JOINT PROJECTS IN INDONESIA
In Indonesia, approximately over 70 million tons of
tons is exported to Japan. Most of the produced coal
is from surface mines. Only about 0.7 million tons is
produced from three underground mines at present.
It is anticipated that most coal will have to be mined
from the underground in the near future. Under a
“Five-year Plan for Coal Technology Transfer”,
Japanese coal technology will be transferred in an
extensive and planned manner to Indonesia.
An agreement on the ‘Slope Project at Ombilin
m ’ was concluded between JCOAL and PTBA in
1998. In this project, a development system of a
incline was introduced, consisting of a roadheader
and a transport system that were manufactured in
Japan.
Other project related to PTBA is ‘Washery Project’
that is to renew the equipment of the coal
preparation plant at Ombilin Coal Mine.
Joint research work at Ombilin Coal Mine,
Indonesia that has, since 1998, been conducted by
Kyushu University, Japan, Institute Technology of
Bandimg, Indonesia and Institute of Sciences,
Bandung, Indonesia is directed primarily towards the
optimal underground support system and the
development of optimal underground mining
methods in Indonesia. Some results of the joint
research have already been reported (Shimada et al.,
1998, Anwar et al., 1998, 1999a & 1999b, Matsui et
al., 1999, and Kramadibrata et al., 2000).

83
3 OMBILIN UNDERGROUND COAL MINE
Ombilin underground coal mine has been operating
since 1892 of the Dutch period. Since 1985,
underground development in coal and soft to
medium hard rock has been using roadheaders. On
the other hand, drilling & blasting method has been
used for tunnel development in harder rock
formation, including siltstone and sandstone.
The operating imderground coal mine is now
taking place at Ombilin I , Sawahluhimg. This mine
adopts longwall and room and pillar methods, by
means of a double ranging drum shearer and drilling
& blasting, respectively. Some problems identified
at Ombilin I have been associated with some factors
such as:
1) Intact rock and rock mass behavior.
2) Geology structure.
3) In situ stresses.
4) Roof support practice.
5) Roadway maintenance.
6) Geometry and dimension of openings.
7) Excavation sequence related to the mined-out
panels.
According to the previous research work (Rai,
1999), the coal bearing strata in the Ombilin area
have a time-dependent behavior that obeys to the
Burger’s elastoviscoplastic rheology model. This is
in accordance with the behavior of the coal bearing
strata obtained from the Tanjimg Enim area
(Kramadibrata et al., 1999). It was also mentioned
by Ray that so far, the stability of the Ombilin
underground mine has not much been influenced by
important to further investigate the likelihood of
rock bursting on the rock types encountered in the
Ombilin IH as well as to determine the in situ
stresses below, say 400 m, because STC conducted
in situ stress measurement at 300 m below surface.
There are two inclines. Slope 1 and Slope 2, being
developed. The development of the Slope 1 is
carried out by means of machine cutting, roadheader
MRH-S220M, whereas drilling & blasting is
practiced in the Slope 2.
4 DRIVAGE OF SLOPES 1 AND 2
4.1 Drivage system and performance
The Slope 1 and the Slope 2 are being developed to
drive 1550 m long inclines at 12 degree gradient.
The Slope 1 will be used as a main ventilation inlet
and haulage incline for underground mining. The
drift of the Slope 1 was started with a roadheader
MRH-S220M from the surface with open cut in July
1998. The roadheader was manufactured at Mitsui
Miike Mining Machinery Co., Ltd., Japan. The
machine is capable of cutting hard rock up to 130
MPa UCS (unconfined compressive strength). The
specifications of the machine are listed in Table 1,
together with other typical roadheading machines.
Table 1. Specifications of roadheading machines.
" ^ \M o d e l Dosco Alpine S65 SlOO 12CM10 S220M
Item -1.2 :Miner 50
Total length (m) 7.9 7.5 11.5 12.2 10.1 16.4

the existence of Sumatra Great Fault system Total height (m) 2.1 1.7 1.5 1.8 1.0 2.8
In situ stress measurements conducted by Strata Total width (m) 2.4 2.1 2.8 2.8 2.5 3.6
Control Technology (SCT, 1994) at Ombilin I Total weight (t) 26 24 20 27 40 56
(about 300 m below surface) indicated that the Cutting height (m) 4.0 4.0 4.4 4.5 3.7 5.1
maximum and minimum in situ stresses were Cutting width (m) 4.8 4.8 4.7 5.1 2.6 6.5
between 0.6-5.6 MPa and around 0.4-2.0 MPa, 100 100 100x2
Cutting motor (kW) 67.5(1) 65 220
respectively. These values of course should have
37.3(2)
taken account the geological and mining conditions.
It can be said that the selection of support system Ground pressure(MPa^ 0.12 0.13 0.10 0.13 0.16 0.14
in an underground opening may be close related to
the opening size. The following support systems
have been used: H-beam and wood, steel arches, The debris is now transported to the surface by a
concrete support and roof bolting. Of these, roof chain conveyor and a belt conveyor. The Slope 1 is
bolting has been implemented successfully since arched shape, being of 5.0 m wide and 3.5 m high.
1993. Three-piece rigid steel arch is installed to support
Sigalut area so-called Ombilin HI is being the roof and sidewalls at 2.0 m centers. Between the
constructed and prepared to mine A and C coal steel arches, three sets of 6 rock-bolts/W-strap are
seams at depth of about 800 m below surface. Thus, installed to reinforce the roof The bolt is fully
high in situ stress may be expected. Rock bursting resin-grouted being of 2.4 m long and 22 mm in
has been related to high stress conditions. In addition, diameter. Each bolt is installed at 0.8 m centers.
some sandstones in the Ombilin basin have high The Slope 2 will be used as a main ventilation
burst prone index (Ray, 1999). Consequently it is outlet incline. The Slope 2 is now being developed

84
by the drilling & blasting method in parallel to the
Slope 1. The distance between two inclines is 50 m.
The support system, the shape and the size of the
Slope 2 are almost the same as those of the Slope 1.
The number of the blast holes that are drilled with a
Jet-hammer drilling machine is 45 being of 1.2 m
long and 27 mm in diameter. It takes about 2.5 hours
for drilling the blast holes.
Figures 1 and 2 show the development
performance of the Slope 1 and 2, respectively.
The development of the Slope 1 so far has not
been progressing very well due to presence of soft
immediate roof and floor. Floor softening and
heaving is not being able to ignore. The roadheader
tends to slip and sink in the softened floor. In
relation to the poor roof, roof falls at a distance
about 121 m from the portal were apparent, and it
was exaggerated at 10 m away from tiiis point when
C coal seam intersected the incline, as in fact water
trapped above the seem came out through cleats. The
immediate measures were taken by reinforcing the
85
roof by means of double support system, including
roof bolts, steel arches and cribbing. It took a couple
of months to go through the fall area. During the
period, heading had to be stopped. The reasons for
this situation may be summarized as follows:
1) It is unable to well predict the type and behavior
of rock materials ahead.
2) Drainage system is not properly done.
3) Standard operating procedures are not properly
practiced.
4.2 Geotechnical testing
This experiment consists of strength measurement
and two slaking tests for Ombilin coal measures
rocks.
4.2.1 Strength test
Table 2 lists the physical and mechanical properties
of coal and coal measures rocks at Ombilin Coal
Mine (Ombilin I )(Rai, 1999).
 Table 2. Physical properties o f coal measure rocks and coal at Ombilin Coal Mine.

ROOF FLOOR
PARAMETER Fine Sand Coarse Clay Mud Silt Coal Clay Mud Silt
Sandst stone Sandst stone stone stone stone stone stone
Sat’ed density, Ysat, ton/m 2.4 2.43 2.61 2.74 2.57 2.47 1.34 2.03 2.59 2.59
Moist. Content, % 9.32 8.56 6.33 3.20 12.3 8.94 10.2 14.1 10.3 5.71
Porosity, n, % 20.4 19.3 15.5 8.48 27.6 20.1 12.3 25.0 22.6 14.0
UCS, gc, MPa 20.7 26.6 23.0 15.5 17.3 20.9 11.9 21.9 15.6 22.7
Mod. o f Blast. E, x 10 , MPa 3.8 5.7 3.22 2.55 2.02 4.65 1.53 2.3 3.2 4.55
Poisson’s ratio, v 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.30 0.28 0.27 0.30 0.30 0.28 0.26
Cohesion, c, MPa 1.78 2.0 1.4 2.59 4.5 2.69 0.14 0.95 4.57 4.25
Internal frict. Angle, <{), deg. 52.5 50.2 51.8 49.1 38.3 46.2 22.3 58.2 34.8 51.0
UTS, ax, MPa 1.97 1.96 2.31 2.44 1.58 2.22 1.46 2.3 0.87 2.67

It was very difficult to get intact core samples
from the rock blocks taken from Ombilin HI,
because of slaking during coring. Therefore, the rod
penetration test was conducted to estimate their
strength properties under dry conditions and under
several relative humidity conditions up to 95%.
This rod penetration test was established for
estimating the mechanical properties for coals and
rocks that are difficult or impossible to prepare the
described sample for standard strength tests. The
UCS and E50 (tangent Young’s modulus at 50% of
the UCS) are estimated by using the following
empirical equations (Matsui et al., 1989, 1990):
UCS= O.llS^(MPa) ( 1)
E30 =2.3E^(MPa) (2)
where S^p is the rod penetration strength, and E^p is
the rod penetration Young’s modulus.
Figures 3 and 4 show the results of rod
penetration tests. The mechanical properties
decrease with increasing water content. The
characteristics of weakening the mechanical
properties due to water show the importance of
groundwater control in tunnel drivage and
maintenance.
4.2.2 Slaking test
Two types of slaking tests were performed. One is
an ISRM suggested slake-durability index test
(Brown, 1981). The other is a visual slaking
observation test.
The visual slaking observation test is intended to
assess the progression of slaking when a rock
sample is put in water. During the test, slaking
behavior is observed and estimated regularly by
using the following slaking observation index:
0: No visual change
1: Minor cracking
2: Medium cracking in scales or opening in cracks
3: Major cracking in scales or minor disintegration
4: Complete disintegration
Figure 5 shows the results of the ISRM slake-
durability index test. According to Gamble’s
classification using the value of (Gamble,
1971), shales exhibit medium to high slaking

Figure 3. Relation between UCS and water content Figure 4. Relation between E50 and water content
o f Ombilin coal measure rocks. o f Ombilin coal measure rocks.

86
 1 ; • ; Shale-C(O) 2 ; ■ ; Shale-D(O) 3 ; A ; Shale-E(O)
4 ; O ; Shale-F(O) 5 ; □ ; Shale-G(O) G ; A ; Coalyshale-A(0)
7 ; ♦ ; Coalyshale-B(O)
Figure 5. Results o f the ISRM slake-durability index test for Ombilin coal measure rocks.

Table 3. Results o f visual slaking observation test.

Observation hour
Sample
1 2 4 8 12 24 48 72
Shale-C(O) 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4
Shale-D(O) 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4
Shale-E(O) 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4
Shale-F (O) 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4
Shale-G(O) 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Coalyshale-A (O) 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
Coalyshale-B (0) 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
Sandyshale- (0) 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Sandyshale-1 (I) 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
Sandyshale^2 (I) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Shale-NL(I) 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2
Shale-L (I) 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
Sandstone- (M) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(O): Ombilin , (I): Ikeshima Colliery, Japan, (M): Miike Colliery, Japan

durability characteristic. observation index Ifrom the visual slaking

Table 3 lists the results of the visual slaking
observation test. Ombilin rocks had a high slaking
capacity.
4.3 Discussion and recommendations
Based on the results of two slaking tests, the
Ombilin coal measures rocks show a very low slake
durability. However, the value of slake-durability
index does not always agree with the slaking
observation test. Some shale shows severe slaking
behavior but the slaking-durability index Id2 is very
high. This means that the mesh size and testing time
of the slake-durability index test should be
reconsidered in order to estimate the accurate
slaking behavior.
According to the results of the strength test and
slaking tests, it is very important to keep the
surrounding rocks dry or to reduce the water content
in them in order to keep or increase the mechanical

87
properties of the rocks and the rock masses.
Therefore, it is very important to get the accurate
information of the groundwater conditions at the
stage of planning. Advanced drilling at the heading
face is quite useful for checking groundwater and
geological conditions.
Drainage is considered to be the most economical
and simplest method to ensure stable tunnel and safe
working conditions.
In order to achieve a good driving performance of
the Slopes 1 and 2, the following measures should
be done:
1) Surface geological mapping, including geological
structure mapping.
2) Scan line survey in the Slopes 1 and 2.
3) Progressive horizontal drilling within the slopes.
4) Getting rock samples around the opening for
geotechnical laboratory tests.
5) Re-analyze the roof support requirement.
6) In situ stress measurements at depths of about
400-500 m below surface.
7) Establishment of drainage system.
It is worth mentioning that the blasting carried out
still uses electric detonators with a limited number
of delays. Consequently, sufficient number of
electric delay detonators or alternatively, NONEL
detonators should be provided to increase the
development rate.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Detailed geological information is necessary in the
drivage of the new inclines. Slopes 1 and 2 at
Ombilin HI to obtain good performance and ground
control.
Geological disturbances such as presence of
discontinuities, faulted zones and presence of
groundwater cause problems during drivage.
Stress conditions also affect the stability of the
incline and safe drivage.
Problems associated with drivage can be reduced
through detailed geological and geotechnical
investigations, forward planning, proper selection of
measures and equipment and strict supervision.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to the managers, engineers
and miners of Ombilin Coal Mine for their
assistance in this study.
All the opinions stated in this paper are those of
the authors themselves and are not necessarily those
of the institutes and the coal mine.
88
REFERENCES
Anwar,H.Z., Shimada, H .,Ichinose, M and Matsui, K.
(1 9 9 8 ). Fundam ental stu d ies o f the im provem ent
o f coal m ine sh ales behavior, Proc. o f R egion al
S ym p osiu m on S ed im en tary R ock E n g in eerin g ,
Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C., pp.45-50.
Anwar,H.Z., Shimada, H .,Ichinose,M and Matsui, K.
(1 9 9 9 a ). R o o f b o ltin g a p p lic a tio n in lo n g w a ll
m ining in Indonesia and Japan, Proc. o f 18*^ Int.
C o n f e r e n c e on G ro u n d C o n t r o l in M in in g ,
Morgantown, WV, USA, pp.256-262.
Anwar,H.Z., Shimada, H .,Ichinose,M and Matsui, K.
(1 9 9 9 b ). S lak e-d u rab ility beh avior o f coal m ine
sh ales, Proc. o f ’99 Int. Sym posium on M ining
S c i e n c e an d T e c h n o l o g y , B e i j i n g , C h in a ,
pp.343-346.
Brown, E. T. (1 9 8 1 ). Rock characterization testing
& m o n i t o r i n g , IS R M s u g g e s t e d m e t h o d s ,
Pergamon Press, pp. 92-94.
G a m b le , J. C . ( 1 9 7 1 ) . D u r a b i l i t y - p l a s t i c i t y
c la s s f ic a tio n o f s h a le s and oth er a r g illa c e o u s
rocks, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois.
Kram adibrata, S ., N o v i, P. and R ivai, A. (1 9 9 9 ).
D eterm ination o f long term strength o f silic ifie d
coal p illars by m eans o f m u ltista g e creep test,
Proc. ’99 Japan-Korea join t Sym posium on Rock
Engineering, Fukuoka, Japan, pp. 371-380.
K ram ad ib rata, S. and M a tsu i, K. ( 2 0 0 0 ) . R ock
e n g in e e r in g p r o b le m s in I n d o n e s ia n m in in g
industries. Special lecture at National Institute for
Resources and Environment, Tsukuba, pp. 20.
M atsui, K ., Ich in ose, M. and Shim ada, H. (1 9 8 9 ).
Estim ation o f the m echanical properties o f weak
rocks by rod penetration test. Journal o f the Japan
S ociety o f E ngineering G eology, V ol. 30, N o. 4,
pp. 28-34, (in Japanese).
M atsui, K ., Shimada, H. and Ich in ose, M. (1 9 9 0 ).
Characteristics o f mechanical properties o f coal measures
rocks and coal and their application to mining, Proc. 8*
Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 375-380,
(in Japanese).
M atsui, K., Shimada, H ., Ichin ose, M. and Anwar,
H .Z . ( 1 9 9 9 ) . R e in fo r c e m e n t o f s la k in g -p r o n e
m in e t u n n e l f lo o r b y g r o u t in g , P r o c . M in e
Planning and Equipm ent S electio n 1999 & M ine
E n v ir o n m e n ta l and E c o n o m ic a l I s s u e s 1 9 9 9 ,
Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine, pp.253-260.
Ray, M .A ., (1 9 9 9 ). On the assessm en t o f tun n els
s t a b i l i t y and r o le o f f i e l d m e a s u r e m e n ts in
O m b ilin u n d e r g r o u n d c o a l m in e s , P r o c . ’ 99
J a p a n -K o r e a J o in t S y m p o s iu m on R o c k
E n g in e e r in g , F u k u o k a , Jap an , p p . 1 0 1 - 1 1 1 .
SCT (Strata Control T echnology Pty. Ltd.), (1994).
I n t r o d u c t io n o f r o o f b o l t i n g t e c h n o l o g y to
Om bilin m ines - Initial in vestigation . Report N o.
0M B 0236/2.
Sim ada, H ., M atsui, K. and A nw ar, A .Z . (1 9 9 8 ).
C o n tro l o f h a r d -t o - c o lla p s e m a s s iv e r o o fs in
lo n g w a ll f a c e s u s in g a h y d r a u lic fr a c tu r in g
tech n iqu e, Proc. Int. C onference on Ground
Control in Mining, Morgantown, USA, pp.79-87.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

D esign process and equipm ent selection for auxiliary ventilation system s

D.G. Mirakovski & B. Krstev

Faculty of Mining and Geology, Slip, Macedonia

ABSTRACT: The design of auxiliary ventilation system(AVS) and optimal equipment selection can be a
problem, especially in case of very long drivages and high rock temperature. Algorithms for calculation of
AVS parameters are basically developed by use of essential relationships from fluid mechanics. In a leaky
duct, in addition to the variation of pressure, the flow rate varies along the duct and calculations are not
straightforward. In the paper some of most successful models have been generalized and algorithms for
calculations presented. Two basic models of leaking ducts are discussed: 1^^ model for a duct with leakage
through the flange joints; 2^^ model for a duct with an equivalent longitudinal aperture. The presented
analytical system has been successfully applied to developing a computer program, named DAVentS. A
sample problems are used to illustrate the efficiency and accuracy of DAVentS software in solving most
common problems in the process of designing AVS and especially in the process of equipment selection.

1 INTRODUCTION
Basic parameters which characterized work of an
auxiliary ventilation system(AVS) with one fan
mounted on the end of the duct are:
- fan flow rate Qf [m^/sec],
- quantity of air reaching the end of the duct Qo
[m^/sec],
- pressure loss W [Pa],
- pressure of fans Pf [Pa] which is equal to the
pressure loss W,
- coefficients which characterized the air leakage
of the duct r\ and p, expressed by the following
equations;
'7 = Q„/Q,
p = Qf/Qo = i/'7
Calculations used in design process of leakless duct
are reduced to calculations of static fan pressure
with known volume flow through the duct (Q) using
the equation:
APf = 6 , 5 ^ . Q ' =R.Q^
where; a = friction factor for the duct, [NsVm"^] or
[kg/m^]; L = duct length, [m]; d = duct diameter, [m];
R = aerodynamical resistance of the duct,[Ns^/m^] or
[kg /m \
In a leaky duct, in addition to the variation of
pressure, the flow rate varies along the duct and
calculations are not straightforward.
A number of calculation methods are published
[Voronin, 1951; Pawinski et al., 1979; Browning,
1983; Vutukuri,1984; Calizaya and P. Mouset-Jones,
1993 and others]. Algorithms and formulas derived
depend on the model accepted, for both, shape and
distribution of the leakage paths along the duct. In
the papers [Dimitrov and Kertikov, 1988; Kertikov,
( 1) 1994; Kertikov, 1996] some of most successful
models have been generalized and algorithms for
(2) calculations presented. In the next two chapters of
this paper short descriptions of the models are
presented.
Depending on shape and distribution of the
leakage paths along the duct there can be two basic
models:
a) model for a duct with leakage through the
flange joints;
(3) b) model for a duct with an equivalent
longitudinal aperture.

89
 1.1 Model for a duct with leakage through the flange The first parallel network 3-1,1-2, 2-4 is solved
joints by using followed relationships:
Figure 1 shows a schematic presentation of a duct
with this kind of leakage. The duct is composed of r = r ,/( i +V r , / r , L q = q„ (4)
separate segments of length 1. As a result of duct
imperfects assembling there are apertures of width A
in the flanges between them, and air flow rates of aq = q Vr ,/R 2 (5)
AQ leak through them.
where;W = R Q ; Rj = r + RQ +Rj andR2 = Rf,.
The next (second) parallel network comprises the
first network with total (equivalent) resistance R and
Q q+aQ i + a Q ?
branches 5-3,4-6 and 5-6. The left-hand parallel of
this mesh (5-3-4-6) has a resistance
-I Rj = R + r-fRfl and volume flow ratio through it
AQ, AQ2 AQ
isQ = Q^ =AQj. Right hand paralell branch has a
Figure 1. Model for a duct with leakage through the
flange joint resistance of R 2 =Rf,. Calculations are repeated
until the last N-numbered unit (near the fan) is
included in the total ventilation network. The fan
operating parameters (Qf and hf respectively) are
Two calculating algorithms for this model are
determined by last catenated values of the rate Q and
presented below (Dimitrov & Kertikov 1988, the loss of pressure P.
Kertikov 1994,1996): In this version of the main model the aperatures
a) algorithm "Ventilation network" of the flange joints are treated as a seqence of
b) algorithm "Leakage paths" leakage paths. The flow rate of the air leaking
The AVS with a leaky ventilation duct is treated through an aperature depends on the area of this
as ventilation network (See Figure 2) composed of aperature and the pressure difference between the
simple parallel contours or meshes. There are three duct and mine opening P=W. This rate is determined
types of branches in the network. by the following realtionship:
. .mineopening
5 Q.,r o o u a iio ia ia
0— ^ -----<)— ^>— ----- AQ = ju.7iAA-^2Vl p ( 6)
Rq Rfi^Q2
Ri _____. Ri è(;<Îi^'aîôêà where A is the width of aperture (See Figure 1),
2 Qo 4 Q+ AQ^ 6Q+ A Q | AQ^ 8
and p is flow coefficient.
Calculations are carried out consecutively for
Figure 2. Representing AVS as ventilation network each duct segment from the end of the duct to the
fan, and the flow rate Q, the difference between the
pressures P, and air losses AQ are calculated by
using following equations:
Typel: Represents duct segments of resistance r,
that are connected together using flange joints Q “ Q(i-i) (i-i)
^Q(i-] (7)
Type 2: Represents the apertures of the flange
joints with equal resistance Rfi [Ns^/m^] P = P,_,)+(r + R JQ ^ ( 8)
Type 3: Represents mine openings of length 1 and
resistance Rq.
The last calculated values of Q and P determine the
A network of this kind can be solved by a
fan operating parameters (Qf and Pf respectively).
computer program, using iterative procedure such
as Hardy Cross method. Programs of this type are
rather sophisticated. A simpler algorithm has been 1.2 Model for a duct with equivalent longitudinal
developed which reduces the complex network to aperture
simple parallel networks. The number of these Flange joints are not the only places where air can
parallel networks, N, is equal to the number of be leakout of the ducts. Ducts might possess
individual duct units (N=L/1). longitudinal cuts and apertures obtained during the
installation or over the life time of the duct system in

90
the mine opening. These supplementary apertures
enlarge the density of leakage paths. This is the
reason for representing an area of all apertures as a
single narrow longitudinal aperture with equivalent
width A*(See Figure 3).
Qo IT
W+dW
V+dV
Figure 3. Model for a duct with longitudinal aperture
In the case of this model air leakage from the duct
(air losses) is continuous. The flow rates of air in the
duct and pressure loss, are functions of the length x
and can be treated as continuous functions.
The air flow through duct from its energy aspect,
can be described by Bernoulli's equation. This
equation after several transformation according
model mentioned can be given as:
B.V'V" + p.V.V" -(A /d)V ^(/?/2) = 0 (9)
where; V = average air velocity in the duct; X = dim­
ensionless resistance coefficient and B=substitution.
There is no exact solution of the equation. For
solving this particular problem the method of
dividing the duct into short segments can be applied.
The rate of leaking air and loss of pressure due to
friction factor are determined for any particular
calculation section.
Computers programs are developed for all afore
mentioned algorithms,. Without them their practical
application is impossible.
1.3 Performance evaluations o f existing avs
For performance evaluation of an existing auxiliary
ventilation system it's necessary to obtain some data
by measuring. For an AVS with one fan mounted on
the end of the duct it is necessary to measure the
parameters as follows; Qo, Qf and Pf.
From the data obtained by measuring it is
possible to calculate air delivery coefficient r]=Qo/Qf
and to evaluate the quality of duct assembling. For
evaluation of metal ducts assembling quality, the
authors use the next relative scale which is relevant
to a duct of length L=300 m;
1. Very good T|=0.9
2. Good ri=0.8
3. Satisfactory r|=0.7
91
4. Unsatisfactory ri=0.6
5. Badr|=0.5
From the value measured for Py it is possible to
calculate the friction factor for the duct (a).
2 DEVELOPING OF COMPUTER PROGRAM
FOR DESIGNING OF AUXILIARY VENTILA­
TION SYSTEMS
The present analytical systems have been
successfully applied to developing the computer
software package named DAVentS. The programs
are written in MS Visual BASIC Ver 5.0 and partly in
Visual C++ Ver.4.5 and can be run on any machine
that operates the Windows 95/98 platforms.
The basic structure of the program is shown in
Figure 4.
The program main features include:
- Evaluating system parameters (ducts friction
factor, resistance of leakage paths, air delivery
etc.)
- Fans working parameters
- Fans allocation for long ducts
- Performance evaluating of active AVS
- Complete design of new AVS*
- All other most common tasks in the process of
designing AVS
The program modules include algorithms
developed from both physical models of leakage
{model for ducts with leakage through the flange
joints and model for ducts with longitudinal
aperture), for comparison purposes.
Figure 4. Program structure
DAVentS like all modem Windows based programs
have more advantages:
1. Better user interface (easier data input)
2. Modular design(event driven program)
3. Open Databases
4. Recommendations and coefficients that can be
changed
5. Online help and tool tips
6. Better display of results (graphics)

Qmlit
EquipnienlDala
[HjjjFnî* 2lül [@66*10
« jüT' iwitt [Sïi
i Kl 4 lFanData » I m I
parameters and air required at the face(Qo).
- Calculating fan parameters for known L, a, and
Rfi or A* and Qo.
- Calculating Qo,Qf, Pf and r\ for known fan type
and duct length.
- Calculating multiply fans allocations for long
ducts without recirculations.
Numerical examples and results obtained are
given below.
I K h I Dud data'

Tyt* pviÎT Tvpe |tl«cU

3 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES AND DISCUSSION

Example 1: Given the blowing ventilation duct, with

length L=150[m] and duct diameter d-=0.5[m]. Unit
duct length is 1=5 [m]. The following data are
measured: Qo=3.2[mVsec], Qf =4.6 [m7 sec] and
Pv=1815[Pa].
Using the DAVentS program the following
results where obtained: ad = 0.0042 fNs^/m"^], R« =
348000 [N sW ] and A* 10^=0.536 [m].
Figure 5. Program Windows Values obtained can be used as input data for
designing an AVS with approximately the same
condition(See Figure 6).
Program windows are shown on Figure 5.
For evaluation of the quality of duct assembling
the authors use "standard air delivery factor-r|"
which is relevant to a duct of length of L=300 [m].
By the DAVentS software with data mentioned
[ H h l FanData H M I | M H | Puctdata ►|H|
before as an input, value for r| is calculated.
Type pVM7 Type jflexibde/ring
According to the scale for evaluation for r|=0.47
quality of duct assembling can be characterized as
Qv [Ig in (5 poor (See Fig. 6).
jl815 dN (ÔF"
Qo jâ J " L[m] fii“ Example 2: Evaluate effects of the duct diameter on
the parameters of AVS for consecutive data as an
J!lJ J _l 1 input: L=350[m], l=3[m], ad=0.003[NsVm‘'] and
Standard r|=0.8. Solutions are obtained with
a= 0.0042 [Ns"2/m''41 DAVentS program for fans VM-5m and VM-6m.
Rll= 348000 [Ns"2/m''8] Results are shown in the Table 1.
A-1000= 0.53G N
? std = 0.47 < 0.05
Bad assembling quality Table 1. Results obtained from the DAVentS
Fan VM-5m Fan VM-6m
d=.5 d=.6 d=.8 d=.5 d=.6 d=.8
Figure 6. Program window with obtained results Qo 3.19 4.00 4.47 4.00 5.51 7.51
Qf 3.80 4.75 5.60 4.75 6.55 8,50
The paper will discuss only those features which hf 2056 1343 461 3278 2539 1037
are accomplished by algorithms presented before. -J1 -- 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84
Those features are:
- Calculating ducts friction factor a, resistance of Results shown in the Table 1 illustrate very well
leakage paths Rfi, equivalent width A* (for II known relationship between the duct diameter and
physical model) and standard air delivery factor fans static pressure; when the duct diameter
T] for known Qf, Pf, Qo and L. increasing the fan static pressure drops.
- Calculating max. duct length for given fan (Qf
and Pf) and duct (d, 1, L, a, and R« or A*)

92
Example 3. Heading of a long drivage is ventilated
with exhausting ventilation system with maximum
duct length L=900[m]. Evaluate effects of duct
diameter on the number and locations of the fan
along the drivage, considering the requirements for
lack of polluted air recirculation. This is realized by
providing the duct with a pressure lower then the
pressure in the drivage.
Other required data inputs are: Qo=5[m^/sec],
1=3[m], ad = 0.003 pSis^/m"^]. Three different
combinations are calculated; for d=0.6, d=0.8 and
d=l[m] and leakage path resistance coefficients
6100000, 1440000 and 448000 [N sW ]. There are
also three different fan types used, VM-5m, VM-6m
and VM-8m.
The problem is solved by using the DAVentS
software and results obtained are shown in Table 2.
Numbers of fans raising for the heading of the
drivage (See Figure. 7)
4 CONCLUSIONS
Algorithms for calculation of AVS parameters are
basically developed by use of essential relationships
from fluid mechanics. By applying this algorithms
computer software package named DAVentS is
developed.
In general, the program can be used for solving
followed problems:
1. Performance evaluation of an existing
auxiliary ventilation system, (See Example 1)
and by use of data obtained from calculations to
plan and realize practical steps for improving
AVS efficiency.
2. Possibility for design of complex AVS with
long ducts, when more than one fan is needed,
determining of fans location along the duct in
therms of no polluted air recirculation, use large
diesel equipment, high rock temperature, etc.

L3 L2 LI
REFERENCES
IX> H>Ch
Fan No 3 Fan No 2 Fan No 1
Qo Browning, E. 1983. An Approximate Method for
Auxiliary Ventilation Calculations. The Mining
L=900[m]
Engineer, September, p.p. 129-134.
Calizaya, F. & Mouset-Jones, P. 1993 A method o f
Figure 7. AVS for long drivages designing auxiliary ventilation systems for long
single underground openings Chapter 37.
There could be significant energy savings if smaller Proceedings of the 6th US Mine Ventilation
fans are used in earlier fazes of driving the long Symposium, p.p. 245-250.
drivage. Dimitrov, G. Kertikov. V, 1988 Aerodinamical
It is possible to optimize design of AVS, by the calculations o f an auxiliary ventilation system by
combination of presented aerodynamicall calculation the use o f a PC. Annual of the Higher Institute of
and appropriate economic analyses for ventilation Mining and Geology. Vol. XXXIV, 1988, Part I,
costs. Basic parameters in the optimization process p.p. 181-189. Sofia.
are ducts diameter and fans type. Kertikov, V. 1994 On the methods for aerodynamic
dimensioning o f A VS with leaky ducts. Annual of
the University of Mining and Geology, Sofia, p.
Table 2. Results obtained from the DAVentS 97-102.
No Fan type L ILi Qo Qf hf Pawinski, J.& Roszkowski, J. Strzeminski, J. 1979.
d=0.6 m m mVs mVs Pa Przevietrzanie kopaln. Katowice, p.p. 343-349.
1 VM-5m 102 102 5.0 5.32 669 0.96
2 VM-6m 285 387 5.23 6.4 2630 0.82
3 VM-6m 168 555 6.40 7.03 2223 0.91
4 VM-6m 120 675 7.03 7.44 1951 0.94
5 VM-8m 228 903 7.44 8.62 4144 0.86
d= 0.8
1 VM-6m 447 447 5.60 8.19 1323 0.68
2 VM-8m 456 903 8.19 12.3 2943 0.68
d= 1.0
1 11 VM-8m 1 900 900 5.4 14.3 1594 0.39

93
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

C onceptual solution o f the excavation m ethod in ‘B iochki stan’ m ine

in N iksic, Y ugoslavia

Sasa Mitic, Dragan Milojevic & Dragan Zlatanovic

Mining Institute, Belgrade, Yugoslavia

ABSTRACT: This paper describes the conceptual solution of the room-and-pillar excavation method with ore
shrinking in the »Biochki stan« mine in Niksic, FRY.
Trial excavation by this method is about to prove the possibility of the recovery increasing from 60-65%,
which is now, to 75-80%. This is also basic interest for introduction of this method.
Such recovery increasing is possible to reach not just by introduction of the new excavation method, but it is
also necessary to accept other new technologies, such as roof rock bolting technology.
Accepting of the rock bolting technology is the most important phase in the introduction of the mentioned ex­
cavation method.

1 INTRODUCTION block, three chambers and two pillars will be

The room-and-pillar excavation method is used
for excavation of parts of bauxite deposits which are
10-30 m thick. For the trial excavation, the thickness
is limited up to 20-25 m, in cases where roof was not
damaged by the previous excavations.
Roof stones should be opened to forming of
chamber pits and prop support; and bauxite should
tolerate forming of pillars.
These conditions are available in the mines for
underground excavation (Biocki stan and Djurakov
Do) in Bauxite Mine Niksic, according to the ex­
perience with work on chamber pits and large un­
broken surfaces.
A good illustration of bauxite strength is open pit
»Stitovo« with almost vertical bench height of about
40 m.
Trial excavation will be performed in the north­
eastern part of the »Biocki Stan« mine. In this zone,
roof dip is up to 14-18°. Floor dip is very changeable
and bauxite thickness is more than 30 m in this zone.
2 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE
EXCAVATING METHOD
This method suggests forming of the chambers in
the part of the ore body which is determined for the
trial excavation.
In these chambers, the ore shrinking method will
be applicated.
For the mentioned trial excavation, in the chosen
formed. The pillars will be made by the sublevel
sloping method. It is designed that both chambers
and pillars between chambers are 55 m long, and
will be directed in east-west position. Chamber No.
1, located in the northern part of the trial excavation
block, should be 8 m wide, as well as the following
pillar between chambers, directed to the slope No. 2.
Depending on success of the trial excavation in
chamber No. 1, chamber No. 2 should be 10 m wide,
and chamber No. 3 should be 12 m wide.
The pillar between chamber No. 2 and No. 3 is
designed to be 8 m wide, but its width, as well as the
width of the following pillars, depends on the suc­
cess of the trial excavation, both in chambers and
pillars.
The largest height will be on the western side,
slope No. 3 - 25 m, and the least height will be on
the eastern side, slope No. 1-17,5 m.
The trial excavation should be performed on the
moderate slope heights which are treated here. De­
pending on the success, the heights could be en­
larged.
2.1 Excavation of the chambers
The undercut preparation drift No. 1 (NP) is made
in the chamber axe, right bellow the roof contact,
along the whole chamber length. From this drift,
along the width of the chamber, the undercut drift
(GP) is made, and it has to be rock-bolted.
In the bottom of the chamber, the undercut prepa­
ration drift No. 2 (HP) is made. Depending on the

95
 height of the stope, a drilling drift (HB) is also
made.
In the lower store end, cutting raisers (UZ) are
made^ from the level of the undercut preparation
drift No. 2 (HP) to the upper undercut drift (GP).
They are used as the initial openings for the verti­
cal cut. Cutting drift is also made, along the whole
width of the block, by its eastern edge.
Before the chamber excavation, transport drafts
(TH) should be made across the axe of the pillars;
as well as loading drifts (UTH) to the undercut
preparation drift No. 2 (HP).
Fig. 1 Excavation of the chambers
96
Excavation in the chamber begins with the con­
struction of the vertical cut (HZ) along the whole
height and width of the stope; in this case, it is the
eastern border of the block. Drilling and mining of
the blast holes from the upper undercut sublevel
drift and undercut preparation drifts perform fur­
ther excavation. The highest level progresses
mostly.
Blasted bauxite is left in the stope (chamber)
and, if needed, it is shrunk, loaded, and transported
from the transport drift.
2.2 Excavation of the pillars
Blasting of the pillars and degradation of the
chamber-pillar system perform excavating of the pil­
lars between the chambers; this causes caving of the
roof, and afterwards filling of the excavated rooms
(figures 2 and 3).
Figure 3.
In order to enable this excavating method of the
pillar, it is necessary to shrink blasted bauxite from
the adjoining chamber.
Along the axe of the pillar, a sublevel drift is
made. From this drift, some drifts directed to the
chambers are made. This drift is used to drill blast
holes, and then blasting of bauxite in the pillar.
Blasted bauxite falls into an empty chamber, and
over it falls draw roof Shrinking of bauxite from the
pillar is performed as in the first exploitation phase
i.e. as in shrinking of bauxite left in the stope.
The greatest danger for the pillar stability is tec­
tonic cracks directed along the pillar. Dimension of
the cracks allows possibility of breaking some pieces
of material which could cause diminish of the pillar
stability. To improve pillar stability and to ensure
stability of the stope, methods for pillar enforcing
are used. The pillars are enforced with rock bolts,
wrapped with ropes, enforced with concrete or some
chemical methods. The most used method is rein­
forcing with rock bolts. Allowed burden of the rock-
97
bolted pillar could be up to 3-5 times more than
usual.
Enlarging of the natural stability of the chamber
roof could also be achieved by rock-bolting method.
Application of rock bolting can achieve satisfactory
safety for work in stopes, even in very hard mining
conditions.
Based on the experience in some other mines for
the similar working conditions, different kinds of
rock bolting were used, placed in the checkered po­
sitions; length of the rock bolts is between 1,6-2,4
m.
3 SUMMARY OF THE TECHNICAL
DESCRIPTIONS
- dimensions of ore block (A+B) 50x20 m
- mining field A55x46 m
- stope (field B) 21m
- quantity of ore in field A 518701
- quantity of ore in field B 1312301
- overall quantity of ore in ore block (A+B) 183100 t
- development works
- horizontal and stope drifts 1496,0 m
- vertical shafts and ore passes 130,5 m
- overall development works 1626,5 m
- excavation quantity from all development works
- ore 37356,81
- waste 4506,3 1
- length of chambers and pillars in stope
- chamber dimensions
chamber No. 1 8x55x21 m
chamber No. 2 10x55x21 m
chamber No. 3 12x55x21 m
- pillar dimensions8x5 5x21 m
- quantity of ore in chambers
chamber No. 1 22 822,8 t
chamber No. 2 28 528,5 t
chamber No. 3 34 234,2 t
- quantity of ore in pillar 22 822,8 t
- development factor for whole ore block 10,12 mm/t
- development factor for stope (field B)8,50 mm/t
- output in chambers 92%
- output in pillars 71%
- output in field A 70%
- overall output 79,6%
- quantity of run of mine ore in chambers 78 775 t
chamber No. 1 21 0241
chamber No. 2 26 165 t
chamber No. 3 31 586 t
- quantity of run of mine ore in pillars 32474 t
- quantity of run of mine ore in ore block 147657 t
- manpower on the trial stope 40 shifts/day
- manpower + fluctuation 25% 50 shifts/day
- daily production from development works 260 t/day
- daily production from stopes 383 t/day
- overall daily production from 565 t/day
- output per man shift 14,12 t/shift
- direct production costs cca 4-5$/t
4 CONCLUSION

Room-and-pillar excavating method presented

in the paper should show possibility of enlarged
output. The approximate output was about 60-
65%, and this method would enable output of
about 75-80%. The output of the excavating cham­
bers is 92%, and for excavating pillars between
chambers, it is about 71%. The overall output
should be 79,6%. This high output could be
achieved if the excavating order is kept and all
technological phases are strictly followed.
One of the most important technological phases
is rock-bolting of underground rooms (drifts,
stopes) by using one or more types of rock bolts.
Mining executives should accept the technology
of rock bolting before using the method.

98
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

O ptim ization o f toe in bench blasting - A practical view

CB.Navalkar
Semcons Consultants (P) Limited, Mumbai, India

ABSTRACT: Success of a blast design in bench blasting is judged by various factors of which the main is
left-over of toe after completion of mucking operation. Formation of toe in blasted benches reduces the
efficiency of mucking/excavation machinery and thereby also affects adversely on the total productivity
of the mine.

There are various factors that are responsible for the formation of toe. The main unavoidable element is the
Geology of the area whereas the avoidable factor is basically BLAST DESIGN which would include bench
geometry, diameter & depth of drill hole, pattern of charging, initiation system etc. These factors/elements
can be improved upon to achieve practically a toe-less blast. Though this paper has summed up some of the
practical data collected from the field, the inference can be more or less generalized for the optimization of
toe in bench blasting operations as a whole.

1 INTRODUCTION: 5 mtrs spacing with 10 mtrs bench height.

Considering the basics of blast design and the
The concept of blasting the rock using explosives factors affecting the formation of toe some
is to convert the solid rock mass into smaller practical methods could be adopted for the
fragments so that it can be easily loaded by the elimination of the toe.
excavators. The requisite degree of the
fragmentation can be decided by the capacity of the
primary crusher, loading excavators & the hauling 2 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FORMATION
dumpers. Working efficiency of all these three OF TOE:
agencies will fully depend upon fragmentation
index, the looseness of the blasted material and the Factors which influence on toe formation during
condition of the floor. Specifically, blasting operation can be categorized into two
as regards to excavators an utmost level of types viz,Avoidable Types and Unavoidable Types.
efficiency can be maintained should the floor level
be without toe and blasted material is fairly loose. AVOIDABLE TYPES:
In case of formation of toe the floor level will be * Bench Geometry i.e. Burden, Spacing & Height.
disrupted lowering the efficiency of the excavator O f The Bench.
and ultimately productivity will be hampered * Diameter o f blast hole.
adversely. Further, there is every possibility of * Size O f Drill Block.
damage to the mechanical or electrical components * Condition O f Blast Holes.
of the machine. * Preblasting Condition O f The Face.
A number of blasts were witnessed and monitored * Charging Pattern.
to study and analyze the factors that are * Sub-grade Drilling.
responsible for the formation of toe on blasted * Initiation Systems.
benches. Various blasts were taken in basaltic
formation of rock structure using 152mm diameter UNAVOIDABLE TYPES:
D.T.H. drilling rigs and hydraulic excavator of CK * Geology of the area controlling strata variance.
170 type. The bench geometry was 3mtrs burden. * Watery Condition.

99
 U n IFORMLV SkOPlHQ R^cg

Ifr- ^ 2 ->l

- A verage
^ Burden = A ^E R -ftO E Borden

_______F;g •■ i . o _________ ___________ F i a - 1 - 1 ________________

^3 J. C'

- A^N/£eP^O£ B oR !::> £^4•

F ij • i* ^ £ i 2l J L

100
AVOIDABLE TYPES:
Bench Geometry:
Of these three factors the most important are
burden & spacing. For proper estimation of
burden & spacing following equation can be used.
Mean Burden = X (Crest Burden + Toe Burden)
Above formula can used safely if the face is having
a uniform slope as shown in figure 1.0. But in
practice face is found as shown in figures 1.1 &
1.2. Calculation of mean burden for such faces can
be done by splitting the cross sectional area into a
number of suitable triangles.
Spacing can be determined according to the strata
and is usually fixed inbetween 1.2 to 1.7 times the
mean burden. An increased spacing can give rise
to the formation of toe between blast holes as
shown in figure no.2.
Diameter O f Blast Hole:
This plays an important part in controlling toe
formation in the sense that the diameter of the blast
hole should be matching with the bench geometry
of the blast design.
Size o f Drill Block:
Basically size of drill block governs formation of
toe in general. Larger the size of drill block more
are chances of formation of toe due to insufficient
fi*ee face in between the rows for the multiple rows
blast designs. So drill blocks with 2-3 rows of blast
holes can produce better results as compared with
drill blocks with four or more rows. Single row
blasting may create more of back break & may
give rise to formation of cracks. So when next row
of holes is being drilled it will have a number of
problems like jamming of drill rods, collapse of the
holes, leakage of flushing air etc. This ultimately
lead to shorter depth of holes being drilled &
which further will effect in formation of toe. In
blast design incorporating multiple row blasting
where four or more rows are blasted you will
seldom find formation of a fi*ee face afi;er the third
row. This happens as the blasted material fi-om the
first three rows adds up to the burden for the
fourth & consecutive rows thus adversely affecting
the quality of the blast in general and adding on to
formation of toe in particular for the fourth &
subsequent rows.
101
C o n d itio n O f B la s t H o le s:
The quality of a blast also depends upon the
condition of blast holes drilled, which fiirther has
two different parameters namely;
Position O f Blast Holes, & Depth O f Blast Holes.
Position O f Blast Holes:
The position of blast holes may change in reality
due to misjudging on the part of the drill operator
in positioning of the drill at the proposed spot. This
shifting of position off the proposed point may be
due to hole getting collapsed or crator formation at
the top of the hole or inconvenience in positioning
of the drill at the proper spot. However, the result
of this shifting gives rise to uneven distribution of
burden & spacing & thereby increasing the chances
of formation of toe. Such situation can be
overcome by marking additional/altemate drill
points with precalculated burden & spacing values
for the said alternate / additional drill points.
Depth O f The Blast Holes:
Formation of toe can be a result of blasting with
shorter depth blast holes. Insufficient depth of
holes may arise due to following reasons.
* Hole getting filledup during rod removal.
* Exposure of drilled holes to weather conditions.
* Irregular pattern of drilling.
* Misjudgment of depth due to uneven ground
condition.
Drilled holes getting filled up while removing the
drill rods can be avoided educating the driller
properly and instructing him to drill an extra length
of 0.2 to 0.3 mtrs in excess of normal drilling depth
so that the requisite depth of the hole can be
maintained. In case entire hole depth remains intact
even after removal of the rods the extra depth can
be filled in before plugging or charging of the hole.
Drilled holes, when exposed to weather conditions
like wind, rain etc., gets filled up by the drill
cuttings and thus reducing the effective depth of
the blast holes. This can be successfully avoided by
plugging the drilled blast holes by wooden drill
hole plugs as shown in figure 3.
Irregular pattern of drilling involves in the steering
of drill machine within the given drill block filling
up the already drilled holes by the movements of
the crawler tracks of the drill machine. To avoid
such filling of drill holes a pattern of drilling should
be followed such that the drill is steered always
outside of the drill block and brought inside the
same only for drilling operation.
 X R iiD iT tO N ftU
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) 3 . 2 5 7 . fc> oosiev

4 6 . 10 */. c o lo m n
i8 *2 .s y . t>oosVer
tS *4 0V .
2. S • o oy. t>c\se
• a s y . t>oosVe
3,6- oo*/. b a s e
i 8 *2 S '/• fc>c»os1«K

: 3 6 -oo ‘A Voase

2 =f'0 0‘/. b o o s^ f

pjc\ ^ c<=0_________

To avoid misjudgment of depth due to uneven driller also has to be educated regarding the
ground condition a precise survey has to be carried leveling of the ground,
over prior to taking up drilling operations. The

102
P r e h la s tin g C o n d itio n O f The F a c e :
A toeless blast always requires a properly cleaned
face. Loose blasted material leftover at the face
from the previous blast always adds up to the toe
burden for the first row. Toe, in the excess of the
estimated toe-burden should be reduced by the
secondary drilling & blasting before the main blast.
The material thus generated in the said secondary
Blasting should be totally lifted or dozed to the
side of the face. Should the main blast be taken
alongwith the secondary blast the chances of toe
formation increases because the extra toe, even if
blasted, remains in it’s place and further adds up to
the toe-burden. So in order to overcome such
situations, two faces may be planned in the same
bench so that while mucking operations are carried
out in one face, drilling and face cleaning
operations can be carried out in the other.
Charging O f Blast Holes:
The actual values of burden & spacing prevalent at
the time of charging are to be noted. Accordingly,
the percentage of booster, base & column charges
can be decided. The holes with lesser burden may
be charged with reduced percentage of booster and
base charge while holes with higher values of
burden & spacing may be charged with a higher
percentage of booster & base charge. Even the
column charge shall vary as per the burden &
spacing calculations since the amount of charge
shall be governed by the powder factor applicable.
Further, in hard strata a higher percentage of
booster & base is preferred while in soft strata a
higher percentage of column charge is preferred.
The traditional charging pattern that is being
followed is shown in figure no. 4(a). This involves
the charging of booster explosives after every 4-5
cartridges of base or column charge. Theory
behind this is the velocity of detonation developed
in base & column charges decreases with increase
in the length of charges & the booster charges
given at frequent intervals boost up the V.O.D. in
them. Disadvantage of this type of charging pattern
is that the booster charges are used only to initiate
the base & the column charges and very less of it’s
energy is used in pushing the material at bench
floor resulting in formation of toe.
In the improvised pattern of charging as shown in
figure no. 4(b), 72% of the booster is charged at
the hole bottom followed by the total base charge
103
(100%). A booster charge of 18% is given to
separate the base and column followed by 85% of
column charge and finally a second primer (10% of
booster) followed by the remaining 15% of column
charge. Main advantage of this pattern is the fact
that booster charge placed at bottom of blast hole
serves dual purpose of initiating the whole base
charge and overcoming the toe burden.
A proper importance should be given to process of
charging blast holes. Next cartridge of explosive
should be dropped in the blast hole only after
listening to sound of previously dropped cartridge
hitting end of the charging column. Incidences
occur when explosive cartridge gets stuck up in the
blast hole due to hole irregularities or cartridges
getting punctured while charging. Such holes when
blasted results in formation of toe due to a large air
gap created & also due to insufficient explosive.
To remove the jammed explosive charges from the
blast hole, an explosive cartridge removal rod can
be designed as illustrated in figure 5. It shall have a
shape of corkscrew opener and made of brass. This
hook (corkscrew) shall be pushed down with help
of stemming rod to which this instrument is
attached. With cork-screw rotation given to
stemming rod the front hook will cut in to
explosive cartridge and hold it. When the stemming
rod is lifted the whole cartridge can be lifted.
Sub-grade Drilling:
In order to get a toe less blast it is important to
drill to a depth below grade. In most of the cases
the sub-grade drilling is approximately to the value
of 0.3 times the burden. In case of sub-grade
drilling this is closer to the floor level helping in
breaking the floor more efficiently leaving no toe.
Initiation Systems:
If you consider three types of initiation systems
viz., top hole initiation system, multiple point
initiation system & bottom initiation system, the
formation of toe is minimum in bottom initiation
system. This may be due to the fact that premature
release of gasses through the stemming column in
top hole initiation system while a part of base &
column charges in touch with detonating fuse get
desensitized in multi point initiation system. Also in
top hole initiation system, an air gap created while
charging of explosives may leave the bottom
charge undetonated resulting in misfire and
consequently formation of toe. In bottom hole 3 CONCLUSION:
initiation, the initiation is from bottom of the hole,
explosive energies will work for longest period at Should the unavoidable factors contributing to the
bottom of hole which will surely improve the toe formation of toe be non-existent then a drill block
breakage. with precalculated values of burden, spacing and
with 2-3 rows of blast holes being marked properly
UN-AVOIDABLE FACTORS: and drilled upto the requisite depths, the face being
cleared off all the muck from the previous blasts
Geology O f Area Controlling Strata Variance: and without any existing toe can produce a
perfectly toe less blast using suggested pattern of
Type of strata & it’s nature of formation as charging and initiation system.
predicted by geologists is based on bore hole
samples recovered in fixed grid interval. Any
REFERENCES:
variation in strata within said grid interval goes
totally unnoticed till actual excavation done in that * Prof A.K.Ghose & Mr G.K.Pradhan, DRILL
area by working on the bench. Such variance of BLAST-96 National Seminar.
strata, especially from soft to hard, in drill block * Mr P.Karyampudi & Mr A. A.K.Reddy, Paper
results in formation of toe. The explanation that Published in Mining Engrs. Journal. Nov. 1999.
can be put forward are as under: * Mr Calvin J. Konya, Blast Design.
* A hard formation in the spacing of two holes is
unexpected &, if occurs, leads to hard patch
remaining unblasted and resulting in toe.
* If only one face is being worked in given bench
& drilling is continued in the remaining of drill
block just after taking the blast considering certain
expected toe burden, then if there be an
unexpected hard formation at the toe either will
totally disturb all the drilling parameters of
subsequent blasts or will bring about an uneven
distribution of explosives resulting in formation of
toe. Such occurrence can be avoided by continuous
monitoring of strata formation, even at expense of
one or two bad blasts.

In highly fractured strata drilling is a difficult task

due to frequent hole collapses & jamming of drill
rods. Basic reason of hole collapse could be
vibrations produced by DTH hammer or in drifter
drilling. Such holes are normally having proper
hole diameter at top portion whereas blockage
exists at bottom portion of holes. Blasting of such
holes results in upper part of face getting blasted
leaving lower part of bench to form a toe.

Watery Condition:
Presence of water in blast hole is a matter of
concern as charging of explosives in such watery
holes becomes difficult. Normally, density of water
in such holes is having a higher value due to
dissolved minerals/salts. In such cases the water
would not allow the explosive cartridges (density
being 1.10 to 1.2 gms/cc) to sink. Since explosive
can not reach bottom of hole, lower part of hole
remains unblasted giving rise to formation of toe.
104
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Selection o f fan or fan location in ventilation o f long drivages

M.Onder
Department of Mining Engineering, Osmangazi University, Eski§ehir, Turkey

ABSTRACT: The design of auxiliary ventilation systems for long drivages and tunnels requires the installa­
tion of multiple fans and it has vital importance. If the fans are installed next to each other air leakage in duct
is high. Therefore, the fans are installed in series and separated from each other by rigid ducts of fixed or
variable length. For a constant length duct design problem may be approached in two ways.
a) by deciding that the fans are installed at equal intervals and selecting the appropriate fans.
b) by selecting the optimum locations for fans of given characteristics.
In tins study, the design procedures of each approach are presented as solution algorithms. Each algorithm
comprises complex, time consuming and boring iterative calculation procedures. Thus, a computer package
program based on the algorithms has been developed. The algorithms and the computer program have been
applied on a selected long drivages.

1 INTRODUCTION along the length of ducting in order to avoid exces­

Auxiliary ventilation refers to systems that are used
to supply air to the working faces of blind drivages.
Ventilation of dead-end working places is the most
important application of auxiliary ventilation since
the auxiliary ventilation systems may be primary
means of assuring that standards of air quality and
quantity are met. The dilution of dust and gases and
the removal of heat are some of the primary reasons
for auxiliary ventilation.
Auxiliary ventilation may be applied into three
basis types, forcing, exhausting, and overlap sys­
tems. The choice between forcing and exhausting ar­
rangements depends mainly upon the pollutants of
greatest concern, dust, strata gas or heat (McPherson
1993).
Owing to limitations on the size of fans for un­
derground use and for economic reasons, multiple
fans are selected for long drivages (Vutukuri 1987).
In the design of an auxiliary ventilation system it is
necessary to consider the volume rate of air flow that
will be required at the face, the maximum length of
drivage, the size and type of fan that are needed and
requisite size and type of duct (Vutukuri 1984). For
long drivages, the resistance of the duct may become
so great that multiple fans connected in series must
be employed. If these are grouped as a cluster at the
outbye end of the ducting the high pressure will ex­
acerbate leakage. It is preferable to space the fans
sive pressures (McPherson, 1993).
2. AIRFLOW ANALYSIS IN LEAKY DUCTS
The best way to ventilate a dead-end working area is
to use auxiliary fans and ducting. Because of the na­
ture of the ducting and numerous joints, complete
elimination of leakage from or into the duct line is
impossible in practice (Vutukuri, 1987). It is neces­
sary to use two constants to define the characteristics
with a leaky duct. These:
1. Duct resistance : The duct resistance is similar
to an airway resistance and is expressed as pressure
loss for a given length at a given airflow. The units
adopted for practical purposes are Pa/100 m length
at 1 m^/s flow (Browning 1983).
2. Resistance coefficient of leakage paths : In or­
der to explain this term, first of all, leakage coeffi­
cient should be clarify. Leakage coefficient has been
defined as the volume of air in m^/s which would
leak from 100 m of ducting under a uniform pressure
of 1 kPa. If the resistance coefficient of leakage
paths is given in Ns^/m* for 100 m long duct, then
the relationship between leakage coefficient and re­
sistance coefficient of leakage paths is as follows
(Vutukuri 1983).

105
 1000
Resistance coefficient=-
(Leakage coefficien t
A few conversion factors between leakage coeffi­
cients and resistance coefficients of leakage paths
are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Leakage coefficient and resistance coefficient of
leakage paths equivalents
Leakage coefficient Resistance coefficient of leakage
m^/s/100 m at 1 kPa paths/100 m (NsVm*)
0.158 40000
0.316 10000
0.474 4444
0.632 2500
In practice all ducts leak to some extent and this
leakage provides air paths in addition to that of the
duct itself The longer the duct, the more leakage oc­
curs, leaving less air in the duct. The effective resis­
tance of a leaky duct is obtained when the resistance
of duct and leakage paths are combined. Combina­
tion of effective resistance curve of the duct with the
pressure-volume characteristics curve of the fan
permits the operating data for the fan to be calcu­
lated (Robinson & Wharton 1980).
The volume rate of the air flow at the face in the
calculated by the method mentioned below.
3 DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD
In 1983, Vutukuri introduced an approach to design
an auxiliary ventilation system for long drivages.
Here, the duct and leakage path were assumed as a
series-parallel combination. Figure 1 gives a sche­
matic diagram of this model. Where Ra is the resis­
tance coefficient of all duct section and Ri is resis­
tance coefficient of leakage paths at all the joints.
Ri
Figure 1. Diagrammatic representation of a leaky
duct
The air enters the duct at (a) and leaves it at (f).
( 1) b,c,d and e are joints, and the leakage is at these
points. Equivalent resistance of the e -f:
1 1 1
(2)
Based on the (2) equation, Raf can be calculated
easily. If a fan is installed at (a), the operating point
of the fan is determined by calculating of the point
of intersection of the fan characteristic curve and the
duct resistance (Raf) curve, i.e. volume flow rate at
the fan (Qab) can be calculated. Qab splits into Qbc
and Qbf. Since bcdef and bf are in parallel, duct
leakage (Qbf) is calculated following formula:
(3)
In a similar way, duct leakage per unit length can
be calculated.
4. DESIGN OF AUXILIARY VENTILATION
SYSTEMS FOR LONG DRIVAGES
When a ventilation duct in a development end is ex­
tended, as the face advances, the air quality reaching
the face gradually decreases due to both the increas­
ing resistance of the duct and increasing leakage. In
long tunnels, it is frequently necessary to use fans in
series placed at intervals along the duct line. For a
constant length duct, design problem may be ap­
proached in two ways:
a. by deciding that the fans are installed at equals
intervals and selecting the appropriate fans.
b. by selecting the optimum locations for fans of
given characteristics.
The important principle in the design of auxiliary
ventilation system using multiple fans spaced in se­
ries in long duct lines is: each of the fans must over­
come the resistance of motion arising over the sector
of ventilation duct line between it and fan immedi­
ately following it (Vutukuri 1987).
In the design of auxiliary ventilation systems the
following data must be known:
1. Maximum length of the duct line
2. Air quantity requirements
3. Characteristics of the duct (i.e. diameter, fric­
tion factor and resistance coefficient of leakage
paths)
4. Fan characteristics
The detailed calculations are given in the follow­
ing design application.
106
5. DESIGN APLICATION
The following design parameters were used:
Required volume rate at the face: 8.2 m^/s
Duct length : 3000 m
Duct diameter : 0.76 m
Duct friction factor : 0.0038 Ns^W
Ri /lOO m : 69300 N s W
For the above information, the following parame­
ters need to be determined :
1. If six fans are located at equal intervals i.e.
0,500,1000,1500,2000 and 2500 m locations along
the duct, calculate the operating points for all the
fans.
2. The number of fans required along the duct line
and the distance between them. The pressure/volume
flow rate characteristics of the fans is given in
Table 2.
Table 2, Fan characteristics
Volume flow rate, m^/s Pressure, Pa
7.9 3520
9.66 3180
11.41 2600
13.17 1910
3. If the number of fans calculated in 2 are all sited
together in series outbye of the drivage, what quality
of air will reach the face?
4. If 1 m diameter duct is selected instead of 0.76 m
diameter duct, how many fans will be required ?
5.1 Constant fan spacing
In this case, fans are located at every 500 m, thus the
duct is divided into six divisions of equal length. A
fan is needed for each division and the operation
point of these fans are determined. Each division
consists of five segments of equal length. Forcing
system using fans in series at equal intervals within
the drivages is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2.Plan view of an auxiliary ventilation system
107
The calculations have been explained step by step
below.
1. The duct resistance of 100 m length is deter­
mined using the Atkinson’s resistance equation.
R = k xLx C (4)
d A3
where k= friction factor for the duct
L= duct length (m), C= duct perimeter (m),
A= cross-sectional area of the duct (m^).
Based on the equation (4), the following resis­
tance was calculated for the duct of 100 m length.
Rd=9.71842 N s W
2. The effective resistance (Re) of the network was
determined by using the Figure 3.
69300
Figure 3. Ventilation network for division 1
For the parameters in Figure 3, the effective resis­
tance of the network was calculated Re=44.985
NsVm*.
3. A Qab value was assumed. In this design study,
Qab was assumed to be 10 m^/s.
4. The volume rate (Q b c) passing through b-c is
calculated from:
Qbc Qab“Q bf (5)
Qbf was calculated by using Equation (3) and the
following results were obtained:
Qbf=0.2256 m^/s
Qbc=9.7744 mVs
In a similar way, volume rate and leakage quantity
through duct can be calculated. Therefore, volume
rate (Qef) reaching the face will be 9.314 m^/s.
5. Determine the volume increase ratio (VIR):
Volume ratehandled by the fan (Q^^)
VIR = --------- ----------------------------------- (6)
Volume rate reaching the face )
VIR was calculated 1.0737. Therefore, for the
above conditions, the fan operating point was given
in the last two steps.
 6. Determine the fan volume flow rate (Qn):
- -28.33754Q^ + 288.993Q^ + 3012.26 (9)
Qfl was determined by using the following for­
mula.
Qfi=VIRx volume rate required at the face (7) The duct resistance curve is represented by the
Qn=1.0737x 8.2=8.80434 mVs following equation:
7. Determine the fan pressure (Pn):
This pressure is calculated from: P = 9.718Q^ ( 10)
Pfi=Rex (Q nf (8)
Pn=44.985x (8.80434)^=3487.08 Pa The point of intersection of these two curves gives
After selecting the first fan, it is required to calcu­ the Qf. Owing to no leakage paths, leakage is zero.
late the operating points for the second fan. In this Therefore, volume rate reaching the face is Qf.
stage, volume rate reached to the first fan must be Because calculated Qf value is bigger than volume
8.80434 m^/s. Therefore, the network showed in rate required at the face, iteration procedure is re­
Figure 3 was used except for the flow rate which has peated for the times of 100 m. Iteration procedure is
been increased from 8.2 to 8.80434 mVs. In same continued until the volume rate reaching the face is
fashion, the operating point of the other fans were lower than the volume rate required the face. Ac­
calculated and the results obtained were summarized cording to design parameters, first fan is located be­
in Table 3. tween 400 and 500 m. The network of the duct
length of 500 m was shown in Figure 3. Effective
resistance of this network is 44.985 Ns^/m^ and
Table 3. Summary of the fan operating point volume rate handled by the fan (Qf) is 8.676 m^/s.
Fan Spacing * Quantity Fan Pressure Power Volume rate reached the face is calculated 8.081
No. m m^/s Pa kW m^/s. Therefore, volume increase ration (VIR) will
500 8.804 3487.071 30.7
1000 9.453 4020.005 38 be 1.0737. In order to reach the volume rate required
1500 10.150 4634.390 47.039 at the face, volume rate handled by the fan must be
2000 10.898 5342.672 58.224 8.80434 m^/s. In this condition (i.e. for the duct
2500 11.701 6159.203 72.070
3000 12.564 7100.526 89.208 length of 500 m), the first fan is insufficient to reach
* Distance measured from duct outlet
the volume rate required the face and the duct length
(i.e. effective resistance of the duct) must be
reduced.
Air distribution through the duct line is given in In order to find the reduced duct length, it is used
Figure 4. a design parameter called added resistance (Ra).
This is a dummy resistance which is added to the re­
sistance of airway (Calizaya&Mousset-Jones 1993).
< ---- > < ----> < ....... >
The reducing duct resistance is calculated follow­
Leakage ing formula:
flow
0.863 ^ 0.803 0.748 0.697 0.649 0.604 mVs
(r +Ra)x
+ RalxQ^ =aQ^ bQ^ +c ( 11)
^ --- € ^ ^ ^^--------
12.564 11.701 10.898 10.15 9.453 8.804 8.2
where R«=44.985 Ns^/m^ and Q ^8.80434 m^/s.
Figure 4. Flow distribution From the solution of the above equation, Ra is calcu­
lated -1.639 Ns^/m^ and from the Atkinson’s re­
5.2 Constant fan size sistance equation, reducing duct length is obtained
-17 m.
In this case, it is assumed that fans of the required Therefore, optimum length for the first fan is es­
capacity are available and all off the fans are equal timated to be equal to 483 m. Finally, the fan operat­
in size. The problem is to determine the number of ing point is determined by updating the duct effec­
fans and the spacing of these along the duct line so tive resistance and solving the corresponding
that the face is ventilated adequately. Maximum duct network. For the new condition (i.e. L=483 m), the
length of a single fan that will be able to supply the fan operating point is given by:
required volume flow rate of air at the face is calcu­ Qfi=8.78 m3/s Pfi=3364.992 Pa
lated. The calculations were started by assuming an In order to determine the location of the second
arbitrary length (L) and solving the network. The fan, the required flow rate is changed from 8.2 to
procedure can be summarized as follows. 8.78 m^/s. The same approach is used to determine
For a length of 100 m, duct resistance is 9.718 the location of the remaining fans. When the total
Ns^/m^. Because there is no leakage paths through distance exceeds the total duct length, the last fan
the duct length of 100 m, effective resistance of the can be located at the beginning of the duct. Based on
duct line will be 9.718 NsVm^. Fan characteristics these calculations, it is found that 10 fans are re­
curve is represented by: quired. Their positions are shown in Figure 5.

108
 as a series-parallel combination and presented five
different design alternatives. The three alternatives
of the main menu are related to auxiliary ventilation
calculations in short headings. The other two
alternatives concern two different approaches in the
design of the long auxiliary ventilation systems. Pro­
gram was tested for sample application, the collected
results were compared and it is proved that program
works. By using this program, the calculations have
been completed in very short time and the probabil­
ity of making errors has been eliminated.

Figure 5. Location of fans along the duct line 7. CONCLUSIONS

There are two methods in the design of the long aux­

Table 4 shows a summary of fans operating iliary ventilation systems. These methods can be
points. summarized as constant fan spacing and constant fan
size. If the fans are placed at the end of the duct,
leakage will increase due to the high combined pres­
Table 4, Summary of the fan operating point sure.
Fan Spacing * Quantity Fan Pressure Power The design application has shown that 10 fans
No. m m^/s Pa kW
would be required to supply the ventilation of 8.2
1 483 8.781 3364.992 29.547
2 892.668 9.286 3252.349 30.201 m^/s at the face. If 10 fans are located together in se­
3 1252.762 9.694 3150.832 30.543 ries at the beginning of the duct, the volume flow
4 1573.123 10.066 3049.891 30.701 rate of air reaching the face will be only 4.903 m^/s.
5 1866.514 10.349 2968.120 30.716
6 2136.505 10.616 2886.597 30.644 If 1 m diameter duct is selected instead of 0.76 m di­
7 2385.870 10.869 2805.574 30.495 ameter duct, only 4 fans will be required.
8 2616.916 11.110 2725.165 30.277 The program called SERIP can be used to exam­
9 2831.563 11.340 2645.334 29.998
10 3000 11.451 2129.668 24.387 ine the effects of positioning the fans at varying dis­
* Distance measured from duct outlet tances along the duct and determine the appropriate
locations.
5.3 Fans are sited in series outbye o f the drivage
If 10 fans are grouped as a cluster at the outbye end REFERENCES
of the drivage, the quantity of air reaching the face
will be 4.903 m^/s. Browning, F.J. 1983. An approximate method for
auxiliary ventilation calculations. The Mining
Engineer : 129-134.
5 .4 Selection o f 1 m diameter duct Calizaya, F. & P. Mousset-Jones 1993. A method of
Ri is inversely proportional to the square of the duct designing auxiliary ventilation systems for long
diameter (Vutukuri 1987). Therefore, Ri for 1 m duct single underground openings. Proceedings o f the
is 40027.68 Ns^/m^. When 1 m diameter duct is se­ US Mine Ventilation Symposium : 245-250.
lected, a total of 4 fans will be required. McPherson, M.J. 1993. Subsurface ventilation and
environmental engineering :Chapman & Hall.
Robinson, R. & P.B. Wharton 1980. Auxiliary
6. A PACKAGE COMPUTER PROGRAM ventilation systems - planning and application.
Proc. In f Symposium on Methane, Climate,
The methods used in the design of the long auxiliary Ventilation in the Coal Mines o f the o f the
ventilation systems require long and complex calcu­ European Communities, Luxembourg. 476-499.
lations. These are time consuming and tedious proc­ Vutukuri, V.S. 1983. Air leakage in ventilation
esses. The probability of making errors during the ducting and the design of auxiliary ventilation
process of calculations is quite high. For that reason, systems. The Mining Engineer. 143: 37-43.
the use of computers for the design of the long duct Vutukuri, V.S. 1984. Principle of design of auxiliary
line provides easiness and accuracy to the ventilation ventilation systems for long drivages. The Coal
engineer. Journal .\S -2 \.
For this reason, a package computer program Vutukuri, V.S. 1987. Design of auxiliary ventilation
called SERIP has been developed. Program has systems for long drivages. Transactions o f the
based on the approach that the duct and leakage path Institution o f Engineers, Australia. CE29.

109
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Prediction o f Sarcheshm eh copper m ine blasting operation effects

on nearby structure

M.G.Osanloo & H.Bakhshandeh

Department of Mining and Metallurgy, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
AJavaherian
Institute of Geophysics, University o f Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT: A mathematical model has been developed to predict the effect of particle velocity operation on
the near by structures such as dispatching station, leaching and oxide dump locations. In this study 57 resultant
of ground motion components from eleven mine blasting operations were recorded by digital seismograph
PDAS 100. These vibration components were analysed by DADISP and Winsurf software. Using Excel
programme, the mathematical model was developed, based up on this model the safe distance from blasting
operation of Sarcheshmeh copper mine is estimated to be 310 meter for at most 7100 kg explosive charge per
delay.

1 INTRODUCTION mine blasting operations on the near by structures

such as dispatching station, oxide dump locations.
Ever since explosive were discovered and developed
for mining purposes, there has existed the problem of
2 MINE CONDITIONS
what would be the effects of surface mine blasting on
the near by structure. As a result, many investigations Sarcheshmeh copper mine is located in 160 kilometer
have been made concerning the effects of vibration at south west of Kerman province of Iran between
from surface mine blasting. But still there is not 31°2' latitude and 56°T longitudinal (Fig.l).
available and adequate set of standards to predict the
damage caused by surface mine blasting. One of the
first studies was made in 1927 by Rock Well, he
concluded that surface blasting would not cause any
damage to any stmctures or hurt any people that
were 60-90 meters from a surface blast, he believed
the effect of vibration depended upon charge size and
distance (Birch & chaffer 1983). Following this
period, F.J Crandel in 1950 made the major
contribution to the research of damage to structure,
his effort was based up on vibration level in the
ground at the location of the structure (Osanloo
1980). Between 1950 and 1999 demand for
additional information on the vibration problem from
surface mine blasting increased (Singh & Vogt 1996)
and (Roy 1998).
A serious problem now existed in determining
how near to an existing structures, a surface mine
can safely conduct blasting operators(Seams 1996).
The objective of this study is to develop a new
particle velocity equation to predict and evaluate the Figurel. shows the general location of Sarchesh-
ground vibration resulting from Sarcheshmeh copper meh copper mine of Iran.

111
Kerman province is positioned in about south east of
Iran, the nearest town to Sarcheshmeh mine is
Rafesanjan. The average height of the mine relative
to sea level is 2600 meter, the yearly temperature is
ranged between -15°C to +33°C and the rainfall at
the highest point of mine is 500 millimeter per year.
The mine shape is elliptical and larger diameter is
2300 meter, small diameter is 1200 meter.
Sarcheshmeh mine have two plans, one called
primary plan and the second plan is named expansion
plan. The primary plan designed for 20 years. In
primary plan 40000 tonnes ore with average 1.2
percentages Cu per day must be mined. To approach
this large amount of ore about 40000 tonnes waste
must be removed (ODE 1998). The blastholes
diameter depended on the type of drills available,
type of rocks and explosives are 7^/g", 9" and 9^/g"
and hole depth is 15 meter. The blasthole are drilled
by BE-45R, IR-DMH and IR-T4. The drillhole
pattern for hard rock is 8.5x6.5m for medium rock is
9x7m and for soft rock is 9.5x7.5m. Also the type of
explosives are used in Sarcheshmeh mine are
depended on the type of rocks and hole conditions,
Figure 2. shows the procedure of modeling.
112
varied from ANFO to Emolite, Emolan, and
Dynamite. The primer is made of dynamite and the
weight of booster per hole is about half of kilogram.
All blast holes are blasting with MS delay No. 9, 17,
25, 35 and 65. In the near future the Sarcheshmeh
copper mine is going to use semi- dispatching system
to optimize their haulage operation. Based up on this
design the dispatching station is builded in
coordination of 2600N and 1700E of mine. Two
major leaching processing plants are located in
dumps No. 10 and 11. These dumps are locating in
south of mine.
3 MODELING PROCEDURE
To develop general model for predicting peak
particle velocity from blasting operation of
Sarcheshmeh copper mine the procedure of modeling
were divided in two parts (Fig.2). The first part
included the determination of scaled distance and the
second part of procedure included the determination
of peak particle velocity.
3.1 Preparing the blasting pattern
During 12-17-98 to 12-28-98 eleven blasting patterns
were prepared by Autocad software. At this stage all
blastholes parameters and quantity of blasting
charge per period were determined. The type of
explosives used were ANFO and Emolan, the
number of blastholes per each round ranged between
19 to 73 with 9" and 9^/g'' diameter. The minimum
and maximum explosives per round were 1290 and
26000 kg.
3.2 Scaled distance determination
The coordinations of 11 blasting blocks and 57
seismographs were determined and lay downed on
Sarcheshmeh copper mine map with V5000 scale. The
distance from center of shot and measured points
were estimated. Calculating the quantity of
explosives used per row and the distance between
shot points to measured points the scaled distance for
various root of explosives weight were calculated.
I l l 2 period-kg. Figure 4 shows the relation between peak
These various root were U , / s , I2 and /s.
3.3 Data recorded
The motion of the vibrated earth were measured and
recorded by digital seismographs PDAS 100 which
had three in dependent sensor units at right angle to
each other. To recognize the shape and conditions of
vibration waves the data recorded by each
seismograph were analysed by DADISP software
(SASI 1985). Then peak particle velocity of each
component of seismograph was readed(Fig.3).
Figure 3. Particle velocity measured by PDAS in
blast number 49 at Sarcheshmeh copper mine.
3,4 Data analysis and model developed
From 57 data recorded by seismography 51 data
were selected for final analysis. Each of this 51 data
had three components therefore 153 components
were under consideration for finther analysis. The
resultant peak particle velocity determined by
113
combining the components particle velocity using the
following relationship;
ppv = (1)
Where PPV= resultant peak particle velocity; PPVv =
vertical component of peak particle velocity; =
longitudinal component of peak particle velocity; and
PPVt = transverse component of peak particle
velocity.
To obtain the best model for predication of peak
particle velocity the general model for four
conditions; linear, logarithmic, power and
exponential were analysed by Excel software and at
the end the best model for predication of peak
particle velocity at Sarcheshmeh copper mine with
standard deviation of 2.95 is developed to be;
- 1.2643
P P F - 267.141 ^ 1 (2)
Where PPV = Peak particle velocity -mm/sec;
d=distance-m; and w is the weight of charge per
particle velocity and scaled distance.
10
COE
•I I
scale distance (m/kg'^0.5)
Figure 4. shows the relation between peak
particle velocity and scaled distance.
3,5 Determination o f safe distance
Based upon on model for peak particle velocity
developed in this study the safe distance for
dispatching station and leaching area of Sarcheshmeh
copper mine was calculated. In this calculation the
safe particle velocity is assumed to be 50.8 millimeter
per second and the most charge consumed per period
was 7100 kilogram. Therefore the safe distance is;
50.8 - 267.14 (3)
W 7100J
Where d = 313m
Based on d = 313m and coordination of leaching
plant which is located in 450E- 1100 E and
Figure 5. shows the locations of leaching and dispatching relative to final pit limits.
2800N-3500N the leaching area is in safe zone but
dispatching station which is located in the area with
coordination of 1700E and 2600N is in the hazard
zone therefore the Sarcheshmeh mine operation must
take some caution steps in order to prevent damage
to dispatching system caused from blasting operation
of final pit limits(Fig.5).
4 RESULT
From analysed of 51 data recorded by seismograph
and 151 vertical, longitudinal, transverse components
resulted from 11 blast at Sarcheshmeh copper mine
the peak particle velocity model has been developed.
This model is based on the power equation and has
square root of charge per period. From the equation,
the safe distance for leaching area and dispatching
station were calculated.
5 CONCLUSIONS
1. Analysing the all data collected from 11 blasting
operations of Sarcheshmeh copper mine the new
particle velocity model has been developed.
2. This model is not linear neither logarithmic but
power with square root of explosive weight per
period.
3. Based on last conditions of blasting operations
the safe distance from center of blasting area is
calculated to be 313 meter.
114
4. Based on safe distance the present location of
leaching area is not in dangerous area.
5. Based on safe distance calculated in this study
and present location of dispatching station at
Sarcheshmeh mine, the dispatching station is in
dangerous area.
6 REFERENCES
Brich, W.J. & R. Chaffer. 1983 . Prediction of
ground vibration from blasting on open cast site.
Transactions o f the institution o f mining and
Sect. A: 103-107.
Office of Design and Engineering 1998. Brief review
o f Sarcheshmeh mine situation. Sarcheshmeh
copper mine complex, Tehran- Iran.
Osanloo, M. 1980. Drive an analytical model which
can describe and illustrate the vibration (motion as
well as propagation) of under ground roof and
pillar as a result of surface mining blast, the blast
location is directly above the underground mine
working. Portion o f PhD program, university of
Oklahoma, Norman, USA.
Roy, P.P. 1998. Characteristics of ground vibration
and structure response to surface and
underground blasting. Geotechnical and
 geological engineeringyo\. 16, No. 2:151-167
London, UK.

Sams, F. 1996. Application of computer assisted

modeling to blast design and evaluation in surface
mining. 26th International symposium application
o f computers and operations research in the
mineral industry, Colorado: 115-120

Signal Analysis Software for IBM PC/XT(SAST)

1988. The dadisp worksheet.

Singh, P.K. ,W. Vogt, R.B.Singh, & D.P. Singh

1996. Blasting side affects - investigation in an
open cast coal mine in India. International journal
o f surface mining and reclamation and
environment.^ o\. 10:155-159.

115
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

D evelopm ent o f the decentralized control m athem atical m odel for the potash
m ine transport system

Gennadiy Pivnyak & Victor Tkachov

National Mining University of Ukraine, Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: Analysis results of freight flows in potassium pits are presented, giving the base to formulate
the freight flows control criteria by defining the relation between input values, freight flow limits are set.
Decentralized control provides the increase in reliability and robustness of automation systems.
There has been developed a mathematical model of a potassium mine transportation system at decentralized
freight traffic control. The data of the model are to be used in the development of the rules of the microproc­
essor behavior in a decentralized system.

INTRODUCTION trol methods. In this case, the ore transfer regulation

methods with changing conveyor speeds are unac­
The potash ore transportation from a mine to a sur­ ceptable. In this connection it is necessary to search
face is made by means of skip hoists. The special for the solution of the specified task at an entrance
bunker of large capacity (common to the whole mine of the conveyor line, taking into account the trans­
bunker (CWMB) is equipped in the pit-bottom for port delay.
maintenance of rhythm and uninterrupted operation The generalized technological transport circuit
of rising the ore. The main function of the CWMB is of the branched potash mine conveyor network is
accumulation and further transmission of the potash given in the figure 1.
ore. The extracted ore with the help of mining vehi­
cles is delivered and reloaded in the pit-bottom. Fur­
ther it is reloaded to the skip. Thus, the CWMB, on
the one hand, is an intermediate link and buffer in
the ore transportation circuit to the surface. On the
other hand it is the finishing part of the mine subsur­
face transport circuit.
Under conveyor delivery the ore is transported
along the conveyor routes from the excavation sites
to the pit-bottom and is dumped into the CWMB.
The possible total productivity of excavation sites
and transport lines essentially exceeds productivity
of rising the ore. Therefore the CWMB is frequently
overloaded during a working shift. That results in
Fig. 1 Potassium pit conveyor transport layout.
the compelled stop of the appropriate transport
routes. Such operating mode is adverse for conveyor
lines. To change the mode it is necessary to balance We shall consider the basic features of the given
the ore-flows passing through the CWMB. In es­ circuit to learn whether an opportunity of the freight
sence controlling the ore level of the CHMB by flow stabilization exists.
regulating the entry freight flow is involved. The freight flow coming to the CWMB includes
Nowadays a conveyor stock of potash mines in­ the freight flows of the panel directions Qi, Q2, ...
cludes standard one-high-speed conveyors. This cir­ Qn which in their turn consist of the ones of excava­
cumstance restricts the selection of freight flow con­ tion sites (drifts) R. The panel directions are
equipped with bunkers PBi, PB2, ..., PBn to average

117
and stabilize an ore-flow icoming from the drifts. It
makes possible to average the stochastic characteris­
tics of the drifts freight flow. At the same time it al­
lows to receive the determined characteristics of Qi,
Q2 , Qn by controlling the ore release from the
panel bunkers. Certainly such modes are possible
when the total productivity of the drifts of the i-th
panel exceeds productivity of the ore release from
the bunker of this panel. Otherwise the ore is not
colleed in PB passing through it into a conveyor-
main. However such operating modes of bunkers are
observed seldom. They take place when, for what­
ever reasons, a part of the excavating equipment
stops working and the productivity of drifts is
sharply reduced. The ore accumulation in the panel
bunker can be created artificially delaying the proc­
ess of extraction for a certain time to make the proc­
ess of ore release on the conveyor-main controlled.
That is simple to check by sensors of the given
level.
The solution of the freight flow control task, be­
sides the basic purpose to achieve the balance be­
tween the amount of incoming to CWMB ore and
the amount of the skips discharged ore, is related to
the second task solution, which consists in operative
ore quality control. In the work [1] the economic and
technological expediency of the preliminary, potash
salt contents average of the ore coming on concen­
tration is proved. First of all it is related with impos­
sibility of the operative wide range readjustment of
the concentrating mill equipment. Usually it is ad­
justed on the average potash contents in the initial
ore and does not change for a long time.
Mixing rich and poor ores coming from various
places of a mining excavation makes the potash con­
tents average. The process of average may take place
both on conveyors by means of stratifying and in
bunkers by means of mixing. On regarding the con­
veyor transport technological circuit, given in the
figure, it is visible that mixing may occur in the
panel bunkers, on main conveyors and in the
CWMB. To control the process of average it is nec­
essary to find out the individual share of every aver­
aging unit.
The mass share of potassium chloride in coal­
beds changes differently. Thus, in the Verkhne-
kamensk potash ore deposit’s working layer
“Krasny-2” the range of fluctuations is 23-32,4 %, in
the layer “A” - 55,8-60 %, in the layer “B”- 36,8-
38,7 %, in the layer “V” - 29,6-32,8 %. It is neces­
sary to note that the salt changes its structure inten­
sity along the layer negligibly. Nearhomogeneous on
structure ore goes into the panel bunker. The given
analysis shows that the individual share of the panel
bunkers during averaging is insignificant and the ba­
118
sic process of mixing should be made on main con­
veyors and in the CWMB.
On the basis of stated it is possible to formulate
the freight flow control criterion. That is deviation
from the given mass share value of the potassium
chloride in the ore, discharging from CWMB, should
tend to the minimum.
L = (AF)^ min, (1)
where AF - the ore quality deviation from given.
Thus, the control system should support the given
ore level in CWMB. This condition might be con­
sidered as a restriction on the total freight flow com­
ing to the CWMB.
Hence it is necessary to adjust the deviation of
ore quality - AF and to maintain the ore level of the
CWMB within the given limits during the freight
flow control.
H > H > F I (2)
where Hmax and Hmin - given borders of the ore level
change in the CWMB; H - a current ore level in the
CWMB.
H and AF - outputs for the control object. As
was shown above, the ore quality scatter in the
freight flows Oi, Q2,..., Qn, with respect to each
other, has an essential influence on F. AFi of the i-th
freight flow is as follows
af ; - f. (3)
where F - required ore quality; AFj - a potassium
chloride mass share deviation from given F in the
freight flow Qi arriving on the conveyor-main from
the i-th PB; Fi - a potassium chloride mass share in
the ore freight flow (e.g. the ore quality).
The ore level in the CWMB (H) depends on:
- the freight flows - Qi (I, 2..., N);
- the freight flow - Qsk - volumetric ore consump­
tion unloaded from the CWMB into skips (see the
figure).
In addition to the listed values AFi, Qi, Qsk the
control object outputs are liable to influence of some
other values. For example they are; the material
spilling during transportation, the ore quality disper­
sion in PB with respect to AFi, etc. However, their
influence is not enough and they might be neglected.
Hence the values AFi, Qi, Qsk are control object in­
puts.
Further we can determine connection between
input and output control object values through ob­
ject’s parameters.
The ore volume - Vi unloaded from the i-th PB onto
the conveyor-main within a period “t” can be deter­ s s =1 0
mined by the following expression.
where Vo/S - the ore level in the CWMB at a zero
moment of time; S - the cross-section area of the
(4) CWMB.
An analysis of the expressions (1) - (10) has
shown that the disturbing values Si do not affect on
where Qi - ore release productivity from i-th PB,
the output value H. However they affect on the value
m/s.
AF. As AF is a deviation of the ore potassium chlo­
Under simultaneous ore unloading from several
ride mass share from required value then
N-panel bunkers to the conveyor-main the ore vol­
ume amounts to the sum of volumes Vi.
AF = F . - F , (11)

(5) where ¥ji - valid ore quality in the CWMB; F - re­

1=1 0
The unloading from the i-th PB ore gets to the
CWMB at Ti. Interval Xi depends on speed of con­
veyors (ui) and length of a conveyor route from i-th
PB up to the CWMB (li)
quired ore quality.
A volumetric potassium chloride share (Vksi) in
the ore determines the valid quality of the ore which
incomes to the bunker within a period t.
( 12)

(6)
V
Total amount of the potassium chloride, incoming to
the CWMB within a period t, is determined by the
Hence it is possible to express the total ore amount,
sum of volumes V k s i -
getting to the CWMB within period ti, through the
ore release productivity Q as follows;
V K ^ = T V K s ,= T ^ ‘jQ > (t-r,)di, (13)
z=l J=1 0
V\ (7)
=1 0
where Fi -quality of the ore in the i-th PB.
Volume of the ore unloaded into skips from the
From expressions (7), (12), (13) we shall receive
CHMB is determined like this

Vsc=\Q scit)dt, (8) (14)

where Qsk - an average productivity of skip hoists.
Hence the volume of the ore in the bunker - V o v b is
determined by a difference between volumes of get­
ting in and unloaded ore
i=l 0
Let's determine connection between the input value
AF and the output values Fi, Qj. From the equations
(11) and (14) we shall receive

-■ V 'o ^(t)+ V ,-V ^it), (9)

AF =Fj,-F= -F =
where Vo - initial ore volume in the bunker.
The connection between output value H (the ore «•=1 0
level in the CHMB) and input values Qi (i = 1, 2..., 'tF 'jQ X t-r,)d t-F Y lQ ,(,t-T ,)d t
N) can be determined from the expressions (7) - (9)
( 10) ( 15)

V V' yscO )
H = ^

119
. J 2 I________ Q__________ = 0__________

Z lQ X ‘-r,)dt 't\Q ,g -T ,)d t

The expressions (10) and (15) represent a mathe­

matical model of the control object. The general
view of this model can be presented in the vector
form

H = M Q ,P J )
(16)
A F ^ M Q ,P ,t^ A F y

where Q = (Qi, Q2, , Qn) - a vector of the volu­

metric consumption; F = (AFi, AF2,..., AFn) - a vec­
tor of the ore quality; P = (h, I2, In, Vn) - a vec­
tor of the control object parameters; t - time.
Proceeding from the received ratio the criterion of
control (1) can be expressed as a functional

j;^AFjQXt-r,)dt
L= -> mm. (17)

¿=1 0

Changing values Qi we can operate the value AF, as

the values Fi are constant for every PB.
The expression (10) is also the function

H„ + - ¿ jQ (t-T ,)d t-} (ic (t)d t

1=10

from Qi, with the value H restricted by the expres­

sion (2)

Thus, the expression (18) restricts the total freight

flow.
As the criterion of control (17) as well as connec­
tions between input and output control object values
( 10), (15) and restrictions (18) are determined and
formalized so at the task connected with the freight
flow control can be considered as completely formu­
lated.

REFERENCE

VarshavsKy V.I. 1973, Collective behavior of auta-

mato . Moscow, Nauxa 308p.

120
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Estim ation o f the situation in the m ining output area

P. I. Ponomarenko & A. A. Askarov

National Mining University of Ukraine, Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: This work contains the method of geological situation computer prognosis on the route of pro­
jecting output adding the geo-mechanical programs like “CROVL” designed by the authors. Solution of the
problem is based on using Lagrange’s interpolation formula. This method allows to work out the recommen­
dations on mining output positions and protection and on bracing carriages installation selections.

When planning the realization of the workings, the
ways of their supporting and protection are chosen
on the basis of the analysis of mine and geological
conditions along the route of the designed working.
Usually, the designers take data about the seam
characteristics and enclosing rocks from the geo­
logical reports made by the geologists according to
the prospecting holes. The drilling of those holes is
expensive. Therefore, they are drilled in each 100
meters. That distance is too great value in the condi­
tions of the mining operations, especially in the me­
dium with thin stratification. The practical data tes­
tify to the fact that rocks can undergo the essential
changes on the plot of such length. Sometimes one
rock of the roof or ground can be replaced with an­
other one, and their thickness is widely changed.
The discrepancy of real mine and geological condi­
tions to the predicted ones leads to the mistaken
technical decisions when choosing the ways of sup­
porting.
nodes, and the values of some function f(x) in this
points f(xo)-yo, f(xj)=yi,...f(xn)=yn are given. It is
necessary to construct the function F(x) (interpola­
tion function), belonging to the known class and tak­
ing the same values as F(x) in the interpolation
nodes, that is, such that F(xo)=yo, F(x])=y
F(xn)=yr,
Geometrically it means, that it is necessary to
find the curve y=F(x) of some definite type, passing
through the given system of the points mjfxj,
yj)(i=0, 1, 2. ). In such general definition the prob­
lem may have the infinite set of solutions or may
have them at all. The problem becomes one-valued
if instead of the arbitrary function F(x) the polyno­
mial Pn(x) is sought with the degree no higher than
n, such t\l2tiPn(Xo)-yn, Pn(Xj )=yPnM^yn-
The received interpolation formula y^F(x) is
usually used for the approximating of the values of
the given fianction f(x) for the values of the argument
X , which are different from the interpolation nodes.

The drilling of the pre-prospecting holes from
the development workings is possible only after or
during realization of the workings. In connection
with that the prediction mining and geological plans
can be received with great time delay. The authors
designed a software, which allows to work out the
prediction plans, with the help of the computer,
along the route of the working at any place of the
mine field. The whole network of the prospecting
holes (categories A, B, C) of the mine field is used
as the source material. The solution of the problem
is based on the usage of the Lagrange's interpolation
formula, the algorithm of the solution in the general
form is given below. On the segment [a,b] n+1
points xo, X x „ , which are called the interpolation
The Lagrange’s interpolation formula was used for
the arbitrarily given interpolation nodes
y^
L„{x) = 7 7 „,,(x )^ , where
(x) = ( x - x j( x - x ,) ...( x - x „ ) .
For the solution of the problem the interpolation of
the function of two variables (x, y coordinates^
z=/{x, y) is done in succession for the each variable x
- type of rocks and>^ - current thickness of the seam.
The use of the program product is possible in the
geological services of the mines, research and pro-

121
ject institutions, which have a computer with a proc­
essor not lower than 486 and 2 MB RAM.
The data of the geological prediction along the route
of the designed working, received with the help of
the algorithm, give the possibility to consider the
leveling out (replacement) of the seams and the
changing of their thickness. The results are pre­
sented as plot material and tables. Introduction of
the data into the rated geo-mechanical programs al­
lows to achieve the increase in the accuracy of the
calculations and to improve the truth of the given
recommendations, and that is achieved by the fixa­
tion to the specific mine and geological conditions
of the plot of the mine field.
The work was tested at the mines of Donbas
“Luganskugol”, and the truth of the results was
defined according to the data received without the
prediction plans by the drilling of the pre­
prospecting holes from the workings. The conver­
gence of the results was 75%, as it is difficult for the
program to trace the fine mould inclusions and local
ones in the interval up to 35 m, splitting 1-1.5 m of
the rock layers.
In general the proposed method allows to esti­
mate qualitatively and quantitatively the geological
situation along the route of the designed working on
the stage of its designing, and in complex with geo­
mechanical programs of the “CROVL” type, de­
signed by the authors, to give the recommendations
in layout and protection of the development work­
ing, to choose the type and density of the installation
of the supporting fi-ames.

122
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Optim al developm ent o f the quarry’s working zone by the com plex deposits
exploitation

B.Rakishev & B.Gurjevsky

Kazak National Technical University named by K. Satpaev, Almaty, Kazakhstan
A.Begalinov
JSC ‘Oriengold\ Almaty, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT: Projecting of the quarries for the complex deposits working and planning of their effective
exploitation with maintenance of up-to-date demands of entrails rational development and environment
preservation is very complicated multifactor problem. The least labour-intensive way of its optimal solving
consists in determination in the first instance of the rational geometrical forms of the working zone at every
stage of the quarry exploitation by one or another criterion. Depending on complication of the developing
object minimum of the coefficient of stripping, mining mass, ratio: “profit”/“expenses” (coefficient of
expenseness) can be used as the criterion of the variants estimation. The integral criterion - the coefficient of
expenseness - allows to take into account the appropriateness of changing of geological data, the level of
complex use of mineral raw materials, technological possibilities of its excavation and processing,
conjuncture of the market, other economic and ecological demands.

1 DISCUSSION AND NEW OBSERVATION mining-geological and other conditions the

It is known that the character of ore bedding by
quality and quantity within the quarry’s field has
essential influence at the choice of direction and
development order of working zone at the
exploitating quarry. Issuing from it, regime of
mining works may be the optimal one only in case,
when the best meanings of geometrical dimensions
of the developing quarry have been achieved and the
choice of technological schemes provides these
parameters.
Thus, forestalling determination of rational
geometrical forms of the working zone at every
stage of its development is the strategic problem of
the quarry’s projecting. As a result, the basic variant
is determined, allowing to solve more substantiate^
the tactical questions of technological, technical
accompaniment of industrial processes.
The present theory and rich experience of the
quarries projecting show that for substantiation of
sought projecting decisions a store of methods of
working zone development optimal variants
searching and different criterions of their estimation
are used. All of them are joint with the fact that by
practical realization they demand application of
plane or volume stencils of the working zone
[Hohryakov,1992]. Depending on complication of
following criterions are used for variants estimation:
minimum of the current or average coefficient of
stripping, the coefficient of mining mass, the
average-suspended coefficient of mining mass;
maximum of meanings of conditionality coefficient,
adduced profit, etc. [ Hohryakov, 1992, Shitarev,
1990, Rakishev, 1999].
Our investigations have determined that position
and dimensions of working zone bottom must be
sought quantities. As the criterion of these
parameters estimation by the complex deposits
development the coefficient of expenseness can be
used [Rakishev, Gurjevsky, Imashev, 2000]. The last
one is determined as the ratio of total expenses for
exploitation of mining mass some volume (Zi) to
total value (profit) (Ci), being expected from its
realization, i.e.
Kz = Zi/Ci ( 1)
The working zone position at the t-th stage is
considered as the optimal one when the coefficient
of expenseness, determined for all the volume of its
given state, will be minimum and equal to the
meanings of the coefficients of expenseness by any
i-th cuts of the working zone. So, the criterion of
optimumness has a view:

123

min K ‘z= SZ'iÆC'i = Z i/C i = Z2/C2
= Z 3 /C 3 = .. .= Z i /C i. (2)
Direct realization of proposed method of optimal
forming of the quarry space, regime choice and
mining work calendar plan with using of criterion
(2) predetermines carrying out of mining-
geometrical calculations at a base of the quarry’s
bloc discrete model. Every bloc contains the
numeral meanings of the coefficient of expenseness,
received by mathematical treatment of the meanings
of ore volumes, its typosorts, passing minerals and
containing barren rocks. There is information here
about the other indices (for example, about the
square of breaking lands, depending on the given
bloc location, about expenses and profits, calculated
at the base of adopted financial data).
The meanings of the coefficients’ of expenseness
for every bloc, found along working boards slope
lines into four directions by axes X,Y, can be refered
to the one point, placed at its centre. By this bloc
structure of the model is transformed into the net-
knot one. It serves as a base for search of the
working zone optimal bottom at the considered
horizon by way of building of the expenseness
coefficient meanings isolines.
The net-knot structure of the deposit model
allows to consider it as three-dimensional matrix
measuring I*J*K (where I, J, K is amount of knot
points by coordinate axes OX, OY, OZ). The mattix
every element corresponds to the knot point of
model and is characterized by its space coordinates
and parameters for working with the volume-
qualitative indices: kind of mining mass, sort of ore,
content of mineral raw materials components, etc.
Such the aggregate of parameters allows to carry out
the mining-geometrical calculations and
determination of the expenseness coefficients using
mathematical apparatus of logical transformations
and algebraical actions at the matrix elements.
The operations set has the hierarchical structure
(fig.l), which defines sequence of operations
realization and their logical intercommunication.
Every elementary operation has its own functional
purpose and is marked conventionally by two-digit
numerical code. For example, for solving of the
problems with using of the volume - qualitative
indices:
01 (02) - picking-out of ores for mineral raw
materials according to conditions and calculation of
their volumes all over the deposit (within contours
of exploitation);
03 (04) - combined calculation of reserves by the
given sorts of mineral raw material all over the
124
deposit (within contours of exploitation);
05 - conferment of sort indication to the model
knot points, where the components content satisfies
conditions for the given sort;
06 (08) - combined calculation of ores volumes
(of extracting works) all over the deposit (within
contours of exploitation);
07 (09) - calculation of ores volumes (of
stripping works) all over the deposit (within
contours of exploitation);
10 (11) - calculation of metre-percentages by
every the component for the given sorts all over the
deposit (within contours of exploitation);
12 - calculation of components average content;
13, 16, 17 - calculation of the mining mass
coefficient meaning in different measure units
m^W , m^/t, t/t;
14 (15) - calculation of ore reserves (ore mass);
18 - calculation of the volumes of ore, rock and
mining mass in horizons and with accumulating
result;
19 - calculation of metal output by the given
component (t).
Solving of the concrete geological, mining-
geometrical, mining-technological or economic
problem is realized with using of the corresponding
graph of treatment (for example, fig. 16). It allows to
pick out from all the aggregate of elementary
operations the necessary ones, according to the
hierarchical structure and logical
intercommunication.
The elementary operations set allows to solve the
following problems:
- contouring of ores reserves by conditions for
mineral raw materials;
- ores grouping by the types and sorts, ore bodies,
horizons and plots;
- calculation of volumes and qualitative
characteristics of ores, calculation of rocks and
mining mass volumes all over the deposit and
within the given technological contours;
- calculation of the average, current and
contour coefficient of strip (of mining mass);
- calculation of volumes of ores and rocks with
differentiation by mineral raw material quality for a
series of the quarry working zone positions at the
alternative variants. It allows to define the volumes
distribution in space and to choose the most rational
variant of their development:
- calculation of the average stripping coefficient
(of mining mass) for the different variants of the
quarry border contours with the purpose of choosing
of the most rational one;
- according to the received volume-qualitative
indices to estimate the coefficients of expenseness at
 Figure 1. The structure scheme of elementary operations by the mining - geometrical calculations: a - the total
scheme; b - the graph of treatment; 1 - operation code, 2 - logical intercommunication OR, 3 - logical
intercommunication AND
the elementary blocs, working zone plots and within
its contours as a whole.
Methods of the net-knot model using for realization
of the mentioned method of quarry space forming
optimization consists in building of the closed
broken line, corresponding to the isoline of the
appointed weight meaning of the expenseness
coefficient. Coordinates of the points, the isolines
passes through, are determined by way of lineal
interpolation of mining-geological characteristics
meanings at the neighbour knot points of the model.
The algorithm brief description comes to the
following.
Among all the points at the considered n-th
horizon, forming the net-knot model of the
expenseness coefficient, the point [xi, yj] is chosen
with the minimum meaning of the expenseness
coefficient (Kzy), belonging to the every from above-
mentioned four directions. This value becomes the
reference-point by giving the weight meaning Kz of
the first and subsequent isolines.
Further, with the found point the four adjacent
ones along the axes X,Y are analysed. Among them
such points are considered where
the meaning K3 conforms to ratio, for example along
the axis Y
Kzii ^ Kz < K;-zij+l (3)
where Kzy and Kzij+i are the meanings of the
expenseness coefficient at the corresponding knot
points of the model; Kz - is the given weight
meaning of the expenseness coefficient, which for
the isoline building is realized.
125
Coordinates of the point (p) of intersection of
isoline, in the given case with the line Xp = i, are
calculated in accordance with lineal interpolation by
the formula:
Y p = Y i + ( K z p - K z ij ) * ( K z ij + i- K z i j ) /( Y j + i- Y j ) .( 4 )
In that way the coordinates of the sought point
[xp, yp] are determined.
Further, analogously the other point are analysed,
neighbour to the first one, where the expenseness
coefficient meanings along the corresponding
directions satisfy the conditions (3). New
coordinates of the points, which isoline will pass
through, are calculated. The process reiterates till the
isoline will be closed or reach the border field,
where it may have the break. The present algorithm
is used for building of all the isolines with the given
weight meanings of the expenseness coefficient.
Building fragment of isoline with the weight
meaning of the expenseness coefficient 0,35 for the
model plot has ben adduced at the fig. 2.
The received aggregate of isolines, which are the
contours of the working zone bottom at the plan of
the given horizon, determines the different cases of
position, form and dimensions of mining working
field. Their efficiency is different. The variant,
satisfying the condition (1), is the most preferable
among them by criterion of the expenseness
coefficient minimum from the beginning of the
quarry exploitation. Search of this variant is
accompanied by calculations of the expenseness
coefficient for all the space of one or another
working zone position.
 Exhibition of Turkey, Ankara, P.P. 101-105
Rakishev B.R.., Guijevsky B.A., Imashev Zh.R.
2000. Rational dimensions of the quarry’s current
bottom by the complex deposits exploitation. //
Mining information-analytical bulletin, M.,
MMSU,Xol,p.p. 167-169.

Figure 2. Scheme to building of isoline with the

weight meaning 0,35

2 CONCLUSION

1. The revealed strategy of the quarry’s working

zone optimal forming at every stage of its
development under concrete geological,
technological and economic conditions is the base
for well-reasoned and efficient solution of the
tactical questions of technological, technical and
organizing ensuring of such development.
2. The proposed methods allows to realize search
of optimal decisions by determination of position,
forms, dimensions of the bottom at the process of
stage development of working zone without
traditional use of its plane or volume stencil with the
given meaning of angle of the working board slope.
3. In addition the recommended criterion of
optimization takes into account natural law of
changing of geological and other conditions,
complexness of entrails and mineral raw material,
and also technological possibilities of its extraction
and treatment.

REFERENCES

Hohryakov V.S. 1992, The quarries projecting. M.:

Nedra, 360 p.
Shitarev V.G., 1990, Salmanov O.N. The quarries
parameters by entrails complex utilization. M.:
Nedra, 112 p.
Rakishev B., Gurjevsky B., Imashev Zn. 1999.
Criterion of optimal development of mining
works at the quarry. 16^^ Mining Congress and

126
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A com bined m ethod for the analysis o f m ine ventilation networks

S.Sarac
Faculty of Engineering, University of Mersin, Turkey
C.Sensogut
Department of Mining Engineering, University of Selguk, Turkey

ABSTRACT: Solving ventilation networks of natural splitting is a basic problem in mine ventilation. Several
mathematical techniques are used to solve this problem. This paper proposes a new method which combines
the advantages of both classical Hardy Cross method and unconstrained optimisation techniques. The trials
carried out on model networks have shown that the method offers some facilities in the analysis of mine ven­
tilation networks.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 MATHEMATICAL MODEL

In ventilation networks, the sum of the pressure
Mine ventilation networks can basically be classified drops along branches does not give total pressure
as the networks with natural splitting and the net­ drop of the network. However, the total air power
works with controlled splitting. In case of mine ven­ consumption in a network is equal to the sum of in­
tilation networks with natural splitting, the resis­ dividual power consumption along branches.
tance factors of all branches, fan locations and Therefore, a mathematical function which describes
coefficients of fan characteristic curves are known. total power consumption in the network can be taken
In this type of networks, the problem is to determine as objective function (Wang 1984).
the air quantities for all branches. For a ventilation network with (B) branches, (N)
Traditionally, a mine ventilation network is
solved by means of iterative techniques using Kir- nodes and (F) fans, the objective function to be
choff s current and voltage laws. The most popular minimised is given by;
one of these methods is the Hardy Cross Algorithm. 3 '
A number of computer programs based on this algo­ M , , B ( M )
rithm have been developed (Yalcin 1999). u = -
3 S^kiQ k
Despite their popularity. The Hardy Cross Method i=l i=M+l U = i j
and its modifications have some disadvantages.
They have uncertain convergence characteristics,
convergence to optimal solution and solution time
are highly dependent on the initial arbitrary air - S A iQ i+ | b í Q? + j QQ? ( 1)
quantities assigned for all branches. In order to i =A
overcome these
difficulties, some different solution procedures where R¡ = resistance factor for the branch i; Qi = air
based on several mathematical methods like linear quantity for the branch i; M = number of meshes (M
programming, non-linear programming and network = B - N -1- 1); bki = an element of the fundamental
analysing techniques have been proposed by several mesh matrix; and Ai, Bi, C¡ = coefficients for the fan
investigators (Ueng & Wang 1984; Wang 1984; i
Bhamidipati & Procarione 1986). In this form, it is an unconstrained minimisation
The purpose of this paper is to introduce a com­ problem with M unknown variables. Followings can
bined method for analysis of mine ventilation net­ be said about the objective function;
a- It is an unconstrained, increasing and non-linear
works with natural splitting and to discuss its appli­ model with multivariable,
cability. b- It is a convex, continuous and separable func­
tion,
c- It has only a single minimum point.

127
d- It is equal to one-third of the power that is con­
sumed in the system,
e- Its first partial derivative with respect to each of
the independent variables and gradient vector for
each point can be calculated,
f- It is a twice continuously differentiable function
and the Hessien Matrix can be derived.
There are M independent variables in the objec­
tive function. At the minimum value of this function,
the partial derivative of U with respect to each of the
independent variables must be zero. If this is real­
ised, M simultaneous non-linear equations with M
unknowns are derived. Since these equations are
equal to zero at the optimum point, they satisfy Kir-
choff s voltage law. In other words, the determina­
tion of the air quantities at the optimal point at
which the partial derivatives are sufficiently close to
zero gives the solution to the objective function.
3 NON-LINEAR PROGRAMMING
TECHNIQUES
Several non-linear programming methods can be
used to solve the objective function given above.
Amongst these methods. Gradient Techniques are
accepted as the fastest ones for the optimisation of
unconstrained models. In these methods, the prob­
lem is solved by using the gradient of the objective
function at the current point (Himmelblau 1972).
If a f(x) function is continuously differentiable,
this function has a V f(x) gradient at any x point. The
gradient at any x point is a vector whose elements
are the first partial derivatives of the function at that
point and gives the slope of the function at the cur­
rent point.
The greatest local increase in the function at any
point occurs when we move in the direction of the
gradient. Adversely, in the opposite direction of gra­
dient vector, the function shows the greatest de­
crease. In other words, the negative of the gradient
vector defines the direction of the most rapid de­
crease of f(x) and therefore this path is followed for
minimisation (Fiacco & McCormick 1968).
Of the non-linear programming techniques which
use the gradient of the objective function, the fun­
damental and the most simple one is the Steepest
Descent Method. The basic idea of the method is to
find successive points in the direction of steepest de­
scent starting from an initial point (Myskis 1975).
The method is an iterative procedure
The process begins at a pre-selected starting point
X° and the gradient of the objective function at this
point is calculated. The next point is determined
such that;
xk + l = xk-rkVf(xk) ( 2)
where, r*^ is a parameter called optimal step size.
This parameter defines the length of movement in
the direction of steepest descent without increasing
the function value. In other words, if a function is
defined such that;
128
h(r) = f(X^-rkVf(xk)) (3)
r*^ is the value of r minimising h(r). Since h(r) is a
single variable function, any one-dimensional search
method may be used to find the value of r*^
(Kowalik & Osborne 1968).
After the determination of the values of set,
the gradient vector at this point is evaluated and the
process is then repeated. When the elements of gra­
dient vector are sufficiently close to zero, the itera­
tive procedure is terminated. This satisfies the opti­
mality condition and gives the optimum solution set.
In the analysis of mine ventilation networks by
using the Steepest Descent Method, the following
algorithm can be proceeded;
Step 1 ; Select the meshes (M = B - N + 1)
Step 2 : Assign Q° initial point, £ tolerance level, k = 0
Step 3 : Evaluate VU(Qj^) (i = 1,2,..... ,M)
Assign P |‘ = -V U (Q f)
Step 4 : Calculate for all branches, ( J = l,2 ,.... ,N)
Step 5 : Evaluate the optimal step size such that mini­
mise
U(Q^ + r*'P^)
Use any one-dimensional method for this search
Step 6 : Find the successive point from “ Qj t-kok
f^ Pj
Step 7 : Do k = k+1, if pj < £ then stop.
Otherwise, return to Step 3.
When the procedure is terminated, the obtained
set gives the air distribution which minimises the
power consumption in the network.
In addition to the Steepest Descent method,
Fletcher-Reeves, Newton and Davidon-Fletcher-
Powell methods were also applied to the objective
function. Computer programs based on these algo­
rithms were written and tried on various model net­
works. The results obtained can be summarised as
follows;
a- Ventilation networks can be solved by means of
non-linear programming techniques, as well as
by Hardy Cross Method. The air quantities cal­
culated by these two approaches are reasonably
close to each other.
b- The optimisation techniques, except the Steepest
Descent Method, need less iterations than that of
Hardy Cross method. Nevertheless, this superi­
ority disappears for larger networks,
c- None of the non-linear programming techniques
is superior to Hardy Cross method with regard to
total solution time, since each iteration needs
time consuming procedures,
d- In Hardy Cross Method, the assignment of initial
air quantities as zero considerably increases the
solution time and the number of iterations.
 Therefore, non zero initial air quantities should
be assigned for all branches in the network, such
that Kirchoff s current law is satisfied. This is
also tedious, complicated and time consuming
process. However, in the application of non­
linear programming techniques, the assignment
of initial air quantities as zero does not signifi­
cantly affect the total solution time and the num­
ber of iterations. This feature can be regarded as
an important advantage for the optimisation
techniques.
e- Although the obtained point at the first iteration
falls far away from the optimum point in Hardy
Cross Method, a rapid convergence is observed
within later iterations. Excessive fluctuations do
not occur near the optimum point. However, an
adverse behaviour is seen in the application of
the optimisation methods. They nearly converge
to the optimum point even within the first few
iterations. Nevertheless, their later convergence
rates, especially near the optimum point are too
slow that leads to increased total solution time.
4 THE PROPOSED COMBINED METHOD
In order to benefit from the advantages of both
Hardy Cross Method and the unconstrained optimi­
sation techniques, a combined method has been de­
veloped. The combined method uses the Steepest
Descent Algorithm for the first few iterations, and
all air quantities nearly approach to the optimum
point at the end of this procedure. The method fol­
lows the Hardy Cross algorithm within the later it­
erations so that the convergence near the optimum
point can be accelerated.
The proposed algorithm can be given as follows;
Step 1 : Select the meshes (M = B - N + 1 )
Step 2 : Assign 8 tolerance level, k = 0, Q° = 0
Step 3 : Evaluate VU(Q^) , (i = 1,2,......,M)
Assign pK= - V U ( Q f )
Step 4 : Calculate P^ for all branches (J = 1,2,.... ,N)
Step 5 : Evaluate the optimal step size to minimise
u (1q :j+r*^Pj|)
; Wang, Y.J. 1984. A non-linear programming formulation for
Use quadratic interpolation method for this one-dimensional
search
Step 6 : Find the successive point + r^ P^
Step 7 : Do k = k+1, if k<2 return to Step 3
Step 8 : Calculate the correction (AQ) in the Hardy Cross
method for each mesh
Step 9 : Correct the air quantities
Step 10 : Do k = k+1, if |AQmax| < 8 then stop.
Otherwise return to Step 8
Since it is simple and needs less period for each
iteration than other non-linear programming tech­
129
niques, the Steepest Descent method has been used
in the first two iterations of this algorithm. A com­
puter program based on this algorithm was devel­
oped and tried on various model networks. Opera­
tion performance of the method was compared with
that of Hardy Cross Algorithm.
The combined method reaches to the optimum
solution in less iterations and period. Furthermore, it
does not need the assignment of non zero initial air
quantities. All air quantities can be initially assigned
as zero. This does not greatly affect the solution
time.
5 CONCLUSION
The classical Hardy Cross method and the Steep­
est Descent method which is the simplest one of the
non-linear programming techniques were combined
in the same algorithm. A computer program based
on this algorithm was written. Computational expe­
rience demonstrates that the proposed algorithm
converges the optimum solution very rapidly, re­
quires less number of iterations and needs less total
solution time when compared with the Hardy Cross
method. In addition to these advantages, the pro­
posed method eliminates the need for initial esti­
mates of airflow quantity.
REFERENCES
Bhamidipati, S. & Procarione, J.A. 1986. Non-linear pro­
gramming techniques for analysis of mine ventilation net­
works. Trans. Ins. of Min. and Metal. Eng., Vol. 95, A8-
A14.
Fiacco, A. & McCormick, G.P. 1968. Non-linear program­
ming - sequential unconstrained minimisation techniques.
John Wiley and Sons Pub. Co., New York.
Himmelblau, D.M. 1972. Applied non-linear programming.
Mc.Millan Pub. Co., New York.
Kowalik, J. & Osborne, M.R. 1968. Methods for unconstrained
optimisation problems. Elsevier Pub. Co., New York.
Myskis, A.D. 1975. Advanced mathematics for engineers. MIR
Pub., 157-158, Moscow.
Ueng, T.H. & Wang, Y.J. 1984. Analysis of mine ventilation
networks using non-linear programming techniques. Int. J.
Of Min. Eng., Vol. 2, 245-252.
mine ventilation networks with natural splitting. Int. J. of
Rock Mech. Min. Sci. and Geomech. Abs., Vol. 21, No. 1,
43-45
Yalcin, E. 1999. Controlled air distribution in mines with the
aid of ventilation networks with natural splitting. J. of Eng.
Eng. Fac. of Dokuz Eylul University, Vol.l, No. 2, 71-79,
Izmir.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Water balance and genesis o f the inflow s to som e m ines in Poland

J.Sawicki
Mining Institute, Technical University of Wroclaw, Poland

ABSTRACT: Water balance for the bigger inflow of 6 mine districts in Poland was drawn up by the author in
years 93-97. The results of the calculations of water inflow from the surface flow after precipitation, from co­
ne of depression and from groundwater renevable resources were described in this article. The inflows from
groundwater renevable resources were divided into two parts: inflow coming from the infiltration of precipi­
tation and the groundwater inflow from rivers and lakes. The depth of drainage of these mines and open-pits is
maximum about 200 m below ground level. Every drainage center formed an extensive cone of depression on
the area of 66-600 km^. Centers was treated as a separate “field laboratory”.

1 THE METHODS OF BALANCE

CALCULATION IN THE CENTRES OF MINE
GROUNDWATER DRAINAGE GENERAL
INSTRUCTIONS
In the years 1993-1997 the author drew up the
balance of water inflow for several mine districts in
Poland. The area of investigation was highly wa­
tered. Furthermore, the hydraulic connections be­
tween the dewatered layers and the near-surface,
water-bearing horizons were quite easy in these dis­
tricts. The article described the results of the calcu­
lations of water inflows coming from the surface
flow after precipitation (in open pits), calculations of
the inflows caused by bailing the water volume in
the depression cone and of groundwater renewable
resources. The inflows from renewable resources
were divided into two parts: the inflow coming from 3 - K a z im ie r z N lig n ite o p e n - p it
the infiltration of precipitation into hydrogeological 4 - K a z im ie r z S lig n ite o p e n - p it
D r a i n a g e c e n te r
basin and the inflow coming from the filtration of 5 - L u b s t o w lig n ite o p e n - p it
ADAMÓW lignite open-mine
rivers and lakes. D r a i n a g e c e n te r

The calculations were carried out in several 6 - W ta d y s t a w ó w lig n ite o p e n - p it

D ra in a g e c e n te r

mines, i.e. in “Belchatow” lignite open-mine with 7 - A d a m o w lig n ite o p e n - p it

the inflows 5-6 m^/s; in “Konin” lignite open-mine
consisting of a couple of open-pits that create two
drainage centers (1.5-2 m^/s); in “Adamow” open-
8 - B g d a lo w lig n ite o p e n - p it
9 - K o z m in lig n ite o p e r v p it
BEtCHATdW drainage center
1 0 - B e t e h a tó w lig n ite o p e n - p it
OLKUSZ lead and zinc mines drainage center
11 - B o le s ia w . O lk u s z , P o m o r z a n y le a d a n d z in c m in e s

mine that consists of several open-pits gathered in 1 2 - t a z y B l ^ o w s k i e g r o u n d w a t e r it a k e

SZCZAKOWA sand-pit drainage center
two drainage centers with the inflow of 1.0-2.0 m^/s; 1 3 - S z c z a k o w a s a n d -p it

in three zinc and lead mines; in the water intake that

creates one drainage center carrying 4,0-5,0 m^/s; Figure 1. Distribution of described mining drainage centers
and in “Szczakowa” sand open-pit with the inflow of in Poland
1.2-2.0 m^/s (Fig. l).The depth of drainage of these

131
 Figure 2. The hydrogeological sections o f Konin mining drainage centers

Figure 3. The hydrogeological sections of Adamow mining drainage centers

Jo l

Figure 4. The hydrogeological sections of Belchatow mining drainage center

^Q;>| 2 m « ^ § 6 ^ ^ 7
ZTsIhZI®
- 10 -Ii“ 11 j p ’z:;
’2 WSM J§l I“»' ^15 16 • 17

Explanation o f the hydrogeological sections: 1 -dumps ground, 2 -Quaternary sands and clays, 3 -Tertiary, Pliocen clays, 4 -
Tertiary, Upper Miocen -lignite, 5 - Tertiary, Lower Miocen sands, 6 -Creaceus marl, 7 -Upper Jurassic limstone, 8 -Middle and
Lower Jurassic siltstone, 9 -Upper Triassic and Middle Jurassic siltstone and mudstone, 10 -Middle Triasic dolomite, 11 -Lower
Triassic mudstone and siltstone, 12 -Permian siltstone, mudstone and sandstone, 13 -Carboniferous sadstone and siltstone,
14 -groundwater divides, 15 -filtration of the rivers and lakes to the aquifers, 16 - groundwater level, 17 -mines gallery.

132
mines and open-pits is at the maximum about 200 m
below ground level. Every drainage centre formed an
extensive cone of depression on the area from 66 to
600 km^. Each of the centres was treated as a sepa­
rate field laboratory. Therefore, every drainage cen­
tre had to have its boundaries and its area of rain­
water recharge demarcated. In these centres one
calculated the runoff balance and the inflow in the
form of rainwater infiltration.
The equation of water balance of drainage cen­
ters’ basin is
Qp = Qpp + Qpg + Qm + Qet - Qst - Qfr. - Qd.k.
The equation of water balance inflow to mines is
Q m = Q sF + Qinf + Qfr. + Q st + Qtechn + Qd.k.
Where Q p is the amount of water from precipi­
tation that falls on the area of basin, Qpp is the
amount of water flowing out in rivers as a surface
runoff, Qpg is the amount of water that flows with
rivers as a result of groundwater runoff from the area
of basin drainage centre, Q m is the amount of water
carried from mines and water intakes in the area of
hydrogeological basin drainage centre, Q e t is the
amount of water used for évapotranspiration in the
area of basin, Qst is the amount of water pumped out
of a depression cone in the centre of mine ground-
water drainage, Qfr is the amount of water coming
from the filtration of rivers and water reservoirs that
are recharged outside the area of hydrogeological ba­
sin (allochtonous waters), Qd.k is the amount of
groundwater from the inflow that flows outside the
hydrogeological basin as the result of decompression
of water-bearing beds, Q s f is the water coming from
the surface flow in open-pits, Qmf is the water com­
ing from the infiltration of precipitation through the
area of mine’s direct hydrogeological basin, Qtechn is
the process water led to the mine, eg with hydraulic
filling
The last constituent of the equation was omitted in
the calculations. It was assumed that the differences
in pressure on water divides of mining drainage
centres (situated a few kilometres from the drainage
centre) were quite small. In fact, they were so small
that the inflows from the neighbouring basins were
in the margin of error as far as the calculation of the
main factors of water balance is concerned. The con­
stituents of water balance Qp, Qpp, Qpg, Qm and
Qtechn were obtained from direct measurements and
the interpretation of runoff hydrographs. Qst was
calculated on the basis of depression cone volume
and the gravity drainage capacity of dewatered beds.
133
as well as on the basis of the thorough analysis of
pumped water diagrams compared to the precipita­
tion that fell at that time. Qfr. were calculated only in
the drainage centres that were situated near rivers
and lakes recharged from the area outside their own
hydrogeological basin. This was done on the basis of
hydrogeological maps that made it possible to draw
the lines of water flow that comes from the filtration
of lakes and the valleys of big rivers. Simultane­
ously, one calculated the real inflow from this part of
mine by making the measurements of well yield and
of canals that dewater open-pits. The amount of wa­
ter coming from the infiltration of precipitation that
is prescribed for the mine’s area was deducted from
the inflow from this part of mine. Q e t (that is the
amount of water used for évapotranspiration) was
described as a balance result, verified by general
knowledge about the nature of this water balance
element.
The balance of water inflow was made for the pe­
riods from 6 to 28 years of dewatering, separately for
each mine drainage centre. The main task was to
evaluate the effective infiltration of precipitation to
water-bearing beds intensely drained by open-pits
and underground mines. One also evaluated the
changes of natural components of water balance with
reference to the same basins belonging to the period
before mine dewatering or the neighbouring basins
drained only by rivers. In order to make the compari­
son possible, the values of water balance compo­
nents were changed for a modulus counted in
dm^/skm^, for the indicator of water column in year­
long periods (counted in mm) and for the coefficient
of precipitation counted in %.
2 THE CHARACTERIZATION OF MINE DIS­
TRICTS IN WHICH BALANCE CALCULATIONS
WERE CARRIED OUT
The average mine-water inflow to all mines of
mineral row in Poland is about 35m^/s. It is 2% of
river runoff from the Polish territory. The greatest
mine-water inflows are found in mine districts that
drain water - bearing beds which possess good fil­
tration features and easy hydraulic contact with sur­
face and infiltrating waters from precipitation. The
discussed mine districts discharge about 40% of all
mine-waters in Poland.
Quaternary sediments, which are often found in
Poland on the ground surface, usually do not form
continuous impermeable coating. They create alter­
nating interbeddings of sand, gravel, boulder clay
and sometimes loam and clay. They are disturbed by
glacial and tectonic processes and intersected by
numerous erosion channels that are usually filled
with sandy sediments in the last phase of Pleistocene
or nowadays with water from lakes (the territory
near Konin). In the South of Poland Quaternary
sediments are found in the form of patches that fill
land depressions.
The Quaternary from Konin and Adamow areas
cover Tertiary Pliocene sediments that occur in the
form of clay, upper Miocene sediments that devel­
oped into lignite beds (locally with fine-grained sand
or clay interbeddings) and lower Miocene and Oli-
gocene in the form of fine-grained sand. (Fig. 2,
fig- 3)
The Tertiary sediments fill the Cretaceous ground
lowering that developed into chalky clay with
cracked roof or sometimes stone rubbles. The Terti­
ary sediments do not occur in the area of ground ele­
vation and the Quaternary sediments are found di­
rectly on the Cretaceous bedrock. Numerous erosion
channels intersect, partially or completely, the Terti­
ary sediments. Lignite beds usually reach the thick­
ness of 7-10m.
In the region of Belchatow, the Tertiary sediments
are found only in a tectonic trench in which lignite
deposit was formed. The average thickness of the
deposit is about 50m., while the maximum one is up
to 150m. There is a deep erosion channel that runs
along the Northern part of the deposit. This channel
reaches Mesozoic bedrock and is filled with Quater­
nary sand and gravel. Outside the tectonic trench, on
Jurassic limestone’s and sandstone’s, and Cretaceous
marls there are Quaternary, glacial and flow-glacial
sediments (Fig. 4).
The zinc and lead mines in the region near Olkusz
exploit Triassic ore-bearing dolomites that are found
at the depth of 70-150 underground. The mines de-
water limestone’s and Triassic dolomites, locally
Devonian limestone’s, and above them limestone’s
and above them limestone’s from the upper Jurassic
period and Quaternary sediments that are separated
and isolated by the Kayper clay and the clay from the
middle Jurassic period. This isolation, however, is
not entirely tight. It is tom in many parts by faults,
erosional washouts and sedimentational windows.
Jurassic sediments are found in the eastern and
northern part of mine basin where they create their
own water-bearing horizon hung above the Triassic
level. In the central, southern and western parts , the
Triassic rocks are on the land surface or under the
thin coat of Quaternary sediments (Fig. 5).
The basin of zinc and lead mines adjoins the basin
of the Szczakowa sand-pit from the north. It exploits
(in the form of open-pits) sands that gathered in the
alluvial cone of the rivers Biala Przemsza, Sztola
134
and Kozi Brod. Dewatering is conducted gravita­
tionally, through the central channel with its mouth
in Maczki. There, the waters from the channel are
taken over by the water intake for Silesia and the ex­
cess of water is carried to Biala Przemsza .
3 THE BALANCE OF WATER INFLOWS TO
THE CENTRES OF MINE GROUNDWATER
DRAINAGE
In all mine drainage centres, groundwater renew­
able resources resulting from the infiltration of pre­
cipitation far exceed other kinds of inflows. Their
part in the total amount of discharged water was es­
timated to range from 60% in KWB “Belchatow” to
91% in Olkusz area mines (Table 1).
The inflow from groundwater storage, which is
found mainly in mines with not very long dewatering
period, was of the greatest importance in KWB
“Belchatow” where it made on the average 34% of
the total inflow. This was connected with a deep
drainage of water-bearing beds. In other mines, the
proportion of this type of inflow usually ranged from
10% to 20% of total inflow. The time of groundwa­
ter storage bailing was highly differentiated. After
opening “Pomorzany” mine in 1974, the stabilisation
of the inflow took place in 1991, ie after 17 years. In
KWB “Belchatow it stabilised after 18 years. The
time of inflow stabilisation was shorter in open-pits
in the region near Konin which were not very deep
(Kazimierz-Poludnie 6 years, Lubstow 1 years,
Wladyslawow 13 years).
The filtration of water coming from rivers and
lakes has the greatest part in open-pit Patnow, in
“Szczakowa” sand-pit and open-pit Kozmin and
Adamow. The loss of flow of Biala Przemsza in the
area close to zinc and lead mines and water intakes
near Olkusz takes place only periodically and results
from the deeper drainage of underground waters by
mines and intakes. This loss occurs in the hydro-
geological basin shared by the river, the mines and
the water intakes. That is why this loss was not
counted as allochtonous inflow and was not included
in Table 1.
The mass of water that comes from the surface,
flows after precipitation, causing periodically serious
problems in dewatering, makes up to 4% of the total
inflow. This results from the small surface of the
morphological basin of every open-pit in the propor­
tion to their hydrogeological basins which are usu­
ally far much bigger.
Apart from the amount of water carried from
mines, one calculated also the underground runoff of
rivers in the area of investigated basins QRg. The to-
Table 1. Water inflow to mines and drainage centers according to their origin

M in e s a r ea Observa­ Unit of Surface Groundwater inflow Summary

Drainage center tion pe­ measure flow Total from dynamic from inflow
riod resources static re-
from infil­ from sources of
tration of water of depresión
precipita­ rivers cone
tion and lakes
___ Qsf___ ___ Qg___ Q in f Qfr Qst Qm
“ K o n in ” lig n ite o p e n -m in e
Patnow, Jozwin, Kazimierz open- 1988- m^/s 0.066 3.07 2.05 0.55 0.47 3.136
pits 1996 % 2.1 97.9 65.4 17.5 15.0 100
Lubstow open-pit 1991- m^/s 0.011 0.270 0.205 0 0.065 0.281
1996 % 3.9 96.1 73.0 0 23.1 100
“ A d a m o w ” lig n ite o p en -m in e
Wladyslawow open-pit 1986- mVs 0.004 0.830 0.720 0 0.110 0.834
1997 % 0.5 99.5 86.3 0 13.2 100
Adamow, Bogdalow, Kozmin 1986- mVs 0.019 1.827 1.540 (0.067) 0.220 1.846
open-pits 1997 % 1.0 99.0 83.4 (3.6) 12.0 100
“ B e lc h a to w ” lig n ite o p en -m in e
Belchatow lignite open-pit 1975- mVs 0.013 5.46 3.28 0.32 1.86 5.47
1995 % 0.2 99.8 60.0 5.9 34.0 100
O lk u sz lead a n d z in c m in es z o n e a n d w a te r in ta k e L a zy B le n d o w sk ie
“Boleslaw”, “Olkusz”, “Pomo- 1974- m^/s 0 4.45 4.03 0 0.42 4.45
rzany” mines and itake Lazy Bl. 1997 % 0 100 90.6 0 9.4 100
“ S z c z a k o w a ” s a n d -p it a rea
“Szczakowa” sand-pit 1973- mVs ? 1.84 1.14 0.38 0.32 1.84
1999 % ? 100 62.0 20.6 17.4 100

Table 2 The changes of infiltration and underground runoff of rivers in mine districts

River bassin Observa­ Hydro Precipit- Infiltration in % precipitation Change of Change of

M in e s a rea tion pe­ geolgi- tation an­ infiltration ground-
in mines in mines in rivers
Drainage center riod cal bas­ nual sum water
and riv­ natural
sin area runoff
ers drainage
km^ mm %P %P %P % %
“ K o n in ” lig n ite o p e n -m in e
Patnow, Jozwin, Biskupia Struga
Kazimierz open-pits 1988-96 350 458 28 29.7 11*' 270 8
17*2 175
Lubstow open-pit Kanal Grojecki
1991-96 100 508 12.8 17*2 .
“ A d a m o w ” lig n ite o p e n -m in e
1 7 *3
Adamow, Bog­ Kielbaska
dalow i Kozmin Teleszyna 1986-97 350 523 25.4 33.6 17*4 200 48
open-pits
Wladyslawow Topiec (17) (32)
open-pit Kielbaska 1986-97 148 538 23.8 32.0 17*3 188
“ B e lc h a to w ” lig n ite o p e n -m in e
“Belchatow” open-
pit Widawka 1975-95 660 568 38.0 42.0 27.6*^ 152 16
O lk u sz lead a n d zin c m in es z o n e an d w a te r in ta k e L a zy B le n d o w sk ie
“Boleslaw”, “Olk­ Biala Przem­ 36*" 98 27
usz”,“Pomorzany” sza, Sztola, 1974-97 660-700 717 26.4 35.9 32*7 112
mines Lazy itake Mitrega
“ S z c z a k o w a ” sa n d -p it a rea
„Szczakowa” sand- Biala Przem­ Ab. Ab.
48-66 717 68 Ab. 70 36*6 200 ?
________________ sza, Sztola 1974-99

Reference marks; *' - Meszna - K^ty (1956-70); - Notec - Lysek (1961-70); - Kiefbaska - Koscielec (1954-60);
Teleszyna - Przykona (1956-65); - Widawka - Rogozno i Nieciecz - Widawa (1954-74); Biala Przemsza - Slawków
(1956-70); Warta - Krçciwilk (1961-70).

135
tal amount of water infiltrating from precipitation to
the area of hydrogeological basin included the un­
derground runoff of rivers and inflow from the infil­
tration of precipitation to the mines’ drainage system
QRg~^ Qinf-
In the zones within the range of depression cone
one found important changes of the components of
natural water balance.
The changes of natural infiltration of precipitation
and underground runoff of rivers under the influence
of mine drainage are presented in Table 2.
The infiltration of precipitation, whose real esti­
mation was the main aim of calculations, became
two times bigger in some drainage centres. This re­
sulted from the decrease of évapotranspiration, sur­
face flow and underground river recharge. The
changes turned out to become bigger when
groundwater table was closer to the surface in natu­
ral conditions.
In the basin of zinc and lead mines near Olkusz,
where underground water table was deep, the
changes of the total infiltration of precipitation
were not observed. As a result of deeper drainage
of mines in proportion to rivers, their effective in­
filtration coefficient, which was about 8 dm^/s km^
in the early 70s, decreased to 1 dm^/s km^ in the
90s. However, the total modulus of the outflow of
underground water in rivers and from dewatering
of mines is still about 8dm^/s km^.
The presented results of calculations of the infil­
tration of precipitation refer to the average values
in the whole hydrogeological basin of drainage
centres treated as a great field laboratory. The dif­
ferentiation of the indicators of the infiltration of
precipitation can be quite distinct in the area of a
single basin.
The calculations demanded long periods of
measurements, great amount of pumped water and
hydrogeological basins that cover the area of hun­
dreds of km^. Thus, it can be assumed that the re­
sults of calculations possess a high degree of reli­
ability.
REFERENCES
Panstw. Instytut Geolog. Hydrogeological map
of Poland scale 1:200 000 arc. Konin, Kalisz,
Czestochowa Wyd. Geolog. Warszawa
Rozkowski A., Chmura A. et all. 1996. Map of
fresh-groundwater dynamics in the Upper Silessian
coal basin and its margin 1:100 000 PIG Warszawa
Sawicki J. 2000. The changes of natural infil­
tration of precipitation into aquifers the result of
a deep mining groundwater drainage. Oficyna Wy-
dawnicza Politechniki Wroclawskiej: 1-174.

4 CONCLUSIONS
The presented results of the calculations con­
cerning the infiltration of precipitation indicate
clearly that deep mine drainage causes changes in
proportion of water balance components in relation
to the basin with a natural type of drainage. In in­
tensely drained basins the amount of the infiltration
of precipitation becomes two times bigger. Induced
groundwater resources are created in this way.
They are a part of groundwater renewable re­
sources. They are created not only as a result of
groundwater evatranspiration loss but also because
of the decrease of surface runoff and surface and
aeration water zone evaporation. They are often
omitted in hydrogeological calculations but their
size has a serious influence on the development of
mines’ depression cone and of water intakes. They
influence also the evaluation of the surface of
zones with hydrogeological mining damages. The
proper evaluation of resources induced by ground-
water exploitation considerably influences the re­
sults of the mathematical modelling of filtration
processes in various hydrogeological investiga­
tions.
136
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

M easurem ent base for m ine ventilation flow rate control-acoustic choice

S.Z.Shkundin
Moscow State Mining University, Russia
S.L. Klimov
Russian Coal Committee, Russia
VV. Sobolev
DBT, Russia

ABSTRACT: The selection of the measurement base for underground mines Ventilation regimes control in­
cludes the choice of the devices for measuring of the velocities and airgas flow rates. The resolution of this
task is rather difficult. The tachometric sensors, traditionally used in many countries (Grate Leonardo’s in­
vention) have big number of disadvantages: low sensitivity, high inertia, impossibility to cover necessary
measurement range. Presence of movable accumulating error parts, vulnerability to dust affect and others.
The usage of the tachometric anemometers in spite of the named above disadvantages confirms the difficulty
of the modern technical level anemometer creation. About hundred years the attempts to create thermoanem­
ometers continue, somewhere successfully, but not in mining. There are some very deep physical reasons of
very slow progress in this two directions. The present report is devoted to the new acoustic devices elabo­
rated in Moscow State Mining University. Acoustics anemometers are free of all named above disadvan­
tages: unsurpassed sensitivity, time lag freedom, big range for velocity and flow rate measurements. They do
not contain movable parts, sensitive to the direction of the stream and not sensitive to the coal dust.

1 INTRODUCTION APR-1 (all-russian) are the most widely used

The solution of mine safety delivery problem de­
mands the creation of modern and reliable technical
means and tools for mine workings ventilation con­
trol. The increasing demands to the quality of airgas
dynamics process monitoring result in the necessity
of more and more perfect devices usage for airgas
flow and velocities measurement.
The anemometers which are being used now for oc­
casional measurements of airgas flow characteris­
tics, as well as anemometer sensors involved into the
systems of mine ventilation monitoring and also
their metrology support are not capable to satisfy
completely modern safety and metrology demands
and regulations and to provide appropriate level of
mine atmosphere control.
The main means of airgas velocity measurement
in coal mines of Russia are still tachometric
anemometers, some of which had been elaborated
more than 40 years ago ASO-3, MS-13, some of
them are latest elaborations AP-1, APR-2.
As has been already mentioned tachometric de­
vices such as wind - wheeled anemometer ASO-3,
cup anemometer M S-13 and a new tachometer
means of measurement for gas and air consumption
at mining enterprises. They operate on the principle
of all turbine - type anemometers (with a small ro­
tating turbine). Under the dynamic thrust of the flow
the small turbine develops torque the quantity of
which is a function of the speed of flow. The value
of rotation frequency of the small turbine can be
used as a base to assess the speed of the monitored
flow. ASO-3 anemometer is used to measure the
speed of the air flow ranging from 0.3 - 5 m. per
sec.
The air flow acts on the blades, causing their rota­
tion through the stringed axis. In a cup anemometer
MS-13 unlike anemometer ASO-3 speedy air flow
puts pressure on the inside surface of four semi-
spheric cups placed symmetrically in a circle. A cup
anemometer is used to measure the speed of the air
flow ranging from 1 - 20 m. per. sec.
It takes a stop - watch to time the number of rota­
tion of the impeller and then in order to calculate the
value of frequency the speed of the air flow is de­
termined through grade characteristics (data) given
in anemometer manual. The period of measurement,
using ASO-3 anemometer, to identify the average
speed of the air flow in a mine working must not be

137
less than lOOsec. With no less than three measure­
ment taken. Thus, one measurement, preparation in­
cluding, takes about 8 - 1 0 minutes. Tachometric
anemometers have their disadvantages affecting
measurement error. On the one hand the impeller has
to be as light as possible to make sure friction
threshold and its sensitivity are adequate enough, on
the other hand it has to be as rigid as possible not to
be deformed by turbulence flow. On the one hand
such axis has to have the least possible diameter ,but
on the other hand such axis is quicker to wear, ac­
cumulates error and is subject to dust. The impeller
axis deviation from a vector parallel or perpendicu­
lar to the flow is also caused by occurrence of inlet
turbulent vortex. Mechanical sensitive parts of the
devices are subject to unfavorable mining environ­
ment, in particular dust subsidence and penetrartion.
At the same time their metrological support, for a
number of reasons is not adequate enough (in fact of
all anemometers used in mines not more than 15%
are tested annually).
Most mining anemometers designed and produced
currently are devices with a small movable turbine,
the rotation speed of which is measured not by me­
chanical meters but with the help of inductive AE-2,
optic AFA-1, electromagnetic ESNV-1, capacitive
and other means. They have the same disadvantages
of having an impeller and movable axis. Apart from
that, error for induction converters of the rotation
speed of the impeller increases due to permanent
magnet on the blades creating antitorque. Mine dust
having magnetic properties and existing in the flow
monitored also contributes to the measurement error
increase. One disadvantage of the photoelectric con­
verter is an increase in error as a result of less de­
tectable light flow in dusty mine environment. Tur­
bine - type anemometers because of their design
peculiarities are more suitable for measurements of
high speeds and as far as low speeds are concerned
these devices have unlinear characteristics deter­
mined by considerable influence of force moments
of viscous and mechanical friction as compared to
the torque.
In order to reduce friction threshold (friction be­
tween the axis of the impeller and the bearings) spe­
cial devices are used. For instance, ESNV-1 uses the
impeller mounted on a special vibrating frame. APR
uses axes fixed with the help of hard stones. How­
ever it complicates design and makes it more costly.
Modem designs of portable turbine - type ane­
mometers allow for temporary automatic averaging
of measurement results. They also allow for digital
indicators and for the sensor element being fixed to a
telescopic rod. However neither this anemometer nor
any other tachometric devices that have been devel­
oped recently including those built on modem tech­
nology of the watch making factories can not meet
the challenge of measuring speeds ranging from 0.05
138
m. per. sec. That has been confirmed by aerodynam­
ics tube tests at the Moscow Mining University.
Another method of measuring the speed of the air
flow is a thermo one. Here two main trends exist.
They are thermoanemometric and thermocatalitic.
The devices where signal to be measured is a func­
tion of the heat dissipated throughout the monitored
environment by the electrically heated body by the
source of energy are recognized as a group of ther­
moanemometers. There are two methods to measure
the speed of the flow by thermoanemometers. The
first one is based on maintaining constant current
heating thermoelement, the measurement of the
speed of the flow is associated with the measure­
ment of temperature of the thermoelement.
The other method presupposes that the heating
current keeps the temperature of the filament con­
stant as a result, the measurement of the speed of the
flow is associated with the measurement of compen­
sating electric current. Most thermoanemometers
operate on the principle that the filament heated by
an electric current is included in wheatstone bridge
circuit. The passing flow cools the filament, its tem­
perature decreases, as a result its electrical resistance
also decreases which causes disbalance of the bridge
and is monitored by electric device. Themoanem-
ometers TA-8 of the same type measures the speed
of the flow in the range of 0.1 - 5 m. per. sec. The
advantages of thermoanemometers are the possibil­
ity of measurement of low speeds (0.1 - 0.5 m. per.
sec.) but their disadvantage- thermal lag. However
unstable results of the graduation, dependence of the
readings on temperature flow, construction frugality
as well as influence of subsiding coal dust while tak­
ing readings limit the range of their application. The
thermoanemometers have not found any wide -
spread application in mines. The device in which
head is transferred from a heater to a measuring -
converting element with the help of controlled gas
flow belongs to the constant - type coloremetric
anemometers. The greater the speed of the con­
trolled flow, the lower the sensitivity of the devices
become, that is why they are suitable for speeds
measurement. Thermoelectric anemometer ATE-2
ensures the desired accuracy of measurements with
the flow speed of 0.5 m. per. sec. As the air within
thermoelectric anemometer moves the heat off the
thermofilament is transferred on to a number of
thermocouples, that being registered by millivoltme-
ter. In this way the speed and direction of the flow
are determined. The sensitivity of the thermofila-
ment to environmental temperature and pressure is a
disadvantage of any thermoanemometer. The sensi­
tive element of a thermoanemometer is made of
platinum, sometimes, nickel filament with a diame­
ter of several micrometers and 2 - 1 0 mm long. The
less the diameter of the thermofilament becomes, the
less durable and more susceptible to wear it be­
comes. The thermofilament is also subject to aero­
dynamic stress. As a result of pulsation while meas­
urements are taken in turbulent flows vibrations of
the thermofilament occur which can either cause
damage to it or cause fluctuations of resistance,
which bring about considerable error in measure­
ments. One disadvantage of colorimetric flow meters
is a negative influence of moisture and corrosive
admixture of gassy environment on the work of the
thermoconverter and the heater which are in imme­
diate contact with the environment.
The way to widen the upper limit of the speed
measurement possibility range in colorimetric ane­
mometers is to slow down part of the flow so much
so as its speed does not exceed the maximum speed
for the given thermoconverter. Colorimetric sensor
of the speed of the air flow meter DVT as part of
the complex system for continuous automatic air
monitoring in mining workings provides measure­
ment in the range of 0 - 2.5, 0 - 5, 0 - 10 m. per.
sec. And the change from one range limit to another
is carried out by changing diaphragms placed in
conical extensions of the sensor. To the point I
would remark that the noted ranges , beginning
from zero is nonsense- no meter can measure zero
due to quite definite sensitivity.
There is a tendency abroad to combine a colori­
metric converter and a pressure mechanism creating
pressure differential depending on dynamic pressure
of the flow. "Ventor " made by "Maichak" (Ger­
many) is a mechanism for monitoring the speed of
the flow in mining workings has a speed sensor con­
sisting of differential Pitot tube and colorimetric
speed converter. Within the sensor, the flow passing
through the channels of the colorimetric converter is
formed as a result of impact and static pressure dif­
ference at various points of the monitored flow. The
sensor is capable of measurements ranging from
0.15 - 0.75, 0.5 - 2.5, 1.5 - 7.5 m. per. sec, the sen­
sitivity of the mechanism to the speed can by regu­
lated in the range of 15%of the upper measurement
limit.
The difference in range of the speeds measured
among turbine - type anemometers and ther-
moanemometres suggests the idea of combining the
two sensors based on different principles into a sin­
gle device. UBM - 1 is a domestic device designed
for methane consentration and air flow measure­
ments during mine air and gas dynamics research,
and in solving engineering problems of coal mine
ventilation with dust and gas hazards has a unit re­
sponsible for the speed of the flow measurements
which combines thermoanemometric and tachomet-
ric primary converters. The thermoanemometer is
responsible for measurements of low speeds of the
flow ranging from 0.05 - 0.5 m. per. sec., while with
the speeds of the flow which are within 0.5 - 10 m.
per. sec. range the measurements are taken by the
tachometric sensor. However such engineering solu­
tion is apparently possible only for laboratory re­
139
search instruments as the device combining two dif­
ferent sensors costs twice as much and is bulky and
the whole structure turns out to be too complicated.
From all the above mentioned, one can make a
conclusion that mining enterprises in Russia have no
anemometers based on the principles other that those
employed in turbine - type and thermo - type ane­
mometers.
However, as we can see commercially available
turbine type and thermoanemometers and sensors to
control the speed of gas and air flows in mining
workings have a host of disadvantage already men­
tioned, in particular, they can not ensure the speed
range defined by the safety regulation and the are
bulky and not reliable and cheap. As things stand
now there is no hope that further improvements of
engineering solutions based on traditional principles
of thermo and tachometric anemometry used to
measure speeds of the flow in mines will lead to
creation of the device with the desired characteris­
tics. As the analysis of modern anemometric sensors
shows, further improvement in quality of measure­
ments is connected with the application of more ex­
pensive materials and more complex technologies.
One can say that thermo and turbine - type methods
for the measurement of the speed flow have reached
their limit in as far as being a base for creation of
mine speed monitoring devices. But still they can
not meet the needs of mining anemometry.
Apparently, the way of solving this problem
should be found not by improving traditional princi­
ples used in these constructions, but by employment
of new methods of anemometry.
Modem complicated mining technology comprises
usage of appropriate means of automation, hard and
software for mine ventilation control. Such appara­
tus and software means would allow to increase the
permissible level of methane concentration, i.e to in­
crease the mining. The effectiveness of such systems
operation depends very mach on the reliability and
quality of the anemometers involved, their sensitiv­
ity, precision and inertia.
2 ACOUSTIC METHOD OF FLOW RATES
MEASUREMENT
The careful analysis of publications and preliminary
laboratory estimation have showed that on the one
hand acoustical methods in flow measurements have
not realized their potential possibilities, and on the
other hand none of the existing acoustics means of
flow measurement allows to create anemometer,
which should be able:
- to measure speeds of flow in the range of
(0.05 ...30) m/s;
 - not to have moving parts; ( down the flow ) is expressed:
- to measure high frequency pulsations;
- to measure average flow speed in the working A
A(p = --------+ (p (1 )
cross section; ' c+u
- to have stabile characteristics, allowing to de­
crease error. where:
The suggested measurement method satisfies all C = sound velocity;
mentioned here demands [1]. The method is based U = flow velocity;
on the air-acoustics interaction and involves vibra­ <pi = initial phase difference;
tions excitation in the cylindrical wave guide-air Analogous for the second, left semi-channel (against
duct, their reception at some distance from the the flow):
excitation point and a comparative analysis of ra­
diated and received vibrations as a result of which A
an informative signal (e.g., vibration phase or time A(^2 = ------- + (Pi ( 2)
difference) is singled out, which serves as a flow
c-u
rate measure. It differs from others known in that where:
definite mode waves are being radiated and received cp2 = initial phase difference in the second semi­
by excitement of the air conduit elements, acousti­ channel.
cally isolated from each other. This method pro­ The anemometer has to operate in accordance
vides accuracy and exception of air conduit effect with technical task at temperatures from 5 to 25^C
upon the aerodynamics field of air-gas flow. that corresponds to the regime of metrological tests.
The description of wave propagation process in In this range of temperature changes, as it is easy to
the tubes without flow was suggested by E.Scuchic count, the sound speed does not exceed 345 m/s.
[2]. From this description we made the conclusion In the right semi-channel minimum value of
which waves can spread in the round channel of the phase difference corresponds to the maximum
given diameter. The spread rate of the zero mode of (C + U), i.e. C = 345 m/s and U = 20 m/s; that
wave fronts of these vibrations is equal to one of is, in assumption (pi = 0:
sound velocity in open space with the same medium
For the analytic description of the air-acoustic in­
teraction, which is the base of acoustical anemom- (3)
etry, it is necessary to solve the boundary problem /365
for the equation with partial derivatives. For the first
approach the anemometer channel may be per­ In the left semi-channel Acp2 min corresponds
formed of unlimited length. For better correspon­ to the case when C = 345 m/s and U = 0. That is, in
dence with real physical phenomenon in the mathe­ assumption (p2 =0 will be:
matics model it is necessary to take into
consideration the error, coursed by the acoustical . 2; ^ /
waves reflection from the open ends of the ane­ ^345
mometer [3].
The means of the correction determination, corre­
sponding to the reflected waves field with the help
j
of normal modes reflection coefficient calculation is
offered. The analytic dependencies of the velocities
< I
upon the dimensions, channel walls material and air- !t 11 1i
j J7 11 _____________11___________________ 11____
gas medium characteristics have been got using iy r
G. Gohnson's and K. Ogimoto's work [4].

Figure 1.Scheme of anemometric channel

3 THE ANEMOMETER OPERATING

Now formulas (2) and (3) will give the following:

The measuring channel of the referred anemometer

presents the cylindrical air conduit, containing two 1
semi-channels Fig. 1. -L (5)
C + ^7 365 J
There is a radiating element in the center of air
conduit, on each side of which receiving elements
are found at a distance L. The difference of phases in 1 -L i
^92 - =2^1 - — (6)
the right semi-channel A^/ 345 J
140
 Before measurement the phase zero in the right
semi-channel is being adjusted to C + U = 365 m/s;
in the left semi-channel the phase zero corresponds
to C - U = 345 m/s. The phase zero schematically
may be fixed precisely, therefore anemometer phas­
ing does not generate measurement error. We can
describe different basic phases of the measurement
algorithm from the above formulas in the next way:
1. Automatic amplification and adjustment of the
received vibrations.
2. Transformation of sinusoidal vibrations into
meander.
3. Correcting phase change.
4. Forming of binary codes of the analog signals
in each semi-channel.
5. Time averaging of binary codes.
6. Calculation of binary codes corresponding to
the flow speed.
Automatic amplification adjustment is necessary
for modification of radiator and receiver signals to
standard level. The inertia of this adjustment does
not limit the measuring possibilities because the
main task isn't to measure pulls speed but averaged
one during some interval ( for example Is). Just be­
cause of this automatic amplification adjustment
does not bring the errors into the process of meas­
urements. The transformation of sinusoidal vibra­
tions into meander, in fact, can cause the bias of
pulse front relatively to zeroes of harmonic. How­
ever the correction of phases allows make it equal
to zero. The transformation of informative impulses
into the binary code is made by filling out their du­
ration by the impulses of higher tact frequency. The
choice of this frequency is made from the accuracy
and sensitivity requirements. WeTl determine the
value of this frequency in case when it is neces­
sary to measure U = 0.05 m/s. For this purpose we
differentiate the last expressions by the speed:
C +U
(V )
dU dU {c+uy
i m (8 )
dU dU {c-uy
The expression (7) takes smallest value at C =
345 m/s and U = 20 m/s. We'll find the value of in­
formative parameter (phase difference), correspond­
ing to U = 0.05 m/s at L = 0.1 m and f =30 kHz
141
(the resonance of piezoceramics transformers).
This means that frequency of filling (tact pulses)
has to be not less than 3 MHz. The expression (8)
takes minimum value at C = 345 m/s and U =
0. For increment = 0.05 m/s phase difference will
be equal:
=l(AiP,t.„ •AC/ =
(9 )
0,05 = 0,4ra<i
Thus when filling frequency is equal to 3 MHz
and more, it is possible to follow the changing of
flow speed, not exceeding 0.05 m/s in both channels.
During the filling of informative pulses by tact ones
it can happen discrepancy of leading and (or) back
fronts of informative and tact pulses. Error is re­
sulted (plus or minus one tact pulse), maximal esti­
mation of which corresponds to mistake 0.05 m/s.
Mistake is not increased in the following step of
logical division because the division is done in num­
ber view. As a result of this operation we have got
sum ( C + U ) and difference ( C - U ) with accuracy
of constant multiplier.
Finally, as a result of logical subtraction we get
value, proportional to flow speed.
After the fulfillment of this operation maximum
error value can be y = 0.05 + 0.05 =^0.1 m/s. Thus
the resulting absolute error of calculation of meas­
ured speed does not exceed 0.1 m/s. The described
algorithm has been realized in the anemometer for
mine workings. Multiple increasing of filling fre­
quency allows to reduce application error into corre­
sponding number of times.
METROLOGY SUPPORT OF MINING
ANEMOMETRY
The hardware part of metrology installation func­
tionally includes two fundamental blocks - measur­
ing (measurer) and calculating (calculator). In the
measuring block informative parameter (phase shift)
is extracted, and analog-digital transformation is
proceeded. The measuring block includes: radiator,
high - stabile 20 kHz generator, controlled divider,
transformer meander into sinus, giving level scheme,
power amplifier, two receiving transformers (one in
each semichannel), two schemes of automatic am­
plifier adjustment; two transformers sinus into me­
ander, two controlled phase shifters, scheme of se­
lections frequency control.
The calculator includes: two binary code formers,
two averaging schemes, converter, substracting bi­
nary numbers, got in the two semichannels and
transforming the binary code into binary-decimal
one, indicator.
 The signals are synchrotreated in both semichan­
nels. The temperature instability coefficient for
quartz generator is 10'^, that supplies sufficient accu­
racy of filling the informative pulse by the tact ones,
and also the stability of the radiated vibrations fre­
quency. In the controlled divider the assumed fre­
quency is divided to the value, corresponding to the
radiator resonance - 10.3 kHz with possible maxi­
mum deviation - 1 Hz. Such instability allows to
have stabile amplification in the receiving trans­
ducer. But really the frequency 20 kHz supplies
sensitivity of the anemometer to the flow speed 0.01
m/s, corresponding to the time interval of 50 nano­
seconds. The changing of divider coefficient by the
unit causes the changing of frequency at the exit for
10 Hz in the range of 10-12 kHz.
Thus, generator and programmed divider has the
following functions:
- create the possibility of radiator frequency ad­
justing;
- supply stabile high-frequency filling of infor­
mative time interval with necessary step;
- define support frequencies for control signals
forming.
On the radiating ceramics element periodical
voltage (4-10) V must be applied. To form such sig­
nal, sequence of rectangular pulses of resonance or
near to it frequency has to be transformed into si-
nosoidal and strengthen. The level giving scheme
matches the low frequencies filter exit with the en­
trance of the power amplifier and semultaneously
smooth tuning of signal level. The choice of vibra­
tions amplitude of the radiator is being produced
with the reference of two conflicting to each other
considerations. On the one hand, increasing of the
transformer signal causes warming of it and, conse­
quently, changing of its characteristics. Besides, ap­
pearing warm asymmetrical field in the anemometer
channel results to the nonidentical sound speed value
in semichannels. On the other hand, decreasing of
vibration signal amplitude on the radiating element
can cause reduction of measurement accuracy. In the
aerometric installation anemometer the radiated
through base L = 0.5 m and for it signal level on the
receiver may be (1-10) mV when amplitude on the
radiator - 2V. Power amplifier implemented with the
use of micro cheep, designed to work with the load
of about units of Om. The received signal is rein­
forced to the value, necessary for normal work of
scheme of the automatic amplification adjustment
(5V). Besides the characteristics of the controlled
medium - temperature, moisture, pressure, which in­
fluence on the sound speed is compensated by the
existence of two semichannals, the informative pa­
rameter - phase shift is subjected to the influence of
the electron schemes characteristics. So receiving
amplifier has not to bring phase shift more than 40
nanoseconds. To broaden the dynamic range of the
input pulses in the receiving tract non linear ampli­
142
fier providing the ratio of maximum to minimum
signals equal to 40 is used.
The scheme of automatic amplification adjust­
ment with phase tuning allows to change the input
voltage from 0.5 to 20 mV and excludes one of the
basic errors of measurement - dependence of phase
shift upon the amplitude in the receiver. The har­
monic signal of several volts amplitute is removed
from the automatic amplification adjustment and
transformed into meander by the comparator, which
follows to indicate the buckhead voltage - 0.15 V.
Controlled phase shifter permits to make zero phase
difference between the transmited and received sig­
nals during the flow absence. The informative me­
ander in the same block is being converted into the
sequence of short pulses, which open the count of
each given measurement of the flow speed. This
count is being produced with the frequency 10 kHz.
The shift of the short pulses relatively support signal
may be changed by phase turning and, in particular,
made to zero before measurement. Time dynamics
range consists of 100 ns, that permits working at
frequency (10-12) kHz, to overlap 2ti dynamics
range. Decimal counters are used as counting ele­
ments.
Any measurement of flow speed is the average
one during certain period of time. Acoustic method
of measurement, being inertialess, permits to pro­
duce thousands measurements of speed per second.
Because of the turbulent structure of the stream
these measurements, being momentary, are con­
firmed to the probability distribution, i.e. have the
value spread.
The control scheme of samplings frequency per­
mits to vary the average interval from 1 to 20 sec­
onds. For the following calculations concerned with
algorithm of flow speed display, it is necessary to
perform the informative parameter as the digital
code. This is carried out for each semichannel in the
cheep . The transformation of pulse duration into the
digital number is being made with the help of syn­
chronized counters, which work with frequency 20
kHz. During each interval of filling it is possible to
get mistake which value is equal to 1 tact of fre­
quency 20 kHz, i.e. in 50 nanosecond. But this mis­
take, if appeared, has equal probability in both chan­
nels, that is on the stage of substraction of codes
corresponding to the phase climbs in the right and
left semichannels, and is being destroyed. Thus, at
the exit of digital code former, built on the synchro­
nized digital counters and controlling trigger, we get
numbers in the digital code, which must be aver­
aged.
As has been said, averaging operation is neces­
sary for exception of dependence of casual compo­
nents measurement errors, and done in two stages:
first, sum up 4096 measurements, second, division
of result by 4096. Received digit number, equal to
the average number for one measurement, rere­
corded into register, where kept during one cycle of
the averaging. Similar, a number - the rezult of
measurement of the average speed in the second
semichannel is being recorded. The process is re­
peated in the new cycle. So in the end of each cycle
we have two numbers, corresponding to the speed of
vibration propagation (i.e. sound speed together with
flow speed) in the left and right semichannels. The
final rezult, i.e. the number, corresponding to the
speed value of air flow, is got as the function of two
numbers. The indication represents the numbers
from 00.00 to 20.00, that corresponds to the flow
speed, expressed in m/s. The indication step 0.01
m/s. For receiving of the necessary metrology char­
acteristics it is necessary to compensate the basic
anemometer errors. Compensation of error, causing
by electron tract and phase characteristics of con­
verter, is produced in each of channels with the help
of controlled phase shifters. Compensation of error,
caused by asymmetry of anemometer semichannels
as not changing in time, is being produced by device
calibration, i. e. adjustment of phase shifts. Compen­
sation of error, concerned with reflecting waves, is
made on the stage of airduct constraction.
Error compensation, concerned with value differ­
ence of sound speed in both semichannels, is made,
as has been described, by averaging of the enough
amount of measurements. This averaging is effective
because the air volume, passing through the left and
the right semichannels are the same, so sound speed
in the left semichannel at the next moment will be
sound speed in the right one. Thus, the same changes
of sound speed will be in both semichannels, but
with time shift. The averaging permits to exclude
momentary assimetry of channels.
Such a system based on two pairs of converters
allows a reduction in error, concerned with variation
of sound velocity.
Figure 2 illustrates the principle. Electric acoustic
converters (if there are two of them) are switched in
turn from emitting to receiving mode, so that the
vector, characterising the
emitting direction, forms either an acute angle (emit-
tance streamwise) or an obtuse angle (emittance
against the stream) with the flow axis.
One more advantage of the integrating anemome­
ters should be mentioned: its independence of the
dust loading in the medium in which a device oper­
ates.
This stability is explained by the fact that the in­
formative parameter, which is either oscillation fre­
quency or phase, does not change with dust deposi-
Figure 2. The integrating acoustic anemometry principle:
1,2 = electroacoustics transformers;
D = cross dimension o f airduct;
L = the length o f through sounded base;
U(r) = the air velocity in plan cross section.

5. ACOUSTIC INTEGRATING ANEMOMETERS

tion on the converters. Besides, oscillations of the
emitting converter prevent dry dust deposition on its
Acoustic integrating anemometers based on ultra­
sonic wave propagation through a tunnel cross- surface. When used in an airduct or a tunnel, the
acoustic rays are bent due to the aerodynamic field .
section are free from all the deficiencies referred to
Here two kinds of problems had been considered,
earlier. The working acoustic beam accumulates in­
those related to the laminar and turbulent flow re­
formation about vectors of longitudinal velocities of
gimes.
the flow, which forms the aerodynamical curve, and
as such is an integrating anemometer. Such an ane­
mometer is able to determine the average velocity of
6 CONCLUSION
air streams in cross-sections with consistancy. The
principle of acoustic integrating anemometry is
Acoustics is the most perspective way for mine ven­
based on the use of two pairs of electric-acoustic
tilation control devices progress.
converters. One of them works streamwise and the
As had been proved in the Moscow State Mining
other in the opposite direction. In other words,
University on the acoustic basis if s possible to de­
acoustic signals used by the first pair of converters
velop different types of acoustic control hardware:
are accelerated by the stream and signals used by the
portable anemometers for episodically control, sta­
second pair are decelerated by the stream.
tionary devices for permanent monitoring and also
The value of this deceleration or acceleration is a
means for metrology support of the ventilation
measure of the controlled average velocity. Particu­
measurements. The Plant of Measurement apparatus
lar devices may consist of only two converters, each
- partner of MSMU is ready to provide any request.
of them taking turns in working as an emitter and as
a receiver.
143
REFERENCES

1. S, Shkundin, L. Puchkov, oth. : The method o f airgas flow

velocity.
Patentee 16822590, 1991.
2. E. Scuchic. Basic acoustics. M oscow 1976. vol 2. pages
112-116.
3. O. Kremleva , S.Shkundin : Method for calculating Acous­
tic fields in a finite cylindrical channel with a flow . Acous­
tical Physics, Vol 44, No. 1, 1998, pp 68-72.
4. G. Gohnson and K.Ogimoto. Sound radiation from a finite
length unfledged circular duct with uniform axial flow.
Acoustic Society o f America, papers.Jf« 68, 1980.

144
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

G eolog - Integrated system for the m ining industry

Daniel Stanescu & Lucia Diaconu -Mmmg Computing Center, Cluj, Romania
loan Macoviciuc -/^OMreLECOM, Cluj, Romania
Adrian Dadu- S.C. Cominex S.A, Cluj, Romania
Liviu Draganescu - SALROM, Salt Mine ofSlanic Prahova, Romania
Vasile Georgiu - SALROM, Salt Mine of Ocna Dej, Romania

ABSTRACT :The GEOLOG program package realizes a common base of geological and topographical data
and the calculations related to these data, enabling the automatic drawing of maps and plans. So, it meets the
needs of determining the models of the terrain, of the mineral deposits or of the workings, drawing maps for
quarries or mines, tracing topographical plans, calculating the geological reserves and the change of the re­
serves. These needs appear in the usual activities in the mining industry.
The GEOLOG has modules for data acquisition and archiving and update. It performs analytical, graphical
and complex functions (modeling the surface and the deposits).
The modules of this application can be combined in a user specific integrated system. This application is used
in several salt mines from Romania, such as those from Slanic-Prahova, Ocna-Dej, Ramnicu-VMcea,
Targu-Ocna. The package can be tailored upon the specific needs of the users.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 THE MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE GEOLOG

In the traditional practice, keeping up to day the
maps and the plans in the mines is a job done by op­
erating the supervened changes on a copy of the
original. The new chart is to be used instead of the
original. This means a big amount of manual work
and the alteration of the exactness of the chart. An­
other inconvenience of the traditional methods con­
sists in the difficulty of elaborating a drawing board
of a non-standard format at a different scale than the
scale of the original. Manual methods encounter
problems in dealing with elements delivered by dif­
ferent sources. Automatic drawing of the plans and
maps eliminated these inconveniences.
We considered the necessity of simultaneously
using geological and topographical information and
of correlating this information for drawing plans and
making geological calculus. This necessity imposed
the creation of some unitary data structures for de­
veloping a common base of geological and topog­
raphical data, combined with the integration of all
the modules that concur in realizing the functions for
obtaining the drawings and geological situations into
a unitary technology of work. The result was the
GEOLOG program package.
PROGRAM PACKAGE
The GEOLOG package is meant as an instrument
for achieving the various types of processing related
to geological and topographical activities in the
mining industry. Its functions can be classified upon
several criteria:
a) Classification according to the stage of the pro­
cessing:
-functions for acquisition and archiving of the
data existing at a specified moment of time (topogra­
phical measurements, planimetrie details, descrip­
tion of the geological and mining workings;
-functions for updating of the archived data.
b) Classification according to the type of the infor­
mation being manipulated:
Analytical functions:
-input and listing of the geological research
workings, samples, formations, sorts, prices;
-calculation of the contents, volumes and
reserves
Graphical functions:
-3D representations of plans, solids;
-interactive update of graphical elements;
-determining and representation of horizontal
and vertical sections through spatial objects;
-obtainment of different symbols or anotations
along any type of curves or of symbols filling
closed polygons.

145
 Complex functions:
-modeling of the surface of the terrain;
-modeling of the deposits (numerical model
generation for: galleries, rise headings,
dissolving voids, roof, floor, safety pillars,
deposits);
-obtainment of new points, curves or surfaces
by correlating different existing such objects
(points, curves, surfaces);
-generating of plans meant for geological
interpretation.
3 THE MODULES OF THE GEOLOG PROGRAM
PACKAGE
The GEOLOG program package is composed by
several modules, which can be combined in different
ways, according to the necessities of the users. The
modules are independent (using however a common
base of data) and they complete each other. For ex­
ample, the elements obtained by the data acquisition
module through the analytical module are combined
in the modeling module to produce modelled ob­
jects. These objects would be represented onscreen
by the graphic module. Finally, they would produce
plans using the drawing module.
The modules are not "pure" and usually consist
of several types of functions (as described above).
3.1 Analytical and topographical data acquisition
The topographical data acquisition can be made ei­
ther by scanning the existing maps and subsequently
digitizing them onscreen, or by collecting the topog­
raphical measurements from the primary documents.
For the points resulted from measurements, a calcu­
lation of the rectangular coordinates through theo­
dolite traverses and tacheometrie surveys is made.
The analytical data acquisition is realized inter­
actively or in batches, using as starting point the de­
scription of research workings, the primary docu­
ments, the existing geological profiles, the standards
defining the sorts for different processing industries,
etc.
3.2 Graphical modules
The initial contours or the objects resulting through
modeling can be represented by the graphical mod­
ule. All these information have identical structure
from the logical point of view.
The representation is made by parallel orthogo­
nal projection on an interactively chosen plane. It is
possible to represent any number of objects (solids,
contours).
The graphical output program represent spatial
objects obtained from the topographical input or
from the modeling routines or from horizontal or
146
vertical cross-section module.
Through the representation procedure, it is pos­
sible to make some other operations. The user is en­
abled to make several enlargements of the repre­
sented zone or calculate distances between two in­
teractively chosen points. It is also possible to repre­
sent solids with hidden lines, eliminating from the
drawing the edges of the unseen faces (faces covered
by other objects, situated nearer to the viewer).
The new version of the program package, now
in work, will present major enhancements regarding
graphical representation.
Figures 3-5 present sample images obtained us­
ing the new version of the representation program.
The represented objects were created using several
methods that will be briefly described.
3.3 Updating o f contours
The spatial objects can be modified using a graphi­
cal editor within the application package. This mod­
ule is a useful tool during data validation process.
The editor operates on a collection of files con­
taining contours or points. Any of these elements
(contours, points) can be inserted, moved from one
container object into another, multiplied, modified or
erased. The editor also offers the possibility to inter­
actively introduce data from the terrain notebooks.
In horizontal plane, the editor offers the possi­
bility to determine distances between two points and
to delimit and calculate the areas of portions of
contours.
The editor also makes possible to edit vertical
profiles. The modified lines from the profiles can
subsquently be added to enrich the information used
for spatial modeling.
3.4 Determining sections through solids
The graphical module can produce one or more
horizontal and vertical sections through the selected
objects. The vertical sections can be obtained fol­
lowing one or more parallel, interactively chosen di­
rections, while the horizontal sections can be ob­
tained at any chosen height (or at different distances
from a chosen height).
Figures 1 and 2 (next page) represent fragment
from automatically determined vertical section
through the models of the deposit, workings and ter­
rain at Ocna Dej and at Slanic Prahova, respectively.
The profiles, like any other drawing generated
with the program package, can be completed with
text and symbols from the library of the package.
The output can be exported to AUTOCAD or to any
GIS supporting DXF files.
3.5 Obtaining symbols or annotations
After obtaining all the objects to be represented on a
 Figure 2 - Fragment from an Automatically Generated Vertical Profile
plan, a final step before plotting it is to add symbols
and texts that would complete the map.
The application permits to automatically gener­
ate graphical objects that contain:
a) text that represent:
-the value of the height on level curves;
-information related to different objects (e.g. their
names);
-heights on a curve at specified distances along the
curve;
-heights of points belonging to a specified curve;
-the names, surfaces and, optionally, point numbers
(along with their coordinates) of the selected con­
tours .
b) symbols that explain the type of object a line
is representing on the map (either filling symbols or
symbols on the frontier of a curve).
The texts and symbols constitute objects them­
selves. They can be consequently edited using the
graphic editor. They are generated using libraries of
characters and symbols and follow the national stan­
dards established for representing maps in the min­
147
(Slanic Prahova)
ing domain.
3.6 Map generation
The package gives the possibility to draw its results
on a plotter. The maps are generated at a chosen
scale, and the tablet is automatically filled through a
dialogue. The legend is generated using a text file
describing its elements. The program is compatible
with a wide range of applications by generating
DXF files.
3.7 The modeling modules
3.7.1 Modeling the deposits
The GEOLOG package has different modules for
modeling the deposit, for different types of deposits:
layered or massive deposits or lodes. For every type
of deposit, we use as starting point the description of
the research workings (drillings, galleries, etc).

Figure 3. Surface model of a quarry
Figure 4 A mining works complex modelled with GEOLOG software package
Figure 5 - The 23 August Mine from Ocna Dej: aerial view and a section
For the massive deposits, two sets of points are
obtained. These sets will lead to the model of the
roof and of the floor of the deposit.
For the layered deposits, each layer of the de­
posit is modeled using such two sets of points. The
model consists of an optimal net of triangles, de­
scribing in every case the given surface. Beside the
148
points obtained from the description of mining
workings by the modeling procedure, limiting con­
tours (obtained through digitizing or automatic pro­
cedures) are used.
In the case of the lodes, we use the information
from the ten*ain notebooks and the topographical de­
scription of the axes of the lodes, taken from the ex­
isting maps. From these, the thickness of the lode is
determined in any of its points, for every level taken
into consideration.
3.7.2 Modeling the surface o f the terrain
Using the points resulted from the topographical
measurements and the information from the terrain
sketches, a model of the surface is generated as a net
of triangles.
This model is satisfactory for obtaining hori­
zontal and vertical sections and can be used by the
module for determining and drawing the level
curves.
 Figure 3 represents the result of the surface 4. CONCLUSIONS
modeling for a quarry at Aghireç.
The components of the program package being
modularly conceived, functionally independent from
3.7.3 Modeling through elevation
each other, the program package can be easily con­
Numerical models for the mining workings are figured for adapting to different concrete situations
obtained as polyhedrons starting from their bases from the mining plants or from the mining research
contours and determining their elevation at a given units.
level or with a given distance on vertical direction.
The facets of these solids are triangles or convex
polygons. Parts of the galleries in a mine are con­
structed using this method. Figure 4 represents the
Cantacuzino Mine from Slanic Prahova and the old
mines nearby.

3.7.4 Underground modeling

Through specific algorithms, starting from the axes
of the galleries or of the heading rises, polyhedral
solids with the boundary surfaces formed by trian­
gles or convex polygons are built.
In generating these solids, information about the
geometrical characteristics of the galleries and of the
rise headings (such as sides, height, cross section,
etc) is used.
Other methods of constructing spatial objects,
such as the ribbon modeling, are also used during
the construction of the models for a mine.
Figure 5 represents a mine from Ocna-Dej, modeled
using several methods: surface modeling, ribbon
modeling.

3.7.5 Correlation modules

Different types of objects are obtained by applying
certain operators on other existing objects. For ex­
ample, we can obtain the limiting contour of the de­
posit at a given time by intersecting the limiting
contour at a preceding time with the line that defines
the present exploitation line.
The modules do the following operations:
-determine the interior and/or the exterior points of
contours compared to given contours;
-determine the close contours delimited by the inter­
section of two contours;
-project points or contours on given surfaces (mod­
eled using triangles);
-determine the intersection between two surfaces
modeled with triangles.

3.7.6 Calculus
The GEOLOG program package calculates:
-medium concentration in the components from the
deposit that are of interest;
-surfaces and volumes of computing units (such as
panels);
-quantities of reserves from the deposit, differentia­
ted by groups, categories, etc;
-the program also generates listings with the results
of the calculus.
149
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

M ine design changes at Silver and B aryte’s bauxite operation

RStregas & N.Christou

Silver and Baryte Ores Mining Company, Bauxite Operation, Amfissa, Greece

ABSTRACT: This paper briefly outlines the underground mine design changes being presently trialled at the
Silver & Baryte Ores Mining Co., Bauxite Operation. The trials are predominantly targeting steeply inclined,
20 to 30 degrees, bauxite orebodies with a thickness exceeding 8 metres. The changes include how the ore-
body is accessed, the location and orientation of ore drifts, the extraction method and extraction sequence.
The mining method currently used in these types of deposits, is a combination of room and pillar with cut and
fill. This mining method has been in practice at the Bauxite Operation for several decades. This paper ex­
plores the benefits of this method, as experienced by the mining operation, and then outlines the changes be­
ing trialled to overcome any shortcomings. The final results from the trials will be available by October 2000.

1 INTRODUCTION The trials commenced in 1999, and will be com­

The mining of bauxite in the area surrounding the
Paranasse Mountain, Greece has occurred since the
1930's. Extraction of the mineral began with open
cut pits, mining the near surface deposits. As these
deposits were exhausted, the pits became larger and
deeper to recover ore further below the surface. By
the 1960's, the depth from which many bauxite de­
posits were to be mined, made them non-viable us­
ing the surface mining methods practiced until then.
To extract these deep deposits, it became necessary
to commence underground mining.
Due to the relatively flat and irregular nature of
the ore deposits, the underground mining method
adopted for the extraction of the ore was room and
pillar. This mining method has successfully stood
the test of time with no other method being adopted
to replace it, even though changes to the method are
continuously being trialled to And a suitable re­
placement.
The Bauxite Operation of Silver & Baryte Ores
Mining Co. has embarked on a new series of trials to
improve the room and pillar method in its under­
ground mines. The two main areas being focused on
are firstly; the location and orientation of access ore
drifts to allow for various extraction sequences and
secondly; the introduction of mass blasting tech­
niques in the extraction of thick sections of the ore
deposits.
pleted to an evaluation stage by the third quarter of
the year 2000.
2 BAUXITE MINING
2.1 The History o f S. &B. 's - Bauxite Operation
The Bauxite Pamasse Mining Co. was established in
1933 with the aim of extracting the bauxite ore de­
posits found in the area surrounding the Pamasse
Mountain, Greece. Its mines are located in the dis­
trict of Fokitha, approximately 200km NW of Ath­
ens. The mines are both open pit and underground,
and are scattered within a radius of 50km from the
Operations Centre. The Centre is at an altitude of
850m and 51km along the National Road, which
links the towns of Lamia and Amfissa.
Bauxite Pamasse was merged with its Sister
Company Silver & Baryte in 1997 to form the cur­
rent entity.
2.2 The Origins o f Bauxite in the Region
Bauxite consists mainly of aluminium oxides, iron
oxides, silica and in smaller quantities calcium and
titanium oxides. According to prevailing theories,
erosion, transportation and deposition of bauxitic
material formed the bauxite deposits in the region
into karstic cavities of the underlying limestone.

151
Bauxite is a product of latérisation of ophiolites, a
rock found in Eastern Greece. Submersion and fur­
ther limestone formation by sedimentation, followed
each erosion, transportation and deposition. (Bar-
dossy, 1982)
The largest concentration of bauxite deposits in
Greece is located within the geotechnical zone of
Pamasse-Ghionas, in the mountainous range of Par-
nasse-Elikona-Ghionas-Itis
It occurs in three separate horizons (upper, mid­
dle and lower), as a result of different age of forma­
tion, charaterised by differences in the texture and
quality of the ore. The upper horizon contains dias-
poric bauxite, while the middle horizon contains
boehemetic bauxite. Presently, mining is concen­
trated mainly in the upper horizon. The size of each
deposit varies widely from several thousand tons up
to nearly two million tons.
The bauxite deposits are lenticular in nature, en­
cased in limestone. The hanging wall was formed
during the Upper Cretaceous period and has a planar
layering, in contrast to the irregular nature of the
foot wall limestone, which is crystalline and belongs
to the Lower Cretaceous period.
A typical cross-sectional view of an ore deposit,
with its accompanying faults, is illustrated in Figure
1.
Fault
Figure 1. Typical Cross Sectional View o f a Faulted Orebody
Normally, the bauxite composition varies slightly
between the upper and middle horizons as shown in
the following table.
Table 1. Upper & Middle Bauxite Mineral Composition
Upper Horizon Middle Horizon
A 1203 5 0 -6 0 % 5 2 -5 6 %
SÍ02 2 - 3% 8 -1 2 %
FC203 1 5 -2 5 % 1 8 -2 2 %
CaO 0.5 - 1 % 0.2 - 1 %
152
2.3 Current Mining Practices
Underground mining equipment at the Bauxite op­
eration has changed over the decades in step with the
mining technology available at the time. Hand held
drilling equipment in the1960's, operating on com­
pressed air was replaced with diesel pneumatic
jumbo drills in the 1970's, to diesel hydraulic in the
1980's and 1990's. What has changed little in this
period however, has been the mining methods used
underground.
Ore deposits in the area are predominantly in­
clined with dips normally varying up to 35 degrees.
In these situations, and where the ore body has a
thickness of up to 8 metres, the room and pillar min­
ing method has applied for years.
Drifts are developed along the footwall contact of
the orebody with 13 metre centres, between the par­
allel drifts. Crosscuts are then developed in between
the drifts to form sizable pillars. These pillars are
stripped to a dimension of 5m x 5m in the final ex­
traction stage.
Where the orebody exceeds the 8 metres thick­
ness, the room and pillar mining method is com­
bined with cut and fill. After stripping the pillars
down to their final size, the floor level is raised by
dumping waste rock into the mined area, leaving
only sufficient space to commence development and
stripping at a higher level within the ore. This min­
ing sequence is repeated until the development has
reached the hanging wall.
In several past situations, where the orebody,
through severe tectonic upheavals has been steeply
inclined above 70 degrees, the sublevel stoping
method has been used. Sublevel drifts were devel­
oped along the hanging wall contact at 10 metre ver­
tical intervals. The ore between the levels was ex­
tracted by drilling holes using a long hole drilling
jumbo, and mass blasting the ore. The mining
method proved successful, but encountered serious
dilution problems, and dramatic drop in ore recov­
ery, when the intervals were extended above 15 me­
tres.
2.3.1 Benefits o f the Current Mining Practices
The Bauxite Operation has utilised the room and pil­
lar mining method for several decades in its under­
ground mines largely due to the benefits the method
has in extracting ore from slightly inclined mineral
deposits.
The benefits of this method have ensured its con­
tinued use and include:
• High ore recovery
• Working height can be controlled to a safe
level with the use of backfill.
• An irregular footwall contact can be followed.
Backfill used to give addition support in poor
ground conditions, and
 • Little technical input required during the pro­
duction stage.
2.3.2 Problems with Current Mining Method
As with all mining methods, the room and pillar
mining method combined with cut and fill has its
problems. The magnitude of these problems has
been reduced considerably by the Bauxite Operation
by continuously adopting new technology and
changing mining practices, where possible.
The problems which are presently being targeted,
include:
• The cyclic nature of cut and fill mining
• The need for backfill.
• Mining restricted to the bottom-up sequence.
• The high consumption of explosives associ­
ated with drift ore development, as opposed to
other methods of extraction.
• Ore contamination from backfill.
3 MINING CHANGES
As part of the continual search for ways to improve
productivity, reduce costs, and supply products that
meet customer needs whilst attempting to address
the inherent shortcomings of the current mining
methods being used, mine design changes have been
initiated.
3.1 Bottom / Up Mining Sequence
As mentioned, ore development follows the room
and pillar layout. Development commences along
the footwall contact of the orebody with 13 metre
centres, between the drifts. Pillars are formed when
cross cuts are developed between the drifts. In thick
orebodies, development progresses upward using
backfill until it reaches the hanging wall.
When the ore has been accessed at different hori­
zons, ore extraction commences from the lowest
point of the orebody and progresses upwards, again
using backfill, until the extraction has reached the
next access point. This mining sequence is referred
in this paper as Bottom/Up mining.
To reduce the need to continually use backfill in
the Bottom/Up mining cycle, whilst still retaining
the basic room and pillar mining method, a change
in the way we access the orebody is being trialled.
The primary ore drifts are developed with 26 metre
centres (i.e. 2 x 13 metre centres) and the parallel
drifts in-between these primary drifts are developed
by cross -cutting down dip. By developing the ore-
body at various horizons, it is possible to develop
drifts along the hanging wall contact, as well as be
able to extract ore using either long downholes or
upholes.
153
Num bers 1 & 5 - Drifting
Bauxite Num bers 2 & 6 - Stripping
Backfill Num bers 3 & 4 - Uppers
Hanging W all Num ber 7 - Benching
Figure 2. Bottom - Up Mining Sequence
The above figure 2 illustrates the method being
presently trialled. The primary drifts (A&B) are de­
veloped along the footwall at a height, which will al­
low for a limited amount of backfill to be used, to
give a flat working surface. Cross cuts are developed
from the upper primary drift (B) down dip to where
a parallel drift is developed (#1). The drift is
stripped to its final width (#2) of 8 metres. The ore
above this opening is extracted with the use of up­
pers (#3). Similarly, the ore above the lower primary
drift (A) is also extracted with uppers (#4).
In cases where the orebody thickness is suffi­
ciently large or where the footwall is steeply in­
clined, it will be possible to cross cut down dip to
contact the hanging wall (#5) and utilise the bench­
ing techniques (#7).
To eliminate the risk of pillar failure, and restrict
the stope height, in thick sections of the orebody, the
above method is to be modified by increasing the
amount of backfill used and raising the primary
drifts closer to the hanging wall.
3.2 Top / Down Mining Sequence
In direct contrast to the Bottom/Up method trialled,
a second series of trials are also occurring, where ore
extraction commences from the highest point of the
orebody and progresses down dip. This is referred as
Top/Down mining in this paper.
This method, in addition to the difference in the
mining sequence, various from the Bottom/Up
methods by the location of the access levels devel­
oped.
With the Bottom/Up mining sequence, access to
the ore is from the footwall. The primary drifts fol­
low the footwall contact, and any hanging wall drifts
are accessed by cross cutting down dip from the
footwall drifts.
 5 CONCLUSION

At the time of preparing this paper, most of the mine

development required to proceed with the trials was
nearing completion. The long hole drilling and slop­
ing trials are scheduled to commence in July 2000,
with the results available later in the year.

REFERENCES
Numbers 1 & 4 - Drifting

Bauxite Numbers 3 & 6 - Stripping Bardossy, G. 1982 Karst Bauxites (Bauxite deposits on car­
bonate rocks) Elsevier Pubi. Co. Amsterdam
Hanging W all Numbers 2 & 5 - Benching Hamrin, H. 1986 Guide to Underground Mining (Methods and
Applications) Atlas Copco, Stockholm, Sweden
Figure 3. Top - Down Mining Sequence Naapuri, J. 1987 Surface Drilling and Blasting Tamrock

With the Top/Down method, however, an in­

clined ore drift is developed along the hanging wall
from which horizontal drifts are developed. Cross­
cuts between the drifts then form the pillars.
The above figure 3 illustrates the Top/Down mining
sequence trialled. The access drift is developed
along the hanging wall contact, from which horizon­
tal drifts are driven (#1&4). The drifts are stripped to
their final width of 8 metres (#3&6).
With the hanging wall fully supported, the ore is
extracted by benching (#2&5). As shown, the height
of each bench is controlled by the floor height of the
lower drift.
This method is similar to conventional open cut
mining, where benching progresses from the top of
the orebody down to the final depth.
Since this method exposes the full pillar height,
and backfill can not be used for any pillar support or
to raise the floor level, the method is to be imple­
mented only where the orebody thickness does not
exceed 12 metres.

4 OBJECTIVES

The series of mining trials undertaken at the Bauxite

Operation are part of the continuous improvement
programs initiated by Silver & Baryte.
The specific objectives of these trials, however,
can be broadly summarised by the following:
• Increased product size
• Increased mine productivity
• Decreased ore contamination
• Reduced backfill requirements
• Improved mine safety
• Reduced consumption of explosives, and
• Reduced mining costs

154
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Planing the safety in m ines

K.Z.Ushakov
Department of Mine Aerology and Safety, Moscow State Mining University, Russia

ABSTRACT: Safety must be one of the main factors in mine planing. The method of correlation and
probability analyses of safety in mines is given. The method of mine safety projection is being developed. The
way of synthesis of mines with high level of safety based on these methods is discussed.

The conception «safety» in Russia is understood as
such conditions at which the influence of dangerous
factors on people is eliminated. But practically such
state can not be reached in most cases at modem
state of science and practice. Therefore the term
«level of safety» is introduced. In this report we use
the term «level of safety» aiming to reach its highest
possible standard. We also shell use the term
«traumatism» as phenomenon of totality of traumas.
In most cases traumatism (or trauma) is a result of
simultaneous action of many dangerous factors; the
action these factors can’t be foreseen and calculated
before hand. As it is known such events are
classified as random ones. Therefore the method of
analysis of traumatism or dangerous situations
should be based the theory of probability.
One of the main characteristics of traumatism as a
random process is the intensity of traumatism which
is imderstood as the number of traumas occurred
during the unit of time.
In the case of stationary process of traumatism:
K ( 1)
At
where N= number of traumas occurred within
the period of time At.
If the process of traumatism is unstationary the
intensity of traumatism is:
dN
(2)
dt
The next important characteristic of traumatism is
the probability of accident p . It is the numerical
characteristic of the degree of possibility that the
dangerous event can come. This characteristic
depends on the specific circumstances at which the
dangerous factors appear and therefore is different
155
for various technical processes and natural
conditions. The probability is the most complete
objective characteristic of the degree of possibility of
trauma occurrence.
The comprehensive investigations in coal and ore
mines show that the low of probability distribution
for traumatism can be described by Puasson low:
(3)
P m -----^
ni
where:
J/ldf (4)
is Puasson’s parameter;
m= number of accidents which took place during
the time A t.
If the process of traumatism is stationary
X =const and
a = AAt (5)
The probability of the fact that only one trauma
takes place during the period Af is:
p = l-e ( 6)
It is obvious that expression (6) shows the
probability that traumatism takes place altogether.
The probability according to the expression (6)
was calculated for workers of different jobs in coal
mines of Vorkuta basin. Obtained figures are shown
in the table.
Using the Puasson’s law one has to remember
that this law supposes that traumas are distributed
during the time evenly, the accidents are independent
from each other and appears one at a time.
Table 1. Probability of trauma for the period of
1 month.
 Jobs Value The probability of the case that at least one
Coal combine operator at 0.0173 trauma will occur among all m elements of type a
the longwall is:
Worker on longwall or 0.01-0.013
advance working_______ P« = i - Q . (H)
Blaster 0.0046 The total probability of safety for the which has
Electric car driver 0.0042 types of similar elements is:
Engineers and 0.002
technicians Qm “ Q a Q b Q c '-'Q z “OG (12)

For conditions at longwalls in Vorkuta coal mines
the following equation for intensity of traumatism X
was obtained:
X = 0.995 - 0.00257B + 0.0297m + 0.0045L +
+ 0.0045U-0.015a+ 0.000054B' -O.OOlSm^ (7)
- 0.0000283L" - 0.00018i>" + 0.0014a"
where B =number of workers at a longwall,
persons/month; m =thickness of the coal slam,
decimetre; L =length of face, meter; z;=speed of face
advancing, meter/month; a=angle of seam drop,
degrees.
For iron are mines in Krivoj Rog basin (Ukraine) the
relationship between X and ore strength x looks
like follows:
>^ = 9.1-1.73x + 0.12x" (8)
where x is taken in units according to the
Protodiakonov’scale (in the case of iron ore of
Krivoj Rog X=4-5-9 conventional units).
Equations (7) and (8) confirm that traumatism
intensity X depends on characteristic of technical
processes and natural circumstances.
The estimation of the level of safety for mine
begins with calculation of traumatism probability for
primary technological elements in mines: excavating
and advance workings, transport, repair works and
so on. Let these probabilities would be P2/ -/ P«?
where n=number of technological elements in a
mine. Then the random level of safety for the certain
mine element is
(9)
where i = the element number.
For traumatism analyses it is useful to calculate
the level of safety for all mine elements of the some
type, say, for all longwall faces all advance workings
etc. If the index of the type would be a , the general
level of safety for all elements of the type a will be
where fl,?7,c,...,z=numbers of types of similar
elements.
Using this method one can make the prognosis of
the level of safety of working or projecting mine.
Besides that, this method gives the possibility to
improve the safety of the mine. For that, using the
expressions for intensity of traumatism X similar to
expression (7), analysing them for minimum, one
can obtain the set of governing factors, which give
the minimum of X and therefore the minimum of
traumatism. For example, for mines of Vorkuta coal
basin it was obtained that the length of longwall
workings which provides the minimum cases of
traumas is about 130 m. In the some way one can get
the optimum figures of another governing factors
(speed of advancing of a working, number of
workers in a working team etc.) as well as there
combination.
Stated method can be used at mine projecting as
well. Two ways may be chosen in this case. At first
way one analyses the accepted technical decisions
and chooses the best ones. At second way one
analyses the technical decisions for optimum
combinations of governing factors and proposes
them for planners. This way usually is used being
when the version of the mine project which is taken
for realisation is not the best from the safety point of
view.

Qa = •••'?. = 0 '? . (10)

i=l
where m =number of elements of the type a .

156
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

T echnological w ells schem es and location parameters optim ization

for uranium geotechnology

VG.Yazikov
National Atomic Company of the Republic of Kazakhstan
Y. I. Rogov & A. Y Rogov
Kunaev's Mining Institute, National Academy of Sciences, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT: The report describes optimized non-linear mathematical models to ground production and
injection wells location schemes for uranium in-situ leaching, specifies final calculation formulas to
calculate hexagonal pattern radius, well spacing. This method calculations have been used for the largest
deposit of Kazakhstan, North Karamurun.

1. INTRODUCTION 2.2 Mathematical model controlled variables

When using ISL method for uranium mining,

The most perspective wells spacing are assumed as:
injection and production wells spacing construction
is a primary problem for operational sites (OS)
planning because it determines mining facility ^1.2’ •••5^1.6f (1)
performances - annual metal production capacity
and deposit mining out period. Theoretically, wells ; :^22; ^2,3}’ (2)
schemes and spacing can be very different taking
into account thinkable colossal number of variants. where
However, in any specific case just one scheme with X2 1 is pumping solution injection into injection well
its certain parameters is taken for realization. (IW);
Therefore, there is a problem of choice of the best X2.2 is pregnant solution pumping out thorough
well spacing optimal under a certain criterion. production well (PW);
Because it is not possible to solve this task X2.3 is combination of the above two methods.
experimentally and there are no physical scaling X3 is diameters of IW and PW;
modeling methods for this system, so the only one
way to solve that problem is mathematical
U 3i;^3.2;-;^3 (3)
modeling. In this connection, theoretical provisions
are grounded on mathematical models complex
making and realization to take reasonable decisions In principle, one can divide all known and
when uranium ISL operational site well spacing conceivable well spacing schemes into two types:
panning. pattern and row.
In pattern schemes the main parameters are R -
radius of IW or PW location from a pattern center
2. THEORETICAL GROUNDS OF METHOD and N - number of wells along a pattern contour
{N=l;2;3;etc.}.
2. / Criterion o f optimality In row schemes the main parameters are
dimensions a and b ox 6 -
Inputs for well spacing construction and operation b
while a certain OS working for ISL are taken as
criterion of optimality for solving the set task.
Let J to be a mark for the criterion of optimality
measured in conditional units (c.u.).

157
2.3 Optimized mathematical models objective and , a, 6)=J^ {/ij, a, e)+
constraint functions (6 )
+ J2{j Li j ,a, 6>)+J. mm,

Let variables X = X1UX2UX3 are mapped onto where

3
quasiordered graph G = (X, F), where =0;
7=1

Xi are graphs minorants; X3 are graphs majorants.

This paragraph considers analytical method of Ro
or Oo parameters determining for pattern and row
schemes. Rather simple method of the same
parameters determination for the most distinctive
five schemes of PW and IW location on site /!/ is
described below.
The following conventional signs are assumed in
the text:
R is hexagonal pattern radius, m;
a, b are distances between IW in row and between
rows respectively;
There are also assumed a ^ a; b ^ À and
coefficient 0 = — =
a a
Expenses for the whole period of OS mining
consisting of expenses for drilling, equipping,
operating and liquidation of PW and IW, expenses
dependent on OS operational time (wage, payment
for electricity, installed electricity-consumers
power, road, taxes, ecological expenses, etc.) are
subject to analysis.
Let’s consider necessary formulas construction and
analysis.
Number of independent ways from X\ to X3 on graph
G
|M(g )| = 6-3-3 = 54.
All 54 ways are permitted.
Now, one can put down optimized model as follows.
It is given graph G =(X, F) where permitted ways set
M(G) is determined. Each way pyGM(G) is assigned
objective function for pattern scheme:
j ( ^ i , R ) = J , {jUj ,R)+
(4)
+ J , { f i , , R ) + J , -> min
or b = 0-a and a < a < a , R, R, a,a-
lower and upper values of well spacing parameters
determined for upper values under pattern area
complete treatment conditions.
In (4) and (6) it is accepted that:
Ji is expenses for drilling, equipping, operation and
liquidation of technological well, c.u.;
J2 is expenses dependent on block operational time -
for wages, overheads, electricity, etc., c.u.;
J3 is expenses independent on operational time, c.u.
2.4 Optimized models (4), (5), (6) realization method
To determine functions of objective (4) and (6)
explicitly, one should determine OS working time.
First one should determine time proceeding from
uranium leaching speed conditions on OS /!/.
Alternate equal-yield production and injection
wells rows:
(cr + X f
t= (7)
Alternate different-yield production and injection
wells rows (Qp = 2Qi),
where
Qp is PW yield; Qi is IW yield;
( 8)
P-k[s^+s,)'
where
Sp is decline of underground water level on PW;
Si is increase of underground water level on IW.

with restrictions: Three-rows scheme:

^_ (2cr + Ay
R<R<R ] (9)
(5)

Square scheme of equal-yield production and

and for row scheme: injection wells:

158
r= - (1 0 ) t = -------- TT-------- ,d a y (15)

y rY ,Q o j
Hexagonal injection wells spacing with production
well in pattern center (Qp = 6 Qi):
where yr - ore-surrounding layer rock density, with
l,85cj' thickness - M, tW ; f - ratio L:S; nondimensional
t= ( 11)
^•45,+ 5,)' value; ys - solution density, tW ; ys = 1; Sa - OS area,
^,>c
xx?\ 'YjQoj" production wells total yield, m^/day.
Here it is assumed: a = Riox (8)-^ -^(11); <7^ a and
X = biox other location schemes.
As a result of optimized models (4), (5), (6) Let us sequentially consider following three main
realization we have for hexagonal pattern: wells location schemes.
1. Hexagonal one with required radius R:
i n \
, m. ( 12)
1,875-r^ • / • i n - - + C ,
R,.
t =- ■R\(\6)
KT t r Ú
where
2. Square scheme with required square side - a:
Ro is optimal value of hexagonal pattern radius.
If > 7?, so = i? is assumed as optimal value. 0,5a
r,-S^-M-f-\2,3ig +1,157 + C^
For square pattern:
t=
r , - S ^ - 6 , 2 S K j M{ S ^ + S ¡ ) ’

c :c -H
m. (13)
° V day (17)

where 3. Row scheme with — = 0 >\:

a
Go is optimal well spacing value.
If Q > a, = a is assumed as optimal value. 0,5a
q Q s o q
Yr •/• 2,; + 1,157 + C,
n •R,.
For three-row scheme we have: t =-
y , -5, ■6,28-/s:^-M-(5'p+5,) ’

=4 (14)
¡ 0 - c, { 2 +eY -c , (18)
day
If ÜQ > a, SO ÜQ = a is assumed.
Let us represent the formulas (16), (17), (18) as
follows:
3. DETERMINATION OF OPENING SCHEMES
t =C , - R } - , t ^ C ^ - a ^ - t =C ^ „ - a \ (19)
OPTIMAL PARAMETERS BY SOLUTION
VOLUME
where it is assumed:
Here is considered the method we have worked out for
determination of opening schemes optimal parameters
relying on total solution volume pumping through
injection and production wells for leaching of total
mass of uranium and other components on OS with
area Sa.
Time t of Sa mining is determined by the formula:

159
for hexagonal scheme - 4. CONCLUSION

1,875- r , . / - I n - ^ +C, The stated theoretical considerations based on

R. optimized mathematical modeling of blocks
K f\S,+ S,) ’ preparation and operation technological schemes have
universal character and are applicable for planning and
for square scheme - managing at facilities on uranium mining by ISL.
Methodical, informative support and software of
r, ./• + U57 + C theoretical considerations are the author’s property
c.=- and subject to sale at contract price.
6 , 2 i - K ^ [ S^ +S , )
for row scheme 5. REFERENCES

r . • / • 2,3^g + U576> + C 1. K.G. Brovin., V.A. Grabovnikov., M.V.

Shumilin, V.G. Yazikov. Forecast, research,
^ row exploration and industrial estimation of uranium
6,28 • (5 ^ + 5 j
deposits for in-situ leaching mining. Allmaty,
As a result of optimized models realization we have Gylym, 1997.-380 p.
optimal value of radius: 2. Reference book on uranium geotechnology.
M., Energoatomizdat. 1997.-672 p.
3. V.A. Grabovnikov. Geotechnological
(20 ) research while metals development. Moscow.
' c,-c, j Nedra 1978.-120 p.
4. Y.I. Rogov. Systematical analysis in
where Cw is cost of well drilling, equipping, operation mining. Alma-Ata. Nauka, 1976.-207 p.
and liquidation, c.u./m;
H is average depth of wells, m;
C 7 is expenses on OS dependent on time, c.u./day.

It is clear that if > R , so = i? is assumed.

For square scheme:
c • •c ;
( 21)

If > a , SO = a is assumed.

For row scheme:

(22)

If > a , SO = ais assumed.

The meaning of all C is given in the work of

A.Y.Rogov, Y.I. Rogov, V.G. Yazikov. A.S.
Bektureev. “Methods grounds for PW and IW location
parameters optimal schemes for uranium ISL.” -
Certificate of intellectual property objective
registration No. 023 dated 22.02.2000.- 15 p.

160
2 M ining geostatistics and m ine optim isation
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Indicator kriging approach to hazard definition ahead o f coal m ine

developm ent headings

E.Y.Baafi
Faculty of Engineering, University of Wollongong, N. S.W., Australia

ABSTRACT: Coal mines with a low average gas content do not require the usual expensive and timely op­
eration of gas drainage. Areas of high gas content are still encountered at such collieries with no means of
artificial drainage in advance of the workings to reduce this to safe and acceptable limits. Identification of
such potentially dangerous areas is imperative and necessary in assessing the risk and implementing precau­
tionary measures. This paper provides information to assist in the planning of advance development roadway
operations which highlights the potential safety risk to personnel in unmined areas and the subsequent non-
compliance of coal methane gas content levels.

1 OUTBURST OF COAL • precautions to prevent the occurrence of outburst

An outburst involves disintegration of in-situ coal
from a solid standing face together with a sudden
release of its contained gas during the disintegration,
and involving projection of the broken to pulverised
coal aided more or less by the energy of the gas so
released. An outburst usually happens very rapidly
and within seconds and primarily occurs in a devel­
opment operation. The sudden and large volumes of
seam gas being liberated into the mine atmosphere
can lead to very dangerous situations to the miners.
These include asphyxiation due to lack of oxygen,
poisoning by noxious gas or explosions by the igni­
tion of resultant explosive mixtures (Hargraves,
1993). While these situations cannot always be pre­
vented, attempts should be taken to identify areas
prone to outburst and the necessary precautionary
measures taken. Gas content is an important pa­
rameter in the detection of potential outburst situa­
tions. The Coal Mines Regulation Act (CMRA)
does not explicitly state a threshold for gas content
that restricts the development of headings above
which a danger and safety to health may be present.
However under section 63 of the CMRA, the In­
spector at the Department of Mineral Resources
(DMR) does have the authority to impose restric­
tions, prohibitions and requirements on development
roadway operations and the use of gas content is the
standard. This is all encompassed in the Outburst
Management Plan (OMP) required at each colliery
and is specific to the conditions at that mine. The
OMP is a legal document confirming
• safe levels of development mining;
in the form of identifying structures ahead of de­
velopment and insitu gas content sampling to en­
sure the gas content of the coal to be mined is
known at all times;
• training of personnel to recognise and respond to
such occurrences;
• maintenance of equipment to respond to an out­
burst.
Correspondence to NSW collieries working the Bulli
seam after the fatal accident at West Cliff Colliery in
1994 stated that under section 63 of the CMRA
1982:
(a) Insitu total gas content and gas composition, of
the Bulli Seam coal, in accordance with
AS3980 or an approved equivalent standard,
shall be routinely conducted in the Bulli Seam
as part of development roadway operations.
The mine manager shall ensure that sufficient
samples are taken at appropriate locations in
advance of development roadways to determine
seam gas content and gas composition of the
coal to be mine at all times.
(b) The mine manager shall take all reasonably
practicable steps to identify structures ahead of
all development roadways in the Bulli Seam. If,
in the opinion of the mine manager, a structure
that has potential to generate an outburst, is
identified or inferred from geological or other
information, or observed during the course of
mining, then mining in the vicinity of the
structure shall be carried out under Outburst
Mining Procedures.

163
(c) Normal mining shall only be conducted where: Consider the following observed gas content in vc?H
at the indicated sample points.
1. No structure has been identified as in (b) above,
and
2. Total gas contents in (a) above are less than 9 •5 •3
VC?lx for methane (CH4) or 5 vc?H for carbon di­ •6
oxide (CO2), or for a mixture of these two gases,
•9 •7
a gas content in the proportion of the percentages
of each gas between these two limits. •X , = ?
3. Development roadways may be formed where • 10 •4
the total gas content is higher than that set out in
(c) 2 above but only under full outburst proce­ • 11
dures or fully remote mining. The transformed indicator variables with 9m^/t
threshold methane value at the respective sample
This paper provides information to assist in the points reduce to:
planning of advance development roadway opera­ • 0 *0
tions which highlights the potential safety risk to
personnel in unmined areas and the subsequent non- ^0
compliance of coal methane gas content levels. The
paper attempts to achieve this aim through the appli­ ►
0
cation of indicator geostatistical technique. The
technique is applied specifically to methane gas = ?
content data obtained from a NSW south coast col­ ►
0
liery. The average gas content at the colliery is low
and no artificial drainage is implemented but the ■1
colliery does have a history of outburst. The non
parametric approach of indicator kriging is used to At the unsampled location a value of /fe.*9) may
gain an understanding of the spatial relationship of be estimated as the weighted average of surrounding
CH4 gas content cored samples throughout the seam, data, i.e.
to identify areas where the threshold gas content
value is exceeded and the proportion of that area that
exceeds the threshold gas content value. Risk levels where
(low, medium and high) on the basis of proportion
of the area exceeding the legal threshold level, are I(x„:9) ■ is an estimate of the indicator variable at
assigned to the area. Review of these results quanti­ location and threshold of 9 mVt CH4;
fies the potential risk of developing roadways in that I(X i) is the indicator variable at location jc/,
area. A, is the weights assigned to surrounding
data using the estimation technique of
ordinary kriging.
2 INDICATOR GEOSTATISTICS
The result for I(Xo:9) may be interpreted as an es­
In indicator geostatistics, a continuous function of timate of the proportion or probability of encoun­
gas content is assigned either a 1 or 0 subject to a tering gas content below threshold level of 9m^/t.
threshold level. The indicator variable is commonly Estimation of the indicator variable may be repeated
defined as at various points including Xo at different threshold
levels using ordinary kriging technique.
0, if z(x)>z^
I{x:z, ,) = •
3 ANALYSIS OF BULLI SEAM CH4 SAMPLES
1, if Z(x)<Zt
where: Cored samples were collected from the Bulli Seam
with an average coal thickness of 2.55m. Geological
X is sample location; structures in the area consist of narrow basalt dykes
z(x) is the gas content value (m'^/t) at location x; trending ESE roughly parallel to Longwall 507 and
Zk is the given CH4 gas threshold level; cross cutting dyke sets trending NE to ENE. An ig­
I(x: Zk) is the indicator variable associated with the neous intrusion is also present in the region of
location X and gas threshold level Zk 282400E and 1204400N. As part of the ongoing di­
rectional drilling program for long-term warning of

164
potential gas hazards, CH4 gas content sampling is Table 1. Indicator Variogram Parameters
carried ahead of the working area out at South Bulli.
The gas content values used in this study were origi­ Direction Co Co+C a
nally collected as part of a project to determine op­
timum gas sampling spacing and predict gas behav­ Omni-direc­ 0.0 0.255 250
iour in unmined areas at the mine (Duke & Phillips, tional
1996). Coal samples for gas testing were taken on a E-W 0.0133 0.240 275
200 m X 70 m staggered grid. Horizontal drillholes N-S 0.0168 0.303 300
were used to collect core samples in advance of the NE-SW 0.0 0.265 300
face. Cored samples measuring 0.7 m to 1.5 m long NW-SE 0.0 0.265 250
were collected and analysed using the direct method
to determine the gas content. In total, 240 gas sam­
ples were collected over the area but 35 were ex­
cluded due to insufficient core length or clustering Table 2. Risk assessment rating of mining blocks
of samples. As a result, the cored data set was re­
duced to 205. The gas content refers to CH4, meth­ % of a block ex­ Risk Rating
ane gas only and where gas content is used, it can be ceeding a threshold
assumed that it is referring to the methane content of > 0.6 High risk
the coal (in m^/t). Between 0.3 - 0.6 Medium risk
<0.3 Low risk
3.1 Indicator variogram

Indicator variograms at the median methane thresh­
olds of 6, 7, 8 and 9 mVt were generated. An ex­
perimental indicator variogram for 7 m^/t threshold
of CH4 is shown in Fig.l. The spherical model pa­
rameters generated for the median indicator vario­
grams are presented in Table 1 for 7 m^/t threshold
ofCH4.
Fig. 1 . O m n i-d ire c tio n a l exp e rim e n ta l in d icato r
vario g ram
0.30
0.25
0.20
!* 0.15
0.10
0.05
The omni-directional indicator variogram has a
range of 250 m while similar range values in the
N-S, E-W and NE-SW are slightly high. In practice,
the indicator variograms are affected more and in­
fluenced by preferential clustering over the sampled
area and this may explain the differences in range.
3.2 Outburst risk assessment
The study area was divided into 1134 1 0 0 m x 3 5 m
blocks. Indicator estimation of each block was per­
formed to generate the probabilities of gas content
values exceeding various thresholds. These prob­
abilities were assigned to the centres of the blocks.
As blocks with a proportion of the area exceeding
the gas content threshold of 9 m'^/t represent areas
that may be unsafe to mine with the current prac­
tices, these blocks highlight the need for further in­
vestigation. Proposed development roadways
through these areas would be exposed to a certain
level of risk depending on the proportion of the area
exceeding the 9 mVt threshold. A risk assessment
rating was established with the objective of priori­
tising those areas that may need further investiga­
tion. The risk assessment rating is summarised in
Table 2.
The selection of proportion intervals and subsequent
risk levels are subjective and can be modified to the
satisfaction the colliery management. The element of
risk encompasses the safety risk to personnel devel­
oping in the area where the potential for outburst is
present and potential non-compliance with the Coal
Mine Regulation Act and production delays. These
results are summarised in Figs. 2 through 4 The
maps clearly show the areas above the threshold and
the associated probabilities. Comparison between
the three maps for 9, 8 and 7 m^/t thresholds clearly
shows the decreasing value of the proportion above
the threshold and the decreasing extent of area cov­
ered. This reaffirms the low gas content in the areas
of proposed development to the north of Longwall
507.
The areas of high and medium risk were transposed
onto the plan of South Bulli mine workings. It was
envisaged that this would highlight those areas
where precautionary measures may need to be taken
prior to development. However, once the grid coor­
dinates of high and medium risk areas had been
placed on the plan it became clear that they all oc­
curred in areas that had already been developed and

165

Fig 2. Contour map of percent of area above 7 m^/t
Fig 3. Contour map of percent of area above 8 m7t
Fig 4 Contour map of percent of area above 9 mVt
coincided with samples of high gas content as ex­
pected.
166
4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Indicator kriging on the CH4 gas content data was
designed to have a practical application in the plan­
ning of development roadways in areas liable to out­
burst with gas content thresholds in place. It’s aim
as a planning tool was essentially to identify any risk
to the health and safety of personnel, to identify ar­
eas that may not comply with regulations should
mining proceed and to provide information that
could minimise cost and time to establish the gas
content in the unmined environment before devel­
opment proceeds.
In conjunction with the gas content samples taken in
the area, the information obtained from indicator
kriging can be used for:
• initiating procedures for mining under outburst
conditions when approaching these areas;
• monitoring of gas levels in the lead up to these
risk areas to either confirm, disregard or correlate
the data to the predicted data;
• implementing some form of methane pre­
drainage.
5 REFERENCES
Duke, J.H. & R. Philips 1997. Geostatistical Analy­
sis of Gas Data in Advance of Gate Road De­
velopment, unpublished paper.
Hargraves, A 1993. Seam Gas and Seam
Gas Drainage, Australasian Coal Mining
Practice Monograph 12, pp. 424-443, Australa­
sian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Mel­
bourne, Victoria.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

G eostatistical simulation: A framework to forecast fluctuations during m ining

F.S. Bonato, J.EC.L.Costa & J.C.Koppe

Mining Engineering Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

ABSTRACT: Appropriate geological knowledge is a determinant factor in mining profitability. Variability

forecasting of geological attributes reduces mining risks. Traditional mine planning does not take into account
the uncertainty associated with the geological model. Generally, the model used for planning is built using
traditional estimation techniques, which do not provide a measure of local variability, being inadequate for
short range mine planning. Opposite to the traditional techniques, geostatistical simulation reproduces the
actual variability and spatial continuity (histogram and variogram) of the original data set. Stochastic simula­
tion can be used to measure the uncertainty, which is associated with an estimate. This study presents an algo­
rithm for conditional sequencial simulation and describe a procedure to assess geological uncertainty. Subse­
quently, it is introduced a framework proposing an efficient way to use this information in mine planning. A
case study in a major Brazilian coal mine illustrates the steps involved.

1 INTRODUCTION

Forecasting fluctuation associated with geological

and engineering parameters in mine planning is of
paramount importance for mine profitability. Tradi­
tionally, mine planning is developed using determi­
nistic models built using one among the various in­
terpolation techniques available (Patterson, 1959
pp.111-116; Thomas, 1973 pp.53-57; King et al.,
1982 pp.14-19; Peters, 1987 Chap. 16.4; Hartman,
1992 Chap 5; Hustrulid & Kuchta, 1995 Chap.5).
Models generated with traditional interpolation
methods such as inverse distance weighting or even
kriging are not able to incorporate the uncertainty
associated with an estimate.
Contrary to deterministic models, geostatistical
simulation methods aim to reproduce both the in-situ
variability and the spatial continuity of the input data
set. Simulation aims to replicate the spatial structure
of a data set as a whole rather than provide reliable
local estimates of an attribute at particular locations.
Each model obtained via simulation is seen as a pos­
sible representation of the deposit. Combining mul­
tiple equally probable models provides the tool to
measure local or global variability.
Figure 1 depicts four simulated models generated
for coal thickness based on the sequential Gaussian
simulation algorithm (Isaaks, 1990; Deutsch and
Joumel, 1998 pp. 144-145). All figures exhibit ma­
jor similar features, however local variations (differ­
ences) are observed among the models.
Figure 1. Four individual models for a seam thickness gener­
ated via simulation. Units are in meters.
Measuring uncertainty is a key factor to access
risk and to predict fluctuations (Isaaks & Srivastava,
1989 Chap.20; Joumel, 1989 pp.30-38; Joumel &
Alabert, 1989 pp.123-134; Isaaks, 1990 Chap.3 e 4;
Hansen, 1992; Costa et al., 1997; Costa et al., 1998;
Deutsch & Joumel, 1998 Chap.5; Godoy, 1998;
Muge et al., 2000). A framework to use geological
and engineering uncertainty into planning is deemed
relevant. This paper proposes a method based on
geostatistical simulation to access risk and a proce­
dure to incorporate this risk into mine planning. The
method is tested in a multi-seam deposit where seam
thickness is the parameter chosen to illustrate the
proposal. The impact of coal thickness into pit ori­
entation is analysed and various alternatives where

167
checked using the multiple equally probable models
generated by simulation.
2 PROCESSING SIMULATED MODELS
Combining the differences among the equally prob­
able models provide the tool to measure fluctuations.
The problem addressed in this case study involves
19 different seams and for each of them 100 simula­
tion models were generated. The number of possible
geological scenarios involving all these simulations
and seams is large and can be calculated using:
(c,;)‘ = (c;„„f = 10'^
where: C is the number possible combinations in­
volving n simulations for each one of the k seams.
The decision on which geological variable should
be controlled to attenuate mining fluctuations was
based on two criteria: (1) the thickness variability
measured in terms of coefficient of variation and (2)
the influence of a given seam thickness on the total
reserves. For each seam thickness the coefficient of
variation was calculated locally, i.e. block by block
within the domain of the deposit. To illustrate the
idea, Figure 2 shows the coefficient of variability for
each block value of 50x50 m for a given seam. The
map defines areas of high variability in dark grey,
where high production fluctuations are expected.
Figure 2. Map showing the coefficient of variability for the
thickness of one o f the seams modelled.
3 BUILDING A POSSIBLE GEOLOGICAL
MODEL
Combining the individual simulations from each
seam to compose a possible geological scenario is
not straightforward. As mentioned in the previous
section, the number of possible alternatives to com­
bine and obtain a 3D model is large. We propose the
following procedure to build a 3D model involving
multiple seams:
1 Draw randomly a number for a simulation to
be selected among the ones available for seam num­
ber one (out of the 100 generated);
2 Repeat the same process for the subsequent
seams until reaches seam number 19;
3 Combine all the 19 realisations (one for each
seam) in a 3D model representative of the deposit,
which is designated as model #1 (Figure 3 illustrates
the procedure);
4 Repeat (1) to (3) until the number of 3D mod­
els is considered enough to characterise the uncer­
tainty about a given parameter.
(1)
Figure 3. Illustration of how individual simulated seams were
combined in a 3D model (100 realization for each of the 19
seams).
The decision of how many 3D models should be
built combing individual simulations of each seam is
the key factor. Firstly, the number of models used
affects computer storage, as each multiple seam 3D
scenario is a very large file. Secondly, the number of
possible alternatives used for planning (i.e. put
through a transfer function, Dimitrakopoulos (1998))
should be large enough to guarantee the uncertainty
about the parameter of interest is properly obtained.
So, how many models are reasonable to properly
capture the uncertainty and be used to measure the
risk?
The answer to that question should take into ac­
count which variable or parameter one wishes to
control the risk associated with. In this study, we
selected the stripping ratio, as it is the most relevant
engineering factor affecting the profitability of an
open cast operation. On each model the average
stripping ratio is obtained as follows:
1 Define initially the ratio for a prismoidal block
formed by a prism with section A b intercepting all
the seams using:
k
SRs> = (2)
^ th c , ^B-Pa
168
where SRei is the stripping ratio for a discrete pris-
moidal block which is part of the 3D model, thwi is
the thickness for a waste seam i, k is the number of
waste seams, comprised in a block of area A b, thcj is
the thickness for a coal seam i within the same block
with an average specific gravity and j is the
number of coal seams.
2 Calculate the average stripping ratio for an en­
tire 3D model using:
_ and N45E. All models alternatives were outlined by
SR=-i=i------
where SRbi is the stripping ratio for a prismoildal
block i comprised within the 3D model and n is the
number of discrete blocks forming the model.
The SR calculated for the first 3D model is kept
for further statistical analysis. The procedure contin­
ues selecting another 3D model and calculating its
SR . After obtaining a few SR values (say five), one
can measure the uncertainty about the expected av­
erage stripping ratio. The uncertainty represented by
the variance of multiple SR s tends to increase as the
number of 3D models included increases, and after it
reaches a certain maximum limit. This maximum
variance determines the number of simulations nec­
essary to provide an appropriate appraisal of risk.
Figure 4 illustrates the situation.
Figure 4. V ariance o f the average stripping as the num ber o f
3 D m o d els selected increases.
As observed, the variance for the models after
building 15 different scenarios does not increase. It
was decided that 20 models were enough to incorpo­
rate the expected variability for the stripping ratio.
These 20 models were sorted in ascending order
based on the SR values. Among these 20 scenarios
the worst alternative (highest S R ), the median alter­
native and the optimistic option (lowest SR ) were
kept.
4 SEQUENCE OF THE STRIPS
Once defined three possible scenarios for the de­
posit, mining alternatives were studied taking into
account the geological risk and its impact on
monthly coal output. Mining was conceptualised in
three distinct pit orientations and for sake of illus­
tration, coal seam S3 thickness fluctuability was
measured on each mining alternative. Seam S3 was
chosen to illustrate the ideas herein discussed, as it is
the seam with the highest CV for the thickness and it
is also responsible for approximately 30% of the to­
tal coal resources for this specific deposit. The se­
lected pit orientations were Northwards, Eastwards
(3) the maximum feasible stripping ratio of 7m^/t.
Figure 5. Three alternatives for strips orientation (N orth-South,
E ast-W est and N 4 5 E ) and the b o x cut position .
The pits defined are 50m wide and variable in
length. All alternatives considered an initial box cut
at the right comer, where the coal seams are at shal­
low depth. Analyzing the variability of S3 thickness,
from pit to pit, for each mining alternative allows
one to select the option, which minimizes fluctua­
tions (measured in terms of coefficient of variability
- CV). Low thickness fluctuability helps is keeping
constant the daily production.
Table 1 summarizes the expected variability for
each mining alternative. Among the three options,
the alternative with the lowest average CV was kept.
Pits oriented at N45E and NS would have the same
average CV, however N45E was selected due to its
lower maximum expected CV. Mining at N45E
169
would lead to a more homogeneous production out­ performed at a reasonable speed using a Penthium
put, with fewer daily variations. III processor.
Monthly variations were measured, after the pits The output files from individual simulations are
were oriented and their length defined for an normally very large, limiting the number simulations
100.000 t/month production rate. Figure 6 depicts required to access risk associated with the engineer­
pit’s orientation and monthly expected advance to ing decisions. This study proposed a methodology to
keep the production output constant. combine multiple simulated alternatives for each in­
dividual seam in a 3D geological model. After, we
introduced a procedure to check how many models
Table 1 Expected thickness variability for different pit orienta­
tions. were enough to provide a measure of risk related to
CV N45E EW NS the parameter investigated. The results demonstrated
Min 0,25 0,39 0,21
for the variable investigated, that 15 simulated 3D
Max 0,68 0,87 1,02
models were sufficient to capture the uncertainty
Average______ 0,47______ 0,59______ 0,47
about the parameter studied. The benefits of the
methodology developed is demonstrated in the case
study, where the orientation of mining (N45E) were
defined aiming at minimising production fluctua­
tions.

6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was made possible through the finan­

cial support of PADCT III/Finep (Brazilian Re­
search agencies) and Copelmi Minera9ao Ltda.

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Printers, Sydney, Australia, 4 7 Ip.

171
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Estim ation o f volum es o f stripping and w inning operations at opencasts

using solid graphs

D.G.Bukeikhanov, M.Zh.Zhanasov, V.ESyedin, B.Zh.Bekmurzayev & S.D.Bukeikhanov

Kunaev’s Institute o f Mining, National Academy of Sciences, Almaty, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT: The method is proposed for determination of rational direction of mining operations
development in opencast by the means of solid graph with cycles, characteristic property of which is the fact,
that it takes into account not only opencast deepening but development of mining operations at a level too.

When designing and plaiming of mining
operations in opencast one of the main problems is
determination of rational volumes of mining and
stripping in time and in space. It is that fact which
defines quality and nomenclature of making
production, technology and complex mechanization
of stripping and mining operations, and also
auxiliary operations, and in the last analysis,
technical - economic indexes and money flows of an
enterprise.
Optimization of volumes and quality of stripping
and winning operations may be achieved by the way
of division of open-pit field into phases (stages) of
mining, determination of rational development of
mining operations, choice of system of opencast
development, mining method, opencast’s cargo
traffics and their parameters. At the same time
directions’ development, which as a rule determines
by method of variants, graph-analytical and
analytical methods, takes the most substantial effect
on volumes of mining operations’ allocation in
opencast.
With development of computational mathematics
and computer machinery it became possible to use
methods of optimization for determination of
direction of mining operations development by the
way of their simulation.
Mathematical simulation of mining operations
development includes representation and estimation
of a set of intermediate positions of an opencast in an
open-pit field from day surface up to the final depth
and various ways of its transfer from one position to
another.
Let Si (1,2,...,n) is finite set of positions of mining
operations within an open-pit field, which is defined
of form and parameters of working zone, which are
ploted in accord with mining method under study.
Every position of working zone is fixed by a position
of development working (initial cut, primary pit) and
position of working zone s walls, and its condition
and development are evaluated by technological
parameters and economic indexes.
So set of positions of working zone of an opencast
and all possible ways of an opencast change from
one position to another may be ordered in a form of
graph G (ET)=(EH).
Number 1 (length of an arc) is assigned to each arc
(xi,,Xj) of G graph, expressing difference of system S
condition in incident nodes, and every graph node is
event. So, a problem of determination of rational
direction of mining operation development amounts,
first of all, to evaluation of every i - intermediate
position of mining operations; secondly to forming
of graph of multi-variant of directions of working
zone development and, thirdly, to seeking optimal
trajectory p of working zone movement from initial
position (minoranta) to final (majoranta).
Graph (3!xi,eE) F'^{ XiJ - o or (Vxi^ Xi,eE)=>
( xi<Xj))= (EH) is a solid graph (3!xi,GE)T'^{ X[} - 0
or (VxJ( Xi,eE)=:>( xi<xj))= (EH) is a solid graph
«n» -power, |E I =n (fig.l). Its element XjgE
represents nodes of graph, and every pair (xi, xj)
(xiTtXj) XjGTxi -is graph arcs (Kofrnan, A. 1975;
Baikonurov, O.A. and the others, 1977). Among arcs
of G (ET) there are arcs, which arc represents by
loops (VXjGE) Xi, Xii?H(V xjgE) Xj, xjgH.
Assumed graph G (ET) includes anti-symmetrical
particular graph Gm (EHm),Hm g H, which has
(VxiGE,VxjGE)(xi,,Xj)GHm^(xj,Xi)^Hm (1) that
is every pair of adjacent nodes is connected only in
one direction, and also «b>, h=l,N of hardly
connected graphs of sub-graphs Gh
(AhHh),AhEE,HhGH, which have;

173
 (VxieAh, VxjeAh ) ( Xi,,Xj)GHh=>( xj, Xi)eHh or elementary way p from (xi), that is ( 3p GHm )xj
VxiGAhrh(xi,)=r(xi)nAh (2) g E^x and also transit closure.
that is every pair adjacent nodes Xj and xj arc f x i = { x i } u { r ( x i ) u r ^ i ) u r \ x i ) u ...
connected by two oppositely directed arcs. ur"-'(xi) (9 )
Indexes of nodes Xi^eE of assumed graph G and So, graph G(EE) is transit graph , as there is graph
hardly connected sub-graphs Gh are arranged in
Gtc = (EH^) , where M^g H, H^g Ho is minimum
increasing order.
possible set of arcs from (xi) to (xn).
Assumed graph G has only one minoranta as
For determination of rational direction of mining
(3!xi,eE )r'^ { XjJ - 0 hjih (Vxi,)( Xi,GE)=>
operations development on graph G=(EE)=(EH) it is
( xi<Xj) (3) necessary to find minimum (maximum) elementary
and also one majorant as way, connecting assumed and final nodes:
(3!xi GE)r^{ Xi,} - 0 HjiH (Vxi,)( Xi gE)=>
( Xh>Xj) (4)
>-= B , min
Assumed graph G(EE), partial graph Gm(EHm),
and sub-graphs Gh(AhHh) have the following Or
properties :
1 .E= u Ah u xi u Xh;
m=l
u Hm u Hh (5)
h=l L= H h min
2. HmOMh^O; Hh-1 n Hh-2<^ optimal length of a way section, cormecting
n H h-N= 0; (6) assumed node xi with nodes Xy and xn (XpG An-i, xn
Ah=i n Ah=2 Ah=3- •. Ah=N= 0 GAn), falling in optimum way we may determine by
a formula:
3. (Vxi6 Ah)rxi=Ah)(Vxi6Ah)r'xi=Ah (7)
4. Half-power of outcome of assumed node (xi) -
h e ~ ^^^{hnxiGA„,A„ [(A,/ ■*"
minoranta d(xi,) = | E(xi) | = | Ah=N L half-level of i^n j^ n /j=i
pass of final node x„ majorant d(xn) = Ir ’^(xn) I
= IAh=N I • U+1 \ / II—
fi
Half-power of nodes of partial graph Gm(EHm)
i,U\+k)
besides assumed node xi and Xmis equal to 0 or 1.
Half-power of pass of every node hardly
connected sub-graphs Gh(Ah,Hh) in equal to half­
power of part and may be equal to 1 up to 4.
5. If remove all arcs (xi,xj) gHh of all N hardly
connected sub-graphs Gh , we will receive partial
graph Gm , representing oriented multi-graph which
connects the first (xi) and the final (xn) nodes. If where e ( 10 )
don t take account of intermediate nodes of graph Gm Pro will be carried out by the method of
, that a part of arcs will finish by pendent nodes , that
(mathematical) induction (Poiya,D.1975)
is there is a sub-set.
Let h = l. As goal function is additive from
(Vxi)E(xi) = O. Bellman’s principle of optimum (Bellman, P. 1960)
6. On graph Gm sub-sets of nodes (Ai,A2, .. ., An)
follows, that a section of optimal way, passing over
AicgE are determined for which node Xy gAh-i, must be optimal too.
Ai= {xi IXi GE,F^Xi=0} Therefore it is necessary to prove, that a length of
A2={Xi |xi GE-Ai,r'^XieAi} way section, connecting the first node xi (minoranta),
A3={xi IXi GE-(AiuA2),E’^Xi e A1UA2} and a length, determined by a formula 10 is
optimum. It is obviously, so, first of all, in rigorous
order of nodes numbering and hardly coimected
N -l N -1
graphs Gh and property 4 length of all possible ways,
An = {xi IXi GE-uAh, E'^Xi c u Ah} passing over node iGXi(i?i:v) and connecting the first
h=l h=l
node with node vgAh is found by means of
expression, which is presented between the square
7. In connecting that partial graph Gm may be brackets. Interior minimum allow to choose the
represented in a form of multi-graph, connecting shortest way among all of them. Hence, this
nodes (xi) and (Xn) that there is even if one declaration is correct when h = l.

174
 2. When h=2 let consider of assumed graph to
equivalent graph g:
a) all arcs (xi ,.xj) e Ah=i and also arcs incident to
node xi remove
( minoranta) and {Ah=i};
b) let's connect node xi by arcs with a set of nodes
Ah=2 and apply value of are length

jeA
1
jeh jeh
1 2

to very arc.
3. For transformed graph declaration is correct
which was received in the first part of the proof, so
length of arc 1^„, which was determined by a formula
10 where the addend l^^, " - is optimal length of f
way section, connecting node xi with node v, v e h p
and the addend is optimal length of way from node S)
tonodex^l^. I® ©
4. Is the statement is true for h=2, it is true also
for=3,4,...,N. The proof resulted in \2\ for the flat
© ©
graph are true also for volumetrie graph G, since it
consists from two mutually crossed flat graph, (i)
forming set Ah.
The algorithm for solving problem 1 consists of the Fig.l. Solid graph of multi-variant of directions of
following computational operations mining operations development in open pit:
1^ Input of initial data. a) solid graph of multi-variant with cycles;
2« lL ;= l,,;v ,G A h . b) hardly connected graph;
c) disconnected graph.
3®h:=l.
4® Computation of the optimal length of the path REFERENSES
segment 1 , connecting the zero apex with apices
Kofrnan, F. Introduction to application problems of
riGAh=i using the formula (10).
combinations 1975 M., Science.
5^ h=2. Baikonurov, O.A., Bukeikhanov, D.G., Syedin, V.F.,
6^ Check if k equals h=N? If it does, proceed to 7^. Kim, L.I., Calendar planning of mining operations
Otherwise, proceed to 8^. by means of personal computer when open
mining of massive deposits. 1977. Theory of
7^ Computation of the optimal length of the path 1*„,
coding and optimization of complex systems.
connecting the zero apex with the II=n, apex,, and Almaty, Science, p. 84-90 .
the solution process is ended. Poiya, D. Mathematics and plausible reasoning.
1975. Science. B
8^ By means of the transformation procedure, Bellman, P. Dynamic programming 1960. M.
transform the initial oriented graph and proceed to
4^

CONCLUSIONS

The offered method, algorithms and programs were

used at a choice of a direction of development of
mining work of Malandzhand, Asarel, Itauz and
Akzhal open-pits and at fulfilment of design work.

175
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Propsects for Zn-Pb ore m ining in Poland with regard to ore quality
in discovered deposits

J.Cabala
Faculty of Earth Sciences, University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland

ABSTRACT: This paper discusses geological environment o f Zn-Pb ore deposits in Silesia-Cracow region
(southern Poland). The role o f a deep tectonic fold zone in the distribution o f the ore in Tri2issic and Devonian
formations was also stressed. The forms in which Zn-Pb ore bodies were described and the significance o f hy­
drothermal karst as the determinant direction o f ore-creating hydrothermal flows and consequently, in the
formation o f Zn-Pb were discussed. Distribution and intensity o f mineralization o f currently exploited depos­
its were compared with those in the prospective deposits in Klucze and Zawiercie. The structure of ore bodies
in Triassic and Devonian vary. Ores in Devonian carbonate formations are only weakly prospected and have
never been exploited. The paper also pointed out high levels o f Zn, Pb, Cd, and Ag in Klucze and Zawiercie
deposits. Finally, the paper described some elements o f the geological structure o f these deposits which can
hinder their fiiture exploitation and reduce the economic viability o f exploitation.

1 INTRO DUCTIO N

Zn-Pb ore deposits can be found in Silesia-Cracow

region in southern Poland (Figure 1). These deposits
can be found in the area covering 1200 square kilo­
metres. The northern boimdaries o f the deposits have
not yet been firmly determined. Commercially useful
deposits ever covered no more than a few percent of
the area.
Commercial exploitation o f these deposits began
several centuries ago. However, more intensive
mining extraction occurred only in the 1920-1930s.
Depletion o f sulfide ore deposits required additional
prospecting work to discover and document new de­
posits for potential fiiture exploitation. From 1960s’
to 1990s’ approximately twenty new Zn-Pb ore de­
posits were discovered and documented. O f these,
only the deposits in Olkusz and Chrzanow region Figure 1 The map showing the limit of zinc and lead minerali­
were commercially exploited. Because o f the low zation in the middle Triassic deposits.
level o f metals in the ore, small size o f the deposit or 1-erosional adge, 2 -fault, 3- the boundary between dolomitized
unfavourable geological conditions other deposits and carbonate depositsits (after Galkiewicz, Sliwinski 1985), 4
- upliftef Devonian carbonate deposits, 5 - d- dolomites, dw -
have not been economically developed. In addition,
limy dolomites, w - limestones, 6 - zones mineralised with Zn-
weak market demand for zinc and lead resulted in Pb ores, 7 - fault zone Kraków-Lubliniec (KLFZ).
under-investment in the industry in recent years.
The aim o f the study was to determine ore quality
in the prospective deposits o f Klucze and Zawiercie position which are the most crushial from mining
with respect to their future exploitation and also, to point o f view.
present the elements o f their geological structure and

177
2 DISTRTOUTION OF ZN-PB ORES
Zn-Pb mineralization occurs mainly in the Devonian
and Triassic carbonate formations which can be con­
sidered to be o f a “Mississippi Valley” type (Viets et
al. 1996).
Zn-Pb deposits, which are the topic o f this paper,
are localized in the Upper Silesia Coal Basin (the
USCB) and on its north-east periphery (Figure 1).
W ithin the USCB these deposits occur in syncli­
nal subsidences filled with Triassic limestones and
dolomites directly above coal-bearing formations of
Upper Carboniferous. The area north-east o f the
USBC, where the remaining deposits can be found,
is built o f Permian and Mesozoic platform forma­
tions forming the so-called Silesia-Cracow mono­
cline. Geological layers incline 2-3 degrees in the
north-east direction. The Permian-Mesozoic com­
plex is deposited on eroded surface o f carbonate
sediments o f Middle and Upper Devonian, carbonate
and argillo-arenaceous sediments o f the Lower Car­
bon, and coal-bearing argillo-arenaceous sediments
o f the Upper Carbon. The Upper Paleozoic sedi­
ments belong to Variscan structural stage. These
sediments are only weakly folded and form large ra­
dius synclines and anticlines. Their axes approxi­
mate the direction o f Cracow-Lubliniec fault zone
(KLFZ).
This fault zone runs through the Paleozoic bed­
rock o f the Mezozoic cover. The period o f its geo­
logical activity falls in the Variscan orogeny. How­
ever, research shows that the area was still
tectonically active during Triassic period (Cabala &
Teper 1990). The orientation o f the fault zone ap­
proximates the direction o f the contact line between
Upper-Silesian and Malopolska Cristallic Massive.
A tectonic dislocation occurred in the bedrock o f the
discussed fault zone (Bula et al. 1997; Cabala & Te­
per 1990; Teper in press). A characteristic block-
fault system o f discontinuity in the Upper-Paleozoic
and Mezozoic layers is the result o f this dislocation
(Cabala 1995). Zinc-lead deposits have only be
found to the south-west o f the Cracow-Lubliniec
fault zone (Figure 1). Therefore, tectonic develop­
ment o f the area during Mezozoic was o f conse­
quence for the formation o f Zn-Pb ore deposits.
3 FORMS AND OCCURRENCE OF ZN-PB ORE
BODIES
Zinc and lead ores occur in the form o f pseudo-beds
and irregular nests. Compared to hörst areas, the
continuity o f the ore-bearing beds increases in the
areas o f tectonic grabbens (Figure 2). The richest
178
nests typically occur several meters above the point
o f contact between ore-bearing dolomites and
Gogolin limestone. The contact can be easily distin­
guished in the presence o f well-developed horizontal
karst forms.
Above some o f the karst cavities, ore-bearing
breccias were created extending their reach up to
ore-bearing dolomites as far as 20 meters. The crea­
tion o f ore-bearing breccias was interrupted by sev­
eral stages o f deposit formation and karst develop­
ment. S. Dzulynski & J. Rudnicki (1986), as well as
M . Sass-Gustkiewicz (1996) drew attention to the
importance o f hydrothermal karst for Zn-Pb ore for­
mation.
Vertical range of mineralization differs signifi­
cantly among deposits (fi*om 90 to 320 metres above
sea level). The thickness o f mineralized intervals
varies fi*om 1 to 25 meters. Ore bodies are typically
o f irregular shapes (nests, shoots, or veins). More
seldom, they may occur as horizontal pseudo-beds.
The continuity o f mineralization in the Zawiercie
deposit is larger than in the Klucze deposit. Ore
nests occur at the depth o f between 140 and 280
meters above sea level. The dominant part o f the de­
posit is built o f horizontal pseudo-beds. A part o f the
deposit occurs under inhabited area, therefore the
exploitation o f shallowly occurring deposits could
have negative effects on the surface and buildings.
For comparison, the mineralized beds in mineable
deposits in Pomorzany and Olkusz area (an area o f a
tectonic fault grabben) occur at the depths o f be­
tween 210 and 290 meters above sea level. What is
reflected by predominately horizontal elongation of
ore nests and/or pseudo-beds (Figure 2).
Generally, the differences in the depth of occur­
rence o f ore bodies within tectonic fault grabben are
smaller than within areas o f tectonic horsts or up-
thrown sides o f folds. The more complex ore bodies
found in the area o f tectonic horsts often reach De­
vonian formations. This is the case of the deposits
found in the Zawiercie, Klucze and Chechlo areas.
4 ZN-PB M INER ALIZA TIO N IN DEVONIAN
FORMATIONS
Triassic formation overlies anticlinal elevations of
Devonian rocks. Mineralized beds in Devonian and
Triassic occur at similar hypsographic levels within
similarly developed epigenetic ore-bearing dolo­
mites. The geometry of Devonian ore bodies is more
complex and varied than that of the Triassic ones.
The lithological - structural barrier within Trias­
sic formations (contact zone between ore-bearing
 Bolesfaw Horst Pomorzany Graben
[m]
Krzykawa Zn-Pb ore Pomorzany Zn-Pb ore
Q - Quaternary T | - Diplopora
J - Jurassic Tjdk- Ore-Bearingdolomites
T - Triassic:
Limestones KTG
T^'"" - Gogolin limestones
Figure 2. Geological cross-section showing Zn-Pb ore deposits in Olkusz region.
dolomites and the limestone below it) preventing
from the flow o f ore-creating solutions is the reason
for such complexity and variety. Horizontal karst
systems, frequently filled with clay material, can be
found there.
The presence o f such a barrier caused the pre­
dominance o f horizontal flows o f mineralizing solu­
tions within Triassic formation. Consequently, up-
warded flow was limited to the interval between
several and less than a hundred meters above this
barrier.
The process o f creation o f Devonian formations,
where such a barrier was not present, was quite dif­
ferent. Because o f the absence o f the barrier, ore-
creating solutions could move not only horizontally,
but also vertically taking advantage o f zones o f in­
creased porosity as well as o f irregularly developed
karst systems within Devonian carbonate formations.
Consequently, the geometry o f ore bodies is differ­
ent. They are much more vertically stretched (up to
150 meters). Ores in Klucze, Chechlo, Rodaki-
Rokitno, Poreba, Zawiercie occur within such Devo­
nian formations. This Devonian mineralization was
discovered later than Triassic and is generally less
documented.
The quality and volume o f the ore in these depos­
its are adso lower than those in the Triassic forma­
tions. Until now, ore deposits occurring within De­
vonian formations were not commercially exploited.
Olkusz Horst Pomorzany Graben East
Olkusz Zn-Pb ore Sikorka Zn-Pb ore
T? - Roet, dolomites Zn-Pb ore-bearing zone
Lower Bunter
P - Permian - Faults
C - Carboniferous
5 M INERAL FEATURES AND THE Q UALITY
OF ORES IN THE DEPOSITS
Mineral composition o f Zn-Pb ores is relatively sim­
ple. This is characteristic for all deposits of Missis­
sippi Valley type. The predominant among the pri­
mary sulfides are: sphalerite - ZnS, wurtzite - ZnS,
marcasite FeS2, pirite - FeS2 and galenite - PbS. Sil­
ver and cadmium can be found in the crystalline lat­
tice o f lead and zinc sulfides. Under favourable con­
ditions, part o f cadmium may cristalize as
greenockite. Among barren minerals dolomite, barite
and gypsum can also be found. Zinc, lead and iron
sulphates, oxides and carbonates created in the proc­
ess of weathering (lateritic weathering) make up
separate group of minerals. Limonite -Fe203, smith-
sonite - ZnCOa and cerusite - PbCOs predominate
among them.
Mineral composition varies little from deposit to
deposit. An increased content o f silver and cadmium
in sulfides, the presence of barite or other rare min­
erals such as thallum jordanite, gratonite, and dufre-
noisite are typical for some deposits.
The highest quality ores can be found in the areas
o f tectonic depressions (tectonic fault zones). Be­
cause they are isolated from ceiling by Keuper clay
formations, they were protected from weathering and
oxidation.
Apart from barren carbonates iron and zinc sul­
fides predominate in the composition o f these ores
(the composition o f these ores in percentages is
shown in Figure 3).
Zinc sulfides are the most important component
179
 Fes ZnCO ,
PbS
PbCO ,
ZnS minerals
^sulphates
trace elements
Figure 3 Mineral composition o f ores in Pomorzany deposits.
(Barren carbonates, which account for 66,5 per cent o f the ore
content are not included).
ZnCO ,
PbCO ,
ZnS
Fe,0,
trace elements clay minerals
sulphates
Figure 4 Mineral composition o f ores in Sikorka deposits. (Bar­
ren carbonates, which account for 54,9 per cent o f the ore con­
tent are not included).
o f ores. Their content, variability and form in which
they occur determine the com m ercial usefulness o f
ore deposits. Ores in currently exploited deposits
contain approximately 5 w eight per cent o f zinc and
lead (sulfide), w hile the average content o f sphalerite
(ZnS) ranges from 4 to 4,5 per cent. Simultaneously,
the galenite content is much lower - on average be­
tween 0.2 and 1 per cent.
From the point o f view o f the content o f commer-
ciedly usefiil m inerals, the m ost interesting among
deposits discovered and documented in the 1970s’
and 1980s’ are deposits in Zawiercie and K lucze ar­
eas.
On the basis o f sam ples taken from boreholes
(Table 1), the average content o f zinc sulfides
(Avurtzite and sphalerite) in the m ineable ore bodies
has been estim ated to be somewhere between 9.2
and 10.2 per cent. These values are comparable to
the results obtained with sim ilar m ethodology in the
currently exploited deposits in Pomorzany area.
However, the content o f lead sulfides (galenite) is
tw ice to three tim es higher than in Pomorzany de­
posits.
The analysis o f the distribution o f lead minerali­
zation in the entire region leads to the conclusion
that deposits w hich can be found at the north-east
180
boundary o f the deposits contain higher levels o f
galenite (Figure 4). This phenomenon is a result o f
the different com position o f ore-creating solutions
and the effects o f the m ost recent phases o f minerali­
zation in these area. At the same tim e, in comparison
with deposits from the central parts o f the area, ores
from these deposits show relatively low iron sul­
phides content (Figure 4).
6 TYPOMORPHIC ELEMENTS IN THE UPPER
SILESIA-KRAKOW DEPOSITS
Silver, cadmium and tallium are the m ost important
among trace elem ents occurring in Zn-Pb-Fe ores.
The concentration o f these elem ents is high, and sil­
ver and cadmium are recovered for commercial pur­
poses. These trace elem ents are a part o f crystalline
lattice o f a single or several sulfides. For example:
- Cd, Ge, and Ga are component o f zinc sulfides
(sphalerite and wurtzite);
- Ag is a component o f zinc and lead sulfides (ga­
lenite);
- A s, Tl, and Mn occur in all primary sulfides.
Traces o f other elem ents such as Cu, N i, M o, Co,
Sb, Se, In can d so be found in ores (Haranczyk
1965). The content o f trace elem ents in the ore in the
Silesia-Cracow area differs significantly from de­
posit to deposit (V iets et al. 1976, Mayer Sc Sass-
G ustkiewicz 1998). Significant differences in the
content o f trace elem ents can also be observed in the
ores from metasomatic and breccia deposits, as w ell
as in gallenite o f various generations.
6.1 Cadmium
Typically occurs together with colloidal variations o f
zinc sulfide (Mayer & Sass-G ustkiewicz 1998), less
frequently with grainy types o f zinc blende. Cad­
mium (Cd^^) occurs within crystalline-chem ical lat­
tice o f wurtzite and sphalerite. This is due to the
sim ilarity between ZnS and CdS and their lattice
constants. Cadmium sulfide (greenockite -CdS) only
rarely forms its own mineral phases (accum ulation
o f yellow , fine crystals on the surface o f grained or
crusted zinc blende). The average content o f cad­
mium in the com m ercially exploited sulfide ores
from Pomorzany mine is quite high (Table. 1).
Comparable concentration o f cadmium has been
found in the ores from Zawiercie deposits.
During the first stages o f oxidation when sulfates,
hydroxides and carbonate sinters are formed, cad­
mium is not strongly leached out from zinc sulfides.
Only during crystallization o f hypergenic zinc min­
erals (sm itsonite and hydrozincite) cadmium demon-
strates the tendency to be bound within their crystal­
line lattice thereby forming its secondary
concentrations. Am ong deposits that are the subject
o f this paper, only som e o f the ore nests in K lucze
display a significant increase in the level o f oxida­
tion o f zinc sulfide ores.
Table 1 Content o f mineral components in Zn-Pb ores
Zn-Pb deposits [weight per cent]
M in e r a l s c o m p o n e n t s
Pomorzany
D o l o m i t e & k a lc it e
Sphalerite
Galena
Markasite & pyrite
Smitsonite
Clay minerals & silicate
Sulphates
6.2 Silver
Significant concentration o f this elem ent in zinc-lead
ores was the reason why its com m ercial utilization
has been considered for centuries. Silver accumu­
lates in both galene and zinc blende in varying con­
centrations (betw een 0.0001 and 0.15 per cent.
Haranczyk 1965). Zinc blende varieties with in­
creased silver content also tend to contain higher
levels o f cadmium. The low est content o f silver can
be found in galene and zinc blende with increased
concentration o f arsenic. In contrast, the highest
content o f silver can be found in galene - rich ores
(0.0057 per cent on average). A lso the variety in sil­
ver concentration is high (Cabala 1996).
Silver accum ulates also in certain varieties o f
sphalerites and wurtzites, but its content in these
m inerals is low er than in galene. High content o f sil­
ver has been ascertianed in Pomorzany and Zawier­
cie deposits. This would indicate the presence in
both ores o f genetically sim ilar to each other zinc
and lead sulfides.
W. Mayer & M. Sass-G ustkiew icz (1998) have
drawn attention to the gradual increase o f silver and
tellurium content in the ore-creating solution during
the process o f its evolution. Significant, but varying
concentration o f silver can also be found in iron sul­ Haranczyk, C. 1965. Geochemie o f ore minerals o f Silesia-
fides. During the process o f secondary changes o f
primary sulfides, silver displays a trend towards the
decrease o f concentration in sulfide ores.
7 CONCLUSIONS
From the point o f view o f zinc content the perspec­
tive ore deposits described in this paper are as much
valuable as those already exploited in Pomorzany.
However, lead content in these deposits is higher
than in the deposits already under exploitation - a
factor that not always positively affects flotation
stage o f ore processing. The content o f useful trace
elem ents is also high, particularly in Zawiercie de­
Klucze Zawiercie posit.
Generally, the industrial value o f deposits de­
scribed in this paper is lower because o f the de­
creased continuity o f ore-bearing horizons and the
com plex geometry o f ore nests which frequently fill
karst zones.
A part o f sulfide ores in Devonian deposits has
not get been fully recognized and documented. Pos­
sible exploitation o f these deposits would require
com plete research and documentation.
The exploitation o f Klucze ore deposits can be
possible by extending the Pomorzany m ining opera­
tions.
The volum e and quality o f Zn-Pb ores in the
studied deposits are sufficient to start their possible
extraction. This can be however performed on con­
dition that the prices o f zinc and lead on the world
market increase and therefore the investm ent in new
mine should be secured.
REFERENCES
Bula, Z., M. Jachowicz & J. Zaba 1997. Principal characteris­
tics of the Upper Silesian Block and Malopolska Block
border zone (southern Poland). Geol Mag. 134 (5): 669-
677. Cambridge University Press.
Cabala, J. & L. Teper 1990. Testing o f strike-slip style of the
NE border o f the basis o f structural studies in Zawiercie re­
gion (in Polish). Series Additional: 96-108. Katowice.
Cabala, J. 1995. Structural characteristics o f tectonic horsts and
grabens in the area o f zinc and lead ore occurence near
Olkusz. In H.P. Rossmanith (ed.). Mechanics of Jointed and
Faulted Rode. 335-340. Rotterdam: Balkema
Cabala, J. 1996. Concentration o f trace elements in Zn-Pb ores
and possibility o f their transfer into post flotation tailings
(in Polish) Pap. Centr. Mining Inst, nr 13 s. 17-32.
Dzulyhski, S. & J. Rudnicki 1986: Karst-corrasion features o f
disaggregated limestones controlled by difiusion bands.
Ann. Soc. Geol. Polon., 56,100-115.
Galkiewicz, T. & S. SliwMski 1985: Geological characteristics
o f the Silesian-Cracovian Zn-Pb ore deposits (in Polish).
Ann. PTG. 53: 63-90.
Cracow zinc and lead deposits, (in Polish, English sum­
mary) Prace.Geol. PAN. liakdw . 5: 111.
Mayer, W., & M. Sass-Gustkiewicz 1998. Geochemical char­
acterization o f sulphide minerals from the Olkusz lead-zinc
ore cluster. Upper Silesia (Poland), based on laser ablation
181
 data. Miner. Polon. v. 2 9 ,2 87-105.
Sass-Gustkiewicz, M. 1996. Internal sediments as a key to un­
derstanding the hydrotermal karst origin o f the Upper Sile­
sian Zn-Pb ore deposits. In: Sangster, D.F. (ed.), Carbon­
ate-hosted Lead-Zinc Deposits, Spec. Publ. Amer. Soc.
Econ. Geol.,A’ 171-181.
Teper, L. {in press). Deep lithospheric structure and the Upper
Silesian-Cracovian giant Zn-Pb ore deposits in Poland.
Global Tectonics and Metallogeny.
Viets, J.G., Leach, D.L., Lichte, F.E., Hopkins, R.T., Gent,
C.A. & J.W. Powell 1996. Paragenetic and minor-and trace-
element studies o f Mississippi Valley-type ore deposits o f
the Silesian-Cracow district, Poland. Prace Inst. Geol, 154:
51-71.

182
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

C hanges o f selected parameters o f coal quality in fault zones in the Upper

Silesian C oal B asin, Poland

S. R.Cmiel & A. E Idziak

Faculty of Earth Sciences, University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland

ABSTRACT; Changes of coal quality parameters near a fault plane were studied, Research was carried out
for the Klodnicki fault system - main disjunctive structure o f the Upper Silesian Coal Basin, Poland. Three
types o f coal quality changes were distinguished. The first one is characteristic for weathering of coal in a
fault zone. The second oneis typical for coalification involved by a frictional heat generated during fault
propagation. Near the faults of small size no regular changes of coal quality were noticed.

1 INTRODUCTION were studied particularly for the USCB area (Kowal­

ski, 1977; Lipiarski, 1997; Probierz, 1989).
Disjunctive structures of rock mass are characteristic
for many coal basins. In the Upper Silesian Coal Ba­
sin (USCB) a dense fault network fragments sedi­ 2 MEASUREMENTS
mentary rock cover overlying crystalline basement.
The vast number of disjunctive structures has a na­ The present study was carried out on a fault system
ture o f secondary faults reflecting a kinematics of in the structural sub-unit of the USCB named “main
the USCB basement block movements during geo­ anticline” (Figure 1). Main disjunctive structure of
logical history o f the basin. Their displacements the system is Klodnicki fault - normal fault with a
range from tenth part of metre to hundreds of me­ throw of several hundreds metres dipping south­
tres. Differentiation o f coal quality as well as ward. The mineral matter filling fault fissures and
geomechanical properties of coal seams and accom­
panying rocks was observed in the vicinity of faults.
It makes a problem for effective exploitation of coal
seams.
The study of geomechanical parameters of coal
seams and rock layers showed that they decreased
regularly toward a fault plane (Cmiel, Idziak, 1999).
The dependence o f coal quality parameters was not
explained yet satisfactorily. The previous study al­
lowed to establish three types o f the dependence
(Cmiel, 1995, 2000). Coal quality may rise or fall in
a fault zone. In the vicinity o f some faults coal qual­
ity is the same as in undisturbed coal seam. It is as­
sumed that changes o f coal quality could be in­
volved by heat convection through cracks present in
a fault zone. Fractures facilitated degassing of or­
ganic mater during a coalification process (Cmiel,
1988, 1997; Niec, 1993; Probierz, 1983). Heat gen­
erated by friction on a fault plane could also aug­
ment degree of coalification locally (Teichmul- Figure 1: Sketch of research area in the USCB,
ler,Teichmuller, 1966). Similar effect was observed Poland.
when coal was milled in a ball grinder (Jungten, 1 - fault, 2 - thurst, 3 - USCB border,
Karweil, 1962). Changes of coal quality connected 4 - research area
to pinching out o f coal seams in an outcrop zones

183
coal from faulted seams were analysed. Samples
were taken in a distance of 0; 0.2; 0.4; 0.6; 0.8; 1.0;
2.0; 5.0; 8.0 and 10 m from a fault plane. An ele­
mentary chemical analysis was carried out for col­
lected samples. Contents of C, H, O, N and S were
determined. Coal quality parameters such as ash and
volatile matter contents, moisture, vitrinite reflec­
tance were measured as well as technological pa­
rameters of coal - density, Roga’s index, swelling
index, temperature of dilatancy and contraction.
Mean value, standard deviation and coefficient of
variability of the measured parameters were ac­
counted for disturbed zone and for undisturbed coal
seams as well.
3 RESULTS
Obtained results point to three types of variability of
coal quality in a fault zone; The first type is charac­
terised by a poor coal quality near a fault plane. In
comparison to undisturbed coal seam the biggest
changes were noticed for a breccia filling a fault fis­
sure and for an interval up to 0.2 m from the fault
plane. Four groups of fault can be distinguished ac­
cordingly to maximum radius o f disturbancy (Table
1). For the first group disturbed zone range over a
distance of 0.6 - 2.0 m from the fault plane. In the
zone oxygen and nitrogen contents, ash and volatile
matter contents, coal density and moisture were en­
hanced significantly. Contrary, content of carbon,
hydrogen, sulphur and also technological parameters
declined. The share of ash sulphur and sulphate sul­
phur in the total sulphur content reached 20%.
For the second group coal density, moisture, ash,
volatile matter and oxygen content were bigger then
in undisturbed coal seam. Nitrogen content was al­
most the same. Another parameters had lower value.
Disturbances were observed up to 0.4 - 0.8 m from
the fault plane.
Third group of faults is characterised by incon­
siderable changes of majority of the parameters.
Content of ash and sulphur and coal density rose
significantly. The share of ash sulphur in total sul­
phur content overpasses 80 % but sulphate sulphur
was below 8%. Disturbances were observed mainly
in breccia. Somewhere the influenced zone had a ra­
dius of 0.6 m.
For the fourth group disturbed zone was limited
to the nearest vicinity of the fault plane. The de­
crease of carbon and hydrogen content was noticed.
The share of ash sulphur was reduced to 50% - 60%
of total sulphur content.
In fault zones with the second type of variability
coal quality increased in a narrow interval of 0.2 m
from the fault plane and somewhere in fissure’s
breccia also. Coal quality increased in the interval
(Table 2). Content of carbon and hydrogen, calorific
value, contraction, Roga’s index and swelling index
184
of coal were bigger then these for the coal seam.
Volatile matter content diminished significantly.
There was lack of sulphate sulphur. For two investi­
gated faults coal quality in a breccia was lover then
in undisturbed seam but in the nearest vicinity of the
fault plane coal quality parameters were bigger.
The third type of variability is characterised by
small, random changes of parameter values in the
vicinity of fault, no trend of changes was observed
(Table 3).
4 DISCUSSION
The first type of variability is characteristic for faults
where the decrease of coal quality is involved by
oxidation of the matter. Major changes occur in a
fault fissure and its immediate vicinity. With grow­
ing distance from a fault plane parameters tend to
the average values calculated for undisturbed coal
seam.
Oxidation of coal is most advanced for the first
group of faults. It manifests itself by rising of ash,
moisture and volatile matter content as well as di­
minishing of technological parameter values.
Changes of calorific value, cocking strength and
swelling index occur up to 2,0 m from a fault plane.
Another parameters are changed in the interval 0.0
to 0.8 m.
For the coal samples taken from oxidation zone
H/C ratio is lower and 0/C ratio is bigger then for
coal seam. Total sulphur content decreases and this
element is bounded mostly to inorganic matter. Fis­
sure’s breccia is strongly watered and is laminated
with a number of polycrystalline sulphates. Coal
seam structure is delaminated in the 1.5-m long in­
terval from a fault plane. The layers are displaced
among themselves. Weathering is less intense in the
second group of faults. The range of disturbance is
shorter then in the first group. The material filling a
fissure is hard and compact, without visible miner­
alization. Coal seam structure is less disturbed and
coal is drier.
For the third group of faults the range of weath­
ering was limited to the distance of 0.4 m from a
fault plane. High density and ash content character­
ise coal in the zone of weathering . High total sul­
phur content is connected to sulphide mineralization.
Coal quality parameter values testify to small scale
of coal alteration.
For the fourth group of faults weathering occurs
only in the fault’s fissure and not affects coal seams.
It seems that degree of coal oxidation in a fault
zone depends on structural disturbance of coal seams
occurred during faulting. Stratification of coal seam
and displacement of created layers gave facilities for
air diffusion from a fault fissure into the seam. Sul­
phide mineralization slows down a weathering of
coal.
Table 1.
T1/a ivr O/C H/C
Cvaar pW
Rl SI a dr
5,89 34,8 1,74 27,6 1,89 0,58 0,2 84,37 6,15 0,4 0,403 44,7 34.4 0,84 23 2 38 1,79
2,83 4,56 1,42 7,8 0,19 0,05 0 68,82 1,59 0,11 0,02 30,73 23.4 0,68 0 0 2 1,29
4,14 14 1,53 15,13 0,76 0,24 0,04 78,8 3,98 0,194 0,15 35,61 31,2 0,79 7,26 0,5 17 1,41
0,87 6,74 0,06 5,46 0,024 0,12 0,04 4,25 1 0,073 0,017 2,79 2,38 0,03 7,47 0,5 8,4 0,12
21 46,3 4,04 36,11 31,44 47,5 117 5,44 26,04 42,2 34,87 7,77 7,75 3,6 115 122 58 8,21
3,55 8,99 1,52 11,04 0,91 0,2 0,01 82,01 4,63 0,134 0,06 27,11 32,8 0,81 12 0,9 22 1,33
Tl/b IT H"“' O/C H/C CV«^' R"' Rl SI a dr
1 6,02 41,8 1,78 25,09 1,69 1,11 0,14 84,02 6,23 0,36 0,075 42,96 34,2 0,83 27 2 36 1,79
2 2,81 5.7 1,39 7,45 0,38 0,02 0 69,25 2,28 0,09 0,03 32,09 26,2 0,67 0 0 2 1,29
3 3,96 11,7 1,53 13,4 0,88 0,26 0,02 79,53 4,56 0,172 0,057 35,63 31,1 0,76 8,82 0,6 14 1.41
4 0,72 4,58 0,06 4,41 0,29 0,15 0,02 3,68 0,82 0,66 0,009 2,51 2,15 0,03 7,94 0,5 11 0,09
5 18,2 35,6 4,15 32,9 30,76 61,5 121 4,62 18,48 38,42 15,6 7,06 6,92 4,05 94 95 68 6,09
6 2,93 8,71 1.51 10,37 0,93 0,15 0 82,04 5,05 0,127 0,061 34,58 32,7 0,77 13,8 0.8 14 1,36
-¡qoar Qua. -Qnar- —ytrar- Cyu«.
Tl/c M® A® St" Sa" S s 04^ H““' O/C H/C Rl SI a dr
1 3,89 28 1,56 14,44 8,25
6,94 0,51 84,26 6,24 0,191 0,085 39,96 34 0,8 31 1 46 1,79
2 1,88 3,66 1,4 8,12 0,46
0,03 0 73,22 3,79 0,097 0,052 31,52 29,6 0,72 0 0 2,1 1,26
3 2,83 9,36 1,48 9,84 1,27
0,65 0,03 81,85 5,23 0,122 0,065 34,31 32,6 0,76 13,2 0,8 17 1,36
4 0,33 5,24 0,04 1,53 1,021,1 0,07 2,68 0,46 0,023 0,005 1,52 0,9 0,02 6,92 0 6,5 0,11
5 14,3 60,2 2,83 15,42 14979,6 228 3,28 8,91 19,12 7,81 4,42 2,78 1,94 52,3 54 37 8,18
6 2,69 7,11 1,48 9,14 0,81
0,17 0 83,14 5,33 0,11 0,063 34,5 32,9 0,76 15,5 0,6 18 1,31
M® -jqnar-Qiiar- o a —Qnar--pjoar- yua,
Tl/d A® St" Sa" ^S 04 O/C H/C CV^®' Rl SI a dr
1 4,39 16,5 1,67 18,75 1,72 0,65 0,06 85,04 6,29 0,251 0,08 43,02 34 0,81 38 1 46 1.57
2 1,88 4,09 1,4 7,3 0,42 0,04 0 74,6 3,94 0,09 0,05 29,74 28,9 0,69 0 0 3,7 1,34
3 2,98 9,09 1,49 11,53 0,82 0,24 0,01 82,47 5,19 0,12 0,06 34,61 32,7 0,76 15,3 0,6 16 1,34
4 0,37 1,62 0,05 2,31 0,19 0,01 0,01 2,09 0,44 0,033 0,005 1,73 1,09 0,02 7,9 0,4 7 0,04
5 12,2 18,9 3,67 23,31 22,89 41,4 0 2,53 8,35 27,01 7,96 4,98 3,32 2,59 52,4 68 42 3,19
6 2,92 8,59 1,48 9,1 0,48 0,23 0 83,19 5,26 0,11 0,06 34,77 33 0,77 16,7 0,6 17 1,34

Table 2. Results of coal quality parameter measurments for the second type of variability
i\r A®
Nuai q a Hddi CV/ua. RlII
T2 s7 S s 04^ O/C H/C Rl SI a dr
1 4,37 16,4 1,58 15,05 2,09 1,66 0,33 86,73 6,35 0,15 0,08 42,96 34,6 0,84 31 2 72 1,54
2 1,95 3,9 1,27 6,31 0,42 0,05 0 77,04 4,22 0,09 0,06 28,4 28 0,71 0 0 21 1,26
3 3,09 7,45 1,44 9,96 0,76 0,25 0 82,41 5,22 0,121 0,064 33,92 31,8 0,77 13,2 0,7 17 1,36
4 0,45 1,35 0,06 1,32 0,22 0,15 0 1,3 0,33 0,018 0,04 2,34 0,99 0,03 7,79 0,4 8,4 0,06
5 14,3 17,7 4,09 13,26 25,44 53,9 0 1,59 6,19 14,54 6,97 6,87 3,01 3,51 69,4 51 39 4,44
6 3.17 7,43 1,45 10,4 0,82 0,2 0 81,98 5,25 0,13 0,06 34,7 31,6 0,76 10,9 0.6 13 1,36

Table 3. Results of coal quality parameter measurments for the third type of variability
TO m3 a S i.iisay /-laaf —a « a a iibaT rk /A TTTT \/ClaT
T3 O/C H/C V“* c v ““' R'" i iT “i 57
1 5,12 13,7 1,58 15,21 3,96 1,19 0,21 85,04 6,11 0,19 0,077 38,15 34,6 0,83 34 2 40 1,52
2 2,3 2.4 1,18 8,21 0,29 0,06 0 78,92 3,89 0,07 0,049 31,24 30,2 0,69 0 0 2 1,24
3 3,37 7,96 1,43 10,6 0,92 0,29 0 82 5,03 0,129 0,062 34,53 32,7 0,76 12,6 0,6 16 1,36
4 0,45 1,99 0,04 1,01 0,56 0,2 0 1.16 0,45 0,014 0,006 1,28 0,81 0,02 6,62 0,4 8,5 0,06
5 13,2 26,3 3,03 9,52 53,22 64,2 0 1,42 9,05 10,56 9,41 3,7 2,43 2,92 53,1 79 57 4,09
6 3,31 7,74 1,43 10,46 0,89 0,24 0 82,16 5,11 0,127 0,062 34,23 32,6 0,76 12,3 0,6 15 1,35

Legend:
T l/a - type 1/group a
1 - maximum value
2 - minimum value
3 - mean value 0 -1 0 m
4 - standard deviation
5 - variability coefficient
6 - mean value 0,6 -1 0 m
M® (%) - moisture
A® (%) - ash
N (%) - nitrogen (%) - volatile matter
(%) - oxygen CV^®^ Mg/kg - calorific value
St® (%) - total sulphur Rm (%) - vitrinite reflectance
(%) - ash sulphur Rl - cocking strength - Roga Index
Sso4 ^ (%) - sulphate sulphur SI - Swelling Index
C^^®^(%) - carbon a (%) - contraction
H*^®^ (%) - hydrogen dr (Mg/m^) - density
Qdaf^Qdaf oxygen/carbon
j^dafyQdaf _ ^ydrogen/carbon

185
 The rise of coalification of coal seams (the sec­
ond type of variability) is strongly connected to the
occurrence of lustrous fault plane. One can assume
that coal was modified by heat generated when
fracture was propagating in conditions of high nor­
mal stress. Decrease of quality of coal which filling
the fissure of some faults is a symptom of early
stage of weathering.
Fault zones in which no changes of coal quality
were observed are characteristic for faults with dis­
placement limited to several metres and fracture
width less then several millimetres. Small fault size
hinders diffusion of oxygen into coal seams and
protects them against weathering.

REFERENCES

Cmiel, S.R 1988. Geologiczne warunki uw^gleniaw

SW cz^sci GZW. Zesz. Nauk Polit.Sl
Gdrnictwo 172: 427-436.
Cmiel, S.R. 1995. Changes of coal quality in tec­
tonic zones in the USCB. Proc.XIII Interna­
tional Congress Carboniferous - Permian.
Wyd. PIG (suplement abstracts): 1.
Cmiel, S.R. 2000. Changes of coal quality parame­
ters near the fault in USCB originated by hyper-
genic processes. Proc. XXIII Symp. ‘'Geology o f
Coal-bear. Strata o f Poland\ Univ.of Mining
and Metall. Cracow: 15-20.
Cmiel, S.R. Idziak, A.F., 1999. Some geomechanical
properties of carboniferous rocks near the fult.
Documenta Geonica 1999: 263-268.
Jungten, H. Karweil, J., 1962. Kunstilche Inkohlun-
ges von Steinkohlen. Forschunghefle
229.Freiberg.
Lipiarski,!. 1997. Wplyw proces6w wietrzeniowych
na w^glonosne utwory westfalu we schodniej
cz^sci GZW. Proc. X X Symp.Geol. formacji
w^glonomych Po/^A/.Wyd.AGH, Krak6w: 47-
52.
Probierz, K.K. 1995. Zmiennosc jakosci w^gla w
zlozach kopalh ROW. Zesz. Nauk. Polit. SI.
Gdrnictwo 132: 23-53.
Teichmuller, H. Teichmuller, R. 1966. Geological
causes of coalification. Coal Science, Adv.
Chem. Ser. 55.

186
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Linear program m ing m odel applied to scheduling o f iron ore production

at the Kiruna M ine, Sw eden

Kadri Dagdelen, Erkan Topal & Mark Kuchta

Mining Engineering Department, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo., USA

ABSTRACT: A linear programming (LP) model to solve long and short term production scheduling problem
for sublevel caving operations is presented. The LP Model is designed as a multi time period problem to
provide monthly schedules that meet production, blending and sequencing requirements.

One of the most important issues during the development of the LP model was the requirement of sequencing
between blocks. In this mathematical mode, unique constraints that ensure sequencing of the stopes are
developed. A new decomposition technique is introduced to come up with a schedule for a model with large
number of variables. The suggestion concerning how to handle large number of variables are given. The
scheduling results obtained based on the Kiruna Mine are further presented and discussed.

The LP scheduling model was implemented on a data set obtained from Kiruna Iron Ore Mine, in Sweden.
The initial MIP model implementation was successful and provided solution that optimized resource
recovery while meeting monthly and yearly production constraints.

1 INTRODUCTION requirements in terms of contained %

Since early 1970’s computers and operations
research techniques have been applied to production
scheduling problem in open pit and underground
mining operations. (Lindstrom, 1971, Dagdelen,
1985, Wilke and Et all, 1993, Almgren 1994, Topal,
1998, Winkler, 1998). In recent years, the
technology in computer hardware and software have
progressed to point that one can now obtain strategic
plans to complex mine scheduling problems that are
optimum.
phosphorous. The blending limits are imposed as
tons of Bl, B2 and D3 are to be targeted for
production in a given month.The MIP model is
designed to determine monthly scheduled
production from different production shaft groups
while meeting production, blending and
sequencing constraints. The MIP model provides
scheduling solution by minimizing the deviations
from target production and blending
2 DESCRIPTION OF KIRUNA MINE

This paper will describe Mixed Integer programming
(MIP) Model developed as a tool to solve yearly and
monthly ore production scheduling problems at the
Kiruna Iron Ore Mine. The Kiruna Mine is one of
the largest underground mines in the world. The iron
ore production totaled close to 22 M tons in 1999. At
Kiruna, iron ore is produced from 40 to 50 active
production areas by way of sublevel caving. Each
Production area has limited production capacity due
to the capacity of the LHD’s being used.
The monthly ore production rate is normally are
determined and has to meet certain blending
The Kiruna Mine is one of the largest and most
modern underground mines in the world, and is
located in north, eastern Sweden. The Kiruna Mine
has a number of potential ore lenses with a content
that varies in quality in iron (% Fe), phosphorus
(% P), and potassium (%K) and quantity (ore
tonnage). The main ore is disc-shaped and about
80m wide and 4km long. It dips at an angle of 70°
and is at least 2 km deep. Generally, the insitu ore
body consists of 70 % low phosphorus and 30 %
high phosphorus ore. The low phosphorus (B
quality ore) is almost pure magnetite. The high
phosphorus ore (D quality) consists of a mixture of

187
magnetite and appetite. Three main raw products are
produced from the mine as follows;
B 1 - Low phosphorous fines
B2 - Medium phosphorus pellets feed
D3 - High phosphorous pellets feed.
Table 1. Average Quality of Different Ore Types at
Kiruna
Product %Fe %P %K20 Ktons 1998 %
B1 68.0 0.06 3.15 4619 21
B2 0.20 10988 50
D3 0.90 6227 29
0.39 21834
The ore is mined by sublevel caving. The Kiruna
mine is divided into eight production areas, each of
them contains its own ore pass and ventilation
system. A drift is driven from the footwall through
the ore body approximately 28m below the drifts of
the next higher level. At LKAB
(Luossavaara-Kirunavaara AB) the drifts are
normally 7m wide and 5m high. Drill pattern
consists of 10 holes drilled in a fan shape in to the
roof and loaded with 2500 kg of explosive. After
blasting, the ore is loaded by Tamrock Toro 2500 E
type of LHD (Load-haul-dump). The LHD takes a
scope from muck pile of material and then transport
the material to an ore pass where the material is
dump. The material in the ore pass is loaded on an
underground train transported to a crusher and
crushed, and finally sent to the surface.
2.1. Iron Ore Quality Distribution within the Kiruna
Deposit
The ore body has two types of impurities, which are
(P) phosphorus and (K) potassium. Because of the B
1 location at the southern part of the deposit, it is
really difficult to mine B 1 ore. It is mixed with D3
ore from the hanging wall side due to mixing during
the gravity flow. B2 ore is not a constituent of the
deposit, but it is the ore type describing a certain
blend of the B 1 and D3 ore types mixed inside the
cave. In the northern part, generally, when a ring is
drawn, BI ore is drawn first followed by B2 and D3.
Because of this property of the ore draw, dilution
becomes stronger. The contents of the block values
were calculated by using geostatistics. Based on
these block values the production-planning model is
normally developed.
2.2. The Kiruna Mine Planning System
In the Kiruna Mine, long term mine planning
(approximately 5 years) is done manually with the
188
Co<k %P
El ■=0.10
B2 <0 10
C 0.10-0.30
D1 0 3 0-0 SO
D3 0.80-220
D5 >2.20
Figure 1. Vertical Section of Ore Body Showing
Approximate Location of Different Ore Lenses.
help of a computer. The company maintains
deposit grade distribution map. They use the
computer as a calculator to add the ore tonnage
according to deposit grade distribution map to
satisfy the production requirements. A lot of
experience and time are needed to achieve
production scheduling for the mine. The goal of
mine planning is to produce the planned quantity
of all three products. Therefore, it is imperative
that accurate long-term scheduling plans are
generated quickly, optimally, and these schedules
are reliable.
3 MATHEMATICAL MIX INTEGER PROGRAM
(MIP) MODEL FOR KIRUNA MINE
The Kiruna Iron Ore deposit is divided into
parallelepiped panels. The panels are about 100m
wide and the height of the panel is determined by
distance between the sublevels. The panels reach
from hanging wall to footwall and width of the ore
body on average is 80m. Furthermore, each panel
is divided into three equal length blocks
representing three different zones of
mineralization. The extraction of the blocks on a
panel must follow a certain sequencing order with
respect to caving operations. Figure 2 presents on a
long section, block model (525 blocks)
representation of the deposit and the sequencing
order between blocks. There are 525 blocks in the
deposit.
The following definitions give the description of
variables used for the formulations of the scheduling
problem.
vi4 ■. Y 1 S-- via • Vi? y<9 v'sn .y 2 i-:^:vtz - y j |- l

Total Production trpmth^ Mné : 18DÛ0 Kion/'/tar The block Is rriined out
Required Production from the Mne : 180ÛO Kt^i/yegr The block ic not mined out
Total 61 Production* from thé Mne :; 6.82Ô tton/year Mned out in month 1
Required 6 (Production from thé Mné : 7D20 Won/ifear Mned out tri month 2
Mned out in month 3
Mned out in morrth d
Mned out in month 5
Mned out in month 8
Mned out iri rrionth 7
Mned out in month 6
Mned out in morrth 9
Mned out in rnorrth 10
Mned oiit in month 11
Mried oiut in morrth 12

Figure 3. First Year Monthly Scheduling for Kiruna Mine

X
^b,t • type k production in tons from the block
b, in time period t. (b=l,...B, t=l,....T, k=1...3),
k=l represents B1 quality ore; k=2 represents B2
quality ore; k=3 represents D3 quality ore
production.
X[ ^ : B 1 production, in tons from the block b, in
time period t. (b=l,...B, t= l,....T)
X l ^ : B2 production, in tons from the block b, in
time period t. (b=l,...B, t=l,....T)
X l ^ : D3 production, in tons from the block b, in
time period t. (b=l,...B, t= l,.....T)
XBl^ andXBl" :Variables representing negative and
positive deviation from the B1 ore production in
time period t.
and X^ : Variables representing negative and
positive deviation from the total ore production in
time period t.
S : Total Number of Shaft Groups in the Model.
B : Total Number of Blocks.
T : Total Number of Time Periods.
3.1 Objective function
The objective of the mathematical model for the
scheduling problem will be taken to minimize the
deviation from total production target as well as
maintaining B1 quality ore requirements. If we
define W1 and W2 to be predefined weights that are
used to give more emphases to these production
goals then the overall objective function can be
written as; Where;
Minimize Z = W1 * ^ (X B i; + X B l" ) + W2 * ^ (X ; + X ; )
t=i t=i
W1 is the weighting factor for the B 1 production
goal.
W2 is the weighting factor for the total production
goal.
3.2 B1 Production Constraint
B Dagdelen (1996) and presented below.
^ ^ + X B \]) = B\^ for time periods,
t= l....T
Bit is the right hand side coefficient for the desired
production for time period (t).
This constraint will satisfy desired B 1 production
in a given time period as much as possible. At least
one of the variables, XBl^, or X B l', will always
be zero for a given time period where t=l,.. .T.
3.3 Total Production Constraints
S 2 ^b.t + = fy for periods,
b::.! k=l
t= l....T
191
Pt is the rigth hand side coefficient for the desired
total production in time period t. This constraint is
set up to satisfy the desired total production goal as
much as possible. At least one of the variables, X^
or X~, will always be zero for a given time period,
where t=l,....T .
3.4 Reserve Constraints
T
<Rl for Block, b=l...... B and k=l,...,3
t=l
RI is the right hand side coefficient for the total
amount of ore available (constant) in each block
for each product, k, where k=l is B1 quality ore;
k=2 is B2 quality ore; k=3 is the D3 quality ore.
This constraint ensures that, the total material
mined from a given block or each product during
all the scheduling periods has to be less than or
equal to available reserves for that product.
3.5 LHD Capacity Constraints
The mine production depends on machine
capacity. The mine is using the Tamrock Toro
2500E LHD. Every side of a single shaft group has
one LHD. This LHD has a 180 Kton/month
capacity. Each time period, the production will be
within ± 20 of this capacity.
B 3
where be S, for the time period,
b=l k=l
t= l,.....Land k -1 ,..... 3
Ml is the right hand side coefficient for the
machine capacity (constant) applicable to those
blocks belonging to shaft group S in time period
(t).
3.6 Sequencing Constraints
The sequencing constraints were formulated by
3.6.1 First Integer Constraint
If a given block is completely mined out in a certain
time period, Yb,t is equal to 1 otherwise 0. A second
integer constraint will force Yb,t to be equal to 1, if
the block is completely mined out.
^ ^b,t *^b for V number of Blocks
tt=i jt=i
b=l,...B and t= l,...T
Rb is the total material (Bl, B2, and D3 combined)
tons contained in block b.
If the block b is not mined out in time period t. 1
If the block b is completely mined out during the time period t.J
3.6.2 Second Integer constraint
3 t
'^^b + u ~^b+\ ^ number of blocks,
jfc=i «=1
b=l,....B, and
Rb+i is the total material (Bl, B2, and D3) tons
contained in the block immediately following block
b in the sequence. This constraint ensures the
sequencing between the blocks.
3.7 The Model Parameters
In the Kiruna Mine the model parameters are as
follows.
• The number of small blocks (B) are 525 blocks.
• The time period is (T). For the year by year
schedule, T = 7 years, month by month, schedule T =
84 or month by month.
• The number of the shaft groups in the mine is (S)
48 in the mine.
• Desired Bl quality ore production in a given
month (Bl) is 585 Kton/month.
• Desired total production (P) in a given month is
1500 Kton/month.
• Available LHD capacity (M) per shaft group in a
given month is 180 Kton/month.
4 IMPLEMENTATION OF MIP MODEL
MIP model implementation was design to determine
the life of mine production scheduling for Kiruna
Mine on a monthly basis for 84 months(7 years). The
problem was initially setup to mine all the resources
available on the all levels as multi time period
problem for 84 months. The number of variables,
constraints and integer variables in the model were
5117*12, 3443*12 and 1232*12 respectively (see
Topal, 1998). The theoretical model was
implemented by using “What’s Best” software
package by Lindo System Inc. The software was
capable of handling 160K Linear variables, up to
300 integer variables and 32 K constraints. Due to
number of integer variables required to setup the
sequencing constraints, the model exceeded the
maximum integer variable limit of the MIP solver.
The subsequent MIP model Implementation was
then design to solve the monthly scheduling
problems for the duration of 12 months at a time.
The modified model was setup as a multi time
period (12 months) model to mine the iron ore
resources from a limited number of sublevels. This
way, to obtain life of mine monthly schedules for 7
years one had to run the model seven times.
The MIP model for the first year, for example, was
setup by considering only the blocks from levels
686, 713, and 740, for 12 time periods. The result
192
ting schedule is shown in Figure 3. Once the first
year schedule was obtained then those blocks that
were mined during the first year is removed from
the consideration and then MIP model for the
second year was setup and run by considering all
the blocks from the previous levels plus the 765
level. This procedure is repeated for the remaining
mine life to obtain the complete schedule.
5 CONCLUSION
The study carried out in this research has
demonstrated that complex underground
scheduling problems can be formulated as a mixed
integer programming problems and solved with
existing hardware and software technology. The
full implementation of the tool in the hands of
Kiruna Mine planners will mostly likely happen in
due time, and result in considerable benefits in
optimizing resource recovery and in meeting
complex blending requirements.
REFERENCES
Almgren,T., 1994, “ An Approach to Long Range
Production and development Planning with
Application to the Kiruna Mines, Sweden” Lulea
University of Technology, Ph D. Thesis.
Dagdelen, K., 1985, “ Optimum Multi Period
Open Pit Mine Production Scheduling” Mining
Engineering Department Colorado School of Mines,
Golden.
Dagdelen, K., 1996, “ Formulation of Kiruna
Sublevel Caving Scheduling Problem Including
Sequencing as MIP” Internal Report, Mining
Engineering Department Colorado School of Mines,
Golden.
Lindstrom, B,E, A., 1971, “ Production Scheduling
by Computer” C.I.M. Spectial Volume No. 12, pp 3
68-378.
Topal, E., 1998, “Long and Short Term Production
Scheduling of Kiruna Iron Ore Mine, Kiruna,
Sweden. Master of Science Thesis Colorado School
of Mines, Golden.
Wilke, F,L., and Reimer, T., 1993, “ Optimizing
The Short Term Production Schedule for an Open Pit
Iron Ore Mining Operation”, 24^' APCOM, pp. 425
-433.
Winkler, B,M., 1998, “Mine Production Scheduling
with Linear Programming- Development of a
Practical Tool 27^ APCOM, London.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 6 809 1 7 8 3

G eostatistical ore reserves estim ation in deposits o f variable dip:

A pplication on a m anganese deposit

Dimitris Drymonitis
Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration (IGME), Athens, Greece

ABSTRACT: The present paper deals with a dipping manganese deposit of Northern Greece. Though the de­
posit is rather low grade, it is rather important due to the fact that the contained metal is of battery-grade qual­
ity, much required in the battery making industry. The variable dip of the deposit imposed the necessity to ap­
ply the technique known as “unrolling of dipping ore-bodies”. The method “unrolls” ore-bodies of variable
dip on a single plane and makes possible the simplification of all calculations and evaluations. Beside the
above mentioned method, the evaluation concerns a rather low grade deposit divided in two Areas, A and B
respectively, which are evaluated separately due to their different geostatistical characteristics, as these rise
from the variogram parameters and models fitted to the experimental ones.

1 GENERAL for the manufacturing of dry-cells batteries. This is

due to the electrical self-potential of the metal itself
Manganese is the twelfth most common element and Battery-grade quality defines ore containing at
the eighth most common metal in the crust of the least 80% Mn02, less than 0.05% minerals (electri­
Earth. 80% of the manganese reserves are in South cally negative to Zn) and no salts. Beside the above
Afiica and the ex Soviet Union (Table 1) and 90- chemical restrictions the manganese dioxide must
95% of the manganese production is used in the iron have great porosity and non-stationary crystalic
and steel industry. structure (gamma-structure).
Greece is relatively rich in manganese deposits
but their small size makes their exploitation difficult.
The Mn production is based in Eastern Macedonia
1984 1985 near Drama, where the mineralization is located in
Australia 1,800 1,750 the marble. The ore, containing 30-45% Mn02, is
Brazil 1,900 2,000 processed until the Mn02 grade reaches 72-75%.
Gabon 2,300 2,200 Though the Mn02 grade is only 75%, this quality of
ex Soviet Union 10,000 10,000 manganese dioxide of Drama County is highly de­
South Africa 3,200 3,200 manded by the battery manufacturers around the
world, due to its high discharge potential.
India 1,400 1,400
In the mineralized zone, stretching along an E-
W fault crossing the greater area under study, the
Manganese is one of the small numbers of oxidized upper part of the mixed sulphides deposit,
metals for which no satisfactory substitute has been that dominates the area, contains a zone rich in
found. For the above reasons (geopolitical distribu­ rhodochrosite, which has been partly exploited.
tion, industrial use) manganese is considered as one The laboratory analyses of concentrate Mn02
of the strategic metals. The most common manga­ derived from a bulk sample have shown that the
nese minerals are pyrolucite (P-Mn02), ensutite (y- manganese mineralization under study is similar to
Mn02), manganite, braunite, tontorocite, philome- the physical pyrolusite of Drama area, i.e. it is of the
lanite and in some deposits rhodochrocite. battery-grade quality.
Historically and according to their grade, the
Mn ores are divided in three categories: metallurgi­
cal type, chemical type and battery-grade. The bat­
tery-grade quality ores are the most rare and are used

193
2 INTRODUCTION Mean strike N 69°W
Mean dip 35° SW
The first stage of every geostatistical study is the
structural analysis. This consists of the following
steps :
• Composition of the samples, if necessary, and
analysis of the distribution of the variable under
study.
• Calculation of variograms and model fitting.
The aim of the structural analysis is to concentrate
the basic structural characteristics of the regionalized
variable in the fimctional shape of a model
variogram, the parameters of which will be used in
the reserves estimation.
The second stage is the estimation of the mean
grade and the kriging variance in blocks of prede­
termined size, using kriging, and the construction of
grade-tonnage curves. KLftllVE FRESUENCr DISItlMITIti cmunvE FKauEKy sist«ikit ! im
The variable under study in the present case is the !Miy
: m t m m iit m t
grade of the mineralization in % Mn02. ; m tm ttiitum ttiti
: iimimmiiHiiiiti
: iit m im t iiiim m i
1
IB. S ;
21.« 1
;
!
M t titiitim m m iK
iim it m t t m it iiit i
2S.N
24.71;I 2 3.151:
21.211!
! t iiit it it it m t iiit it
3 DISCRIPTION OF THE DATA - STATISTICAL M.2B : 22
9.
.8
58
81
7:;
JI.U : 3
ANALYSIS J7.B4 t 31.257!
4
41
4.
. 12I 3 9.581
41t 42.823:!
4
»7.» i «.«8 I
.9 391.
.0
08
84
0:I
In everyday practice the only picture that some­ H.
97. 27
59149
3:! 3
52
.8
1.
12
.8
38
1
3;;
4 t
4
40
42
418.
1.8
00
44
01I m m ittiiit m t m t m m it
m iiit im it im iit t u t m t i
body has for a deposit must be reflected trough the W .82: S . 198 I
M .IOI
samples. But how good is this picture ? A critical 17.38I
study of the data together with their statistical analy­
sis is needed before any geostatistical study. Mean grade (Mn02) of the samples: 23.436
The data used in this study come from the chemi­ Variance of grade: 188.306
cal analyses of the samples of 77 vertical bore­
holes, 51 of which are considered to be “positive”. Figure 2.
The bore-holes are distributed on the mineralized
surface in pattern shown in fig. 1.
The distribution of the sample grades for the
whole deposit, their mean grade and variance are
given in fig. 2.
The statistical analysis of the grades of the sam­
ples in every bore-hole showed that the deposit can
be divided in two areas, A and B respectively. On
these two areas a Random Stratified Grid (R.S.G.)
with dimensions 25m x 25m was fitted. Due to the
addition of new data, a third area can be outlined.
Area C, where the grid fitted is 50m x 50m (fig. 3).
The orientation of the fitted grid is N74°E.
The majority of the bore-holes were sampled
every Im, except for a few samples of length 0.4m Figure 3.
to 3m, giving a set of about 400 samples. The ore is
hosted in a silicified marble which lies between an
The typical vertical grade profile of the bore-holes
amphibolite (overlying) and a biotitic gneiss (under­
belonging to the same section (direction of section
lying). The thickness of the ore in the marble is 2m -
N74°E) are shown in figs. 4 and 5. In these figures it
18m.
is shown that the ore is met on or close to the surface
After fitting the grid, the mean strike and dip of
towards the N-E end of the deposit and is dipping
the deposit was calculated, using the least squares towards the S-W. The thickness of the amphibolitic
method, by fitting a plane to the centres of the min­ overburden at that location is 85m - 100m. At the N-
eralized parts of each bore-hole. The parameters cal­
E part, where there is no overburden, a limited sur­
culated are :
face mining operation has taken place in the past.

194
 CLASS INTSRV. RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
TALLY

Figure 6.

The distribution of the grades of Area A shows the

existence of two populations (mixed distribution),
one with grades less than 18% Mn02 and one with
richer samples. This is due to the existence of rich
and poor samples in the mineralization of Area A,
which can not be separated, due to their location.

BELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

TALLY
1.7 4 4 .0 2 8.000
4 .0 2 6 .3 0 8.000 «c**«**»«»«««*
6 .3 0 6 .5 8 11.000
B.58 10 .8 7 14.000 mwi******m**m*m*m***********
1 0 .8 7 1 3 .1 5 16.000 »»t»i*»*»***m*****»**»*»*1tii***j^*:
1 3 .15 1 5 .43 12.0 0 0 mw:****m*»tt***m**:t****.*m
1 5 .4 3 17 .7 1 10.000 t******************
17.71 1 9 .99 8.000
19 .9 9 2 2 .2 7 4 .0 0 0
2 2 .2 7 2 4 .5 6 7 .0 0 0
2 4 .5 6 2 6 .8 4 5 .000
2 6 .8 4 2 9 .1 2 5 .0 0 0
2 9 .1 2 3 1 .4 0 2.000
3 1 .4 0 3 3 .6 8 1 .0 0 0
3 3 .6 8 3 5 .9 6 3 .0 0 0
3 6 .9 6 3 8 .2 4 .000 !
3 8 .2 4 4 0 .6 3
4 0 .5 3 4 2 .8 1
4 2 .8 1 4 5 .0 9
4 5 .0 9 4 7 .3 7
Figure 5.

As a first step, to fulfil the needs of the method to Figure 7.

be followed, the samples were composited to a con­
stant length of Im. The statistical analysis of the The distribution of the grades of Area B shows the
grades of the samples in each area gave the follow­ existence of some outliers having much higher grade
ing results: than the mean of the area. This contributes to the in­
crease of the squewness of the distribution of the
A R EA area.
The normality of the distributions was checked
A B
with two tests :
Mean grade 25.71 15.20 • by drawing the % cumulative frequency distribu­
Variance 191.50 76.99 tion line and checking if the mid part of it is al­
Mean thickness 10.57 5.04 most a straight line,
No of samples 272 116 • by the test.
No of bore-holes 26 22 In Area A the distribution is very close to the
normal distribution, while in Area B the fitting is not
The histograms of the distribution of the grades in so good.
Areas A and B are shovm in figs. 6 and 7 respec­
tively. These distributions appear to be squewed
with a “tail” towards the high grades. The squewness 4 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
and curtossis coefficients of the distributions are :
The Random Stratified Grid of fig. 3 was fitted to
Area A Area B the centres of the mineralized sections of the bore­
Squewness 0.31 0.91 holes.
Kurtossis 2.18 3.75 Using the co-ordinates of these centres, a mean
plane was fitted to the centres of various surfaces of
We must note that for the symmetric distribution the deposit, using the least squares method. The dis­
the respective coefficients must be 0.0 and 3.0. tance of some sections of the ore-body from the

195
plane imposed the need to fit different planes to the 5 ORE RESERVES ESTIMATION
centres of the various surfaces. The strike and dip of
the optimum individual plane was calculated from The exploitation prospect for the deposit is by in­
the co-ordinates of the centres of the mineralized volving a surface mining operation. So, for the best
sections included in a certain search area, whose evaluation of the results, and bearing in mind that
centre is the one of the respective grid square. the open pit will be designed with steps 10m high,
The bore-hole samples were combined to a con­ the volume and mean grade of blocks between two
stant length of Im and therefore the ore-body was elevations were calculated, i.e. blocks of variable
divided in slices Im thick. Variograms were calcu­ dimensions were calculated.
lated in the 4 main directions (0®, 45°, 90° and 135° The parameters of the variograms calculated in
starting from E) for every slice to check the isotropy the previous paragraph were used for Areas A and B.
of the deposit. This check showed that there is no For Area C, due to the small number of bore-holes, a
significant anisotropy in the deposit. Another check global estimation of the ore reserves was carried out.
was made for the existence of a proportional effect, The estimation of the mean grade of the blocks,
but this was negative too. Finally, some outliers for each elevation, was made with the use of kriging,
were removed from the data files to ensure the best using the neighbouring blocks in the same slice and
calculation of the variogram parameters. Spherical the same elevation in a search area 50m x 50m. The
models were fitted to the experimental variograms mean grade and variance of the estimated blocks are
calculated, the parameters of which, for each Area,
are : Area A Area B
Mean grade 24.81 15.45
Area A Area B Variance 72.73 21.76
Nugget var. Co 20.0 20.0
Sill value Co+C 195.0 72.0 Figures 10 and 11 present the distribution of the
Range a 40.0 40.0 mean grades of the estimated blocks in Areas A and
B respectively.
Figures 8 and 9 show the respective experimen­
tal variograms and the fitted spherical models for
CLASS INTKRV RELATIVK FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Areas A and B. The variogram parameters were FROM TO
checked by point kriging. 8.28 10.46 7.000
10.46 12.65 6.000
12.65 14.83 14.000
14.83 17.02 22.000
17.02 19.20 23.000
19.20 21.38 21 .0 0 0
21.38 23.57 19.000
23.67 25.76 17.000 »*«««««*««««*»****«
25.75 27.94 22.000
27.94
30.12
32.30
30.12
32. 30 '
34.49
17.000
27.000
20.000
*m*****»:***********»:****.*iHL)li7i*
D t« « » « « « « *« » « *« « « « *«

34.49 36.67 8.000

36.67 38.86 8.000
38.86 41.04 9.000
41.04 43.22 2.000
43.22 45.41 3.000
45.41 47.59 1.000
47.59 49.78 .000
49.78 51.96 1.000

Figure 10. Distribution of grades of blocks in Area A

CLASS INTERV. RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

FROM TO TALLY
7.24 8.28 2.000
8.28 9.32 6.000 ***************
9.32 10.37 8.000
10.37 11.41 9.000 m**i>nti****tKrn»K*****ylc^***
Figure S.Experimental and model variograms for Area A 11.41
12.45
12.46
13.49
8.000
6.000
13.49 14.53 5.000 *************
14.63 15.58 1 2 .0 0 0 ******************************
16.58 16.62 8 .0 0 0 ********************
16.62 17.66 7.000
17.66 18.70 8.000
18.70 19.74 6 .0 0 0
19.74 20.79 4.000
20.79 21.83 3.000
21.83 22.87 6.000
22.87 23.91 2.000
23.91 24.96 1.000
24.95 26.00 1.000
26.00 27.04 .000
27.04 28.08 2.000

Figure 11.Distribution of grades of blocks in area B

After the estimation of the blocks per elevation,

these blocks were combined and mining blocks hav­
ing a mean grade higher than a given cut-off grade
Figure 9.Experimental and model variograms for Area B

196
were calculated. This calculation enabled the draw­
ing of grade-tonnage curves.

Figure 12.Deposit layout and cross-sections perpendicu­

lar to its strike

Figure 13. One of the above cross-sections with the esti­

mated blocks

Fig. 12 presents the horizontal layout of the de­

posit and cross-sections perpendicular to its strike.
Fig 13 presents one of these sections with the blocks
estimated above a certain cut-off grade.

REFERENCE

Joumel, A.G.-Huijbregts, C.J. 1978. Mining Geosta­

tistics. London: Academic Press.
Royle, A.G. 1979. Plane projections of tabular ore-
bodies for evaluation purposes. TIMM 88-A
Royle, A.G. 1977. Case Studies in Geostatistics.
University of Leeds.
Royle, A.G. 1977. Mining Geostatistics. University
of Leeds.
Royle, A.G. 1977. Geostatistical Tables. University
of Leeds.

197
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

R esource and reserve analysis o f Hasan 9elebi Iron Ore deposit, Turkey

B.Elevli, A.Demirci & A.Dogan

Department of Mining Engineering, Cumhuriyet University, Turkey
G.Onal
Mining Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the results of Hasancelebi Iron Ore deposit’s resource and reserve analysis.
Resource and reserve analysis of any deposit requires two steps. First one is to create the block model of the
deposit and second step is to generate ultimate pit limit. The block model of the Hasancelebi iron ore deposit
has been created by means of geostatistics. The quantity and quality of iron ore in this block model is defined
as resource, totaling 3.2Billion ton with an average grade of %14.18Fe304. Ultimate pit limit analysis has
been performed by considering economic, technical and legal factors. The amount of ore within the ultimate
pit limit is defined as mineable reserve, which amounts to 94.8Million ton with an average grade of %23.19
Fe304.

1 INTRODUCTION each block. Reserve calculation requires considering

One of the most difficult problems frequently facing
geologists and mining engineers is the problem of
defining ore body boundaries and also estimating the
quantity and quality of resource and reserve parame­
ters. There are a number of methods available for
engineers to define boundaries of a given ore body.
The most appreciated method used today extensively
is the development of a block model (Axelson 1964,
Johnson 1968 and Kim 1979). The block model of
an orebody is generated by dividing orebody into a
set of relatively small conceptual blocks. The di­
mensions of the blocks vary from one ore body to
another depending on the operational restrictions,
mineralisation and initial drillhole spacings. Each
block in the block model is assigned geological pa­
rameters (grade, rock type, etc.) by interpolating the
available drillhole data by using various interpola­
tion methods such as polygon, inverse distance or
geostatistics. Among those, the geostatistics is the
most widely accepted method (David 1977, Joumel
1978, Clark 1979, Henley 1984, Kim and Barnes
1989) in use today.
The development of a block model by means of
geostatistics requires a two-step approach. The first
step consists of a structural analysis that is also
known as variogram analysis. The second step is
called kriging that provides estimator to estimate
value(s) of any given blocks.
The block model serves as a basis to calculate
quantity and quality of resource that is done only
through counting, adding and multiplying content of
economic parameters that define which blocks are
extractable and which cannot be extracted. This is
carried out by ultimate pit limit analysis. The results
of ultimate pit limit analysis give the quantity and
quality of reserve in the area. This reserve is referred
to as mineable reserve.
2 GEOLOGY AND MINERALISATION OF
HASANCELEBI IRON ORE DEPOSIT
Hasancelebi iron ore deposit is located in the
south-east part of central Anatolia, Turkey. The old­
est rock sequence in the area is a serpentine-gabbro
complex. An upper cretaceous sequence of sedimen­
tary rock that is discordantly overlain by a mafic
volcano sedimentary series overlay this complex.
The volcano-sedimentary series constitute the main
and most widespread rock sequence in the area of
iron ore deposit. Several hydrothermal activities in
the area have altered all rock types except the last
generation of trachytic dykes, and magnetite ore of
Hasancelebi area was mobilized into vein-type de­
posits during scapolitization that was coincident
with the intrusion of trachtic dykes. In scapolitfels,
there is a main ore-bearing zone that runs 4.3km
westward from the west of Hasancelebi. The main
zone consists of smaller sub-zones, which have a
thickness ranging over hundreds of meters to more
than one kilometer (MTA 1978, Stendal 1995).

199
3 DATA PREPARATION FOR STUDY
The deposit had been explored with diamond drill
holes between 1961 and 1975. During this period
147 drill holes were completed. Core recovery was
79.9% and all core samples, having different length,
were analyzed for magnetite by means of Davis
Tube. The magnetite grade of each core was re­
corded in a database. For a geostatistical study sam­
ples length must have equal size. Therefore, the re­
sults of core analysis have been rearranged and
weighted into a constant length of 15m, starting at
level 1530m and elaborated downwards. Irregularity
in the topography has forced to divide the ore body
into two conceptual levels. The first level named as
upper level contains samples above the level of
1200m, which is the elevation of the Uludere river in
the area. The second level named as lower level con­
tains samples below the level of 1200m. Variogram
analysis and kriging have been completed for each
level independently, and the related results have
been combined into one block model.
4 BLOCK MODEL OF THE HASANCELEBI
IRON ORE DEPOSIT
Block model of the Hasancelebi iron ore deposit has
been created by means of geostatistical study. This
study requires structural analysis (variogram analy­
sis) and kriging. Structural analysis is independent
of block size, and only uses core samples. Kriging
was used to assign grade values to each block in the
block model and is dependent upon block size in the
block model
4.1 Structural Analysis
In any geostatistical study, construction of
variograms are known as structural analysis, which
reflects the variability of the ore mineralisation. Re­
quired parameters for the construction of variogram
are lag spacing, tolerance angle and maximum
length. These parameters have been chosen to be
66.5m, 25° and 1000m respectively on the basis of
trial and error analysis as defined in Knudsen and
Kim (1978). In this study these parameters were as­
sumed to be the same for both levels, and directional
experimental variograms have been constructed for
the two levels.
Upper Level;
For upper level, 0° was considered for E-W Di­
rection. Then, the experimental variograms for the
direction of 0®, 15®, 25®, 70®, 80®, 90*, 105®, 130®,
160® and 170® have been computed. The directional
variograms reveal the changes in the variogram pa­
rameters as the direction changes. A geometric ani­
sotropy has become visible after plotting the appar­
200
ent range of influence for each directional
experimental variogram (Figure 1). The direction of
major axis is 15° to North with an anisotropy ratio of
2.7. The original distribution of samples is logarith­
mic and proportional effect exists. In this case a
relative variogram must be used (David 1988).
Therefore, the selected model for the relative
variogram is;
Y^h)=0.1 +0.19(1.5h/380-l/2(h/380/), h<380m
vXh) = 0.29 h > 380m
Figure 1. Range of Directional Variograms for Up­
per Level
Lower Level;
For this level, experimental variograms for the di-
rection of 0®, 10®, 20®, 35°, 50®, 70®, 90®,105®, 130®,
160®,and 170® had been computed. Directional ex-
perimental variograms for lower level also reveal the
changes as direction changes. A geometric anisot­
ropy has also became visible after plotting the ap­
parent range of influence for each directional
variogram (Figure 2). The direction of major axis is
10° to South with an anisotropy ratio of 1.78. The
selected relative variogram model is given as fol­
lows;
yXh) =0.046+0.030(1.5h/a-l/2(h/a)’), h <250m
YXh)= 0.076 h>250m
4.2 Kriging
The second phase of geostatistical study is kriging,
which assigns grade values to each block. Since
kriging depends on the geometry of the blocks, the
block’s dimensions must be defined. The block di­
mensions for the block model of Hasancelebi have
been chosen to be 50mx50mxl5m. The number of
blocks in the X(easting), Y(northing) and Z (verti­
cal) direction are 88, 21 and 40 respectively, totaling
73920 blocks. The magnetite grade to each block
was assigned using the variogram models described
above.
 grade has been calculated. The blocks having a
grade lower than economic cutoff grade were con­
sidered to be waste which has only been assigned
mining cost, the block having a grade equal or
higher than economic cutoff grade were considered
to be ore blocks. In addition to economic parame­
ters, railway, highway and Uludere river passing
over the deposit have to be taken into consideration
for further evaluation. There are two related alterna­
tive approaches for these parameters; Either relocate
these structures and determine bigger pit or deter­
mine smaller pit without relocating them. Relocation
of these structures will increase the capital invest­
Figure 2. Range of Directional Variograms for ment so at this stage it was decided not to relocate
Lower Level them and determine smaller pit outline.
A computer program utilizing Lerchs-Grossman
After assigning magnetite grade to each block, graph algorithm has been used to determine ultimate
total tonnage and average grade of each grade group pit limit on the basis of above consideration. Result­
has been calculated and the results are given in Ta­ ing pit outline is given in Figure 3. The amount of
ble 1. As it is seen in Table 1, the total amount of ore within the defined pit outline is referred to as
magnetite containing material is 3.2Billion ton with mineable reserve and the tabulated results are given
an average grade of 14.18% Fe304. This tonnage in Table 2.
represents the total amount of block, which has a
grade of equal or more than 0.5% Fe304 ore. Since Table 2. Amount of Mineable Ore and Waste
there is no economic consideration, this amount is Reserve Av. Grade
Grade Defi­
considered to be the magnetite ore resource of nition (xlO^ ton) %Fe304
Group
Hasancelebi iron ore deposit.
0 -2 Waste 17484 0
2-9.15 Waste 7915 6.97
Table 1. Amount of Resource 9.15-15.14 Ore 5214 12.48
Grade Amount Average >15.14 Ore 89548 23.82
Group xlO^ ton %Fe304 TOTAL Waste 25399 6.97
>40 6339 44.81 TOTAL Ore 94762 23.19
35-40 32514 37.46
30-35 61946 31.94
25-30 193379 27.06 Although calculated economic cutoff grade is
l 5.14%Fe304, blocks having a grade higher than
20-25 391064 22.08
9.15%Fe304 has been taken into account as ore
15-20 638627 17.37
block. These blocks are within the pit limit and they
10-15 855087 12.49 must be extracted. If they are treated as waste block
0.5-10 1057716 6.42 their value will be equal to the mining cost. How­
TOTAL 3236674 14.18 ever, if they are treated as ore block they will have
lower negative value. Therefore they are treated as
5 ULTIMATE PIT LIMIT AND RESERVE ore blocks.
CALCULATION
6 CONCLUSIONS
The ultimate pit limits are determined firstly by as­
signing economic values to each block of the block This study has shown a methodological difference in
model whereby the resulting block model is referred calculation of resource and reserve of any given ore
to as economic block model and secondly using an body. The calculation of resource requires creation
optimization technique such as Lerchs-Grossman of block model of the ore body. The method used to
(1965) graph algorithm in order to obtain a pit with create a block model is one of the drill hole interpo­
the total highest possible monetary value. Besides lation methods such as geometric method, inverse
economic parameters, there might be technical and distance method or geostatistics. The calculation of
legal factors to take into account during the determi­ reserve requires determination of ultimate pit limit,
nation of the pit limit. that also necessitates the utilization of one of the
In order to obtain economic block model of the suitable optimization methods, such as Lerchs-
Hasancelebi iron ore deposit, an economic cutoff Grossman graph algorithm. Linear Programming,
Moving Cone, etc.

201
 HASANgELEBI IRON ORE DEPOSIT
Ultimate Pit Limit (Planed)
Figure 3: Planned Ultimate Pit Limit
The calculated resource for the Hasancelebi iron
ore deposit amounts to 3.2Billion ton with an aver­
age grade of 14.18%Fe304. On the other hand,
considering economic and other factors and restric­
tions, the determined mineable reserve lies around
94Million ton with an average grade of 23.19%
Fe304. The difference is enormous.
ACKNOWLEGMENT
The authors thank the Turkish Iron and Steel Com­
pany for supplying data and special thank to ITU
development Foundation for their financial sup­
port. And also special thank to Panlope Huttagosol
to let us modify and use his program code for Ul­
timate Pit Limit analysis.
REFERENCES
Axelson, A.H., 1964, A Practical Approach to Computer
Utilisation in Mine Planning, Colorado School o f Mines
Quarterly, p. 593-622.
Clark, I., 1979, Practical Geostatistics, Applied Science Pub­
lishers, London.
David, M., 1977, Geostatistical Ore Reserve Estimation, El­
sevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam.
David, M.,1988, Handbook o f Applied Advanced Geostatis­
tical Ore Reserve Estimation, Elsevier Publishing Com­
pany, Amsterdam
202
Henley, S., 1984, Nonparametric Geostatistics, Elsevier Pub­
lishing Company, London.
Johnson, T.B., 1968, Optimum Open Pit Mine Production
Scheduling, Ph D. Dissertation, University o f California,
Berkeley,CA.
Journel, A.G. and Huijbregths, C.,1978, Mining Geostatis­
tics, Academic Press, New York.
Kim, Y.C., 1979, Open-pit Limits Analysis, Computer Meth­
ods for the 80’s in the Mineral Industry, ed. A.Weiss,
SME-AIME, p.297-303.
Kim, Y.C. and Barnes, R.J., 1989, Introductory Review,
Geostatistics, 2U APCOM, SME, Colorado,USA.
Knudsen, H P., and Kim, Y.C., 1978, A short Course on
Geostatistical Ore Reserve Estimation, University of Ari­
zona, Department of Mining and Geological Eng., Tuc­
son, Az, 224p.
Lerchs, H. and Grossman, I F., 1965, Optimum Design o f
Open Pit Mines, CIM Bulletin, vol 58, no:633, January, p.
47-54.
MTA, 1978, Malatya-Hekimhan-Hasancelebi Yataginin
Jeolojik Etudu,
Stendal, H. ,Unlu, T. and Konnerup-Madsen, J., 1995, Geo­
logical Setting of Iron Deposits o f Hekimhan Province,
Malatya, Turkey, Transaction o f Institution o f Mining and
Metallurgy (Sect B; Applied Earth Science), January-
April, p. B46-B54.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

G eostatistical characterization o f thermal impacts from floodplain m ining

D.R.Hack
Halstead GeoNumerics, Portland, Oreg., USA

ABSTRACT: Water quality impacts from floodplain gravel mining are a subject of public controversy. Specifi­
cally, the nature of thermal impacts from off-channel operations are poorly understood. This paper describes
the characterization of surface water and groundwater heat flow in a large off-channel floodplain gravel mining
operation in the Pacific Northwest. The final project data set was analyzed with methods ranging from simple
empirical calculations to geostatistical modeling. Regional characteristics of the surface water environment
were evaluated using simple calculations of downstream thermal gradient. Variography of temperature records
from pond thermal strata demonstrated the pond’s response to thermal characteristics of the regional surface
water system. Selective two-dimensional variography of the surface water heat flow system exhibited consis­
tent semi-variogram forms across widely different temperatures and conditions. Advances in monitoring and
analysis, such as variography in a Bayesian framework, could be implemented for future monitoring programs.

1 INTRODUCTION and is currently planned at 500,000 tons per year.

Modem industrial economies require tremendous
amounts of sand and gravel for concrete constmc-
tion, paving, and other infrastmcture development
projects. This makes aggregate the top ranked ex­
tracted mineral resource worldwide in terms of
amount and value (Luttig 1994). In Washington
State USA in the 1990s, a vibrant economy, urban
expansion, and a subsequent constmction boom cre­
ated a seemingly insatiable appetite for aggregate re­
sources. Washington has a large amount of sand and
gravel deposits related to Pleistocene continental ice
sheets, but many areas of the state are reliant on
mining within the 100-year floodplain of environ­
mentally sensitive rivers (Lingley & Jazdzewski
1994). This increased pressure on floodplain mining
(much of it now off-channel) is coincident with in­
creasing public concern over environmental impacts,
expanding populations encroaching on mral mining
areas, and contentious county and state land use
conflicts. Figure 1 (after Schnitzer et al. 1999)
shows basic terms used in this article.
The subject property is in central Washington 150
miles southeast of Seattle. It lies in the broad, flat
Selah Valley, one of many sub-basins within the
Yakima Basin. The mine consists of four pits total­
ing 175 acres, each around 30 feet deep. The project
site, including stockpiles and surface facilities, is
10,050 feet long along the Yakima River by 3,000
feet wide. Mining has taken place over thirty years.
The aquifer within the project site consists of Qua­
ternary shallow alluvial deposits (cobbles, sand and
trace silt) approximately 40 feet thick. This alluvium
is highly permeable, supporting a shallow, uncon­
fined ground water table. Hydraulic conductivities of
as much as 1000 feet per day have been observed in
un-cemented materials. Groundwater flow direction
is generally sub-parallel to the river. Flows within
the Yakima River at the time of the study, which are
regulated by a series of U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
dams, were on the order of 3,000 cubic feet per sec­
ond in the summer down to 1,000 cubic feet per sec­
ond in the fall.
Current production is from gravel deposited in
one of the previously mined pits after a large avulsion
in 1996. This avulsion put the mining operation un­
der the unforgiving scrutiny of regulatory agencies
and the public. Specifically, migrating adult and ju­
venile salmonid species listed under the Endangered
Species Act pass by in the Yakima River, which is
separated from the mine by a series of armored lev­
ees 75 to 250 feet wide. Unfortunately, renewal of a
state surface mining reclamation permit coincided
with concerns of future avulsion risks and increasing
concern of the temperature impact of the post-mining
ponds on the river system. A french drain, which
was plugged prior to the initiation of the study, was
the major point of concern in terms of thermal im­
pacts. It drained into the river at the south end of the
southernmost pond (known as “Pond F’), and had ef­

203
fluent temperatures as much as 2.5 °C warmer than
river water. The volume of this effluent, however,
was negligible when compared to the tremendous
volume of water flowing by. By any means, the state
regulatory authority would not renew the permit until
some understanding of the temperature regime was
attained.
Thermal impacts of post-mining ponds within the
floodplain are poorly understood. Existing tem­
perature studies, as well as most comprehensive envi­
ronmental investigations, have been focused on in-
stream operations (Martin & Hess 1986, Kondolf
1998). Furthermore, the analysis of heat flow in
complex groundwater / surface water systems
(involving rivers, reservoirs, ditches, drains, and
more) is very difficult to model in a deterministic
framework with existing software. Complicating this
are frighteningly complex and politically charged fish
mortality criteria (McCullough 1999). For these rea­
sons it was decided to forego deterministic method­
ologies, whether or not they were in pre-packaged
software programs, and to approach the study from a
probabilistic standpoint, with exact methods of data
collection and analysis continually readjusted as data
came in from the field.
2 DEVELOPMENT OF METHODOLOGY
Early development of monitoring and analysis proto­
col was guided directly and indirectly by regulatory
agency ideas and expectations, as well as broader
political pressures. Final selection of monitoring lo­
cations was a composite of early company monitor­
ing routines, explicit wishes of state agencies, and in­
dividual interests of other, sometimes unrelated,
agencies. The final sampling layout involved forty-
five locations classified as follows:
- 19 in the river in the immediate project vicinity, 16
of these as lefl-bank/right-bank pairs.
- 6 in on-site and nearby ditches, drains, and dewa­
tering pipes.
- 8 in on-site post-mining ponds.
- 5 in on-site groundwater wells.
- 7 in the river upstream and downstream as far as
10 miles away.
204
Quality Control consisted of double-stacking at
25% of sampling locations, followed by blind
matching of temperature records. The instrument
selected, as preferred by state agencies, was the On­
set Optic StowAway© continuous data logger. The
logger was positioned in a containment device
known as a “water rocket” that was submerged at a
predetermined depth. Recorded data from the log­
gers was downloaded in the field every one to two
weeks.
For monitoring and analysis in the first year of the
study, the regulatory authority suggested that the
loggers be programmed to record a temperature
every fifteen minutes. They were, however, inter­
ested in determining an optimum sampling interval.
For this purpose, experimental semi-variograms were
calculated and plotted for continuous temperature
data from a U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR)
real-time gauging station a few miles upriver. At lag
spacings ranging from fifteen minutes up to approxi­
mately eight hours, semi-variograms yielded hole ef­
fect with wavelengths a of 24-hours, reflecting nor­
mal daily temperature variations. By the time lag
spacing reached 12 hours, the semi-variograms dem­
onstrated pure drift, coincident with overall tem­
perature trends. The optimum sampling interval ap­
peared to be around 2-hours. Shorter intervds
added unnecessary detail, and important points were
eliminated when using longer intervals. The 2-hour
sampling interval will likely be used in the future.
With agreements formalized in regards to instru­
mentation, monitoring location, and sampling inter­
val, all data loggers were programmed to start on
midnight of August 1, 1999, and data was collected
until November 23, 1999. Supplementary pond
thermal stratification data was collected up through
December. There were a total of 441,424 data
points collected and analyzed for this time interval.
Climactic data, such as temperature, wind speed, and
pan evaporation rate, was recorded every 30 minutes
at an on-site weather station. A National Oceano­
graphic and Atmospheric Administration weather
station less than a mile away provided daily records.
Assessed across the sampling program, tempera­
ture records for all locations were normally distrib­
uted. Mean river temperatures ranged from 10.2 °C
to 14.6 ®C, with a recorded maximum of 23.7 °C.
Mean groundwater temperatures ranged from 11.6
®C to 19.2 °C, with a recorded maximum of 25.9 °C.
Mean temperatures in ditches and drains ranged from
12.5 ®C to 16.7 °C, with a recorded maximum of
28.0 °C. The entire project data set is public record
in the State of Washington.
3 EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS
With so many monitoring points and poor under­
standing of thermal impacts in this type of complex
system, the most critical concept in the investigation
was continuous analysis o f data and ongoing devel­
opment o f modeling techniques. Analysis generally
began with visual inspection o f time vs. temperature
plots, followed by calculation o f nainima/maxima, the
four moments, standard deviation, and coefficient o f
variation. Given the nature o f the monitoring loca­
tion and the proposed thermal impact in considera­
tion, it was then decided whether to analyze further
with simple empirical calculations, with techniques of
exploratory data analysis, or with geostatistical
methodologies.
3.1 T herm al g ra d ie n t ca lcu la tio n s
One o f the most important discoveries was a result of
basic calculations o f thermal gradient in the river.
“Thermal gradient” is simply the difference in tem­
perature between two monitoring points divided by
the river distance between the two points. Since
temperatures generally increase down-river, one­
dimensional geostatistics was o f little use and only
showed the obvious presence o f drift. Given 26
monitoring points in the river (plus USER real-time
stations) collecting 96 temperature values every day
for four months, 7.5 million gradient values could be
calculated. However, most o f these would be func­
tionally redundant, so significant times and locations
were selected, i.e. warmest days o f the summer,
coolest days o f the fall, days o f heavy precipitation,
and days that demonstrated the highest and lowest
gradients across the study area. Station combinations
for gradient calculations were also important, i.e.
across Pond I, upstream and downstream o f the
fi-ench drain, etc. In reaches o f the river beyond the
study area, 0.25 °C / mile was a common natural
thennal gradient across var5dng conditions.
During the warmest time o f the sampling pro­
gram (4:00 PM on August 1), the thermal gradient
across water-filled Pond I was 0.21 ®C / mile, 16%
lower than background for that time interval. The
thermal gradient across Pond TV, which had been
pumped dry, was 0.68 ®C / mile, over 2 Vi times that
o f background. The reach o f the river adjacent to
Pond IV is wide and shallow, but adjacent to Pond I
the river is narrow and has a higher velocity.
Through this observation, it was apparent that river
hydraulics has more o f an influence on river tem­
perature than the presence o f a solar heated pond
separated from the river by a levee.
3.2 In flu en ce la g tim es in th e su rfa ce w a ter system
The proliferation o f temperature cycles in the river
was o f considerable use in tracking the propagation
o f thermal impacts, whether natural or man-made,
throughout the surface water system. The normal
diurnal fluctuation was superimposed not only on a
general downward seasonal trend, but also on a sine
wave with a wavelength o f around seven days and
205
variations on the order o f 2 °C - 6 ®C. It was pro­
posed that this quasi-weekly cycle was due to the
effect o f irrigation return flows. The Yakima Basin
contains tens o f thousands o f square miles of irri­
gated farms and orchards, o f which most o f the irri­
gation ditches drain to the Yakima River. Other
traceable patterns involved the activity o f USER
dams and reservoirs further upstream.
Using the quasi-weekly temperature cycle, poten­
tial thermal connection between the post-mining
ponds and the river could be proposed. Monitoring
point M L16L (in Pond I I near the french drain be­
tween Pond I and Pond II) was compared with
M L6L (in the river halfway down Pond I) and ML14
(in the perimeter ditch at the north end o f Pond m ).
The average temperature cycle time for M L16L cal­
culated over several months was 7 days 20 hours,
which was 32 hours longer than M L6L and 6 hours
longer than ML14. Likewise, cycle peak and trough
times for M L16L were consistently from 4 to 32
hours behind M L6L throughout the study period.
Furthermore, temperature amplitudes in ML16L
were t3q)ically around 40% o f M L6L. The interpre­
tation was that the river was thermally controlling the
ponds and perimeter ditch via bank storage. The
ponds were reflecting the same temperature cycles as
the river, but dampened by the insulating properties
o f the saturated alluvium separating the two water
bodies.
4 GEOSTATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Not all problems could be assessed with simple sta­
tistics and exploratory data analysis. Some required
the use o f geostatistical methodologies, and with the
tremendous amount o f data available, numerous ap­
proaches could be evaluated.
4.1 G roun dw ater / su rface w a ter in tera ctio n
In terms o f water quality impacts, an important con­
sideration was the impact warmer surface waters
could have on the cooler local aquifer. Surface wa­
ter temperatures were observed to be following
broad regional cycles, but groundwater temperatures
reflected none o f these observed river trends and
were stable. Two o f the five groundwater wells in
consideration were down-gradient from the solar
heated ponds and within 50 feet. I f surface water
were impacting groundwater to the extent state
regulators believed, the groundwater temperature re­
cords should demonstrate a marked response to the
adjacent surface water temperature records.
One-dimensional semi-variograms were calculated
and plotted at increasing lag spacing from 15 minutes
to 5 hours. Again a 2 hour lag appeared to yield op­
timum results. As seen by the semi-variograms in
Figure 2, the time series structure for the three
groundwater wells in that given time increment
(August 1 to August 9) were more or less consistent.
M L22 was immediately down-gradient of Pond I,
which demonstrated significant hole effect in its
semi-variogram over the same increment. Through­
out the study period, all groundwater wells on the
project site yielded semi-variograms that were con­
sistent with each other, but demonstrated no relation
to those o f the nearby ponds. The interpretation is
that temperatures within the aquifer were acting in
unison, but with no apparent impact from surface
waters. Even when groundwater temperature rec­
ords were stripped down to second and third order
residuals (see later section on ponds), there were still
no detectable traces o f surface water impact. This
makes sense from a hydrogeological perspective, as
stagnant ponds with a thin solar heated surface (the
epilimnetic layer) would not likely have sufficient
ML20: Week of August 1
g 0.015
E cv 0.01
§.6
05
O o>
•C 0)
5 2 . 0.005
E
CD
CO 0 be recorded at the same depth, reducing a three-
12 24 36
lag (hour)
time or volume for adequate heat transfer to
groundwater moving through the site on the order of
1000 feet per day.
4.2 O vera ll ch a ra cter o f su rfa ce w a ter h ea t flo w
An idea of the overall character o f heat flow in the
surface waters o f the project site could aid in the de­
tection o f predominating heat sinks or sources.
Heat flow anomalies such as heat sinks or sources
will create largely anisotropic distributions o f tem­
perature values in the xy plane in the spatial distribu­
tion o f heat in a surface water body. In terms of
variography and fiirther geostatistical analyses, there
were a number o f important points to consider, most
notably the non-additivity o f the variable tempera­
ture. Use of temperature in a preliminary structural
interpretation is valid, but an additive service variable
such as heat content (kilojoules per cubic meter)
would be necessary for kriging and simulation. See
Joumel & Huijbregts (1978) for a detailed discussion
of non-additive variables and Peroni et al. (1999) for
an example o f suitable transformation methods.
Furthermore, the system under consideration (heat
flow in a volume o f water) is four-dimensional
(x,y,z,time). This can be reduced to a two-
dimensional system by acknowledging two observa­
tions:
1 The state required that surface water temperatures
48
dimensional volume to a two-dimensional plane.
2 In terms o f the comparison o f sampling locations
the warming and cooling character o f the system

ML22: Week of August 1 was consistent. In general, across all time incre­
ments, the water temperature o f a sampling loca­
<D
tion exhibited the same relation in scale to all the
3 0.06
other sampling locations. For example the up-
§
gradient ends o f the pond were always cooler than
1 ? 0.04

:z :
:z; the down-gradient ends, a given section of the pe­
rimeter ditch was always wanner than the adjacent
^ 2. 0.02
i
section o f the river but cooler than the adjacent
w 0
section o f the pond, etc. Therefore, generating a
12 24 36 48 structural data interpretation on the variable time
lag (hour) would be redundant, at least for this system.
Directional semi-variograms were calculated on a
point support for numerous sampling times, selected
ML23: Week of August 1 to represent a sufficient assortment o f temperatures
and conditions. As a reinforcement o f observation
0.015 number two above, the semi-variograms for widely
different temperatures and conditions were virtually
E^ 0.01
z:i z : identical. Most fit a spherical model, with a sill of
9.5 a nugget o f 2.75 and a range o f 1400
0.005 feet. The system appeared to be isotropic, even
ECD IZ when temperature differentials between different
CO 0 —I---------1--------- i— surface water units were considerable. As stated
12 24 36 48 above, this is the key to interpreting that the surface
lag (hour)
water heat flow system is without anomalous heat
Figu re 2. E xp erim en tal sem i-variogram s o f groundw ater tem ­ sources or sinks.
perature records.

206

F igu re 3. E xp erim en tal sem i-variogram s o f P on d I therm al
strata.
4.3 C h a ra cteriza tio n o f th erm a l stra tifica tio n
As variography o f temperature time series could be
used to investigate groundwater / surface water in­
teraction, it could also be used to further quantify
thermal stratification and underflow patterns. The
key to thermal gain within the system will be largely
dependent on the thermal capacity o f the ponds, so
quantification o f thermal stratification is important.
Initial inspection o f thermal gradients in the ponds
demonstrated a classic three-layer underflow pattern,
largely controlled by water density (Stevens et al.
1975). Colder water entering the pond is denser than
water in the solar-heated epilimnion and flows to the
lowest point o f the pond. As the water flows
through the pond, it may have little mixing with the
waters on the pond surface. Pond thermal data
points to this pattern. In mid-August, temperature
differentials between the epilimnion and hypolimnion
were on the order o f 4 °C, with hypolimnetic tem­
peratures largely comparable to temperatures within
the river.
207
Temperature records placed at 6-, 12-, and 28-
foot depths in Pond I were evaluated in late Novem­
ber, when an underflow pattern was not apparent
during vertical thermal logging. However, the con­
tinuous logs still demonstrated a marked underflow
pattern. This was manifested in the epilimnion’s re­
sponse to ambient temperatures, and showed up
quite clearly in plots o f second-order residuals from
the 6-foot depth record.
One-dimensional semi-variograms were calculated
firom the temperature records at 6-, 12-, and 28-foot
depths (see Fig. 3). Even though all plots demon­
strated some form o f the same basic hole effect char­
acteristic in surface water records, the fact that cold
water at 28-foot depth in November was still re­
sponding to surface temperature cycles was quite in­
triguing. The amplitude markedly decays with depth
by approximately 50% for each increment, and be­
gins to resemble groundwater semi-variograms at the
bottom o f the pond.
The interpretation o f this investigation o f thermal
stratification is that the temperature regime within
the post-mining ponds is controlled by the regional
temperature characteristics o f surface waters. This is
manifested in surface water temperature cycles and
patterns reflected in pond thermal strata, even in No­
vember. This is contrary to the initial beliefs of state
regulators, who had proposed that post-mining
ponds were thermally impacting the river.
5 SUM MARY AND INTERPRETATIO N
As a result o f the above processing and analysis, the
following interpretations o f thermal impacts can be
proposed:
1 Thermal gradient calculations demonstrated that
river hydraulics have more o f an influence on river
temperature than the presence o f solar heated
ponds not directly connected to the river.
2 Investigation of influence lag times indicated that
ponds were reflecting the same temperature cycles
as the river, but dampened by the insulating prop­
erties o f the saturated alluvium separating the two
water bodies.
3 Through comparison o f semi-variograms of
groundwater and surface water temperature rec­
ords, it was apparent that temperatures at differ­
ent locations within the aquifer were acting in uni­
son, but with no influence from surface waters.
4 Through evaluation o f two-dimensional variogra­
phy, there was no indication that surface water
heat flow system is under the influence of
anomalous heat sources or sinks.
5 By evaluating variography o f thermal stratification
in the ponds, there are strong indications that the
temperature regime within the post-mining ponds
is controlled by the regional temperature charac­
teristics o f surface waters.
 Investigation did not end with processing and
analysis o f a half-million data points. Airborne ther­
mal infrared images taken in September 1999 did not
show any warm water leakage into the river. Deter­
ministic calculations based on physical principles o f
subsurface heat transport reinforced the prior obser­
vation that saturated alluvium acts as an insulator.
With hindsight, analysis and processing o f future
data sets can be considerably improved. Assessment
o f the two-dimensional surface water heat flow sys­
tem could be clarified via variography in a Bayesian
framework. Automated processing o f thermal gradi­
ent data could optimize characterization o f the re­
gional system by placing probabilistic bounds on all
gradient combinations from all sampling intervals.
More selective instrumentation could further clarify
underflow patterns, which may be the key to inter­
preting the thermal regime o f the system

REFERENCES

Joumel, A.G. & Huijbregts, C.J. 1978. Mining Geostatistics.

New York: Academic Press.
Kondolf, G.M. 1998. Environmental effects of aggregate ex­
traction from river channels and floodplains. In P.T.
Bobrowsky (ed). Aggregate Resources: A Global Perspec­
tive-. 113 -1 3 0 . Rotterdam: Balkema.
Lingley, W.S. & Jadzewski, S.P. 1994. Aspects of growth
management planning for mineral resource lands. Wash­
ington Geology 22 (2): 36 - 45.
Luttig, G.W. 1994. Rational management of the geo­
environment. In G.W. Luttig (ed). Aggregates - Raw Ma­
terials ’ Giant: Report on the International Aggregate
Symposium’. 1 - 34. Erlangen: University of Erlangen-
Nmemberg.
Martin, C.R & Hess, T.B. 1986. The impacts o f sand and
gravel dredging on trout and trout habitat in the Chatta­
hoochee River, Georgia. Georgia Department of Natural
Resources Special Report. Atlanta.
Mcdhillough, D.A. 1999. A review and synthesis o f effects of
alterations to the water temperature regime on freshwater
life stages o f salmonids, with special reference to Chinook
salmon. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report
EPA-910-R-99-010.
Peroni, R , Costa, J.F., Koppe, J., & Petter, C. 1999. A Novel
Methodology for Modeling Kaolin Deposits. In K. Dag-
delen (ed). Proceedings o f the International Sympo­
sium on Computer Applications in the Mineral Industries’.
545 - 553. Golden: Colorado School of Mines.
Schnitzer, E.F., Wampler, P.J., & Mamoyac, S.R 1999.
Floodplain aggregate mining in western Oregon. Mining
Engineering 51 (21): 21 - 29.
Stevens, H.H. Jr., Ficke, J.F., & Smoot, G.F. 1975. Water
Temperature - Influential Factors, Field Measurement,
and Data Presentation. Techniques of Water-Resources
Investigation of the United States Geological Survey Col­
lection of Water Temperature by Direct Measurement
Book 1,

208
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

G EM N et II - An alternative m ethod for grade estim ation

LK.Kapageridis
MaptekIKRJA Systems Limited, Nottingham, UK
B. Denby & D. Schofield
University o f Nottingham, UK

ABSTRACT: Grade estimation is one o f the most complicated aspects in mining. It also happens to be one o f
the most important. The complexity o f grade estimation originates from scientific uncertainty, common to
similar engineering problems, and the necessity for human intervention. The combination o f scientific
uncertainty and human judgement is common to all grade estimation procedures regardless o f the chosen
methodology.The GEM N et II system described in this paper was developed to provide a flexible but
complete alternative method to existing grade estimation techniques, which takes into consideration the
theory behind ore deposit formation while minimising the dependence on certain assumptions.

1 INTRO DU CTIO N To break down the problem of grade

This paper presents a complete system for grade
estimation based on a very unique type o f Artificial
Neural Networks (ANNs), the Radial Basis Function
(RBF) networks. A N N technology is introduced to
more engineering problems as new network models
and learning algorithms are being developed and
older models prove their value on real and
sometimes critical applications. Grade estimation, as
it w ill be discussed in the following paragraphs, is
one o f the problems that can be approached
successfully by ANNs and specifically by RBF
networks. ANNs have several properties that
establish them as a potential approach for grade
estimation, such as: nonlinearity, adaptivity,
generalization, and uniformity o f analysis and
design.
The modular neural network system for grade
estimation, GEM N e t II, presented in this paper has
been developed over the past three years at the
A IM S Research Unit o f the University of
Nottingham. The main objectives o f the
development o f GEMNET II were defined as follows
(Kapageridis 1999):•
• To find a suitable neural network
architecture for the problem o f grade
estimation.
• To take advantage o f the function
approximation properties o f artificial neural
networks.
estimation into less complex functions that
can be modelled using these properties.
To integrate the developed neural network
architecture in a system which w ill be user-
fiiendly and flexible.
To provide means o f validating the results o f
this system.
To minimise the knowledge required for
using the system.
To compare the performance o f the system
with existing grade estimation techniques on
the basis o f estimation properties, usability
and time requirements.
2 R A D IA L BASIS FUNCTION NETWORKS
A ND THE ILL-POSED PROBLEM OF GRADE
ESTIM ATIO N
RBF networks inherit all those properties that make
artificial neural networks a potential solution to the
problem of grade estimation. They are however
more suitable to this problem than other
architectures due to their fimction approximation
properties which are unique. RBF networks offer
solutions to ill-posed problems, i.e. problems that do
not satisfy one o f the following conditions
(Tikhonov & Arsenin, 1977; Morozov, 1993;
Kirsch, 1996):
• E x isten ce. For every input vector x e N, there
does exist an output y = f(x ), where y e p.

209
• Uniqueness. For any pair of input vectors x,t e
S , we have f(x) =f(t) if, and only if, x = t.
• Continuity. The mapping is continuous, that is,
for any s > 0 there exists ô = ô(e) such that the
condition Px(x,t) < ô implies that Py(f(x),f(t)) < e,
where p(, ) is the symbol for distance between
the two arguments in their respective spaces. The
property of continuity is also referred to as
stability.
It is fairly straightforward to prove that the
problem of grade estimation from exploration data is
an ill-posed problem. Concentrating on the
conditions of uniqueness and continuity, it is quite
clear that the grade values as presented by the
exploration data do not satisfy any of these two
conditions. As far as uniqueness is concerned, there
are always two input vectors representing two
different grade samples that have the same grade
(within a certain accuracy) while having different
spatial co-ordinates, volume, or distance from the
point of mapping. Therefore the condition of
uniqueness is not satisfied.
Continuity is the one requirement of the
conventional estimation techniques that makes them
fail or not even apply to several cases of grade
estimation. There is no doubt that the grade values
presented through drillhole samples from an orebody
do not satisfy the condition of continuity. This is a
common problem that leads to the use of very simple
and not particularly reliable methods of grade
estimation.
In order to solve the ill-posed problem of grade
estimation from exploration data, RBF networks can
be used as they are based on a method that was
developed specifically for solving this type of
problems. This method is called régularisation and
was proposed by Tikhonov in 1963. The idea behind
régularisation is to stabilise the solution by
embedding prior information about it (Haykin,
1999). Commonly the prior information involves the
assumption that the input-output mapping is smooth,
in the sense that similar inputs correspond to similar
outputs. This is an assumption that can be and has to
be applied if RBF networks are to be used for grade
estimation.
It is necessary before carrying on to the
application of RBF networks for grade estimation to
examine their architecture and general operation.
RBFs were initially used for solving problems of
real multivariate interpolation. Work on this subject
has been extensively surveyed by Powell (1990).
The theory of RBFs is one of the main fields of
study in numerical analysis (Powel 1981). RBF
networks are very simple structures. Their design is
in essence a problem of curve fitting in a high­
dimensional space. Learning in RBF networks
means finding the hyper-surface in multi­
dimensional space that fits the training data in the
210
best possible way. The universal approximation
theorem for RBF networks, as stated by Park and
Sandberg (1991), opened the way for their use in
fiinction approximation problems, which were
commonly approached using Multi-Layered
Perceptrons. The work of Park and Sandberg (1991,
1993), Cybenko (1989), and Poggio and Girosi
(1990) led to a new model for fiinction
approximation based on generalised RBF networks.
Specifically, the theorem can be stated as below:
Let is an integrable bounded function such
that G is continuous and
^G{x)dx ^ 0
Let denote the fam ily o f RBF networks consisting o f
functions F:R!"°—>R represented by
F(x)
where <j> 0, Wi e R andh e R”*^fo r i = 1, 2, ..., mj. For
any continuous input-output mapping function f(x) there
is an RBF network with a set o f centres and a
common receptive fie ld <r> 0 such that the input-output
mapping function F(x) realised by the RBF network is
close to f(x) in the Lp norm, p
e \ \ ,
oo \.
The universal approximation theorem provides the
theoretical basis for the design of RBF networks for
practical applications.
A typical RBF network consists of three layers, an
input layer, a single hidden layer, and an output
layer. The processing elements in the hidden layer
are quite different from other typical examples of
ANNs like the Multi-Layered Perceptron (MLP).
Each processing element is a Radial Basis Function
with a varying receptive field and a varying centre
location. These two parameters together with the
linear weights of the connections between the hidden
and output layer and the bias to the output are
adjusted during training in order to provide the best
possible mapping between the input vectors (e.g.
drillhole samples) and the required output (grade).
3 GRADE ESTIMATION WITH GEMNet II
The ANN approach for grade estimation
underlying the design of GEMNet II is based on
RBF networks that treat the estimated variable
(grade) as a hypersurface in the input vector space
(Kapageridis 1999). This space takes two very
distinctive forms:
• The 3D co-ordinate space of the drillhole
samples;
• The space formed by the grade, distance, and
volume of neighbouring samples.
In other words, GEMNet II treats grade as a
fimction of the three spatial co-ordinates and the
volume of drillhole samples or as a fimction of the
grade, distance, and volume of neighbouring
samples. This is achieved using a number of RBF
networks each with a different function, the outputs
of which are combined to provide a single grade
estimate. The system comprises three RBF network
modules responsible for the estimation and a data
processing and control module that generates the
training patterns for the networks by applying a
search method developed specifically for GEMNET
II.
It was necessary to develop a simplified 3D search
method in order to cope with the geometrical
characteristics of exploration sampling schemes.
After considering a number of schemes, the author
decided to use the simple search method shown in
Fig. 1 (Kapageridis & Denby 1998).
Figure 1. Simplified 3D search scheme used in GEMNet II.
There are only six sectors in this scheme: upper,
lower, north, south, east, and west. These sectors are
defined by the intersection of four planes: two
planes vertical to the XZ plane at ±45° dip, and two
planes vertical to the YZ plane at ±45° dip. In other
words, these sectors look like pyramids of square
base with their top at the estimation point. The
advantage of this search scheme is not just the fact
that it is very simple and affordable in computation
terms. With this scheme, the drillhole where the
current training point belongs is always within two
opposite sectors. This allows easier control of the
number of samples selected fi'om this drillhole,
which can help improve the results of estimation.
Another advantage of this scheme is that it can
handle any inclination of the orebody or the drilling
scheme.
The data processing and control module accepts
data in ASCII form and creates training pattern files
for the RBF networks. The formation of training
211
patterns is based on the search method described.
Basically, for every training sample in the dataset,
one neighbour sample is chosen from every sector -
the one closest to ftie training sample. The grade of
the neighbour sample, its distance from the training
sample and its length are written as inputs on the
training pattern file of the network responsible for
the specific sector, while the training sample grade is
written as the require output. Clearly, in some
occasions there are no neighbour samples in some of
the sectors. In those cases, the training sample is
marked for estimation with the module that is
trained on sample co-ordinates.
The first module consists of six RBF networks
each trained on samples from one of the six sectors
of the 3D search scheme. These networks have three
inputs (neighbour sample grade, distance from the
point of training/estimation, and neighbour sample
volume) and one output (target grade at the point of
training/estimation) (Fig.2).
Figure 2. RBF network o f the first module.
The second module is a single RBF network
trained on the outputs of the six RBF networks of
the first module (Fig. 3). This network performs the
necessary averaging of the individual estimates is
necessary as it was clear in some case studies that
some of the RBF networks of the first module were
consistently producing estimates closer to the actual
values while others were consistently far from them.
The number of hidden units normally varies between
six and nine.
The third module is a single RBF network that
accepts 3D data in the form of vectors with four
dimensions (easting, northing, elevation, and
volume) and produces one output (target grade) (Fig.
4). This network replaces one or more of the RBF
networks of the first module in the case were there
are no neighbour samples in some of the search
scheme sectors. The network of this module is
however trained on all samples regardless of the
results of the search process.
^ K o rth
^S o u th
^Upper
^Lower
Figure 3. RBF network o f the second module.
After training is complete the saved topologies are
used for estimation. During training this is done on
the basis of drillhole samples hidden from the
training process in order to validate the learned
mappings. During estimation the drillhole samples
are mostly targeted on the training and validation
process. Cross validation is used for testing the
validity of the learned mappings and for comparing
with other grade estimation techniques.
212
4 APPLICATION OF GEMNET II TO REAL
EXPLORATION DATA
The case studies presented in this paper are the final
tests of the GEMNet II architecture. Their purpose
was to demonstrate the full potential of the approach
and provide a complete comparison with other
estimation techniques. They are presented in order
of increasing complexity and difficulty. The number
of available samples increases as well as the
structural complexity of the deposits. The data used
in these case studies come from real deposits. In
some of them the 3D co-ordinates of the samples
have been changed without affecting their relative
locations. These studies are ideal for geostatistics
and in fact have been used for demonstrating
grade/reserve estimation using computer software.
However, no results have ever been published using
this data other than the papers written by the author
during this project (Kapageridis et al 1999a, 1999b,
Kapageridis 1999).
The deposits in the four case studies that follow
present a complex 3D structure (Fig. 5). They all
come with a complex geological model, which is
used for constraining the estimation process. This
geological model in some cases becomes even more
complicated by the presence of faults and other
discontinuities. This factor makes grade estimation
an even more challenging task. In all of the case
studies, a complete geostatistical study has been
performed including the methods of kriging and
inverse distance, the results of which are presented
in this paper together with the study of GEMNET II
application.
The four copper/gold deposits used for testing the
estimation performance of GEMNET II have veiy
little in common. Except from the type and possibly
the way they have been formed, these deposits
present a very different 3D picture and a very
different estimation task. Their size and geometry
varies significantly as does the grade distribution
suggested by the available samples.
The available samples for each of the four
deposits vary in number considerably. The drilling
geometry is also different as is the assaying
procedure. These differences ensured that GEMNET
II would be tested on very different conditions and
data and that the results would reflect its
performance over a wide range of problems. Table 1
gives the main characteristics of the four deposits
presented in this paper.
Table 8.1: Main characteristics o f the four deposits used for
Code name M AC DEMO THOR SME GEOST G O LD
Number of 1361 3612 10,656 30,211
samples
Estimated Au, Cu Au Cu Au
grades
Number of 4 5
(Mebodies
 The measures of performance for the three
approaches compared were the mean absolute error,
the data fit diagram (scatter plot), and the estimated
vs. actual grade distribution diagram. For GEMNet
II, a guide to the quality of the produced estimates,
the reliability indicator values, is also shown in
slices through the estimated block model. The
reliability indicator gives the variance of the
individual estimates from the different RBF
networks used by GEMNet II. The idea behind the
reliability indicator is that the more the RBF
networks disagree on one particular estimate the less
reliable is the final estimate produced by the system.
The following table (Table 2) summarises the
results on all four case studies for the three
approaches tested. GEMNET II was running from
VULCAN/Envisage version 3.4. Geostatistics were
running also from the same environment using
GSLIB. Therefore the same computational overhead
from VULCAN has been present while the various
approaches were tested. GEMNet II has been
integrated in VULCAN/Envisage in order to become
more user friendly, more complete, and easier to
compare its results with those from the other
methods (Kapageridis et al 1999a).

Table 2. Summary o f results from case studies.

Case Mac_Demo Thor SME Geostat_Gold
Study Au/Cu Au Cu Au
^ Actual I 2.34/4.01 1 0.9269 0.9154 4.1316
Mean
j Grade
Kriging 2.26/3.72 0.8660 0.8698 3.9014 '
Mean t
; Grade |
ID 2 Mean ,1 2.54/3.69 , 0.881 379264 '
! Grade
GEMNet | 1.96/3.41 ' 0.8291 0.8803 J 37^07
n Mean i
Grade 1
I Kriging ' 20.47/19.68 “ 1 ^ 6 7 14.77 14.46
j ABS % i
I ID 2 A B S “22747/20706"' 2"T66 "18.33 ; 19^78 ”
I % ]
r GEMNet ” 18778/18.9 "| 18.2 j” 14.65 15.04 !
. nA B S% _________ i

In all four case studies, GEMNET II performed

very well even in comparison with the other already
established techniques. It should be noted that
inverse distance weighting has benefited from the
geostatistical study that improved significantly the
results obtained with this technique. The
performance of the three estimators becomes clearer
by examining the data fit and distribution graphs.
Examples from the first case study are given in the
following figures (Fig. 6, 7).
Figure 5. 3D views o f the four copper/gold deposits used in the
case studies (top to bottom: macdemo, thor, sme, geostat^gold)
(screenshots from VULCAN/Envisage).

213
 Copfm G im c i* V » l u M O u t » F K As shown in the following figures (Fig. 8, 9), the
block model estimates of GEMNET II as well as the
reliability indicator values, could be visualised in
sections and together with any other type of data,
e.g. a solid model of the orebody or the drillholes,
♦ 02
using the graphical capabilities of VULCAN..
»Knanp
m ^ » AA

Figure 6. Data fit diagram o f copper grade estimates produced

by the three approaches.

CoppvrGnwta OliMbuMe»»

Figure 8. Vertical and horizontal section through block model

coloured by the gold grade estimates of GEMNet II in
VULCAN.

Figure 7. Actual and estimated copper grade distributions.

GEMNET II tends to underestimate high-grade

samples but the overall estimation is not biased or
affected by extreme values. Generally, the three
techniques performed reasonably well with no
particular problems. A major difference between
them was, though, the time required for their
application.
The time requirements for the application of the
three methods were quite different, even though
geostatistics were fairly straightforward in these case Figure 9. Vertical and horizontal block model section coloured
studies. GEMNET II required up to 10 hours to by the reliability indicator values and solid model o f the
orebody.
process the samples and block model centroids,
develop the networks and perform grade estimation.
The geostatistical studies required up to a week to
complete. The time spent for grade estimation using The RBF centres location in the input vector
inverse distance and kriging, once a geostatistical space is absolutely crucial to the performance of an
study was complete, was about 15 minutes. RBF network. The RBF centres visualisation tool
has been developed specifically for GEMNET II in
The integration of GEMNET II inside VULCAN
Envisage and allows the displaying of both the
allowed the visualisation of the block model
estimates, the reliability indicator values, and the centres and the training samples of any RBF
locations of the RBF network centres. Using these network from the modular architecture. This option
visual tools it is possible to validate the approach loads the RBF centres using a special symbol on the
and find potential problems that might come from screen and also the training samples as crosses. The
the RBF network training or the sampling quality correct input space is used, i.e. the 3D real world co­
and quantity. ordinates space for the third module and the
neighbour sample grade, distance, and length input

214
space for the first module. The following figures
(Fig. 10, 11) give one example for each module.
Figure 10. RBF centres of the third module visualised together
with the solid model o f the orebody and the drillholes.
Figure 11. RBF centres from one of the six RBF networks of
the first module visualised together with the training samples
o f that module.
By looking at the positions of the RBF centres,
one can decide whether the network initialisation
procedure is efficient and whether the learned
mapping is reliable. A well spread distribution of
centres in the input space with a high density of
centres in areas where ore grade seems to present a
complex behaviour suggest that the network has
been properly developed. High density of centres in
areas with very few or even no samples means that
the initialisation and training process needs to be
modified.
215
5 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper an in-depth discussion was given on
GEMNET II, the integrated system for ore grade
estimation based on artificial neural networks. The
benefits of the approach were explained and in
particular the advantages of the integration with the
resources modelling package, VULCAN.
The system has many advanced features that can
establish it as a commercial product. It provides
validation tools that can help build confidence to the
estimates while it removes most of the problems
found in other grade estimation techniques.
GEMNet II makes very few assumptions about the
grade distribution. Its operation does not depend on
the user’s knowledge of geology, geostatistics, or
even neural networks. It should be noted though that
knowledge of neural networks could improve
sometimes the results but not significantly.
Generally, the system adjusts to the data presented to
it to achieve the best possible estimation.
Even though it is based on artificial neural
networks, GEMNET II is not a ‘black box’ approach.
The technique is fairly understandable as it is based
on established principles of ore grade spatial
behaviour. The validation tools provided with
GEMNet II and the exhaustive monitoring of the
network development also help the user to
understand how it works and why.
In the four case studies presented briefly in this
paper, GEMNET II performed well in comparison
with the other already established techniques. The
results obtained have shown that it is a reliable and
fast grade estimation system. GEMNET II has shown
its potential as a valid alternative that can handle
large amounts of data quickly and without being
prone to extreme values.
REFERENCES
Cybenko, G., 1989. Approximation by Superpositions o f a
Sigmoidal Function. Mathematics o f Control, Signals, and
Systems, Vol. 2, pp 303-314.
Haykin, .S. 1999. Neural Networks - A Comprehensive
Foundation. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Kapageridis I. 1999. Application o f Artificial Neural Network
Systems to Grade Estimation from Exploration Data. PhD
Thesis. University o f Nottingham.
Kapageridis I., Denby B. 1998. Neural Network Modelling o f
Ore Grade Spatial Variability. In: Proceedings o f the
International Conference for Artificial Neural Networks
(ICANN 98), Vol. 1, pp 209 - 214, Springer-Verlag,
Skovde.
Kapageridis I., Denby B., and Hunter G. 1999. GEMNET II -
A Neural Ore Grade Estimation System. In: 29th
Internation Symposium on the Application o f Computers
and Operations Research in the Minerals Industries
(APCOM ’99), Denver, Colorado.
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216
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Open pit design optim isation o f a lignite deposit

W.Kawalec
Institute o f Mining Engineering, Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland
J.Specylak
Institute o f Opencast Mining, Poltegor-Instytut, Wroclaw, Poland

ABSTRACT: Open pit optimisation is not too frequently used for lignite deposits, especially in Europe, where
there are almost no new lignite mines. The new design work of a planned lignite pit in Poland provides an op­
portunity for successful implementation the optimisation methods since the beginning. The paper presents
a study of the lignite pit design with the use of the newest available optimisation tools. First, the pricing for­
mula has been applied to calculate the in-situ lignite price. Basing upon the quality block model of the large
lignite deposit, the ultimate pit has been obtained with the use of a Lerchs-Grossmann algorithm. As a result
of mine blocks optimal sequencing, the optimal pushbacks and the long term schedule have been obtained
with the use of a NPV Scheduler package.

1 INTRODUCTION - ultimate pit with price sensitivity analysis,

Economic optimisation models have been applied
for years mostly for mining metallic mineral deposits
where the valuation formula can be obtained on the
basis of grade and pure metal price. However while
mining such deposits like coal, lignite or limestone
blending the raw material to match the requirements
of a destination site is the most important issue.
The authors of optimisation methods and mining
software suppliers have developed the solutions to
provide the mining engineers with the tools for both
ultimate pit design and scheduling to achieve the re­
quired raw material blending throughout the mine
life (Srinivasan 1996). Instead of grade, the quality
parameters have to be used to build the valuation
formula of a non-grade raw material like lignite
(Mastoris 1994). If the price formula incorporates all
necessary quality parameters that have to be con­
trolled, then the economic optimisation can also lead
to obtain the expected blending solution.
Lignite is extensively used in Poland for power
engineering. Several pits are being exploited, while
some lignite deposits are evaluated. The new design
work of a planned pit provides an opportunity for
implementation the newest available optimisation
methods that have not been introduced yet.
A study of the lignite pit design with the use of
the advanced mining software is presented below.
The data of the large lignite deposit with the esti­
mated resources of nearly 1 billion tons has been
chosen for the project aiming the following topics:
- pushbacks generation,
- long term schedule.
The processing has been made with the use of
DATAMESiE mining package supplied by MICE and
the mining optimisation package NPV Scheduler
supplied by Earthworks Corp. The DATAMINE
software is a mining industry standard, also used in
Polish lignite mining. The NPV Scheduler is a re­
cently released software that comprises three main
modules: the ultimate pit shell optimiser (based on
the Lerchs-Grossmann method), the pushback gen­
erator and optimising scheduler, built upon the algo­
rithm developed by Tolwinski (Tolwinski 1995).
2 ENTRY DATA
2.1 The quality block model
In the Poltegor-Instytut the geological database of
drillhole and chemical analysis data has been created
for the considered lignite deposit. The data has been
then incorporated into DATAMINE to build the
geological model.
First, basing upon the drillhole lithological data,
the wireframe surface models of terrain and main
geological complexes (quaternary strata, tertiary coal
complexes: upper, main and lower and mesozoic bed
rock) have been built. Thus, the geological zones for
further zonal quality interpolation have been defined.
The prototype block model cell sizes (200x200x6
m) have been defined with regard to drillhole collars

217
grid dimensions and the analysis of length of sam­
ples. The geological block model containing cells
and subcells generated at the surface boundaries of
the complexes and the top surface - terrain (see fig­
ure 1) has been created (Specylak 1996).
^_____
gsDDnDnanLfe™,
innnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnD
■JTnnnnQgMglggnnnnnnnnnnr----------------------
■.iO n n n n n S T O D H D n n n n n n n n n n n ®
--------------------------------------------
Fig. 1. Plan section through the cells o f the geological block
model, elevation 50m (above), -50m (below).
The selected quality parameters: calorific value,
ash and sulphur content have been interpolated
within geological zones using the inverse power of
distance method and thus the quality block model
has been obtained (Specylak 1996, 1998).
2.2 Price formula
The developed quality block model of the lignite de­
posit was the basis for creating the economic model.
To compute the price of each cell in the block
model, the price formula established for lignite by
the Mining Committee of the Polish Academy of
Sciences has been applied (Blaschke 1998, Specylak
1999). In the formula (in Polish currency - zloty), the
price of lignite is a function of the three main quality
parameters: calorific value, ash content and sulphur
content as follows:
1- Q b Q r
6724 57
where: C - actual selling price of lignite; Cb - stan­
dard price (price of the standard lignite);
Qb - calorific value of the standard lignite (kJ/kg);
Qr - actual calorific value (kJ/kg); ^5 - ash content
in the standard lignite (%); Ar - actual ash content
(%); Sb - sulphur content in the standard lignite (%);
Sr - actual sulphur content (%).
The following values and bounds have been set:
Cb -21.3168 (zloty/ton); Qb - 7786 (kJ/kg);
^5-10.1 (%);Sb -0.6\ (%). (2)
calorific value - not lower than 3350 (kJ/kg)
sulphur content - not higher than 2 (%)
ash content - not higher than 40 (%). (3)
The quality model has been evaluated in DA-
TAMINE against the formula (1) and values (2) with
regard to bounds (3) and the economic model, ready
for further steps has been obtained (Specylak 1999).
2.3 Technical constraints
Geotechnical analysis and constraints derived from
□ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ d the planned mining and transportation system
(bucket wheel excavator, belt conveying and spread­
ers) have lead to setting the general slope angles:
- eastern and western slope - 11 (deg)
- northern slope (transportation) - 10 (deg)
- southern slope - 10 (deg).
Adjusting the different working and transporta­
tion slope angles is necessary to ensure the opera­
tional bench widths is maintained.
3 ULTIMATE PIT DESIGN
3.1 Settings and data preparation
The economic model created in DATAMINE has
been read into NPV Scheduler. Cells containing lig­
nite within the upper, main and lower coal strata
have been defined as ore. The averaged within the
cell price of each ore (lignite) cell has been recalcu­
lated as the percentage of the maximum (basic)
price. Hence, the percent of the basic price can be
considered as grade of the “pure” lignite. Such
model is more flexible, because the simple change of
the basic price level changes the value of all ore
cells.
The averaged mining cost is estimated to be a
constant value: 4.50 zloty/ton. The product is lignite,
more precisely its basic price. In NPV Scheduler
several products can be defined.
For creation the ultimate pit and the optimum ex­
traction sequence the following economical settings
have been defined:
( 1)
10 - annual lignite output - 25 Mio tons
- annual discounting - 8%
- price reduction for the first phase - 90%.
218
3.2 Price sensitivity analysis
The start point of the pit design was the analysis of
sensitivity of the ultimate pit to cost-price variations.
Cost has been kept constant while the calculated
maximum (basic) price (56 zloty/ton) has been
raised twice (to the maximum level 100 zloty/ton) to
obtain the economic model. The ultimate pit has
been generated with set of 35 nested pits (phases ) -
ultimate pits for reduced basic price. The first phase
has been generated for 70% of price reduction. Re­
sults are presented of figures 2-5.
For the basic price reduced to 30-55% of the
maximum price, the lignite resources grow rapidly, -Maximum price CashFlow -Actual price CashFlow
while above the 55% level the growth is very slow.
The actual price cash flow shows the real value Fig. 4. The cash flow comparison for lignite resources of nested
changes with regard to changing the basic price. pits. The cash flow is calculated for the maximum and reduced
price (annotated on the chart)

3.3 Ultimate pit

For the next steps of optimisation the basic price has
been set again to the value calculated from the for­
mula (56 zloty/ton). All other settings have not been
changed. The ultimate pit with 11 nested phases and
12730 sequenced mining blocks has been generated.
The perspective view of the ultimate is shown on
figure 5.

Y
30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

percentage of basic price

Fig. 2. The mineable lignite resources in nested pits as a func­

tion o f basic lignite price. The cash flow comparison calculated
for the maximum price 1OOzloty/ton

Fig. 5. The perspective view of the ultimate pit from West to

East with the visible deepest part in the Eastern part.

The NPV Scheduler generates results very

Fig. 3. The cash flow comparison for nested pits size. The cash
quickly. The above ultimate pit was generated in
flow is calculated for the maximum and reduced price (anno­ about 50 seconds on the standard Pentium III
tated on the chart) 450MHz with 128 MB RAM.

219
4 PUSHBACKS GENERATION Push-backs; Incremental Chart Strip Ratio I

The ultimate pit is the basis for generation push-

backs. NPV Scheduler creates a practical series of
pushbacks (interim pits) which follow the optimum
sequence as closely as possible. Pushbacks runs can
be unconstrained, or, the user can define the size of
each pushback in term of tonnages and set other
mining constraints like minimum distance between
pushbacks boundaries or depths limits.

4.1 Settings
Fig. 7. Stripping ratio changes in pushbacks
For creation pushbacks the minimum access space
has been set to 100 m. The pre-set size of pushbacks
is described in table 1.
Push-backs: Cumulative Chart — *— CashFlow (zl)j
O NPV (zl) I

Table 1. Pre-set pushbacks size in million tons

Pushback Minimum output of the pushbacks
No.___________ lignite_________ overburden_____
1 0 200
2 35 120
3 and next 50 150

First two pushbacks have been prepared for

opening the pit and reaching the lignite. Next push-
backs represented the biennial pit advance as the an­ Fig. 8. The comparison between cash flow and NPV for gener­
nual lignite output has been set to 25 Mio tons. ated pushbacks. Exact values on Y axis are not revealed

4.2 Results
Following the settings, the 9 pushbacks have been
generated. The West-East section of the pushbacks is
shown on figure 6. The start point of mining is lo­
cated in the mid-west ultimate pit region and then
the pit is advanced to West and East. This requires a
special layout of excavation and transportation sys­
tem and - more important - makes the internal
dumping impossible for a long period of the mine
life-time.
The chart of stripping ratio changes is presented
on figure 7.
Figure 8 shows the relative difference between
cumulative cash flow and NPV for generated push-
backs. The exact values are not revealed as they are
not important here.
The obtained layout of pushbacks is just the entry
study. The real mining pushbacks should be very
carefully parameterised with regard to such technical
constraints like: available excavation equipment,
necessary access space, chosen direction of pit ad­
vance etc. The resulted pushbacks have to be then
examined to check whether they are possible to ad­
vance with the available mining machinery system.

5 LONG TERM SCHEDULE

The long term schedule is controlled by a user speci­

Fig. 6. The WE section of pushbacks boundaries; vertical exag­
geration applied
fied time flow, calendar, production and target pa­
rameters. Targets may be defined in terms of either
rates or ratios. Multi-parameters targets are allowed.
Targets can vary over the term of the schedule. The
optimiser attempts to find the optimal schedule that
meets all targets and maximises the project NPV. If
the exact solution cannot be found, targets can be
relaxed until a schedule is obtained.

220
5.1 Schedule settings Upper_complex (tonnes)
Lower_complex (tonnes)
Several runs of the scheduler module have been per­ Majn_comp[ex (tonnes)
formed for different targets and some of them have
failed. As a result of the price formula definition,
maximising the NPV also brings the optimisation of
the quality parameters.
The presented schedule has been created for the
following settings:
- time unit - one year
- output rate of the pit - 25 Mio tons (for the first 4
year period the output has been reduced twice)
- the number of pushbacks that can be mined si­ Fig. 10. Output of lignite through the lifetime of the optimal
multaneously - 2 schedule
- the target - overburden output rate (target value -
100 Mio tons with bounds 80-120 Mio tons).
The target has been set to achieve the uniform
total output rate. m QIR 50 (kcal/tonne)|

5.2 Results
The results of the schedule are presented on the fol­
lowing figures. The pit stages taken from the sched­
ule are shown on figure 9. When compare them with
pushbacks (fig. 6) it can be seen that for some peri­
ods the pit is advanced horizontally while for others
- is deepened with slower horizontal advance. Such
solution is possible for some periods of the mine Fig. 11. Changes of the averaged calorific value (kcal/kg) of
life-time. The period when the pit is deepened means lignite in the consecutive years of mining
that new mining faces are being opened and new ex­
cavation machines are installed.
The obtained schedule is the final step of the pit
optimisation. The results must then be investigated
and all other constraints must be checked. The NPV
Scheduler allows to perform much more sophisti­
cated pit optimisation process. Preparing the reliable
input data, especially cost data is the most important
issue.

Fig. 9. The WE section of pit stages at every 4 years; vertical

exaggeration applied
6 CONCLUDING REMARKS

1 A study of implementation the newest software

On the figure 10 the mined lignite distribution on
coal complexes is presented. The quality parameters
of lignite from the main coal complex are higher
than those from upper and lower complexes. Blend­
ing the lignite from all three complexes allows to
maintain the required parameters (see fig. 11) and to
utilise the poorer lignite.
The in-pit blending can be achieved with the use
short- and medium term scheduling available in
DATAMINE (Lapworth 1996).
solutions for pit optimisation has been made upon
the geological data of a large lignite deposit.
2 The effective pit design using the pit optimisation
methods requires a significant amount of data and
careful analysis of each step of optimisation.
3 The optimisation solution offered by NPV Sched­
uler provides an easy step by step approach with
user defined and controlled set of parameters.
4 Current software tools together with the newest
hardware capabilities have made the sophisticated
methods available for performing the effective pit
optimisation upon the basis of large and compli­
cated deposits.

221
REFERENCES

Blaschke W., 1998, Problems o f lignite prices with regard to

pricing foundations of coal for power engineering, Pro­
ceedings o f the session o f the Mining Committee o f the
Polish Academy o f Sciences, Krakow - Belchatow (in Pol­
ish)
Earthworks NPV Scheduler Tutorial, 1998
Jurdziak L, Kawalec W., 2000, Optimisation of the pit based on
the price of lignite and quality requirements for the
"Szczercow" deposit, Vll Conference Proc.: The Exploita­
tion o f Mineral Resources, Zakopane 2000 (in Polish)
Keller Ch.,1998, Innovative Coal Blending System at the
LAUBAG Nochten Opencast Mine, Metals, Mining and
More 2/98.
Lapworth A.D., 1996, Scheduling using optimisation and
blending. Mining Magazine, February 1996
Mastoris J., Topuz E., Karamis M., Schilizzi P., Modis K.,
1994, An application o f geostatistical modeling and 3-D
optimisation of the final pit limits for a lignite deposit. Mine
Planning and Equipment Selection, 1994 Balkema, Rotter­
dam.
Specylak J., Borowicz A., Slusarczyk G., Kawalec W., 1996,
Preliminary assessment of Belchatow lignite ba-
sin/Szczercow field with use of computer technique, Gor-
nictwo Odkrywkowe No. 3, Wroclaw 1996 (in Polish)
Specylak J., Kawalec W., 1998, Modelling of the final pit of a
lignite deposit with the use of Lerchs - Grossmann optimi­
sation algorithm, VI Conference Proceedings.- The Exploi­
tation o f Mineral Resources, Zakopane (in Polish)
Specylak J., Kawalec W., 1999, Open pit design upon the
digital model of a lignite deposit. Proceedings o f the Con­
ference: Optimisiation o f mining with the use of informat­
ics, Turow, (in Polish)
Srinivasan S., Whittle D., 1996, Combined Pit and Blend Op­
timisation, SME Annual Meeting, Phoenix, Arizona -
March 11-14,
Tolwinski B., Golosinski T.S., 1995, Long term open pit
scheduler. Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, 1995
Balkema, Rotterdam.

222
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Indices o f m ineral raw materials use by different technological processes

B. R. Rakishev & E. B. Rakishev

Kazak National Technical University named by K. Satpaev, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Zh.R.Imashev
JSC 'Karagailinsky GOK\ Karagaily, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT: Almost all the deposits of Kazakhstan mining-metallurgical complex (MMC) are the multi-
component ones. Their ores contain large enumeration of very important metals and non-metals. Complete
use of the last ones is the urgent problem of MMC. Its solving envisages making a careful study of the
deposits' geology, ensuring of the most complete excavation of reserves and extraction of all useful
components from mineral raw materials (MRM). For impartial assessment of MRM complex use it is
necessary to have information about the quantitative indices of MRM treatment by the different technological
processes. The coefficient of effective use (CEU) of MRM is considered as such index. It is ratio of the
usefully utilizing part of MRM at the considered stage of processing to its full mass (volume) before
treatment.

1 DISCUSSION AND NEW OBSERVATIONS
Always the questions of minerals deposits' complex
use and maximum possible utilization of useful
components, processing industry waste products had
been uppermost in the minds of the outstanding
soviet scientists - academicians K.I. Satpaev, N.V.
Melnikov, V.V. Rzhevsky and others.
So, in 1962 academician K.I. Satpaev had taken
notice of fact that "almost all the major deposits of
non-ferrous metals of Kazakstan are the multi-
component ones and their ores contain large
enumeration of very important metals and non-
metals. Complete use of the last ones is the urgent
problem in non-ferrous metallurgy of Republic and
the country. Its solving envisages knowledge in
details of ores' geology and geochemistry, ensuring
of the most complete excavation of reserves from
the entrails, working out of the effective
technological methods of ores treatment, allowing
total and complex utilization of all the useful
components in ore raw materials" [Satpaev, 1962].
Academician N.V. Melnikov had underlined that
"the deposits complex use includes careful
excavation of all containing minerals and maximum
possible utilization of stripping rocks, waste
products of concentrating mills, thermoelectric
power stations, chemical and metallurgical plants"
[Melnikov, 1992].
In academician V.V. Rzhevsky opinion "by the
present state of mining technology and technics only
in the entrails more than half of registered mineral
raw material is lost. Very small amount of useful
product is retained in worked and excavated mining
rocks: only 1-2 % of iron from iron-containing ores
and more less from non-ferrous ores. All the rest
turns to dumps, sediments, tails and other waste
products and pollutes the environment.
Completeness and complexness of minerals
utilization assumes especially great importance as
the quality of extracted raw material becomes
worse" [Rzhevsky, 1991].
In mining - technical literature there are no
trustworthy methods of estimation of extracting
minerals effective utilization by the different
processes of their treatment. For taking into account
completeness and complexness of MRM use it is
necessary to have the information about the
quantitative and qualitative indices of MRM
treatment. Such indices will allow to estimate
impartially the results of the enterprises activity by
technical, technological and organizing
accompaniment of measures, directed at the more
complete utilization of MRM.
As the searched ones the comparatively easy -
measurable technological, value, technics-
economical or other criterions may be considered.
All of them are constructed at the base of taking into

223
account transformation degree (in the quantitative
expession) of minerals by the treatment process.
Such state of minerals is characterized impartially
only by the coefficient of MRM effective use just as
generally accepted in physics and technics the
coefficient of efficiency of machinery, engines, etc.
By analogy with this conception the CEU of
MRM is the ratio of the usefully utilizing part of
MRM at the considered stage of processing to its
full mass (volume) before treatment. With good
reason this value may be called also as the
coefficient of MRM complex use, because it reflects
well enough the completeness level and
complexeness of extraction of all the useful
components from minerals output, the volume of
utilization of mining-metallurgical industry waste
products (stripping and containing barren rocks, the
concentration tails, slags, dusts, clinkers and other
waste products of the metallurgical plants).
Naturally, the coefficient of effective use of
MRM is different for the different stages of
treatment, because the MRM volumes, conditions
and technologies of its treatment are not identical.
We had shown at the work [Rakishev, Rakishev,
Bitimbaev, 1996] that initial and ultimate production
at the stages of extraction, concentration and
metallurgical repartition represented as:
M p = 8 p |; i n i ,
i=l i=l
Mk = = E pS yiekiiH i
i=l i=l
H n = ¿ H n i = epSyie^e^in:^ (1)
where M^ is ore mass in the contour of the balance
reserves; Mp - mass of ore, extracted from entrails;
Mk - mass of all the concentrate (concentrates); Mki
- mass of the i-th useful component in the
concentrate; Mm - mass of all the ultimate
production (metals); Mmi - mass of the i-th ultimate
production (metals); mi - mass of the i-th
component in the balance reserve; n - the number of
all the components, including rocks in the reserve’s
volume; 8p - the coefficient of mineral extraction
from entrails; 8y = 1 - 8’y, 8’y - the coefficient of
lump rock removal from ore mass; 8ki - the
coefficient of the i-th component extraction from ore
into the concentrate; 8mi - the coefficient of i-th
component extraction from the concentrate into
metal; p - the number of useful components.
224
extracting from ores into the concentrate; q - the
number of useful components, extracting from the
concentrate into metal.
At the present level of development of mineral
processing technics and technology always the next
inequality takes place:
n> p>q (2)
Under existent technologies of ores extraction
and processing: Sp = 0,5-0,97 (the lower limit - by
underground deposits exploitation, the higher limit -
by open-pit mines), Sy = 0,8-0,5 (e’y = 0,2-0,5), 8ki
=0,4-0,98, 8mi =0,80-0,98. For barren rocks and the
components, which are not extracted at the given
execution from ore and also from the concentrate,
correspondingly 8ki = 0, 8mi = 0, all of them goes to
tails and waste products.
Total mass of effectively used mineral raw
material and waste products of MMC by extraction,
concentration and metallurgical repartition
correspondingly can be represented as:
n r
i= i j=i
Mp = e p S y is y U ij + ^
<p=i
M m = ep ey iskiS m irni + ’ (3)
i=l n=l
where mj is mass of the j-th type of barren rocks
(BR), extracted from entrails; 1 - the number of all
the types of BR; r - the number of the used types of
BR; TCj - the use coefficient of the j-th type of BR;
m<p - mass of the cp-th type of concentration waste
products (CWP), including the removed lump rock;
f - the number of the used types of CWP; Tiq, - the
use coefficient of the (p-th type of CWP; m^ - mass
of the p-th type of waste products of metallurgical
repartition (MR); t - the number of the used types of
MR waste products; - the use coefficient of the p-
th type of MR waste products.
The coefficient tij, n^p, 7i^ are very low and not
exceed 0,10.
According to the afore-cited definition the
searched coefficients of mineral raw material
effective use - the technological criterions of
minerals complex use by extraction, concentration
and metallurgical repartition correspondingly can be
calculated by formulas:
 n r increase the value Emi and the fields of stripping
epIm i+lT ijU ij rocks use, i.e. the number r. The revision of
i=l j=l conditions at mineral on account of creation and
^ 8 = — ;;--------------------7’ introduction of treatment new technologies, and also
Ë iH i + i m j
i= i j= i
on accoimt of a series of another circumstances,
favours transfer of share of the beyond-balance
reserves into the balance ones and, therefore, it
i=l_______ (p^ promotes the increase of Emi.
Tlo=- n At the process of mining-extracting works it is
S p e v E n ii necessary to ensure the completeness of minerals
i=l extraction from entrails, i.e. to increase the
coefficient 8p at the expense of application of the
S p e y is k iS ^ n ii + S ti ir v effective and non-traditional technologies of
i=l U=1
llm = - (4) extraction of major, passing and bedding jointly
with them useful components; to provide separate
EpGy f Ekil^i
i=l storing, keeping and stock-taking of the passingly
extracted, temporary non-using useful components
The resulting coefficient of MRM effective use and stripping rocks also; to broaden the fields of
by the mining-metallurgical complex as a whole is stripping rocks use (r and tcj) in the different branchs
determined from the expression: of the National economy, especially in the building
industry.
q r f t At the stage of ore preparation it is necessary to
realize the effective ways of the ore stream
assortment in the transport capacities or on the
^ (5)
conveyor at the technological types and kinds with
lump rock removal from it in form of road- metal
i=l j=l and other passing production. It will increase the
coefficient e’y and decrease the quantity Sy, and so it
will improve ore mass preparation for concentration.
All the quantities, using at the dependences (4) In the process of crushing and crumbling ore may
and (5), are at the geological, technical and undergo a various treatment, promoting its effective
statistical reports of the enterprises of MMC or may
concentration, i.e. increase of p, Ski.
be determined at the base of specially carried out
So long as all ores of non-ferrous and rare metals
investigations. As is obvious, all the technologies of
are complex, their extraction into the marketable
geological-prospecting, mining-extracting,
concentrates at the major technological line of
concentrating and metallurgical productions,
concentration is unreal. It demands erection and
providing for raising of completeness and
functioning of the several technological schemes of
complexness of mineral raw material use, consist in
ore or collective concentrate treatment, which
increase of the number n.
promotes the coefficient 8ki increase. In the case of
The formulas (4) analysis shows that for the
impossibility of initial concentrates extraction the
rational exploitation of entrails and complex use of
mineral aggregates must be sent to metallurgical
mineral raw materials at the stage of geological
prospecting works, it is necessary to raise the repartition, which increases the coefficients 8ki and
completeness and trustworthiness of geological 8mi and rushes number q to number p.
survey of the deposit, to determine more thoroughly At the cycle of metallurgical repartition it is
the material composition of the balance reserves of expedient to create the additional productions,
major and bedding with them minerals and of the providing extraction of all the usefiil components
components they contain, to research the from the concentrate, which promotes increase of
technological properties of ores, the physics- the coefficient 8mi and the number q.
mechanical and agrochemical properties of stripping
rocks. 2 CONCLUSIONS
The trustworthy geological-technological
information about quality and volume of mineral 1. Mineral raw material complex use by the
and containing rocks allows to broaden the spectrum different technological processes of treatment is
of the useful components in entrails (n), therefore, to characterized more completely and impartially by

225
the coefficient of effective use - the ratio of the
usefully utilizing part of raw material at the
considered stage of processing to its total mass
before treatment.
2. MRM CEU is different for the different stages
of treatment, because raw material volumes,
conditions and technologies of its treatment are not
identical.
3. The proposed criterions of MRM effective use
estimation intercommunicate its initial data with the
technological indices of treatment (Sp, Ski, Cmi, tij, 7i(p,
Tip, etc.).
4. The structure of the proposed formulas for the
MRM CEU calculation reveals the ways for
improvement of the mineral raw material use indices
by the different processes of treatment; the more
perfect technologies of geological prospecting,
mining, concentrating and metallurgical
productions, the more higher CEU of MRM.

REFERENCES

Satpaev K.I. 1962, Investigations of Academy

Sciences of Kazakstan for complex use of non-
ferrous metals ores. Vestnik AN KazSSR, Jfol2,
Alma-Ata, p.p. 3-11.
Melnikov N.V. 1992, Selected works: The state and
problems of development of mining science and
technics in the USSR. M., Nauka, 230 p.
Rzhevsky V.V. 1991, The problems of mining
industry and complex of mining sciences. M.,
Ladjya, 244 p.
Rakishev B., Rakishev E., Bitimbaev M. 1996,
Technological ensuring of rational use of mineral
resources // Mine Plaiming and Equipment
Selection, p.p. 153-157.

226
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

G eostatistical analysis and interpretation o f the geotechnical properties

o f rock m assif, Ceará State, Brazil

E.N. Santos, TR.Gopinath & A. A. Lima

Departamento de Mineragào e Geologia ICCT, Universidade Federal da Paraiba, Campiña Grande, Brazil

ABSTRACT: The rock massif on which the Castanhao dam is being built is composed of Precambrian
metamorphic rocks intruded by igneous rocks. This formation is represented by three stratigraphic units and
they are gneissic-migmatitic complex, Ceara Group and alluvial cover. Geostatistical techniques were utilized
to analyze and characterize this rocky complex from the data obtained from the samples such as core recovery,
RQD, and water loss tests. Variogram modeling of these three variables was carried out considering the values
determined through the rotating drill holes. The frequency distribution of the data tend to be skewed.
Variographic analysis showed the presence of a good structures. For smaller sample pair distances the variance
do not vary much but for higher distances a clear spatial continuity and correlation of the variables can be
observed. Geologically variation of the geotechnical properties in gneissic-migmatitc terrains over short
distances tend to be minimum .

1 INTRODUCTION

Rio Jaguaribe’s drainage basin dominates the half of

the territory of the state of Ceará, Northeast Brazil
covering an area of 72.000 km2, and its water
resources constitute an important source for
economic and social development in the region. The
rational administration of these resources will be
decisive to lessen the effects of the long drought
periods, which known as Castanhao was undertaken
and a detailed geotechnical studies was made of the
country rocks occur periodically causing economic
and social problems. With these problems in mind
construction of a dam, which included drill-hole
planning, coring, and measurements of the variables
like Rock Quality Designation (RQD), core
percentage recovery, and water loss.( Araújo, 1997;
Aguasólos, 1997; Geonorte, 1997). The purpose of
this study is to analyze these variables by
geostatistical methods to discover their spatial
correlation and variability in the study area to help
define a better drill-hole planning and to test the
behavior of the variables to the geostatistical
methods and techniques.
2. GEOLOGY AND LOCATION OF THE STUDY
AREA
Castanhao and its reservoir is located in the State of
Ceará, Northeast Brazil embracing the municipal
districts of High Saint, Jaguaretama, Jaguaribara
and Jaguaribe river bed. The main axis of the dam
is being built in the Jaguaribe, approximately for
5,7km southwest of the town of Castanhao, about
253km from the capital Fortaleza (Fig 1).
The regional geology is composed of
Precambrian metamorphic formations intruded by
basic and acid dyke rocks. This rock sequence is
represented by following formations from base to
top: Gneissic - Migmatitic Complex of Lower
Precambrian composed essentially of gneissic and
magmatic rocks with intercalated amphibolites.

227
 Recovery RQD
schists, quartzites and ultrabasics. This unit is more D epth,rn bn|HnlEnl«nliDDl
common and widespread in the study area. Group
Ceara composed of metasedimentary rocks such as
quartzites, limestones, phyllites and calcosilicate
64.1
rocks overlie the gneissic-migmatitic complex rocks.
ea.7

2.1 Methodology
:

The exploratory drilling was made to identify the 7BJ0

basement rock surface in the Jaguaribe riverbed, to

identify possible occurrences of depressions and eod

Paleo-Channels,to map and identify the 7H.1

characteristics of the alluvium and to determine the
nature of the foundation rock. These exploratory drill N1ERVWJ05 DE REOUPEMCAO E HOD

holes were made along the line where the damn is

being built in the Jaguaribe riverbed. The alluvial Figure 2. Vertical profile of drill holes with
sediments that occur in the riverbed is about 6m variations of the variables.
thick composed predominantly of sand, where the
upper portion is unconsolidated and at depth become
compact and well consolidated. The depth of the
basement rock surface detected by the drill holes
varies between 2.4 m to 6.8 m due to the presence of
thick sand bodies in the river bed and as well as due
to high topographic irregularity of the surface of the
basement rock. Data obtained from a total of 12 drill
holes were considered in this study. A vertical
profile of the 12 drill-holes considered make up a
sample grid, which resulted in a total of 95 data
points (Fig 2).

3. VARIOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS

3.1. Variable Core Percentage Recovery

Core Recovery X
A total of 96 data points were used and the average Figure 3. Histogram of the variable core recovery
core percentage recovery is 82,65%, which is
considered a good recovery, although the variance of 2400

518.92 is relatively high. The recovery tends to be 2000

low near the surface of the terrain due to weathering
1600
and increase at depths as can be expected in the
majority of the holes. The coefficient of variation is 1200

2,8%, showing that the core recovery variation 800

between the drill holes tend to fluctuate less. The 400

nature of distribution of core recovery data is

negatively skewed with high frequency
concentration toward high recovery (Fig 3).
Elaboration of variogram models was undertaken
with all the precautions and procedures necessary to
achieve a good model (Isaaks & Srivastava, 1989).
Average variogram in all directions using a window
of 90 degrees were computed for step size of 13 m
which did not result in a neither good structure nor
any continuity. Also varying the direction and
Figure 4. Omnidirectional variogram of core
recovery.
window did not improve the variogram model,
which showed lack of anisotropy. So variogram
development continued varying step sizes without
varying direction or window. After various tries an

228
omnidirectional variogram with reasonable good
structure was obtained for a step size of 20m and
90° window (Figure 4 ). For shorter pair distances
occur high variation and for distances above 80m
one can observe a fair continuity and correlation
among the samples. The range of influence fall in
the interval of 150 m. Numerous factors are known
to contribute to the core recovery and they included
defect in equipments, geological characteristics of
the rocks such as foliations, fractures, alterations
and others (Goodman, 1976).
RQD^
Figure 5. Histogram of the RQD
Figure 6. Omnidirectional variogram
of RQD
3.2 Variable rock quality designation (RQD)
The RQD values varies from 0% to 98% and has an
average of 36.05% with a variance of 740.85
calculated from 96 data points. This high variation is
also shown iix the coefficient of variation of 7.6. The
nature of distribution tends to be positively skewed
with a pronounced multimode in nature (Figure 5).
First variogram was elaborated considering all
directions, 90 degrees window and varying step
sizes, which resulted in structures not very clearly
229
defined. Due to this factor several attempts were
made to develop variogram, which can capture a
good structure and continuity of the variable varying
direction, window and step size. Omnidirectional
Variogram with acceptable structure was modeled at
step size of 20 m and 90° window (Figure 6). It
could be noted in this variogram that the continuity
and spatial correlation occur for pair distances above
100 m. The range of influence tends to be relatively
high falling in the range of 180 m. The RQD values
vary considerably from a minimum of 0.0% to a
maximum of 98.00% and its measurement is greatly
influenced not only rock properties but also by errors
committed during drilling. According to Bieniawski
(1974) the RQD between 25% to 50% considered
poor quality. The majority of the RQD values in the
study area are below 50% showing the poor quality
of the rock.
Figure 7. Histogram of the water Loss
100 200 300-
]>i s ta in c e
Figure 8. Omnidirectional variogram of
water loss.
Table 1. Statistical parameters of the variables
Variable Mean Variance Min/Max
Core 82.65 518.92 8% - 100%
Recovery
RQD 36.05 740.84 0% - 98%
Water Loss 25.35 1101.64 0% - 88%
Coefficient Skewness N. of Samples
of
Variation
Core Reco. 2.75 -1.76 96
RQD 7.54 0.37 96
Water Loss 13.0 0.98 96
3.3 Variable water loss
The nature of the distribution of the 96 water loss
data points has a tendency to be positively skewed
with a strong bimodal distribution with two distinct
groups in the intervals of 0-30 1/min and 60-90 1/min,
without any data in the interval of 30-60
1/min.(Fifure 7). This shows that the water loss is
either too low or too high in the drill holes as can
observed in the frequency distribution. Thus the
average water loss of 25.35 1/min and a variance of
1101.64 do not represent the true distribution (Table
1 ). It is for this reason the coefficient of variation of
13.1 is very high as compared to core recovery and
RQD. It is known that the rock massif passive to
water injection when the absorption is higher than
1.0 - 3.0 1/min/m/lO atm. The water absorption in
igneous-metamorphic rock massif occur through
fractures encountered in the rocks and is highly
variable from place to place depending on the
presence of open or closed fractures.
Variographic analysis was undertaken to
examine the spatial behavior of this variable. The
omnidirectional variogram for 90° window and step
size of 20 m resulted in a structure better than other
models. For smaller pair distances of up to 100 m
the variance between the samples is small with out
any continuity and for pair distances higher than
100 m spatial continuity and correlation could be
observed (Figure 8). The range of influence falls
around 180 m.
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The regionalized variables are generally analyzed
for spatial variations applying geostatistical
methods. In this work the variables such as Core
recovery, Rock Quality Design (RQD) and Water
loss obtained during basement rock investigation
for damn construction, were treated with
geostatistical methods. These variables reflect the
230
rock properties, which are natural phenomenon.
However the variables are computed based on the
rock properties and there by altering characteristics
of a pure regionalized variable.
It was noted from the type of distribution that the
variables tend to have a lognormal distribution,
although their quantitative measures vary between a
minimum of zero to maximum of almost 100%.
Variograms of the variables showed existence of
spatial continuity and correlation, which are evident
for sample pair distances of 200 m or higher.
The rock characteristics such as fractures,
foliations, texture and others that influence the
variables are generally of regional in nature or their
variations can be detected only for grater distances
and rarely for short distances due to the regional
tectonism and deformations. This aspect is reflected
in the variogram where the behavior at the origin
doesn’t show any correlation or continuity for all
three variables. Due to this reason rock massif
apparently behaves like a homogeneous body for
shorter distances or locally.
A very high variation of RQD can be attributed to
the fact that the rock body is composed of vein
filled small fractures, very high variation in rock
types and less efficient operational procedures. It is
for these reasons in the intervals where core
recovery is good the RQD tend to by poor and thus
no exist a perfect correlation between these two
variables.
On the other hand water loss also vary to a great
extent within and among the drill holes in the area.
This is due to high variability in the lithology and
structure of the rocks in the study area. It is
believed that analysis of the variables such as core
recovery, RQD and water loss for larger areas or
regions gives better variographic pictures. In the
igneous and metamorphic terrains it is very difficult
to detect short distance or local variations in
fractures, joint planes and petrographic properties of
rocks.
It could be concluded that the variographic analysis
of the geotechnical properties of rocks which are
regional or spatial variables, when analyzed with
geostatistics yield informations regarding spatial
variation, spatial continuity and estimates of the
variables. With these data in hand one could plan
better the spacing and distribution of drill holes and
make estimates of the variables where data is
lacking. It was shown in this investigation that in the
gneissic and granitic rocky terrain in the study area
the variables RQD, core recovery and water loss do
not vary with direction.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We like to acknowledge the CAPES-Cordenagao de

Aperfie9oamento de Pessoal de Nivel Superior,
Government of Brazil, for post-graduate scholarship
to one of the authors.

REFERENCES

Araújo, M. Z. T. 1997. Barragem do Castanhao -

Projeto e aspecto de construgào. I Forum
interamericano de gestao dos recursos hídricos,
p. 21. Fortaleza.
Aguasólos / hidroterra. \991 ,Relatório dos servigos
geotécnicos complementares. 09 p. Fortaleza.
Bieniawski, Z.T 1974. Geomechanics classification
rock masses and its application in tunneling.
Proc. Cong. ISRM, Denver V2A, p27.
Deere, D. V. \916.Dams on rock foundations -
some design questions. Rock engineering for
foundations and slopes. Proc.spe confi On geot.
Eng. Division, Asce Bonder, Colorado, voi 2, p.
55-86.
Geonorte - 1997. Engenharia de solos e fundagdes
ltda. Apresenta9ao do relatório dos servÍ90s
geotécnicos na barragem do castanhao, em alto
santo,Ceará. Fortaleza, 1997, p. 01/05, anexo A,
des. 01, anexo D, des. 71 ao 88, anexo F des. 92
ao 131.
Goodman, R. E. 1976. Methods of geological
engineering in discontinuous rocks. West
Publishing Company, 472p.
Isaaks E. H & Srivastave, R.M 1989.. An
introduction to applied geoestatistic. Oxford
Univ. Press, 59Ip

231
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A statistical approach to the thermogravimetric characteristics

o f Turkish coals

C.Sensogut, O.S.Yildirim, I.Cinar & A.H.Ozdeniz

Department of Mining Engineering, University of Selguk, Turkey

ABSTRACT: A number of physical features of coal can be determined as the function of temperature through
the methods of thermal treatment applied to coal itself. The most common techniques encountered in litera­
ture on this matter is differential thermal analysis, thermogravimetric analysis and differential thermogra­
vimetric analysis. In this work, the thermogravimetric behavior and physicochemical characteristics of some
Turkish coals have been defined. Additionally, the relationship between these characteristics of the coal sam­
ples has also been given in a statistical manner.

1 INTRODUCTION curring is determined by means of thermal analy­

By the application of thermal processes to coals,
some physical properties of them can be ascer­
tained. Objective of these works is to define the
loss of moisture and the decrease in weight to­
gether with the temperature of reaction and the
phase transformation caused by thermal energy
(Sutcu et al., 1999). Standard methods commonly
used to determine the thermal characteristics of
coal are differential thermal analysis (DTA),
thermo-gravimetric analysis (TG) and differential
thermo-gravimetric analysis (DTG). In order to
utilize these methods for coals, the conditions
given below should be realized (Kucukbayrak,
1998):
• a physical feature of the coal should be meas­
ured,
• this measurement should be directly or indi­
rectly of significance as a function of temperature,
• the temperature should be increased with a
control during the measurement.
In this work, the thermogravimetric behavior
and physicochemical characteristics of coal sam­
ples taken from ten different collieries in Turkey
were defined. Additionally, the relationship be­
tween these characteristics of the coal samples was
also statistically given.
2 DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS
In this method, difference between the tempera­
tures of coal samples and oven (AT) is recorded,
then the endothermic and exothermic reactions oc­
sis curves. Taking the areas under the peaks of
these curves into consideration, heats of reaction
given off and absorbed can be calculated.
The fields in which DTA can offer useful in­
formation on the behavior of coals can be summa­
rized as follows (Pope & Jude, 1977; Kucukbay­
rak, 1998):
• estimation of coal age,
• carbonization under different conditions,
• determination of the mineral content of coals,
• melting points of the mineral content of coals,
• pyrolysis of coal,
• hydrogenation of coal,
• determination of ignition temperature,
• liability to spontaneous combustion,
• phase transformation of mineral contents of
coal,
• ignition curve,
• liquefaction of coal and
• heat in endothermic and exothermic reactions.
3 THERMOGRAVIMETRIC (TG) ANALYSIS
In the analysis of thermogravimetry, change in the
weight of coal samples is recorded as the function
of time or temperature while the samples are
cooled/heated in nitrogen atmosphere at constant
velocity. By the use of the curves obtained through
TG tests, the effect of temperature on the change of
sample weights can be determined. Therefore, the
reactions resulting in the loss of weight in coal
samples can conscientiously be obtained by TG
method (Karatepe & Kucukbayrak, 1992).

233
4 DIFFERENTIAL THERMOGRAVIMETRIC these values with the physicochemical features of
(DTG) ANALYSIS the coal samples are illustrated in Appendix 2.
In this method of thermal analysis, the first order
derivative function of the weight loss occurring 6 CONCLUSION
due to the gradual increase in temperature is real­
ized. The area under the curves obtained by this The results obtained from the experimental and
way shows the total weight change. statistical evaluation carried out on different Turk­
ish coal samples are given below:
• Significant weight loss under the thermal proc­
5 SPECIFICATIONS FOR TG TESTS ess temperature of 500°C was observed for the coal
sample 1 while the least was perceived for the
STA 429/3/6 model of Netsch firm is the apparatus sample 5.
used for TG experiments and working between the • Significant weight loss above the thermal treat­
ranges of 25-1600°C. Physical and chemical ment temperature of 500°C was recorded for the
changes occurring in solid matters by means of coal sample 6 while the least was determined for
heat can be ascertained using this apparatus. the sample 7.
Analysis of moisture (M (%)), volatile matter • From the curves obtained for weight change, the
(VM (%)), fixed carbon (FC (%)), ash (A (%) and coal samples 4 and 6 have similar TG curves while
total sulphur (TS (%)) of lignite and bituminous the samples 8 and 10 show similarity for TG.
coal samples taken from ten different collieries of • Change in the particle size of the coal samples
Turkey was determined by gravimetric methods significantly affected the loss of weight under the
(Table 1). thermal treatment temperature of 500°C while no
effect was detected above the temperature of
500°C.
No
C o llie r y H
-1 0 6
M A VM FC TS LCV
a a
• Fixed carbon content of the coal samples had no
lim r 2“
effect statistically on the loss of weight above the
1
E rtnenek
1 3 ,8 4 ,8 4 0 ,7 4 0 ,3 1,3 4968 4,6 1,5 temperature of 500°C while it was effective under
lig n ite s 1
the temperature of 500°C.
2 A y d in lig . 1 3 ,9 2 7 ,6 3 1 ,4 2 4 ,7 2 ,4 3333 4,1 1,5
• Total sulphur content of the coal samples af­
3 O k u lig . 1 6 4 ,4 4 ,4 2 7 ,8 3 7 ,4 2 7 ,9 3 ,7 4638 2,8 1,4
fected the loss of weight under the temperature of
4 O k u lig . 2 3 7 ,9 91 1,4 2 5 ,0 4 6 ,3 2 5 ,6 1,7 5038 3,4 1,4
500°C while no effect was surveyed above the
5
A sm a bit.
5 1 ,2 6 3 ,2 2,1 5 ,2 3 4 ,2 5 8 ,2 0 ,7 7791 1.4 1,5
temperature of 500°C.
co a l • Lower calorific value of the coal samples had a
6 GLI 6 5 ,1 5 9 ,2 1 2 ,0 2 2 ,5 3 8 ,3 2 6 ,8 1,3 4256 3,2 1,6 linear effect on the weight loss above the tem­
L ig n ite s perature of 500°C.
7 O k u lig . 3 6 3 ,3 4 7 ,2 1,7 5 ,5 5 8 ,7 3 2 ,6 1,6 6089 4,1 1,2 • Finally, volatile matter content of the samples
8
E rm en ek
4 9 ,8 6 6 ,9 3 ,8 6 ,2 6 0 ,5 2 8 ,3 1,2 5339 4,2 1.5
had also linear effect on the loss of weight above
lig n ite s 2 the temperature of 500°C.
9 E L I lig n ite s 5 8 ,2 5 3 ,2 10,1 2 0 ,1 4 4 ,4 2 4 ,9 0 ,9 4108 3,5 1,4

10 O A L lig ­ 5 0 ,1 8 0 ,9 1 9 ,9 2 2 ,3 3 9 ,5 1 5,7 4 ,4 3625 4,1 1,6

n ite s REFERENCES
H - Hardness (shore), LCV - lower calorific value (Kcal/kg)
Karatepe, N. & Kucukbayrak, S. 1992. Devolatilization be­
100 mg coal sample ground under 106 pm was haviour of lignites. J. of Heat Science and Technique,
VoL 15, No. 1, March, 27-33.
heated in nitrogen atmosphere with a heating rate Kucukbayrak, S. 1998. Thermal analysis of coal. Specifica­
of 10°C/min for each TG test. Before the achieve­ tions, Technology and Environmental Features of Coal,
ment of the experimental work, gas of nitrogen O.Kural (edi), Ozgun Pub. Co., Istanbul, 113-125.
was fed through the system for 15 minutes to clear Pope, M.I. & Judd, M.D. 1977. Differential thermal analysis.
up the original atmosphere. From the results ob­ Coal and Related Carbonaceous Materials, Hyden and
Son Ltd., ISBN 0 85501 2293, 114-123.
tained for these tests, TG curve for each sample Sutcu, H., Yakar, I, Gulen, J. & Piskin, & S. 1999. Efffect of
was drawn (Appendix 1). Main deviation point of physical methods to quality and thermal properties of
the curves is around the temperature of 500°C coal. Cong, of Heat Science and Technique, Sakarya,
which is the median temperature value of the 757-761.
weight loss. Therefore, the curves are evaluated as
two parts (± 500°C). Inclination of these two parts
were defined and their values were digitized and
given in Table 1. As the values digitized charac­
terize the TG curve, the statistical evaluation of

234
Appendix 1. TG curves of the coal samples

60

235
Appendix 2. Statistical relationships between
thermogravimetric and physicochenucal specifi­
cations of the coal samples

y = -4E-05x3 + 0,0057x2 - 0,3 015x + 8,5694

y = 3 E - 0 6 x ’ - 0,0011x'' + 0,1464x2 - 9,6472x2
+ 3 12 , 86 x - 3 98 9, 9
R2 = 0 , 5 2 5 7

y = 0 , 0 0 0 2 x 2 - 0 , 0 2 4 5 x 2 + i , 2 5 16x - 19 , 3 5 2
R2 = 0 , 3 6 2 2 \ ♦
oc2° y = - 2 E - 0 7 x 2 + 5E-05X-' - \ \ /
0,0069x2 + 0,4342x2
13,28 1X + 159,68
R2 = 0 , 9 8 8

40 60
H a r d n e s s (S h o r e )
- 1 0 6 jLun

y = 3 E -05x‘ - 0,00 2 1 x ’ + 0,0525x“ - 0,6462x

+ 3,89x2 . i o , 2 2 5 x + 1 1,841 y = -0,0015x2 + 0.0407X + 3,4069
R2 = 0 , 4 0 8 7 R2 = 0 , 0 0 6 9
4.5
4
cxI“
3.5
3
es 2.5 y = -0,0002x2 + 0,0088x2 . o,127x + 1,8794
2 R2 = 0 , 1 6 1 3
1.5
y = -3E- 05X'' + 0 , 0 0 1 2 x 2 . o,0 1 7 8 \ 2 + 0 , 1 1 2 2 x 1
+ 1,2246 R2 = 0 , 4 6 2 0.5

M o istu r e , '
A sh , '

y = O . O O O l x “* - 0 , 0 1 8 6 x 2 + 1 , 2 3 4 9 x 2 . 3 5 , g 4 2 x y = - 0 . 1 1 7 5 x 6 + 2 . 3 4 3 1 x 2 . i 7 , 6 7 5 x “ +6 4, 8 7 8 x 2
5 5
+ 386,1 R2 = 0 , 3 2 8 2 - 122 ,2 7 x2 + 1 1 2 , 13x - 3 5 , 2 4 5 R2 = 0 , 8 5 6 4
4.5 4.5
A*

ej 2,5
2 -
1.5 - 1.5

y = 9E- 09X* - 2E- 06X* + 0 , 0 0 0 2 x “ - 0,0 1 5 1 x 2

1 = 0,0 782x2 . o,9
5 2 3 x “ + 4, 2 7 4 1 x 2 . 8,6 6 4 1 x
+ 0,5366x2 - 10,322x + 84,138 R2 = 0 , 8 8 2 3 0.5 + 7,7806x - 0,979 R2 = 0 , 3 4 7 6

20 40 60

V o la tile m atter, % T o ta l sulphur, '

y = -5E-06X“ + 0,0004x2 - 0,0047x2 . o,2304x = - 8 E - 2 0 x 6 + 3 E - 1 5 x 2 - 4 E - l l x ‘' + 3 E

5 - 0 7 x 2 - 0 , 0 0 1 1x 2 + 2 . 1 9 3 8 X - 1 8 5 4 , 6
+ 7,5806 R2 = 0 , 8 0 9 6
4.5

y = -6E-06x2 + 0,0009x2 . o,0443x + 2,0663 y = 2 E - 1 4 X “ - 4 E - 1 0 x 2 + 3 E - 0 6 x 2 - O.Ol x

R2 = 0 , 2 1 7 9 0,5 + 12, 972 R2 = 0 , 7 3 5
O
20 40 60 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

F ix e d c a r b o n , % L o w e r calorific valu e ( k c a l/k g )

236
3 G eotechnical stability in surface and underground m ines
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

LA M O D EL - A boundary elem ent program for coal m ine design

Z.Agioutantis
Department of Mineral Resources Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Mania, Greece
K.A.H easley
NIOSH Pittsburgh Research Laboratory, Pa., USA

ABSTRACT: LAMODEL 1.0 is a PC-based, boundary-element program for calculating the stresses and
displacements in coal mines or other thin, tabular seams or veins. This type of mine modeling software can be
used by mine design engineers in the industry to investigate and optimize the pillar sizes and pillar layouts in
relation to pillar stress, multi-seam stress and/or bump potential (energy release). This paper introduces the
latest version of the LAMODEL program and highlights the new windows-based, pre- and post-processors.

1 INTRODUCTION In order to analyze the displacements and stresses

Mine planners have a variety of modeling methods,
both empirical and numerical, available for analyz­
ing pillar stresses and determining safe pillar sizes
for various mine geometries and geologic structures.
Empirical methods emphasize the collection and in­
terpretation of case histories of pillar performance.
ALPS and ARMPS are two such empirical programs
which are derived from large databases of real-world
pillar studies and which can be used for determining
pillar sizes for single-seam longwall and retreat
room-and-pillar mining, respectively (Mark, 1993,
Mark & Chase, 1997). These empirical programs
are closely linked to reality and very user-friendly,
and for many "typical" mining geometries, they work
extremely well.
However, it is difficult to apply these empirical
programs to mining situations beyond the scope of
the original empirical data base. Therefore, when
complicated stress conditions arise from complex
single or multiple-seam mining geometries, numeri­
cal modeling techniques such as finite-element,
boundary-element, discrete-element, or finite-differ­
ence are usually applied. In general, these numeri­
cal, or analytical, design methods are derived from
the fundamental laws of force, stress and elasticity.
Their primary advantage is that they are very flexible
and can quickly analyze the effect of numerous geo­
metric and geologic variables on mine design. Their
primary disadvantage is that they require difficult-to-
obtain, and/or controversial, information about mate­
rial properties, failure criteria, and post-failure me­
chanics.
associated with the extraction of large tabular depos­
its such as coal, potash and other thin vein-type de­
posits, the displacement-discontinuity (DD) variation
of the boundary-element technique is frequently the
method of choice. In the displacement-discontinuity
approach, the mining horizon is treated mathemati­
cally as a discontinuity in the displacement of the
surrounding media. Using this technique, only the
planar area of the seam needs to be discretized, or
gridded, in order to obtain the stress and displace­
ment solution on the seam. Often, this limited anal­
ysis is sufficient, since in many practical applications
only the distributions of stress and convergence on
the seam horizon are of interest. Also, by limiting
the detailed analysis to only the seam, the DD
method provides considerable computational savings
over other techniques, which discretize the entire
body (such as finite-element, discrete-element or
finite-difference). It is a direct result of this compu­
tational efficiency that the DD method is able to
handle large areas of tabular excavations as needed
in many practical coal mining problems.
A displacement-discontinuity program incorpo­
rating a laminated media has recently been devel­
oped by the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH). This new program,
called LAMODEL, is designed for calculating the
stresses and displacements in coal mines or other
thin, tabular seams in layered media. In order to fa­
cilitate the transfer of the LAMODEL technology to
the mining industry for improving overall mine de­
sign, an intuitive, easy-to-use preprocessor,
LAMPRE, and postprocessor, LAMPLT, were de-

239
veloped. The LAMPRE program handles all of the
numerical parameter input and allows the mine plan
to be graphically entered into the program.
LAMPRE also has new material "wizards" for
greatly assisting the user in determining coal proper­
ties, gob properties and pillar yield zones. The new
postprocessor, LAMPLT, also uses an intuitive
graphical interface, and it allows the user to quickly
and easily plot and analyze the output data from the
numerical calculation phase of LAMODEL. Finally,
in order to demonstrate the utility of the program, an
actual multiple-seam case study, where the under­
ground stresses and displacements were calculated
by the LAMODEL, is presented. In this case study,
the model results are shown to correlate well with
field observations, and subsequently a calibrated
mine model is used to predict upcoming high stress
areas for preventive action by the mine.
2 LAMODEL
Traditional displacement-discontinuity programs use
a homogeneous isotropic elastic formulation which
simulates the overburden as one solid material. In
contrast, the LAMODEL program simulates the geo­
logic overburden stratifications as a stack of layers
with frictionless interfaces. Specifically, each layer
is homogeneous isotropic elastic and has the identi­
cal elastic modulus, Poisson's ratio, and thickness.
This "homogeneous layering" formulation does not
require specifying the material properties for each
individual layer and yet it still provides a realistic
suppleness to the mining overburden that is not pos­
sible with the classic, homogeneous, isotropic, elas­
tic overburden model. From our experience, this
suppleness provides a more accurate strata response
than a homogeneous overburden for modeling local
deformations, inter-seam interactions and/or surface
subsidence (Heasley & Barton, 1999, Heasley &
Chekan, 1999, Heasley & Salamon, 1996).
To utilize the LAMODEL program, the user must
input: the seam geometry, the seam orientation, the
stress field and the geologic material properties. Up
to 26 different in-seam materials from 5 different
material models (elastic, elastic-plastic, strain-soft­
ening, bilinear strain-hardening and exponential
strain-hardening) can be used in a model and the grid
size can be can be a maximum of 400 X 400. Once
the input is developed, the LAMODEL program cal­
culates the stresses and displacements at the seam
level and at requested locations in the overburden, or
at the surface. The program also has the ability to
analyze: 1) the interseam stresses resulting from
multiple-seam mining; 2) the effects of topographic
relief on pillar stress and gob loading; 3) the stress
changes during mining through multiple mining
steps and 4) the surface subsidence.
240
3 LAMPRE - THE PREPROCESSOR
In order to facilitate the transfer of the LAMODEL
technology to the mining industry for improving
overall mine design, the requirements on the occa­
sional user for data input need to be simplified as
much as possible. To this end, an intuitive, easy-to-
use preprocessor, LAMPRE, that allows the user to
quickly and easily enter both the required material
data and the necessary model geometric data was
initially developed. LAMPRE runs in the Windows
environment using an intuitive graphical user inter­
face with ample context-sensitive on-line help. The
preprocessor handles all of the numerical parameter
input and also allows graphical input of the material
codes for the seam grids. Most recently, a set of
"material wizards" for automatically calculating rea­
sonable coal and gob properties from typical values
was added to LAMPRE. These wizards greatly re­
duce the burden on the novice user of specifying the
essential material properties for the seam and gob.
A typical LAMPRE input form for parameters
values is shown in Figure 1 (in this case the form for
the "General Model Information"). In this form, the
input parameters are entered using either a text edit,
slider or radio button object, whichever is most
convenient. If help on the parameter is needed, sim­
ply pressing the "FI" function key, while the param­
eter is active, will open the appropriate help topic.
Also, the program checks the value of all of the input
parameters before they are saved to make sure that
they fall within reasonable prescribed ranges. Using
a number of these input forms, all of the geometric
and geologic parameters for the LAMODEL
program are easily entered.
Once the numerical parameters are entered, the
user then needs to define the geometry and material
of the pillars and openings in the seam grid. In
LAMODEL, the different materials are represented
I N<MÌeÌ
h,,y,P'-: 3
H iw it e ai In -S c a » N aîe iîa tf J iJ
; Numb«« ol Step» p | . .. J ;'/■y ^
y ,■ ;;y i'D *ft» e O W *S » a « P U w iii
Coitimi Î V. . " '—
- •
lAMÜDlL
‘ Ìy
H«lp
Figure 1: Typical parameter input form in LAMPRE.
by alphabetical "material codes" (A-Z), and openings
are represented by the character " 1". LAMPRE pro­
vides a graphical editor for creating and modifying
the various seam grids as shown in Figure 2. The
grid editor essentially works like a spreadsheet. Ma­
terial codes for individual cells may be set by click­
ing on a cell and then typing and entering an appro­
priate letter from A to Z. Blocks of cells may be
changed by clicking and dragging the mouse over a
range, and then typing and entering the material
code. Or, entire rows/columns may be selected and
changed using the row/column number. Also, a
block of cells may be copied and pasted (greatly sim­
plifying the creation of numerous pillars). Finally,
the grid editor allows for automatic yield zone gener­
ation based on materials that were automatically de­
fined using the coal property wizard (see below).
Coal Property Wizard
The coal property wizard is a new addition to
LAMPRE and is intended to simplify the tasks of
developing yielding coal properties and applying a
yielding coal zone around open areas. To simulate a
yield zone in LAMODEL, concentric rings of differ­
ent side and comer materials (Fig. 3) are used
against the openings, and the material properties are
set such that the pillar yields from the rib inward.
This type of yielding behavior matches that observed
in the field. In the last few years, a systematic tech­
nique for calculating these yielding coal properties
based on the Mark-Bieniawski’s coal strength for­
mula has been developed (Heasley, 1998). So, using
minimal parameters from the user, the new coal
property wizard calculates the appropriate properties
for the yielding coal elements and then (as explained
above) the grid editor properly inserts the material
codes into the material grids to simulate the yield
zone.
As shown in Figure 4, the necessary input for
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st<lut
n»wt m '**T”o fit»» n.nuail». ilon.
Col. \J¡ cr« ,„®*****”‘^
jJ L d CokjBM*
r w o CO ColWol r e D alai«C AMilr Y w U ¿ « e
B ??a
e ni
B f
B
isii:
Figure 2: Grid Editor in LAMPRE.
h-6Ew-^
2Ew h“
-1 ^ MSI KEY
A - Elastic Core Elem ent
(A) (B ) (C) 8 - Interiors Elem ent
C • Interiors C o rner Elem ent
-10E«----
D • lnterior2 Elem ent
E • lnterior2 C o rner Elem ent
F • In terio ri Elem ent
11 G - In terio ri C orner Elem ent
H • Rib Elem ent
h fd ba sbd ; I - Rib C orner Elem ent
ÍFDBASBD Ew - E lem ent width
(D) (E)
Figure 3: Schematic of yield zone created with
different material codes.
using the coal property wizard is: the "extraction
thickness" of the coal, the seam "element width",
(both of which are entered by the user in previous
parameter forms), the elastic "coal modulus", the
post-failure "plastic modulus", the ultimate "coal
strength", the "Poisson’s ratio" (each of which co­
mes with highly suggested default values), the
"number of (coal material) sets to be defined" and
the "number of yield zones per set" (which are deter­
mined by the user’s particular problem). So with
this minimum amount of input, the novice user can
quickly and easily generate yielding coal pillars
which will emulate the pillars strengths and yield
behavior as determined by the empirically tested
Mark-Bieniawski pillar strength formula.
Gob Property Wizard
Some of the most difficult-to-obtain items for a ca­
sual LAMODEL user are the gob properties. An
accurate model of the gob is critical to obtaining ac­
curate results form the model; however, gob proper­
ties are generally less well known than coal proper­
ties. The gob wizard is intended to simplify the task
of determining gob material properties and to allow
the casual user to obtain fairly accurate gob proper­
ties in the initial model run. To accurately simulate
lartUBbot Col.
V.
m•
Figure 4: Coal wizard input in LAMPRE.
241
the gob zone in LAMODEL, an exponential strain­
hardening behavior is generally most appropriate and
best matches that observed in the field (Pappas &
Mark, 1993); therefore, this is the material model
used by the gob property wizard. The wizard’s
technique for pre-calculating accurate gob properties
consists of determining a target level for the gob
stress (based on overburden and gob width), then
using the model parameters to approximately calcu­
late expected convergence, and finally back-calculat­
ing the gob properties that provide the desired gob
stress and convergence using a simplified two di­
mensional calculation.
The parameters that are used in the gob property
calculation are shown in the input form in Figure 5.
The first six parameters: the "elastic modulus of the
rock mass", the "Poisson’s ratio of the rock mass",
the "lamination thickness", the "seam thickness", the
"overburden depth"and the "vertical stress gradient"
are already available in the program from previous
input forms. The two mandatory parameters, the
"width of the gob area" and the expected "peak stress
on the gob" are the critical input to the gob property
calculation. The "width of the gob area" needs to be
input based on the model geometry and the "peak
stress on the gob" needs to be determined based on
measurements, back-calculation and/or engineering
intuition. The final four parameters: the "initial gob
modulus", the "upper limit stress for the gob", the
"gob height factor", and the "gob load ratio" are best
left at the default values for the novice user. Once
all of the input parameters are entered, the gob mate­
rial wizard makes an approximate calculation of the
"final modulus" for the exponentially-hardening gob
material so that the given gob stress is obtained with
the given overburden properties. This set of gob
properties should be reasonable for an initial model
run; however, the user should always check the gob
and abutment stress from the model and calibrate the
input properties to obtain reasonable results based on
measurement, observation or intuition.
Figure 5: Gob wizard input in LAMPRE
242
Once the input file is created, the LAMODEL nu­
merical analysis is run in the a batch mode for calcu­
lating the stress and displacements at the seam level.
Model runs can take several minutes to several days
depending on the computer speed and model com­
plexity (which includes such factors as; number of
steps, number of seams, and grid size). The output
from the calculation phase is stored in a data file for
subsequent analysis by the post-processing program,
LAMPLT.
4 LAMPLT - THE POST-PROCESSOR
The post-processing program for LAMODEL, called
LAMPLT, allows the user to quickly and easily plot
and analyze the tremendous amounts of output data
from the calculation phase of LAMODEL. With
LAMPLT, the user can interactively examine the
seam convergence and the vertical seam stress, and
the individual components of the seam stress from:
topography, multiple-seams and/or surface effects
These output values can be displayed using either a
pseudo 3-D "colored-square" plot (Fig. 6) or a 2-D
cross-section (Fig. 7). The program also allows
interactive selection of plot types, step numbers,
scaling and color. For additional output, LAMPLT
allows cut-and-paste of the graphics for input to
other reporting programs.
5 CASE STUDY
The case study site is a longwall mine located in
Greene County, Pa., USA, and operating in the
Sewickley coal seam. This mine is underlain by an
abandoned room-and-pillar operation in the Pitts­
burgh coal seam. The primary problem at this site
was the transfer of multiple-seam stress from the
lower mine. Yielding of smaller pillars and the sub­
sequent transfer of their load to larger pillars in the
lower seam apparently caused increases in vertical
Figure 6: Colored square output in LAMPLT

Figure 7: Two Dimensional plot in LAMPLT.
Figure 8: Mine map of case study area.
243
stress in the upper seam which were noticed during
development of the headgate entries (Fig. 8). Severe
pillar spalling and poor roof conditions were experi­
enced when mining the headgate over these large
pillars in the lower seam (Fig. 9). Mine management
was concerned these underlying abutment pillar
stresses would continue to be a problem further inby
in the headgate and also in longwall panel because
there were several areas in the lower seam where
similar pillar conditions appeared to exist.
In the study area, the overburden above the
Sewickley seam ranges from 150 to 280 m (500 to
910 ft) and consists predominately of interbedded
shales and sandstones. The interburden between the
Sewickley and Pittsburgh seams ranges from 27 to

B 5 - Rib is composed of completely broken coal at
Rib Damage Stress
Rating (MPa)
40
Z]|
Figure 9: A comparison between in-mine stress
mapping and LAMODEL calculated stresses
30 m (90 to 100 ft) thick and consists of interbedded
shales and limestones. The average mining heights
of the Sewickley and Pittsburgh seams are 1.5 m (5
ft) and 1.8 m (6 ft), respectively. The immediate
roof of the Sewickley seam is composed of a jointed
dark sandy shale that ranges from 3 to 4.5 m (10 to
15 ft) thick overlain by a competent limey shale.
The immediate floor of the Sewickley seam is com­
posed of a 1.2 m (4 ft) thick dark, limey shale under­
lain by a competent limestone unit.
Stress Mapping
In order to optimally use LAMODEL for accurate
stress prediction at a given mine, the program should
first be calibrated to the site-specific geo-mechanics
based on previously observed stress conditions at
that mine. One of the simplest and easiest methods
to "quantify" the stress at a particular mine is to use
"stress mapping". For LAMODEL calibration, the
primary interest is the stress in the pillars; therefore,
the primary stress indicator is the pillar rib damage,
although other stress related features such as roof
cracks or floor heave are also noted during the stress
mapping process since they can be useful indicators
of stress reactions.
Stress mapping an area of the mine essentially
consists of traveling the rooms and crosscuts in that
area and carefully observing the conditions of the
pillars, roof and floor. The observed conditions are
assigned a numerical rating and marked on a map.
For the rib damage, stress mapping used in this pa­
per, the following rating criteria were applied:
0 - Rib still intact with no sloughed coal, original
rock dust still in place.
1 - Very slight pillar sloughage, some broken
coal at base of rib.
244
2 - Slight pillar sloughage, broken coal covers
one third of rib.
3 - Significant pillar sloughage, broken coal piled
half way up rib.
4 - Severe pillar sloughage, broken coal piled
almost to roof
the angle of repose, pillar maybe failed.
Figure 8 shows the overlay of the lower seam
workings on the upper seam longwall panel and the
area of the headgate where the stress mapping and
model calibration were conducted. For the stress
mapping, the first 600 m (2000 ft) of the headgate
entries, where problems first occurred, (Fig. 8), were
traversed and assigned rating numbers based on the
observed conditions. Figure 9A shows the rib dam­
age rating assigned to each rib in this area of the
headgate.
Model Design and Calibration
Once the stress mapping was complete, LAMODEL
calibration was initiated. For calibration purposes,
the area shown in Figure 8 was discretized with 3 m
(10 ft) elements with a 90 by 200 element grid. Sym­
metrical boundary conditions were set on all four
sides and no free-surface effects were included. The
interburden was set at 27 m (90 ft) and the rock mass
was simulated with a modulus of 20 GPa (3,000,000
psi) and 5 m (15 ft) thick laminations. The overbur­
den above the lower mine in this area ranged from
180 to 300 m (600 to 1000 ft). Due to this variable
topography, the topographic stress effects were in­
cluded in LAMODEL in order to obtain accurate
overburden stress results.
Based on the observed stress mapping, model
calibration was conducted under the assumption that
the smaller pillars (< 10.5 m (35 ft) wide) in the
lower mine had essentially yielded and transferred
their load to nearby larger pillars. Therefore, in the
first step of the calibration process, the coal strength
in the lower mine model was adjusted until the pil­
lars showed this observed behavior. Initially, using
the elastic-plastic implementation of the Bieniawski
formula in LAMODEL, an in situ coal strength of
6.2 MPa (900 psi) was used to calculated peak stress
and strain values for each yielding coal element and
the initial calibration model was run. In this initial
model, the coal in the lower mine was too strong and
did not show the inferred yielding in the smaller pil­
lars. Therefore, in order to obtained the desired
small pillar yielding and subsequent stress transfer to
the larger pillars, the in situ coal strength in the
lower seam was gradually decreased to 4.2 MPa
(600 psi).
With the in situ coal strength of 4.2 MPa (600
psi) in the lower seam and the original coal strength
of 6.2 MPa (900 psi) in the upper seam, the model
correlated very well with the rib damage rating from
the stress mapping. As seen in Figure 9, the rib
damage rating is in grey scale on side A and the re­
sults from the model are in a comparative grey scale
plot on side B. Clearly, the model pillars with high
rib stress correlate well with the pillars with high
damage ratings. Looking back at Figure 8, it can be
observed that these high rib stresses occur over the
large pillars located in the lower mine, in conjunc­
tion with overburden that exceeds 280 m (920 ft).
Stress Prediction for Mine Planning
With material properties calibrated from observed
stress conditions in the mine, additional LAMODEL
analysis were created and run in order to predict ar­
eas of potential problems within the remaining head-
gate and the future longwall panel. Figure 10 shows
two areas of the headgate and longwall panel that
were modeled using optimized properties from the
calibration process. These grey scale plots show the
interseam stress, which is the additional stress on the
upper mine due to the lower seam mining. In this
Figure, Zone 1 covers the upper (inby) part of the
headgate panel and the first 365 m (1200 ft) of the
longwall panel, and Zone 2 covers the lower part of
the headgate (where the stress problems were first
noticed) and the last (outby) 330 m (1100 ft) of the
longwall panel. In these two zones, the lower mine
pillar conditions and the overburden depths appeared
similar; therefore, the poor pillar conditions encoun­
tered in Zone 2 were expected in Zone 1.
However, when comparing the interseam stress
between these two zones as shown in Figure 10, it is
obvious that the stress is considerable greater in
Zone 2 than in Zone 1. Closer investigation reveals
two primary reasons for this difference. First, the
maximum depth over the gateroads and panel in
Zone 2 is over 280 m (920 ft), whereas in Zone 2,
the maximum depth is just over 250 m (820 ft). Sec­
ond, when examining the model output for the lower
mine, there appears to be less pillar yielding in Zone
1 than in Zone 2. Examining Figure 8, it can be seen
that the smaller pillars in Zone I are disperse among
larger pillars and have widths greater than 12 m (40
ft), in comparison to Zone 2, where there is a large
area of pillars with widths less than 10.5 m (35 ft).
The larger, more dispersed small pillars in Zone 1
suffer less pillar yielding, and therefore, cause less
load transfer (or interseam stress) on the upper mine
(Fig. 10). During headgate development in Zone 1,
no pillar problems were encountered. Thus, the cali­
brated model successfully predicted the reduced
stress conditions in the headgate of Zone 1.
The mine management was also concerned about
the multiple-seam stresses adversely affecting the
retreating longwall panel. In particular, a large, ir­
regular shaped barrier pillar in the lower mine is su­
perimposed under the center line of the initial half of
245
the longwall panel in Zone 1 (Fig. 10). However,
the interseam stress calculated by the model from
this barrier pillar only reaches about 3 MPa (450
psi). When the panel was mined, this slightly
increased face stress presented very little problem.
Some slight spalling was present on the face during
the extraction, but overall face conditions were gen­
erally good and no severe ground control problems
were evident.
However, in the lower part of the panel near the
headgate location where poor ground conditions
were first encountered (see Zone 2, Fig. 10), an area
of interseam stress up to 9 MPa (1300 psi) is evident
in the panel. Because of the underlying barrier pil­
lar, the mine anticipated difficult face conditions in
this area. And indeed, when the longwall face
reached this area, ground control problems which
included severe face spalling and poor roof condition
in the headgate entries were encountered. In fact, the
stress interaction with the lower seam was severe
enough to stopped the longwall face about 15 m (50
ft) short of the longwall recovery chute and make
recovery of the supports difficult.
When comparing conditions in Zone 1 to Zone 2,
there seems to be a very fine line on the occurrence
of ground control problems in the upper seam de­
pending on the overburden depth and the pillar size
in the lower seam. Problems were more likely to
occur when the depth of cover over the Sewickley
seam exceeded 280 m (920 ft) and when large areas
of narrow pillars (less than 10.5 m (35 ft) wide) in
the lower seam, were located adjacent to a larger
barrier pillar. These conditions caused yielding of
the narrow pillars and the shedding of their load to
the adjacent larger pillar. This concentrated abut­
ment stress was then transferred to the upper mine
resulting in poor ground conditions in areas of the
headgate entry and longwall panel. Throughout this
case study, the calibrated LAMODEL calculations
successfully predicted the high stress areas in
advance of mining.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The primary purpose of this paper is to introduce the
latest version of the LAMODEL program and high­
light the new Windows based, pre- and post-proces­
sors. Also, a case study is presented in order to dem­
onstrate the practical application of LAMODEL. In
the paper, the unique laminated formulation of LA­
MODEL is detailed and the realistic suppleness this
provides to the mining overburden is advocated.
Also, the program’s ability to analyze: interseam
stresses, topographic stresses, and surface subsi­
dence is promoted. Next, the preprocessor,
LAMPRE, is introduced. This program is described
to handle all of the numerical parameter input and to
allow graphical input of the material codes for the
seam grids in LAMODEL. Also, LAMPRE’s new
"wizards" which greatly assisting the user in deter­
mining coal material properties, gob properties and
pillar yield zones are highlighted. Then the
postprocessor, LAMPLT, is introduced and its two
and three dimensional plots are illustrated
Finally, in the case study, the numerous features of
LAMODEL (including laminated overburden, multi­
seam simulations, strain-softening seam materials,
and topographic effects) were used advantageously
in simulating an actual mining scenario. Based on
the comparisons between the stress mapping and the
model results in this case study, it appears that the
LAMODEL program can be calibrated to produce
good correlations with the observed stresses. In ad­
dition, once realistic pillar strengths and load distri­
butions were established by calibration, the
m echanics-based overburden behavior in
LAMODEL effectively analyzed the complicated
stresses and displacements associated with the
Figure 10: Interseam stress for Zone 1 and Zone 2.
246
complex multiple-seam mining scenarios and suc­
cessfully predicted upcoming high stress conditions
in advance of mining for preventive action by mine
management.
REFERENCES
Heasley, K. A., & T. M. Barton, 1999, "Coal Mine Subsi­
dence Prediction Using a Boundary-Element Program,"
Transactions o f the Society o f Mining, Metallurgy and
Exploration, Inc., Vol. 306, p. 99-104.
Heasley, K. A., & G. Chekan, 1999, "Practical Boundary-
Element Modeling for Mine Planning," Proceedings o f
the Second International Workshop on Coal Pillar Me­
chanics and Design, NIOSH IC 9448, p. 73-87.
Heasley, K. A., 1998, Numerical Modeling o f Coal Mines
With a Laminated Displacement-Discontinuity Code,
Ph.D. Thesis, Colorado School o f Mines, 187 pp.
Heasley, K. A., & M. D. G. Salamon, 1996, "A New Lami­
nated Displacement-Discontinuity Program," Proceed­
ings o f the Second North American Rock Mechanics Sym­
posium, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, June 19-21, p. 1879-
1886.
Mark, C., 1993, Analysis o f Longwall Pillar Stability
(ALPS): an update. Proceedings o f Workshop on Coal
Pillar Mechanics and Design, BuMines IC 9315, p. 238-
249.
Mark, C. & F. E. Chase, 1997, Analysis o f Retreat Mining
Pillar Stability (ARMPS), Proceedings: New Technology
for Ground Control in Retreat Mining, NIOSH IC 9446,
1997, p. 17-34.
Pappas, D. M. & C. Mark, 1993, Behavior o f Simulated
Longwall Gob Material, BuMines RI 9458, 1993, 39 pp.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A n im proved approach to the room and pillar design:

A case study from Zambia

MJ.Appolinary & R. Krishna

Department of Mining Engineering, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia

ABSTRACT: The empirical pillar design described by various researchers is mainly based on the strength of
pillar and the critical average stress of the intact rock is seen to be unrealistic. The other factors such as the
behaviour of the broken rock, and the interaction between the pillar and supported rock have also the do­
minating influence on the load-carrying capacity of the pillar. The paper describes a new approach for the
design of the stope dimensions in different rock formation (a modified Methew's approach 1981).
The factors considered in the stope design principle are: The rock stress factor, rock defect and orientation
factor, shape factor and stability number. The design principle suggested for Chingóla ‘B’ Copper Mine has
proved to be promising for different rock formation.

1 INTRODUCTION But non of these methods proved successful because

Chingóla 'B' mine, located in the Copperbelt
province of Zambia, is very reach in copper deposit.
The orebody lies at the depth of 35m to 170m below
the surface and thickness of the vein varies from
0.5m to 1Im (on the average 8m). It has an apparent
dip of about 11^ to the North-West extending
approximately 700m towards North-east and 800m
East-south. The orebody is confined to the hanging
wall of the mineralized arkose of uniaxial
compressive strength 140MPa. Beneath the orebody
is a very competent arkose and the contact between
the mineralized arkose and waste arkose is quite
sharp on both footwall and hanging wall which
necessitates constant channel sampling in advance of
development drives.
The orebody mineralization is composed of sulphides
and characterized by leached zone, which are
associated with major joints and fissures. Acidic
water finds its way along joints and fissures which
dissolves the copper metal in surrounding zones of
the orebody and make the hoist rock weak.
Although Chingóla 'B' was initially delineated in
early sixties, but mining began in 1972. The sloping
operations employed flat jack sloping, room and
pillar and sublevel caving which were most familiar
methods to the Zambian Copperbelt.
of high rate of waste hanging wall dilution resulting
from premature collapse of hanging wall. The sloping
activities, therefore had to be abandoned in the late
seventies.
In 1981, the feasibility studies were done which
recommended the use of room and pillar method
leaving 20% of the ore in the roof as support for
weak banded sandstone in areas where this directly
overlies the orebody.
Currently, two mining methods, sublevel caving and
room and pillar, are in use at Chingóla 'B'. As said
earlier, non of these two methods were giving
satisfactory results. It was therefore, proposed to do
geotechnical studies of mine orebody and hoist rock
to come up with optimal excavation dimensions. This
was aimed to obtain a suitable mining layout without
incurring losses of ore due to instability and
premature failure of underground pillars. The
geotechnical studies were conducted which indicate
that the major factors governing the unsuccess of
Chingóla 'B' mine are: inadequate dimensions of
pillars in the existing geological characteristics of the
orebody and hoist rock and time lag for caving of the
remnant pillars.
The approach used in the stope design to combat the
above problems is an empirical one which considers:
rockmass quality and stope span and also, new

247
parameters, such as stability numbers plotted against Table 1.Geotechnical data of Chingóla 'B' mine
an excavation size factor to access the stability of
surface bounding. The stability number accounts for Item Ranges of values Averages
rockmass quality, the state of stress and the
RQD 50 to 100% 75
orientation of exposed surfaces with respect to the
dip and strike of the orebody. The excavation factor Joint Two joints and random to 3 joints and
accounts for the shape and size of the opening. On sets 3 joints sets and random random
these basis a high stability number and low stope On)
factor reflect stable exposure in turn. Joint Rough planar no rough Rough planar
rough undulating (jr)
The paper describes an improved approach for ness
designing room and pillar mining in different rock Joints Stained to clay Stained
formations and in particular for Chingóla 'B' mine. alteration coating(ja)
The paper also shows calculations based on case Joint Dry to moist with Dry
studies for estimating optimal room and pillar water minor inflow(jw)
dimensions. Stress Low to medium Medium
reduction stress(SRF)
factor
2 ROOM AND PILLAR DESIGN
METHODOLOGY
The method used is as follows: 4 DATA ANALYSIS
a) Selection of an underground mine site having a
life expectancy of at least three years, assessment of 4.1 Empirical Pillar design
the state of the art, identification of the parameters
that affects pillar design in discontinuous rocks, This section gives a design procedure using a factor
analysis of the structural geology of the selected of safety concept (empirical pillar design approach).
mine site. The objective is to determine, for various excavation
b) Geomechanical study of host rock, hanging wall dimensions, the active stress environment so as to
and footwall, detailed discontinuity analysis of determine a critical failure upon which calculations
selected portion of the mine. of optimal pillar dimensions are based.
c) Determination of the strength of mater involved,
assessment of deformability of rockmass.
Table 2. Pillar dimension and rock properties at Chingóla 'B'
d) Field monitoring to measure convergence,
displacement and stress as mining progresses, pillar \Vp Hp W p/ UCS RM P.st P.st
behavior development and retreating stages of (m) (m) Hp (Mp R (Mp /
mining, monitoring of stress changes within the a) a) UCS

pillar and deformations between adjacent pillars

and the hanging wall. 3.5 3.5 1 140 68 43 0.31
3.5 7 0.5 140 68 21 0.15

3 GEOTECHNICAL STUDY OF CHINGOLA B'

MINE 3.5 10.5 0.35 140 68 13 0.09

The stope is to be developed was at a depth

between 100m and 160m below the surface.
In this area studied, the host rock is arkose
The orebody is approximately 8m wide and dips at
(metamorphic rock) with the UCS of approximately
10°. Due to poor hanging wall at this particular
140 MPa with rockmass of good quality. Table 2
level it will necessitate to leave a skin of orebody
shows the required parameters in calculating the
in the assay hanging wall. It is therefore be
pillar stress. Pillar strength will be obtained from the
assumed that the orebody and the immediate
graphs above (see Fig. 1)
hanging wall have identical geotechnical
properties. The unconfmed compressive strength
The factor of safety of a pillar is defined as Pillar
of the intact rock average at I40Mpa. Other
strength/Pillar stress
geotechnical parameters of the mine section are
Pillar stress; (square pillar)
given in the Table I.
8v =6h(I+Wo/Wp)^
0.0258 X 100(1+6/3.5) = 19Mpa

248
 is the relationship between the vertical stress and
horizontal stress at depth ,6h/5v = K, For hard rock K
= (0.7-0.9). Considering the values of virgin stress in
the horizontal plane, assume 6hi=6h2 where 6Hi is the
virgin stress parallel to strike and 5H2 is the virgin
stress normal to strike. For long sub horizontal
slopes the induced stress in the roof will be very low
compression or even tensile. This stress will be far
less than the compressive strength of the rock.
W p / Hp
Referring to Figure 2 below the value of 6c/6i is
In t a c t s a m p le s o f g r a in e d ig n e o u s c r y s ta llin e ro c k greater than 10, hence the rock stress factor 'A' is set
m = 17, s= 1
atl. This factor is the ratio of intact rock strength to
V e ry go o d q u a lity r o k m a s s ; m = 8 .5 ,s = 0 .1
induced stress; where. Intact rock strength is defined
Good q u a lity r o c k m a s s ; m = 1 .7 ,s = 0 . 0 0 4
as UCS and Induced stress is defined as stress acting
" F a i r q u a lity ro c k m a s s ;m = 0 . 3 4 , s = 0 . 0 0 0 1 parallel to the exposed stope wall or roof under
P o o r q u a lity r o c k m a s s ; m = 0 . 0 0 9 , s = 0 . 0 0 0 0 1
analysis.
F ig u re 1. S h o w s d e s ig n p ro c e d u re u s in g fa c to r o f s a fe ty Bridging type failure between fractures should not
c o n c e p t
occur when the ratio of 8c/6i exceed 10. Any
failure under this conditions should be related to
Pillar strength (ôp) movement on defined structure only and in this
ôp is obtained from the graph above;=> 42 Mpa case, 'A' is equal to 1.
Therefore the factor of safety (FOS) = 42Mpa /
19Mpa=2.2 ii)Rock defect orientation factor'B'
A factor of safety of 1.0 or less implies that the
pillar is theoretically unstable and that failure This factor is included to account for the
could propagate across the entire pillar resulting presence of persistence of fractures parallel to or
to its collapse. A factor of safety in excess of intersecting the exposed surface.(fig. 3) The
1.6 should be used for pillar which are required value of the factor is 0.5 for structure parallel to
to provide adequate support in an underground. the exposed surface and 1.0 for structure
intersecting the exposed surface at right angles.
4.2 Stope design Stereograph plots can be used to determine the
relative angle between joint sets and design
The approach in designing rooms/stopes used surface. When selecting the orientation factor
was developed by the Colder associates(1981); 'B' it should be noted that the overall stability of
Is an empirical relationship between depth of the excavation is under assessment.
mining, rockmass quality and stope span.
Geotechnical parameters summarized in the
form of stability numbers are plotted against an
excavation size factor to access the stability of
the surface bounding an opening. The stability
number accounts for rock mass quality, the
state of stress and orientation of exposed
surfaces. The excavation factor accounts for the
shape and size of the opening. On this basis a
high stability number and low stope factor
should reflect stable exposure in turn.
Following factors were used in the
determination of stope dimensions.
i) Rock stress factor 'A'
The rock stress factor 'A' replaces the stress
reduction factor (SRF) to more accurately reflects Qc UCS of intact rock
stress acting on exposed surface of open stope at Qi Induced compressive stress
depth; The virgin stress has to be measured or
Figure 2. Determ ination o f rock stress factor 'A '
estimated at depth. The vertical stress ôV can be
calculated from bv=ô/h, where ô is the unit weight of
ore and h is the depth below the earth surface. There

249
 Orientation in Orientation This ratio is defined as 'hydraulic radius' by
VertVertical End Factor ‘B ’ in Back Laubscher (1990).
In trial areas where the roof was strong, the open
stope was mined at the dimensions of 9m *40m.
This corresponds to shape factor of 9mx40m /
1.0 2(9+40) =3.7
A plot of stability number and shape factor (Fig. 6)
indicates that this dimension plots in the potentially
stable zone. The proximity of the point to the
potentially unstable boundary indicates that this
0.8 stope is close to the maximum.
Z60° v) Calculations of stability number (N)

The stability number 'N' is expressed as

N=QxAxBxC
Where Q is the NGI rock mass rating (Barton et al
1974)
A, B ,C are as above.
Z 45° Q = RQD/ Jn XJr/Ja x Jw/SRF
Q =75/12xl.5/lx 1/1 =9.37
N = 9.37x 1 X0.5x1.1 =5

Z20®

Factor
0.5 C'

Figure 4. Orientation adjustment factor 'B'

The factor is selected as follows:

(a) Determine the orientation of the most persistence Figure 5 . Design surface orientation
fractures based on relative spacing and continuity factor 'C'
(b) Determine the angle of intersection with the
exposed surface under consideration.

Refer to (Fig. 4) and select the factor

iii) Design surface orientation factor 'C'

This factor accounts for the effects of gravity and

should be to roofs, hanging wall, and possibly
steep foot wall; This factor is mostly influenced
by the angle of dip. i.e. the increase in the angle
of dip will increase factor 'C'
C=8-7cos(angle of dip) Figure 5 stipulates this
condition.
iv) Shape factor 5 10 15 20
Shape factor (m)
The exposed surfaces of open excavations can be
regarded as two way spans, a shape factor can be Figure 6. updated Mathew's stability graph
defined as the ratio of design surface area to its
perimeter.

250
5 CONCLUSIONS

The research devoted to design pillars have been

evident for many years. However, no single design
approach has been universally accepted. The
reasons seems to be that the “design” involves
several assumptions such as the load on the pillar is
independent and the pillar deformation, pillar will
collapse immediately after a critical average
compression is reached and, the optimal basis for
selecting pillar’s safety factor, and there seem to be
unrealistic.
The current studies indicate that the vertical load
exerted on the pillar depends directly on the
convergence. Also, that the load cannot be
explicitly specified without reference to the
deformability of the pillar and surrounding rock.
The second objection is closely related to the above.
What it will simply mean is that the total collapse of
the pillar will only occur if the load exerted by the
rood continuously exceeds the pillar and collapse
totally.
In actual underground situation the disintegration of
the pillar is a progressive process involving gradual
loss of load. Carrying ability with deformation
beyond a peak load. The pillars may get fractured
but still load bearing capacity and are still stable for
long periods. The weaker parts of the pillar start
fracturing first, becoming more compressible and
start transferring loads to the more stronger parts.
The current study in the design of room and pillar
has considered parameters such as, shape factor,
rock defect and orientation factor and the stability
number. The improved approach seems to be quite
promising.

REFERENCES

Appolinary, M.J 2000. University of Zambia,

B.Min.Sc. Project, pp.98

Bieniawski, Z.T; 1989. Engineering rock mass

classification, John Wiley and sons inc. Toronto,
Canada.

Hoek, E.& E.T. Brown; 1980 'Underground Exca­

vations in rock, John Wiley and Sons Inc., Toronto,
Canada.

Laubscher, D.H.1990. A Geomechanics classification

system for rockmass in mine design

Matthew, k., Hoek, E. & D. Wyllie 1981. Predication

of stable excavation spans for mining depth below
1000m in hard rock, John Wiley and Sons Inc.,
Toronto, Canada.

251
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A primary stress state w ithin deep shaft lining based on num erical m odeling

J.Butra&W .Pytel
CBPM ‘Cuprum’, Wroclaw, Poland

ABSTRACT: It is obvious that stresses and strains developed within shaft lining, during its construction
and immediately after that, have an apparent impact on current shaft behavior and its load conditions.
Today the values of those stresses, called the primary stresses, has been changed since shaft lining is now
subjected to an additional load caused by ore exploitation within the adjacent areas. A numerical ap­
proach for the primary stress-strain prediction using the finite element method is presented. The shaft
construction process was divided onto 95 phases assuming that the length of a single tubular lining ele­
ment is about 10 m. During a given element construction, no load acting on it is assumed since any con­
vergence of opened drill-hole walls are compensated by drilling operations. Therefore the element may be
subjected to rock mass pressure not earlier than it is built-in and undermined later. The importance of the
problem was illustrated using an actual example from one of the underground mine in the Legnica-
Glogow Copper Basin (LOOM).

1. INTRODUCTION active pressure (PN-83/B-03010, 1983). Since the

Due to deeper and deeper mining operations as well
as due to mine workings approaching the shaft pro­
tective pillars, the knowledge of strata and shaft lin­
ing behavior and their mutual influence recently has
became a problem of a great significance. It is obvi­
ous that stresses and strains developed within shaft
lining, during its construction and immediately after
that, have an apparent impact on current shaft behav­
ior and its load conditions. Today the values of those
stresses, called the primary stresses, has been
enlarged since shaft lining is now subjected to an
additional load caused by ore exploitation within the
adjacent areas.
The literature concerning elastic stresses being
developed during a shaft construction process is very
slim. Generally shafts in Poland are designed based
on Polish code (PN-G-05016, 1997) regulations
which assume that below the critical depth Her
around a shaft lining, a slip plane inclined under the
angle (j) may develop due to excessive load. Actu­
ally, this approach involving the limit states theory
principles, permits calculating the value of static,
horizontal pressure of rock wedge acting directly
onto the shaft lining, using so called coefficient of
rock horizontal reaction (Kleczek, 1994) known in
civil engineering under the term of coefficient of
latter coefficient suits the problems formulated in the
plane state of strain, it is generally used in trenches
and deep excavation wall and retaining/sheet-pile
wall stability problems. This classic method, called
the failure wedge theory (Coulomb 1776; Rankine
1857), however, does not suit problems of stability
of cylindrical closed surfaces of low radius of curva­
ture which are characteristic for all, circular cross-
section shape, shafts in Polish copper mines. There­
fore a simple transfer of the above mentioned theory
to any vertical deep borehole walls stability prob­
lems is doubtful and may lead to erroneous solu­
tions. Since the borehole wall curvature resists sig­
nificantly a slip surface development, one may ex­
pect that presently strata thrust acting on mine shaft
linings is seriously overestimated. Taking into ac­
count that in the literature there is no available a
conclusive solution concerning stability of circular
borehole walls, as well as there is no solutions in­
volving shaft construction as a kind of successive
process, the authors have attempted to develop a
numerical approach for the primary stress-strain
prediction as a point of departure for more refined,
further stability analyses.

253
2. MINE SITE DESCRIPTION
Until recently, all shaft drilling operations in the
LOOM copper mines in Poland have been designed
virtually without consideration any elastic stress
development within shaft lining or those stress
transformation in a course of shaft construction
process. Due to relatively good ground conditions
this problem had not been recognized as the first
order priority. This was because in this area the
copper ore deposit, only insignificantly inclined, is
covered by very thick and wcry strong main roof,
consisted generally of 100 m layer of coherent
dolomite overlying by 150 m thick strong anhydrite
plate covered by a 250 m thick competent sandstone
stratum. The remaining surface strata, of about 400
m thick, consists of relatively soft, loose and
watered Quaternary and Tertiary deposits (see
Figure 1).
In such geological conditions all shafts were
constructed in similar technology as follows:
(a) concrete-brick wall lining - within Quaternary
deposits,
(b) cast-iron tubings - within Tertiary deposits,
(c) concrete lining in competent sandstone and in
all carbonaceous rocks.
In the past there had not been encountered any
serious problems in shafts behavior except those
related to temporary leaks on some tubing joints.
Today however, shafts behavior becomes more
complex due to a number of reasons, among which
the following are the most important:
(a) mined-out areas approach closer and closer shaft
protective pillars,
(b) shaft protective pillars itself are also planned to
be mined in the future, and
(c) increasing number of dynamic events within
overburden strata are observed.
Unfortunately, having no direct stress measurements
performed, we have no idea on actual stress level
and load acting onto shaft linings. The only stress
related data we are able to estimate is their
incremental value calculated from observed shaft
tube displacements caused by mine activity in the
adjacent areas. If a shaft stability/instability
conditions are to be analyzed however, a total stress
level problem must be engaged and therefore an
estimate of initial stress level should be provided
earlier.
This paper limited objective is to show a relative and
qualitative importance of initial stress which may
develope within a three-dimensional shaft lining in
a course of construction process. This may be
helpful in realistic stability analysis and should also
permit proving the effect of some geomechanical
254
parameters on shaft lining damage hazard, e.g.:
(a) degree of bonding on lining/rock mass contact
surface,
(b) surrounding rock mass inclination to deform,
(c) shaft tube stiffness, etc.
Quaternary 65 m
deposits
Tertiary
deposits 300 m
Intermediate 60 m
material zone
Sandstone 295 m
Anhydrite 120 m
Dolomite 100 m
Copper deposit 5m
Floor Sandstone 150 m
Figure 1. Averaged lithology in the considered shaft
vicinity.
3. SHAFT NUMERICAL MODEL
A simplified, typical mine shaft, located at one of
the LOOM Copper mine, Poland, here was modeled
numerically using the finite element method. The
basic mine/shaft system data utilized in
computational analyses were presented below and in
table 1:
- shaft external diameter D = 7.5 m
- shaft length: L = 965 m
concrete lining thickness t = 0.60 m.
Spatially distributed stress-field was determined
using the axi-symmetric finite element code utilizing
3411 nodes on the comers of 1967 solid elements of
different strength-deformation parameters. They
represented overburden and floor solid strata as well
as shaft stmcture as a mixture of solid and void
space (see Fig. 2).
The shaft constmction process was divided onto 95
phases assuming that the length of a single tubular
lining element is about 10 m. During a given
element constmction, no load acting on it is assumed
since any convergence of opened drill-hole walls are
compensated by drilling operations. Therefore the
element may be subjected to rock mass pressure not
earlier than it is built-in and undermined later (see
Figure 3). The problem was illustrated using an
 kr

Figure 2. Schematic of the considered shaft model.

255
actual example from one of the underground mine in 95
the Legnica-Glogow Copper Basin (LOOM). or, = 0 - 2 - 0 - 1 + 2 (C^i -O-ip) (1 )
¿=3

phase of shaft construction where: cjt - total primary stress, oi - stress category
1 2 2p 3 3 p ........ 94p realized for i-th phase of construction {i-th problem
depth solution). Using expression (1), elastic, primary
circumferential stress gq and vertical normal stress

-10
1 Gz in lining were calculated. Their distribution with
depth are shown in Figures 4-5. Additionally, in
-20 Figures 6-7, the same categories of stress {gq and
(Tz) in lining but obtained directly from solution No.
-30
95 (final phase of construction) are presented.
-40

-940

-945

Figure 3. Approximation of shaft construction

process.

0 50 100 150 200 250

Vertical normal stress (MPa)

Figure 5. Calculated primary elastic vertical stress,

developed during shaft construction process.

Table 1. Average values of rock deformation

parameters

Thicknes Young Poisson’s

-30 -20 -10 0 Rock Type Modulus ratio V
h[m] E [MPa]
Circumferential stress (MPa)
Concrete lining - 20000 0.15
Figure 4. Calculated primary elastic circumferential Quaternary deposits
stress developed during shaft construction process. 65 46.75 0.3
Tertiary deposits
300 29.62 0.3
All materials are assumed to be elastic, and Intermediate
the only external load is a dead weight of the rock material 60 500 0.3
mass, i.e. that each solid element is subjected to Sandstone 295 2500 0.3
Anhydrite 120 6937 0.26
gravitational load only.
Dolomite 100 8550 0.24
Copper deposit 5 2039 0.18
4. CALCULATION RESULTS Floor Sandstone 150 1450 0.18

Calculations were performed for 189 different shaft

construction phases shown in Figure 3. Values of
elastic primary stresses within shaft tube were
obtained using the following formula:

256
5. CONCLUSIONS stress level may create some problems. This refers
to such sectors where soft materials transform into
The results have proved a significant effect of load significantly stiffer rock mass.
path on elastic stress level developed within shaft
lining during its construction. Shaft lining showed 0
different behavior comparing with that predicted by -100
single solution (see Figures 6-7). Significant
-200
vertical tension is found along all shaft length,
-300
particularly within soft, Tertiary deposits where cr^
reaches 215 MPa, since the respective stress ^KX)
obtained from a simple final-phase solution has the -500
negative sign (compression) and its value ranging
-600
2600 MPa (!). It must be reminded that all presented
results were obtained assuming full bonding -700

between rock mass and lining material. It was ^00

proved (Pytel and Grzebyk, 1999) however that any -900
slippage or rock destruction within the contact
-1000
surface efficiently relieves lining of high level stress -3000 -2000 -1000 0
concentrations. Therefore one may expect very
Vertical normal stress (MPa)
moderate vertical primary tension (not compression)
within shaft lining. Observed leaks in tubing joints Figure 7. Elastic vertical stress obtained for final
and horizontal cracks located within concrete lining phase of shaft construction process (case No. 95).
may confirm this hypotheses.

0 REFERENCES
-100
Coulomb, C.A., 1776. Essai sur une application des
-200 regies des maximis et minimis a quelques
-300 problèmes de statique relatifs a l’architecture,
-400 Mem. acad. roy. près, divers savants, vol. 7, Paris
KleczekZ. 1994. Geomechanics in Mining (m
-500
Polish), Slqskie Wyd. Techn., Katowice
-600 PN-83/B-03010 - 1983. Polish Code: Retaining
-700 Walls. Static Calculation and Design (in Polish),
^00 Alfa Publ., Warsaw
PN-G-05016- 1997. Polish Code: Mine Shafts.
-900
Lining. Loads (in Polish), PKN, Warsaw
-1000 Pytel W. & W. Grzebyk 1999. The effect of
exploitation within Panel G-13/3 on R-III shaft
deformation based on field measurements and
Figure 6. Elastic circumferential stress obtained for numerical modeling (in Polish), Res. Rep. for
final phase of shaft construction process (case No. “Rudna” Mine in Polkowice
95). Rankine, W.J.M. 1857. On the Stability of Loose
Earth, Phil Trans. Royal Soc., London
A shaft tube stiffness is one of the most important
parameters governing interaction between shaft
lining and surrounding rock mass. This is because a
stiff lining favors high vertical stress development
while segmented and deformable shafts, being not
able to resist vertical movement, are subjected to
significantly lower load level.
The calculated values of circumferential stress
within shaft lining are reasonable and do not exceed
allowable values for concrete or cast iron,
nevertheless one may observe areas where high

257
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Determ ination o f capacity o f powered supports for a longw all face o f a thick
coal seam

Samir Kumar Das

Indian Institute o f Technology, Kharagpur, India

ABSTRACT : Based on intense field study in India a very simple but realistic mathematical model
developed by the author to determine the optimum capacity of the powered roof supports for the longwall
faces. This concept considered the combined loads offered by the detachment of strata layers/composite layer
blocks right from the face and also loads due to the defection by the strata layer/composite layers situated
above the detached roof rock^mass. This formula along with the other associated formulae by the author
prompted to determine the optimum capacity requirement of the powered supports to be used in the Top
seeim o f a mine belongs to the Pranhita-Godavari valley coal-field of India. The calculated capacity of the
powered roof supports for the Top seam is 555 tonne or 610 tonne depending upon the type of chock-shield
supports are selected. However the 610tonne capacity chock-shield support as shown in the Fig. 3 would be
the right choice for the fore going mentioned Top coal seam.

1 INTRODUCTION the author prompted to determine the optimum

Coal mining of thick coal seams by the
sophisticated longwall machineries i.e., with the
combination of shearer, powered roof supports,
armoured flexible conveyor, stage loader, etc.
introduced in India in the late eighties. But the
determination of optimum capacity of powered
support was not transparent even a couple of years
ago. To generate a clear idea intensive field study
and experimental works were conducted in a
number of mechanized longwall panels in various
mechanized coal mines situated in various coal­
fields in India and ultimately the actual behaviour of
coal measure roof strata were evaluated. Thereafter
these strata behaviours were analyzed logically and
elaborately and new strata mechanics concepts
around the longwall panels developed. Based on this
strata mechanics concepts a very simple but realistic
mathematical model developed to determine the
optimum capacity of the powered roof supports.
This concept considered combined loads offered by
the detachment of strata layer(s)/composite layer
block(s) right from the face and also loads due to
the deflection o f strata layer(s)/composite layers
situated above the detached roof rock-mass. This
formula along with the other associated formulae by
capacity requirement of the powered supports to be
used in the Top seam of a mine belongs to Pranhita-
Godavari valley coal-field in India.
2. THE PERTINENT DETAILS
The mine belongs to Pranhita-Godavari valley
coalfield is situated in Andhra Pradesh, India. Out
of the many Gondwana coal seams present in this
coalfield (Kothagudem area) Top seam. King seam
and Bottom seams are worth to mention. The Top
seam ranges in thickness varying from 9m to 16m.
The seam is persistent throughout the block and the
bottom 3m has thick coal with combination of ash
and moisture between 43% to 44%. But the
uniformity of thickness of seam vary from place to
place. The upper portion of the seam as per
analytical data is not vendible. The King seam
which is 7m to 11m thick has been extensively
worked out in the property. Average gradient of the
seam is 1 in 8 and depth from surface varies from
173m to 294m. The mine is of gassiness degree-1
having an incubation period around 18 months.
There is no overlying seam above the Top seam
whereas the underlying seam is the King seam.

259
There is the presence of a 0.6m down throw fault at
140m in the main gate road. Various longwall
panels have been planned at this mine. The panels
are designed with twin entries system and 25m
barriers are left in between them. The bore-hole
litholog of 75 shafts No.A/138 has been shown in
the Fig. 1. Physico-mechanical properties of top
coal seam and its roof rock are given in the Table-1.
3. INFERENCE FROM BOREHOLE LITHOLOG
ANALYSIS
Correlating the borehole litholog No. A/138
and No. 3 of the top seam obtained from this mine
it is very clear that the parameters of both the top
seam and the roof strata above it are varying widely.
However, the borehole No. 3 first be considered and
then the borehole No. A/138 to be taken into
account. Let the thickness of extraction of the
Identify the rock layer(s) above the coal seam
Identify the plane of weakness
Group the various layer(s)/composite layer(s)
Estimate and classify the stability of those
layer(s)/composite layer(s) (Das,1994)
Estimate magnitude of overhang of various
layer(s)/composite layer(s) (Annexure-1)
Estimate the amount of caving angle of various
layer(s)/composite layer(s) (Das,1994)
Identify layer(s)/composite layer(s) of the
immediate roof rock which may detach from the
face and also identify the layer(s)/composite
layer(s) which will deflect and provide load over
the powered supports. To determine the capacity
of the powered support the lower most strata
layer(s) or composite layer(s) must be taken into
THICKNESS STRATA DESCRIPTION
n) <"»)

bottom section of the top seam is 3.24m (starting GREV SANDSTONE

from the bottom of the bright coal i.e. from 1.32m U 3> S4
U S . 06 1- 52SOFT SHALE
to 4.56m). The thickness of composite layer/layer 147.19 2- 13 C A Ra SAND STONE

96SHALY SAND STONE

above the extraction height can be grouped in the 3-

manner as shown in the Table-2. The strength of 8-53 GREY SAND STONE

layer-IV roof rock is not given. Based on the mean 159-68

2*44 SOFT SHALE
weighted compressive strength of the same kinds of 162-12

rock present in the same mine its value may be grey SAND STONE
13-41
around 122.97 kgf/cm^. After following the Table-1
and Table-2, the class of these layers and composite 17 5-5 3
SHALE
1 76 - 60 1*07
layer along with their various other parameters are -•r;
calculated which is shown in the Table-3. 11-28
GREY SAND STONE

From the Table-1 and 2 and borehole

litholog, study it can nicely be presumed that as the TOP SEAM
longwall face advances the composite ^ MIDDLE SECTION

layer(s)/layer(s) No. I, II and III will cave down and

shall offer the load of their detached rock-mass
I COAL
||-»-W 0RKING S E CTIO N ( B O T T O M )

whereas the layer-IV shall mainly offer the u-v.; GREY s a n d STONE

deflected load over the face. 212-64

But since this IVth layer is also a weak rock, 214-54
SHALE
COAL
C.G.AS.
if the longwall face stops for a longer period, it will 219-
5-41
95
GREY SAND STONE

also fail after making a small deflection. But that 220- 0 -7 671 COA L(SLAK )

extra amount of load shall be covered up by the

safety factor (1.2) which is considered during T.- grey SAND STONE

calculating the capacity of the powered support.

4. BRIEF ABOUT THE DETERMINATION OF - TOP WORKING SECTION

KING SEAM
THE CAPACITY OF THE POWERED COAL

SUPPORTS 251 - 72 BOTTOM WORKING SECTION

6 -5 5 GREY SAND STONE

2 5 8 -2 7
In brief the proposed methodology of 3*96
COAL BOTTOM SEAM
■ ^BOTTOM SEAM WORKING SECTION
2 6 2 *2 3
support rating determination shall be done based on 4-11
26 6- 34
logical borehole litholog analysis and also based on
weighting zone under the fourth degree parabolic n o - l PART OF CROSS SECTION OF 7- SHAFT BORE
curve concept, which is as follows: HOLE NO- A/138 OF THE SAID COAL MINES

260
 consideration that it w ill detach right from the
longwall face freely.
• Draw strata layers and then weighting zone
based upon the drawn caving angle. The fourth
degree parabolic curve can be drawn by touching
the various points cut at the two extreme points o f
every layer(s)/composite kyer(s) as previously
defined. The loading zone w ill be in between these
two curves.
• Determine the load to be offered by the various
layer(s)/composite layer(s) over the powered
supports considering that the total lower
layer(s)/composite layer(s) w ill be detached
right from the face and w ill offer free loading
based on moment equation.(Das,1994)
• Find out the layer(s)/composite layer(s) above
the detached layers/composite layers which w ill
deflect and offer loading due to deflection. This
loading w ill also be solved by the moment
equation.
• Find out the total loading by adding all the
above mentioned loading (loading by detached
layer(s)/composite layer(s) and also the loading
due to deflection) and based on the moment
equation find out the resistance to be offered by
the powered supports to resist the same total
loading.
• Find out the capacity o f the powered supports
based on the following formula:
T detached rock-mass whereas layer no IV w ill offer
' r, Xr,
where, Ty = Capacity o f the powered support in
tonne
R = Resistance to be offered by the powered
supports in tonne
Sf = Factor o f safety
Yi = Efficiency factor o f the powered support
due to the inclination o f legs etc. yi is considered to
be 0.85 for chock shield support and 0.8 in case o f
shield supports but yi =0.90 in case all legs o f the
chock shield are vertical.
yi = Efficiency factor o f the powered support due to
the leakage in the pipelines and valve system and
also other mechanical defects, yi is considered to be
0.9.
A,
»(■ +m
\2 2
R = -^
Where Wi W2 W3 etc. are the weight of the 1®*, 2"^*,
3’^‘^ etc. immediate roof layer(s)/composite layer(s)
261
blocks respectively starting from the top o f the
powered support.
H i H 2 H 3 etc. are the thickness o f the V \ 2 "^, etc.
immediate roof layer(s)/composite layer(s) blocks
respectively starting from the top o f the powered
support.
L i = Distance between the longwall face and the
caving edge.
90° - oci, 90° - CC2 90° - 0C3 etc. are the caving angle
o f the 1 ®\ 2 “^, 3^^^ etc. immediate roof
layer(s)/composite layer(s) blocks respectively
starting from the top o f the powered supports.
P = the distance from the face to the centroid o f
resistance offered by the powered support.
5. DETERM INATIO N OF CAPACITY OF
POWERED SUPPORTS IF THE
RECOMMENDED 4- LEG CHOCK SHIELD
POWERED SUPPORTS AS SHOWN IN THE FIG
.2 ARE SELECTED
In this case the distance o f goaf edge from
the face L i = 5.5m (with an overhang = 1.0m and
web depth o f cut by the shearer = 0.8m), support
spacing = 1.5m, seam inclination = 1 in 8 or 7.125°,
Average density o f roof rock : 2.5 t/m^
In this case the composite layer no - I ,I I and III w ill
offer load over the powered roof supports by then-
load on the powered supports by it’s deflection
only. The composite layers no-II and III are
bunched together since their amount o f overhang
and caving angle are the same. Therefore based on
the above mentioned formula the weight of
composite layer no -1 (W i), combined composite
layers no-II and II I (W 2 ), and layer - IV (W3) are
58.72t,172.27t and 102.3t respectively and then-
respective moments (taken from the face ) are
180.93t-m,766.24t-m,and 291.80t-m .
The distance o f centroid o f resistance o f the chock
shield support from the longwall face is 3.5 m.
Therefore, the resistance to be offered by the chock-
shield support:
180.93 + 766.24 + 291.80
R =353.99 tonne
3.5
+-W , l(2 £ i +H^Taw^)+H^TarOi +H^Tanx^
8
So the capacity o f each unit o f the chock shield
supports
T a b l e 1- P h y s i c o - m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t ie s o f top se am , c o a l and r o o f rock

SI H eight from M easure D en sity Com pres T en sile Shear Protod-

No bottom o f coal (Kg/cm^) siv e strength strength yakonov
seam strength (kgf/cm ^) (kgf/cm ^) strength
From (m) to (m) (kgf/cm ^) index

0.0 0 .44 Shaly coal 1.94 133 1.33

2. 0 .4 4 0.70 C arbonaceous 1.70 104 1.04
shale
3. 0 .70 0.81 Coal 1.46 172 1.72
4. 0.81 1.17 C arbonaceous 2.00
shale
5. 1.17 I . 32 Shaly coal 1.72 200 2.00
6. I . 32 2.2 0 Coal 1.3 133 1.33
7. 2.2 3 .22 Shaly coal 1.43 277 23.75 58 2 .77
8. 3.2 2 4 .4 4 C arbonaceous 2.13 98 17.20
shale
9. 4 .4 4 4 .5 6 Coal
10. 4 .5 6 5.57 Shaly coal 1.81 148 25.75 44 1.48
11. 5.5 7 5.67 Coal
12. 5.67 6 .24 Carbonaceous 2.25 6 3.0 25.83 29.3 0.63
shale
13. 6 .2 4 6.38 Coal 1.49 101 1.01
14. 6 .38 7 .02 Carbonaceous 2 .0 9 57 2 1 .6 4 0.57
shale
15. 7.02 7.11 coal
16. 7.11 7.28 Shaly coal 1.83 192 1.92
17 7.28 7.43 Coal 1.38 126 1.26
18 7.43 8.78 Sandstone 2.18 155 18.94 35.50 1.55
19. 8.78 10.28 Sandstone 2.11 150 16.78 38.50 1.50
20. 10.28 11.17 Sandstone 2.13 178 14.96 37.41 1.78
21. 11.17 II. 29Sandstone
22. II. 29
11.78 Sandstone 2.03 77 1.34 2 3.70 0.77
23. 11.78 12.73 Sandstone 1.99 84 14.55 2 5.00 0.84
24. 12.73 13.28 Sandstone 2.05 98 15.75 2 8.27 0.98
25. 13.28 13.91 Sandstone 2.02 113 12.46 2 7.70 1.18
26. 13.91 14.10 Sandstone 2.18 2 4 .2 2
27. 14.10 14.78 Sandstone 2.05 79 14.23 2 4.00 0.7 9

353.99JC1.2 selection of the powered support, the experience of

T = = 555.28 tonne »555 tonne.
0.85x0.9 the condition of roof from nearby panel or nearby
Where Sf=l .2 , yi = 0.85, and yi = 0.9 mine shall be taken into account. If this type of
Therefore, the capacity of the each unit of chock-shield powered roof supports are selected for
the chock-shield support as per the design given in the fractured and weak roof rock then the procedure
the Fig. 2 shall be 555 tonne, if it is selected for the to calculate the capacity of the chock-shield shall be
Top seam of the said mine. as follows:
Distance of the goaf edge from the free L'l =
5.65m[Considering an overhang around Im
6. DETERMINATION OF CAPACITY OF
(although it may be a little bit less) and web depth
POWERED SUPPORTS IF THE
of cut by the shearer = 0.8 m.]
RECOMMENDED 4-LEG CHOCK SHIELD
Support spacing = 1.5m
POWERED SUPPORTS AS SHOWN IN THE FIG
Seam Inclination = 1 in 8 or 7.125®
3 ARE SELECTED
Average density of roof rock = 2.5 t/m^
Therefore based on the above mentioned formula
From the borehole litholog, it is very clear
(as similar shown in the heading -5) the weight of
that roof rock over the extraction height is weak. If
composite layer no -1 (W’l ), combined composite
this roof is fractured then the horizontal force shall
layers no-II and III (W’2), and layer -IV (W’3) are
come from the free towards the goaf. Therefore, the
60.32t,176.97t and 105.09 t respectively and their
chock-shield support as shown in the Fig.3 shall be
respective moments (taken from the free ) are
more suitable under such a condition. During
190.38t-m,800.59t-m,and 303.70t-m.

262
T a b le - 2 G r o u p i n g o f L a y e r s / C o m p o s i t e L ayer s o f R o o f R o c k

Run o f sam ple Rock m easure C om pressive Mean w eigh ted C om posite T hickness o f
from r o o f o f the strength com p ressive layer N o. the com p osite
extraction o f seam (kgf/cm ^) strength layer (m)
(m) (kgf/cm ^)
4 .5 6 - 5 .5 7 Shaly coal 148
5 .5 7 - 5 .6 7 Coal
5 .6 7 -6 .2 4 C arbonaceous 63 2 .87
shale
6 .2 4 -6 .3 8 Coal 101 113.88
6 .3 8 -7 .0 2 C arbonaceous 57
sh ale
7 .0 2 -7 .1 1 Coal
7 .1 1 -7 .2 8 Shaly coal 192
7 .2 8 -7 .4 3 Coal 126

7 .4 3 -8 .7 8 Sandstone 155
8 .7 8 -1 0 .2 8 Sandstone 150 158.49 3.86
1 0 .2 8 -1 1 .1 7 Sandstone 178
1 1 .1 7 -1 1 .2 9 Sandstone

1 1 .2 9 -1 1 .7 8 Sandstone 77
1 1 .7 8 - 12.73 Sandstone 84 8 7.52 III 4.5 6
1 2 .7 3 -1 3 .2 8 Sandstone 98
1 3 .2 8 -1 3 .9 1 Sandstone 113
1 3 .9 1 -1 4 .1 0 Sandstone
1 4 .1 0 -1 4 .7 8 Sandstone 79
1 4 .7 8 - 15.85 Sandstone 80.5 (A v)

Grey sandstone
1 5 .8 5 -2 0 .8 5 (A verage layer 122.97 IV 5.0
spacing
con sid ered to be
1.25m )

The distance of centroid of resistance of the chock
shield support from the longwall face is 3.33 m.
Therefore, the resistance to be offered by the chock-
shield support:
19038 + 8 0 0 .5 9 + 3 0 3 .7 0
R = --------------- r —;----------------- =388.78t
3.33
So the capacity o f each imit of the chock-shield
support:
T'r = = 609.861» 6101
0.85x0.9
Where S f= 1 . 2 , yi = 0.85, and yi = 0.9
Therefore, the capacity of the each unit of
the chock-shield support as per the design given in
the Fig. 3 shall be 610 tonne, if it is selected for the
top seam of the said mine. However, it may be
noted that the capacity of each unit of such type of
powered roof supports shall be 55 tonne more
compared to the each unit of the chock-shield
support as shown in the Fig. 2.
[Note: The capacity o f both the types of powered
supports shall be less if all the legs of the supports
are kept vertical but it may cause various problems
latter on]
The first mechanized longwall face (face length:
120m) was installed in the Top seam of the said
mine in the year 1985. The powered support was the
chock-shield support having capacity 4 x 360 tonne
with a support resistance around 60 t/rr?. This
longwall panel and thereafter a few other longwall
panels (total six number) were finished with the
same longwall package but with enormous problems
both due to the strata control and powered supports
incompatibility. Latter on the mine management has
no other option except to switch on to the mini
longwall system with a face length varying from
50m to 60m by using the same powered roof
support. Mini longwall system gets success in this
top seam. However, in the year 1995 a mechanized
longwall face with 4 x 760 tonne chock-shield
support was installed in another nearby mine in the
same Top seam. There was absolutely no strata
control problem in this case. However the powered
roof supports are a little bit over-rated.

263
T able - 3 R atings, c la ssific a tio n , overall cla ssific a tio n and other
param eters o f the r o o f rock above the Top Seam o f the m ine

Param eters C om posite C om posite C om posite C om posite

layer/ layer/ layer/ layer/
Layer-I Layer-II L ayer-Ill Layer-IV
1. Mean w eigh ted 3.41 4.75 2.62 3 .69
u n iaxial com p ressive
strength (R atin g)
2 .Mean w eigh ted RQD % -- - -- -
(R ating)
3. (a) Type o f rocks 4.00 5.60 5.60 5.60
(R ating)
(b) A b sence o f severe 4 .50 6.00 6.00 6.00
cracks, f is s ile beds.
sp littin g , etc. (R ating)
(c) A b sence o f ground- 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0
water (R ating)
4 .T h ick n ess o f prom inent 3.31 6.08 3.72 6.65
bed layer (R atin g)
R ating out o f 75 2 2.22 29.43 24 .9 4 2 8 .9 4
R ating out o f 100 29.6 3 9 .2 4 33.25 38.58
C lass o f r o o f rock II III II III
Am ount o f a , 13° 18° 18° 18°
To be follw ed 13° 18° 18° 18°
Am ount o f overhang Im 1.47m Im 1.47m
To be fo llo w ed Im F ollow the parabolic curve
Mean w eigh ted rating o f 35.65 « 36
r o o f rockness
O verall cla ss o f r o o f rock III
O verall tti 15°
O verall am ount of Im
overhang Im

MCH i.e ., cavin g heigh t w ithin a short tim e (con sid erin g extraction
heigh t = 3 .2 4 m) = 3.5 x 3 .24 = 11.34 m
MAH i.e . e ffe c tiv e cavin g height after a short tim e w hich included
d eflectio n = 1 6.34 m

7. CONCLUSION

The realistic mathematical model developed

for calculation of the optimum capacity of the
powered roof supports based on the analysis of
actual behaviour of coal measure roof strata, is very
good, imiversal and can be used in any conditions.
The optimum capacity o f each unit of the powered
support shall be 610 tonne (in case of the design as
shown in the Fig. 3 is selected) if it is selected for
the top seam of the said or nearby mine.

REFERENCES

l.Das Samir Kumar, 1994,Ph. D. thesis on

"Optimized Selection of Powered Supports in
Mechanized Coal Mine in India", Indian School of
Mines, Dhanbad,

264
 ANNEXURE-1(Das, 1994)
Length of Overhang

Based on vast field statistics and trial and

error method a formula has been derived to find out
the length of the overhang of the immediate roof
rock behind the powered supports which is as
follows:
hcr^k
WHERE
H=EXTRACTION THICKNESS OF COAL SEAM
L-DISTANCE FROM FACE TO THE CENTRE OF THE FRONT LEG-
Where, Coh = Length of overhang in metre (350+WEB DEPTH)
« 1450nun(APPROX.) FOR THE WEB THICKNESS 600mm WITH
h= Thickness of overhang beam WIDTH OF AFC PAN CROSS SECTION 762 mm.
in metre » 1630mm(APPROX.) FOR THE STANDARD WEB THICKNESS
cc = Compressive strength of rock 800mm WITH WIDTH OF AFC PAN CROSS SECTION 762 mm.
beam in kgf'cm^ * 2000mm(APPROX.) FOR THE WEB THICKNESS 1000mm WITH
WIDTH OF AFC PAN CROSS SECTION 1000mm.
d = Density o f rock in t/m^
k = A class constant OVERALL CANOPY WIDTH: « 1430mm
OVERALL BASE WIDTH: =1400 mm
Value o f k is as follows: SUPPORT CENTRE : = 1300mm
For sandstone = 0.217 nO-2 RECOMMENDED CHOCK - SHIELD POWERED ROOF
For other composite layer with SUPPORT TO BE USED IN THE TOP SEAM OF THE
SAID COAL MINES.
various rock combination and also for coal =
350mm(MlN)
0.0131 is o mm (MAX)

However, it is observed that value of

Coh = 0 if the strata is highly geologically
disturbed.
The calculated value of Coh will be reduced
by 30% to 40% if water problem in the strata is
present and also it depends upon the degree of
watery condition.
The calculated value of Coh will again be
reduced in case of lower most bed, if a very high
support setting pressure is selected and if severe
rupture is given in the immediate roof layer by the
powered supports. ALL DIMENSION IN MILLIMETRE ¿ 0 0 TO 2800 DEPENDING UPON
THE CAPACITY AND HEIGHT OF
THE POWERED SUPPORT

WHERE
H=EXTRACTION TlflCKNESS OF COAL SEAM
L=DISTANCE FROM FACE TO THE CENTRE OF THE FRONT LEG-
(330+WEB DEPTH)
= 1430mm(APPROX.) FOR THE WEB THICKNESS 600mm WITH
WIDTH OF AFC PAN CROSS SECTION 762 mm.

= 1630mm(APPROX.) FOR THE STANDARD WEB THICKNESS

800mm WITH WIDTH OF AFC PAN CROSS SECTION 762 mm.

= 2000mm(APPROX.) FOR THE WEB THICKNESS 1000mm WITH

WIDTH OF AFC PAN CROSS SECTION 1000mm.

OVERALL CANOPY WIDTH := 1430mm

OVERALL BASE WIDTH: = 1400 mm
SUPPORT CENTRE ; « 1300mm

FIG-3 RECOMMENDED CHOCK - SHIELD POWERED ROOF

SUPPORT TO BE USED IN THE TOP SEAM OF THE
SAID COAL MINES.

265
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Som e aspects about the prognosis o f the ground deform ations

for the ore deposits

N. Dima, O. Herbei & K. Fissgus

University ofPetrosani, Romania

ABSTRACT: This paper deals with a method of prognosis of the evolution of the earth surface deformations
after an underground working of the ore deposits. The advantage of this method is that it uses exclusively to­
pographic data measured at the terrestrial surface on proñle lines, not being necessary to be known exactly the
underground gaps, what it is difficult for the ore lens with the irregular forms. The prognosis model about the
evolution of the subsidence trough presented in this paper, calculates the coefficients of a fimction that can es­
timate this evolution, and through extension, it is possible to obtain many informations about the future states
of the subsidence trough.

1 INTRODUCTION conditions, can produce ground subsidence and dis­

This paper deals with a method of prognosis of the
evolution of the earth surface deformations after an
underground working of the ore deposits. The ad­
vantage of this method is that it uses exclusively to­
pographic data measured at the terrestrial surface on
profile lines, not being necessary to be knovm ex­
actly the underground gaps, what it is difficult for
the ore lens with the irregular forms.
The gaps, created in the underground area
through the extraction of the useful mineral sub­
stances, lead at the perturbation of the balance of the
rocks from the massif and at a new allocation of the
tensions.
Under the influence of the litostatic pressure the
rocks begin to deform themselves and to move to­
wards the excavated areas. As a result there is a
crumbling of the rocks from the roof strata and the
walls of the mining work that, in certain geo-mining
placements, as a result of the underground mining
works, and the buildings from the earth surface and
other objectives from the affected area may suffer
deformations or sometimes even damages.
The considerable increase of the working depth
has direct influence on the ore reserve immobilised
into the safety-pillars of the shafts and also on the
affected areas from the earth surface. The problems
about the study of the protection of the buildings
placed near or within the influence area of the work­
ings began to be more important in present.
The study of the phenomenons that occurs during
the deformation process, on the base of direct topog­
raphic observations, is very important for limiting
the dangerous areas and for the security of the de­
posit and the buildings. In Romania, such studies
have been made at the ore mines from Ghelari,
Gura-Barza, Balan, Deva and are in course of being
fulfilled in other mining areas for establishing some
proper working methods, adaptable to the deposit
conditions, that, near of being efficient, to assure the
extraction of a volume from the deposit as big as it
could be.
A part of the damages suffered by the buildings
can be decreased and even avoided with a reasona­
bly guidance of the workings, on the basis of a prog­
nosis study about the results of working the area, in
different stages, respectively the evolution of the
subsidence trough.
The prognosis model about the evolution of the
subsidence trough presented in this paper, calculates
the coefficients of a function that can estimate this
evolution, and through extension, it is possible to

267
obtain many informations about the future states of a[p + a\q + a'^r + V = V
the subsidence trough.
alp + a^q + air + T = v''
(9)
2 THE THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
al p alq + al + /” = v”
PRECALCULATION OF THE GROUND
MOVEMENT where n is the number of triplets of known values
(W, X , t).
Considering the equation: For a triplet of values (Wj, Xu we can write:
W{x) = W ,-e-‘’^' ( 1) a / = a /' = ...= a^ =1
that defines the subsidence of a point, comparing it (10)
with the center of the trough using Martos’s theory 2

(b is a constant that has different values in each ba­

sin) and replacing the maximum subsidence Wo by a The system of the normal equations will have the
function of time, we shall have: following form:
W(x,t) = W (0-e- (2) [a,a^]p + [a^ ajq + [a^a^r + [a^l] = 0
The equation that does a good aproximation for the [a^a^p + [ a jx jq + [a^a^Jr + [a^l] = 0 (11)
evolution in time of the subsidence has the following [ a f ^ P + [ a f j q + [ a ^ J r + [a^l] = 0
form:
Using the results obtained after solving the system
W (0 = W,^e-^^^ (3) we shall write the equation that aproximates the evo­
lution in time of the trough:
because it fulfils the following conditions:
limlFo(0 = 0 and limW,(t) = W, (4) W(x,t) = W,-e~ ( 12)
t->0 t->00
where Wo = e^, a = q, b = r.
In these conditions we can write the equation W(x,tJ The relations that aproximate the tilt and the cur­
as: vature of the subsidence trough can be obtained us­
ing the succesive derivation of the last equation:
W (x,0 = Wo-e~ (5)
For determining the constants a, b, Wo, we use the T{x,t) = -2W„bx-e-“" (13)
least squares methode. When we have a certain point
placed at a distance x, from the center of the trough K(x,t) = -2W^b{-2x^b + \\e ~ “'' -e~ (14)
and that has known its subsidence Wj at a certain
moment tk, we can write the following equation:
■Wj =v (6)
Using the logarithms we can transform the equation:
ln(fUo ■e'""* •e-*"' )= ln(fU, + v) (7)

inW, - -b x f-\n W , =v (8) sis function

We mark the unknown values as:

3 PRECALCULATION OF THE GROUND
\ nWo=p
a =q SUBSIDENCE FOR ORE DEPOSITS
b =r
Using the topographique measures we can write a Considering an ore deposit where there are M lenses
system for different points: and each lens have the thickness of w, with i = 1..M
and the distance between their center and a certain
point (named P) from the ground surface is named x,
(this distance is measured on the horizontal plan), an
exploited lens provoques a subsidence of the point P
calculated with the following equation:

268
 (15) 4 CONCLUSIONS

where the parenthese represents a factor of the evo­
lution in time and Wmax can be replaced with the
Aversin’s equation:
W^ = (16)
C+
where mt is the thickness of the lens /;
Hi is the exploitation depth;
ti is the time between the exploitation and the
subsidence measurement of the point P;
Xi is the distance between the point and the center
of the lens;
a, h, c are the coefficients that must be found out.
The method of prognosis of the evolution of the
earth surface deformations after an underground
working presented in this paper has the following
advantages:
- it uses exclusively topographic data measured at
the terrestrial surface on proftle lines;
- it calculates the coefficients of a function that can
estimate the future evolution of the trough;
- it can be applied to the irregular formed ore de­
posits, composed of many ore lenses.
REFERENCES
Dima, N. 1970. Engineering survey. Petrosani: Litography of
the U.P.
Dima, N. 1970. Mining survey. Petrosani: Litography o f the
U.P.
Fissgus, K. 1995. Influence of underground mining activity on
the ground surface and measures to reduce mining damage.
Petrosani: Licence paper at the U.P.
Herbei, O. 1994. Prognosis of the ground movement for ore
deposits and protection of the buildings. Petrosani: Disser­
tation at the U.P.
Kratzsch, H. 1983. Mining subsidence engineering. Berlin:
Springer-Verlag.
Popa, A. 1985. The manual of the mining engineer (volume 2).
Bucharest: Editura Tehnica.

If we have more than one lens in exploitation we

use the principle of superposition and weTI have:

(17)
w c + ^¡H^
If we measure the subsidence at the surface in more
points weTI obtain more values named Wk(k= I..N).
To determine the coefficients named a, b, c we’ll
have the following system:

i= \
M
X f.(a,b,c)-W ^ = v^ (18)
i= \

where ft (a, b, c) is the subsidence caused by the lens

i at the point k.
In this system the unknown values are a, b, c and
for determining them we use the condition
[w ] = minimum and also we use an aproximative
numerical methode to solve the system.

269
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

R oom and pillar design o f Istanbul-Yenikoy coal field using finite

elem ent method

S.G.Ergelebi & E.Nasuf

Department of Mining Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey

ABSTRACT: The major objective of this study was to design and analyze the stability of underground room
and pillar mine for Istanbul-Yenikoy coal field. Preventing pillar failure and minimizing surface subsidence
was the primary goal. A preliminary design is carried out by using tributary area theory. Preliminary design is
tested by finite element analysis. In finite element analysis, not only the structural behavior of pillars, and roof
and floor are simulated, but the interaction among them are also taken into consideration.

1 INTRODUCTION ^WQ+Wp^
=Pz ( 1)
Major parts of coal requirement of city of Istanbul V P J
are met by the coal from the mines in Yenikoy and
surrounding districts. Reserves of surface coal mines
in this district are almost depleted and remaining
reserves are either deep seams or can not be mined
by surface mining because of environmental
considerations. Therefore the mine is designed as an
underground mine, and room and pillar mining
method is chosen to minimize the surface
subsidence.
The mine is located in north of Istanbul, near
Black Sea. Coal seam has an average thickness of
2m and the seam depth ranged from 30m to 60m
with an average depth of 50m. 81 drilling has been
carried out in the area and resulted 6.3 millions tons
of coal reserve which 3.9 millions of this reserve
vAW be mined by underground room and pillar
mining.
The floor and roof surrounding rock is very weak
clay. The roof is brownish clay and average
thickness of Im green clay lays below coal seam.
Figure 1. Geometry for tributary area analysis of
pillars
2 PILLAR DESIGN

In order to estimate pillar stability in the area, a
preliminary design is conducted by using the
tributary area theory. For the case where square
pillars of dimensions Wp, are separated by rooms of
dimension wo (Fig. 1), stress acting on pillars are
calculated by
In this expression, cr^ is the average axial pillar
stress, and pz is the vertical normal component of the
pre-mining stress field and pz given by
Pz=r>^z (2)

271
 where y is the overburden density and z is the depth
of the pillar from the surface. Strength of the pillars
are estimated from well known Salamon formula
(Salamon, 1967)
(jg = K x h xw^
where ^= 7 .1 7 6 MPa, a = -0.66, p = 0.46
In later studies, Salamon modified the pillar
strength formula by the linear strength formula
(Salamon, 1999).
where 5.50 MPa, r = 0.609, and R is the width to
height ratio of pillar.
a) F = i l i : ^ = 4.43
25.23
108.70
b) F = 4.31
’ 25.23
(3) The factor of safety calculated indicates that
pillars are stable in the long term. But pillar design
using the tributary area theory assumes diat a pillar’s
support capacity for the country rock was determined
by the strength of coal. Where hangingwall and
footwall rocks are weak relative to coal, a pillar
support system may fail by punching of pillars into
the peripheral rock. Since the roof and floor rocks
(4) are weak clay in the area, pillar design is checked by
calculating die bearing capacity of floor which is
weaker clay. Bearing capacity of floor is calculated
by Terzaghi’s equilibrium formula (Das, 1999):

Using above formulas, pillar dimensions are cry =1.3CA^^ + q'Ng 4- 0.4/f Wp Ny (7)
calculated. Room span is chosen as 4m and
considering a recovery rate (e) of 60 %, pillar width where C = cohesion of floor
is found as Wp=6.Sm from Fig. 1 and equation (5): y = unit weight of floor
q = equivalent surcharge
Nc,Nq,Ny= bearing capacity factors that are non-
(wp + - Wp Wo + 2 wqw^ dimensional and are only fimctions of
(5) the floor rock friction angle, (j)
{wp+w^f {wp+^of
Floor rock parameters are; C=5.45 kg/cm^, 0 = 1 ®
Results o f calculations: / y = 1.7 gr/cm^ and q = 0. Nc,Nq,Ny are found as
6.0, 1.1, 0.01 respectively (Das, 1999).
- pre-mining stress:
Pz= 0.2 kg/cm^/m x 50m =10 kg/cm^ V =1.3 X 5.45 X 6.0 + 0.4 x 0.0017 x 688 x 0.01
average axial pillar stress: =42.51kg/cm^
cr„ = 1 0 XI =25.23kg/cm^
and factor of safety:

- pillar strength: 7^ = ^ = 1.68

25.23
a) by original Salamon formula:
After the preliminary design, it has been decided to
O-^ = 7.176 X 2 ' “ “ X 6.8'’ '*^ = 10.97MPa check the design by finite element method.

= 111.86 kg/ cm^

3 FINITE ELEMENT MODELING
b) by linear strength formula:
For the finite element analysis ANSYS finite
<7^ - 5.50 0.609 + (1 - 0.609) X- y = 10.66MPa element code is employed. ANSYS is a general
finite element modeling package for numerically
= 108.70 kg/cm^ solving a wide variety of structural problems.
ANSYS provides comprehensive tools for analyzing
factor of safety: 2D and 3D problems.
A two-dimensional finite element model has been
F =^ developed to confirm the preliminary design. The
(6)
problem domain consists of a single square pillar,
6.8m wide. The depth and height of the seam and the
pillar are set at 50m and 2m. Room span is 4m. The

272
 Table 1 Physical and mechanical properties of coal and rocks
Young Angle
Poisson Unit Weight Cohesion
Rock type Modulus of
Ratio (gr/cm^) (kg/cm^)
(kg/cm^) Friction
Coal 14,276 0.30 1.3
Roof Clay 422 0.27 2.0 7.07 1.5
Floor Clay 176 0.27 1.7 5.45 1.0
Fill (Dense Sand) 562 0.26

properties of coal, roof and floor are given in Table

1.
The first step in the FE analysis is to prepare a
mesh of elements. The structure under consideration
is divided into smaller zones, known as elements.
The elements are assumed to be connected to each
other at certain points (usually at the comers) called
nodes. It is at the nodes that displacements are
computed. Displacements are fundamental variables.
Well known finite element displacement formulation
establishes a relationship between nodal forces and
induced displacements (Zienkiewicz, 1971). At any
point P in the element, displacements u^ are related
to the nodal displacements u^ by,
uP=Nu® (8)
Figure 2. Partial finite element mesh
where N is a matrix of shape functions. From the
displacement field within the element strains can be
calculated. Figure 3 shows the nodal displacements for case
gP =LuP =LNu® =Bu® (9) (i) around the pillar in an exaggerated way. Figure 4
shows the stress contours around the pillar.
From the strains, usingstress-strainrelationship,
stresses are calculated. The total state of stress
within an element is obtained from the induced
strains, the elasticity matrix D, and the initial
stresses (Tq^, i.e.
aP=DeP+oP (10)

For the pillar problem, smaller element sizes for

pillar and around pillar, bigger element sizes for roof
and floor far away from the pillar are used. Plane
quad elements with 4 nodes are used and the number
of elements in the original finite element mesh was
440. Only gravitational loading is considered. The
model is simulated in plane stress-strain conditions.
Figure 2 shows the pillar problem domain with
partial meshing. Nodal displacements for case (i)
After the finite element problem is solved,
displacement and stress components are known at all
nodes of the FE domain. Pillar problem is solved for
3 cases. These are;

Case (i) base case.

Case (ii) 25cm of coal is left unmined at the
bottom of rooms.
Case (iii) rooms, after the coal is extracted, are
filled with sand pneumatically. Node numbers around pillar

273
 m SYS 5 ,4
0ÜN 7 2 0 0 0
1 4 :3 3 :2 4
N O D A L S O L W tim
S0B »1
TIHE^l
sy (AVG)
;J‘- HSYS«0
Po^erGraphlc»
EFACET^l
AVRES«Hat

2 4 .8 6 6
2 0 ,2 6 6
1 5 .6 6 6
1 1 .0 6 6
6 .4 6 5
1.866
" 2 .7 3 4
" 7 .3 3 4
-1 1 .9 3 4
-1 6 .5 3 4

Figure 4. Horizontal stresses around pillar for case (i)

Maximum displacement is in the middle of the room area analysis. Finite element analysis also gives the
is 9.2cm. Displacement at the comer of pillar is stress distribution around the pillar and the room.
6.05cm and at the top middle of the pillar Displacements are also known at nodes. Finite
displacement is 3.38cm. At the middle of the seam element provides a powerful method for the
on the room side, the displacement is 5.86cm. It analysis of the interaction between the coal and
seems that pillar is punched into the floor at the surrounding rock. Not only the stmctural behavior
bottom comer about 5.74 cm. of pillars, but roof and floor and the interaction
among them are also taken into consideration.
Table 2. Nodal horizontal stresses (kg/cm^)
Nodes 4 CONCLUSION
Case
I 2 3 4 5
I 24.86 20.83 23.39 0.075 10.03 Preliminary design for the underground room and
II 18.18 17.18 4.65 0.71 9.54 pillar mining of Istanbul-Yenikoy coal field
III 16.22 1.54 1.28 0.058 4.98 resulted with 6.8m square pillars and 4m wide
rooms with an extraction ratio of 0.6. This design
is tested by using finite element analysis. The
Table 3. Nodal displacements(cm) results of finite element analysis were in good
Nodes agreement with tributary area analysis. Both
Case resulted with around 25 kg/m^ maximum vertical
1 2 3 4 5
I 6.05 5.86 5.74 9.20 3.38 stress on pillars. Pillar strength is estimated as over
II 5.16 5.01 4.74 8.93 4.16 lOOkg/cm^. Resulting factor of safety for pillars
III 4.70 4.50 4.35 8.70 3.80 was over 4, assuring long term stability of pillars.
But hangingwall and footwall rocks were weak
relative to coal. The interaction among the pillars
Punching of the pillar into the floor is reduced and surrounding rock were simulated by finite
to 4.74 cm by leaving 0.25m of coal unmined at the element method. Results showed 5 cm punching of
bottom of rooms. Filling the mined area has little pillars into the floor rock, and 9 cm vertical
effect in terms of punching and reducing the displacement of room ceiling.
displacement in the middle of rooms.
From Table 2, it can be concluded that stresses
acting on pillars found from finite element analysis
well agree with the stress calculated using tributary

274
REFERENCES
ANSYSManuals. 1999. Release 5.4. Ansys Inc.
Das B.M. 1999. Principles of Foundation Engineering. PWS
Publishing.
Salamon M.D.G. & A.H. Munro 1967. A Study of the
Strength of Coal Pillars. Journal of the South African
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Sept: 55-67.
Salamon M.D.G. 1999. Strength of coal pillars from back
calculation. Rock Mechanics for Industry. Amedei, Kranz,
Scott & Smeallie (eds.): 29-36. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Zienkiewicz O.C. 1971. The Finite Element Method in
Engineering Science. McGraw-Hill, London.

275
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Geomechanical situation at horizontal working connection

T.M.Ermekov, M.A.Kayupov & S.S.Uysimbayeva

Kunaev's Institute o f Mining, National Academy of Sciences, Almaty, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT: For analysis of stressed condition of rock massif in the vicinity of horizontal working
methodology is used of tree-dimensional problems solution by the method of boundary elements.
Three types of distribution of dimensionless stresses at untouched massif are dealt in whis paper: hydrostatic
pressure {ox=(Jy=(Jz^=l, Txy^=Txz^=TyJ^=0); predominant vertical pressure, Oy^ (Oy^=1.00, Ox^=az^=0.25,
'txy^='Txz^=Tyz^=0); predominant horizontal pressure, (Tmax^=3.0, amid =1-5, ay=1.00).
Calculations were carried out for dimensionless quantities at untouched massif. From the main working
additional one is driven with length L, which equals 2 m, 7 m or 20 m, and at an angle cp, which in
calculations was taken equal 15^, 45^ or 75^.
Stresses are calculated at points of horizontal plane and at plane of the main working in sections located at the
same distances (5.25 m) on the different sides of lines of crossing of lateral walls of the main and additional
workings.

INTRODUCTION
For analysis of stressed condition of rock massif 75^. Both workings have equal cross-sections
in the vicinity of horizontal workings methodology (working's width is 4.5 m, walls' height is 2.65 m
is used of tree-dimensional problems solution by the and roof arch's height is 1.9 m).
method of boundary elements I V . Planes of mine workings are approximated as flat,
Assume, that rock massif is homogeneous, triangular or quadrangular boundary elements.
endless, linear-elastic isotropic medium with out General scheme of such approximation is presented
solid forces. Poison's ratio v=0.25. In unmined rock at the fig.2. Stresses were calculated at points of
massif stresses are homogeneous and constant, horizontal plane and at plane of the main working in
workings' planes are free from external loads /2,3,4/. sections located at the same distances (5.25 m) on
Three types of distribution of dimensionless the different sides of lines of crossing of lateral walls
stresses at unmined massif are dealt with: of the main and additional workings. Thus, a plane
hydrostatic pressure (ax"=ay"=Oz"=l in points of which stresses were calculated was
.. o _ ^
Tyz 0
0 _ ,
• ); predominant vertical pressure, a
ó located 10 cm. above roof of studying workings.
I'xy
^ D_^ 0_^ ^ 0 _ 0__ 0_n’ Let's study stage by stage an additional working
(Oy"=1.00, ax"=a."=0,25,
^x 0.25, Xxy"=Txz"=y=0);
predominant horizontal pressure, (Omax “ 3.0, driving when workings connecting at angle ((p=15 ,
o„i/=1.5, a/=1.00). occurring at workings with specific character of
Calculations were carried out for dimensionless work with rail haulage.
quantities at unmined massif. Dimensional values of
stresses are calculated by multiplying of
dimensionless quantities by a coefficient yH, where
y - rocks' weight by volume, H - depth of workings
driving. It is considered that axis Oy of the global
Cartesian system of coordinates Oxyz is directed
vertically upwards (fig.l). Both workings are in
parallel to horizontal plane Oxz. From the main
working, axis of which is in parallel to axis Oz,
additional one is driven with length Z, which equals
Fig. 1. Intersected developments and negative
2 m, 7 m or 20 m, and at angle (cp, which in
voltages in a untouched array.
calculations was taken equal 15^ and then 45^ and

277

Fig. 2. The developments and plane, on which one
were evaluated voltages.
Additional working with small length (Z=2m) is
often short stable for electric equipment, in which
lighting transformers, filtration drums and so on are
placed. When working driving of such length {L=2
m, 9=15^) at a roof of the main working extending
stresses are appeared with value (jy- -0.1. Moving
stresses decrease from 0.97 up to ~0.7-^0.8. At an
area of workings' connection two zones are formed
of concentration of vertical pressure, where oy >1.1.
Maximal values of stress oy =1.16 it may be watched
fore of the face of additional working, and above its
roof zone of concentration of such stresses begins to
form.
When driving an additional working L=1 m, using
usually for purposes of storing (for example, for
winning district transformer stations) at a roof of the
main working a value of extending stresses cry not
changes. However, concentration of vertical pressure
increases along both sides if it {<jy >1.15). From
additional working side division takes place into two
individual workings, and fore of the face maximal
stress oy=1.41 is as usual watched. Qualitative
pattern of moving stresses distribution is not
changed. It is noticeable small decrease of such
stresses at a roof of the main working, and at a roof
of additional working - increase of length of zone of
such stresses concentration. At the last stage (L=20
m) of additional working driving forming of zones
of stresses concentration is finished. At an area of
workings connection pattern of distribution of
stresses is practically not changed in comparison
with previous variant (I=7m). However above
narrow pillar between workings sizes of zones of
stresses concentration c^=1.22 are watched. For
workings where self-propelled machines work
machines on wheels drive a working at angle
30“+90®.
Rock pressure re-distribution, taking place when
^=45^, {(p=15^ is similar to pattern when cp= 15^.
Angle (p increasing causes to decreasing of
extending stresses in roof at an area of workings
connection oy=-0.08, and then (when {(p=15^) they
278
are almost not watched oy=0.01. For all this
concentration of vertical pressure along both sides of
the main working is appreciably decreases (max
oy=1.19 when (^=45^ and max oy=1.17 when
(p=15^) above narrow pillar and sizes of zones of
stresses concentration decreases too. Besides, at roof
of workings, where moving stresses decrease when
additional working forming sizes of zone of stresses
concentration decrease too.
For conditions of vertical pressure prevailing in
unmined massif formation and development of
zones of vertical pressure concentration occurs
similarly hydraulic-static pressure. However in this
case values of stresses are rather higher. So, for
example, in the first case (Z=2m, (^=15^) maximal
vertical stress above narrow pillar is equally
i^=1.22, and in the second case oy=1.41.
Predominant vertical pressure has an influence on
formation of more strong extending stresses in roof
at area of workings connection. Maximal extending
stresses (the same minimal main stresses) when
^=15^ reach values -0.31-^-0.34, and when ^=45^
and (^=75^ are correspondingly 0.21-^-0.22.
At a plane this distribution looks differently.
Zones of moving stresses concentration when
vertical pressure prevailing are watched near
workings' walls and not above workings themselves.
For all variants of calculations additional
working's length L increasing causes the appreciable
increase of stresses concentration from the side of
narrow pillar, at the opposite side of the main
working stresses increase not highly, for all this they
decrease at roof, and they practically not change at
floor.
The third studying case - the case of prevailing
horizontal stresses. This situation is typical for the
Zhezkazgan deposit where the main horizontal
stresses may exceed vertical stress up by 2-^7 times
/5/. Taking account of the fact that with a
development of mining operations horizontal
stresses decrease calculation were carried out for the
following dimensionless stresses: oy=l- vertical
pressure (minimal main pressure CTmin^), CTmax^=3
(maximal main horizontal pressure); crmid^=l-5
(middle main stress taking place at a horizontal
plane). Analysis was carried out for different
orientation relative to the main horizontal stresses.
Calculations were carried out for angle (p between
workings which is equal to 75^, for the same length
of additional working (Z=2m, 7m and 20m
correspondingly). Angle v|/ (fig. 3) between axis Oz
of the main working and direction of action of the
maximal main stress cjmax was taken -60^, -30^, 0^,
30^ 60^ and 90^
As an example let's demonstrate a process of
stresses re-distribution at area of workings
connections when v|/=60^. At area of workings
connection when the first stage of the additional
working {L=2 m) driving stresses at the roof of the
main working are rather decreased. When further L
increasing a pattern of oy distribution at this area is
practically not changed. Along both sides of the
main working at area of its connection with
additional working in contrast to previous variants
unloading of zone of concentration takes place
(o^=0.7). As before, maximal value c^=1.41 is
watched fore of the face of additional working.
When its length L increasing zone of concentration
<jy moves together with the face (max c^=1.28 when
L=7 m), and then it causes to forming of isolated
zones of stresses concentration <jy at pillars. When
L=2m maximal moving crmov=3.30 and compressing
CTonax <Tmax”6.82 stresses are watched at the roof of
the main working. Already at the first stage of
additional working driving at pillars zones of
unloading begin to form: min cr^ov<0.85 and min
crmax<2.7. Further increase of the length of additional
working causes to formation of one more zone of
unloading at the massif from the side of the main
working which is opposite that side where driving of
additional working is carried out. Sizes of zones of
load continue to increase. Finally maximal zone of
unloading forms in more narrow pillars (L=20 m,
CT/nov<0.85, c^<2.6).
Fig. 3. Volumetric tension of untouched array and
projections of principal stresses to plane Ox.
Analogous pattern of unloading of the roof of
workings' connections is watched for the rest of
variants of calculations. However, when ^¿/=-30^,
y/=0^, i//=30^ decrease of stresses <jy at walls of the
main working is not watched. Maximal moving amo\
maximal compressing cxmax stresses form at roof of
additional working, whereas when yf=-60^, if/=60^,
yr=9Qp such stresses form at roof of the main
working, such that substantial unload takes place of
walls of the main working from vertical stresses oy.
Zone of concentration of stresses oy at pillars
becomes displaced deep into massif approximately
up by 2 cm.
Analysis of the investigations allows to conclude
that values, receiving at the points of plane, enough
reliably present a pattern of distribution of stresses
in the vicinity of workings' connection and may be
279
used for estimation of coefficients of stresses'
concentration for this area. Concentrations of
stresses were fixed not only at pillars between
workings, but at near-face area of additional
working too, where their dependence is watched on
a distance between faces.
For evaluations it may be recommended to use the
following coefficients of concentration of vertical
stresses: ki=k2 =k3 =\.A (correspondingly for
narrow and wide pillars between workings and also
for concentration of stresses in massif from the side
of the main working, which is opposite that one
where the additional working was driven). As
coefficients maximal values were selected. When
y/=9Qp ^7=^2=1.3 must be taken.
For horizontal stresses prevailing unload of area
of workings' connection may estimate by the
following coefficients: ki=k2=0.9 (for narrow and
wide pillar between workings correspondingly) and
^5=1.0 (concentration of stresses in massif from the
side of the main working, which is opposite that one
where additional working was driven). When
estimating coefficients ki-ks must be multiplied by a
value of the maximal main stresses cjmax^ at unmined
massif
Distance 1 between centre of face of additional
working and the nearest wall of the main working
may be calculated by the formula:
1 = L simp + [(b cosq))/2],
where b - width of additional working.
Zone of influence of the main working may be
approximately estimated as 2a, where a - width of
the main working. When estimating in this area
coefficient of stresses' concentration ^=1.5 may be
used. Unfortunately, analysis of stresses at plane
placing above workings not allows to determine
coefficient of concentration of horizontal stresses at
near-face area of additional working. However,
taking account of the fact that in calculations linear-
elastic model of rock massif was used it is possible
to assume that this coefficient in this area is also
within the limits of this value. So, maximal
concentration of stresses at near-face area of
additional working it is possible to estimate as
CONCLUSION
Analysis of investigations allows to conclude that
values of stresses which were calculated for plane’s
points, represent with sufficient authenticity pattern
of stresses distribution in the vicinity of workings
connections, and they may be used for determination
of coefficient of stresses concentration for this
district. Concentrations of stresses, as it established,
are not only at pillars between workings but at near­
face district of additional working where
dependence is observed against distance between
faces.
REFERENCE

1. Kayupov M.A., Uisimbaeva S.Z., Sakurai Sh.,

Murtazaev M.A. Adaptable scheme of integration in
the method of boundary elements // Dep.
KazgosINTI, No 5634/Ka95 27.02.1995.
2. Aleksandrov A.Ya. Solution of three-
dimensional problems of theory of elasticity for
bodies of unspecified form by the way of numerical
realization of the method of integral equations
//Reports of AS of the USSR. 1997. vol.208, No2.
P.291-294.
3. Erzhanov Zh.S., Veksler Yu.A., Zhdankin
N.A., Kolokolov S.V. Mechanism of initiation of
dynamic phenomena at development headings.
Alma-Ata, 1986. 320 p.
4. Hocking G. Three-dimensional elastic stress
distribution around the flat and of cylindrical cavity
// Int.J. Rock Mech. Mining Sci. 1976. >fo 13. P.331-
337.
5. Tchabdarova Yu.L, Zhuzhkov Yu.V., Bukin
A.N. Rock pressure at anticlinal structures of
Zhezkazgan. Alma-Ata, 1980. 195 p.

280
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 178 3

Determination o f behaviours o f loads distribution on pillars

when overlapping ledges mining

T.M.Ermekov, K.Kh.Nugmanov, Yu.LChabdarova, A.A. Bukin & S.KJapayev

Kunaev's Institute of Mining, National Academy of Sciences, Almaty, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT: Within boundaries of central ore field of Zhezkazgan copper 82% of all reserves are concen­
trated at overlapping ledges with different extent of overlap and with thickness of interlayers from 0.5 up to
10 or more metres. Mining of ledges is carrying out mainly by chamber-and-pillar system with open face.
When complete overlapping after chamber reserves extraction intricate geomechanical construction is formed
which may be pliant or stiff in different mining-and-geological conditions. In accordance with this loads are
formed on interchamber and barrier pillars. As a result of investigations of loads distribution on pillars when
extracting of chamber reserves at 3 overlapping ledges behaviours are established of loads forming on pillars
and their numerical values for different depths, different compositions of rocks and interlayers thickness, also
established for which it is possible pillars location independently from each other at every of layers overlap­
ping ledges.

INTRODUCTION studying process to nature and model when satisfy­

Difficulty of Zhezkazgan copper sand rocks de­ ing of scales of linear dimension, weight by volume,
force and strength characteristics. The objects of in­
posit mining is that commercial ore deposition is lo­
cated at suits of ledges at 9 ore-bearing levels which vestigations are interchamber and barrier pillars lo­
are separated from each other by rock interlayers of cated at 3 completely overlapping ledges which are
grey and red sand rocks or lean ores interlayers. separated by interlayers.
During experiments depth was changed from 100
Within boundaries of central ore field 82% of all re­
up to 300 m, thickness of interlayer, consisting of
serves are concentrated at overlapping ledges with
red-colour rocks, was taken as 8, 15 and 30 m. In the
different extent of overlap and with thickness of in­
model 9 panels were located - three at every level.
terlayers from 0.5 up to 10 or more metres.
Instrumental measurements were carried out for ICP
In accordance with useful components content
and BP of central panels of all 3 levels with the help
and thickness of interlayers mining of ledges is car­
of KTD-7A sensors and writing down of oscillo­
rying out separately or jointly mainly by chamber-
grams which then were decoded. In all 9 models
and-pillar system with open face. In spite of many
were tested.
years' standing experience of overlapping ledges
The results of decoding of sensors readings after
mining a problem of determination of loads on pil­
extraction of chamber reserves and calculations of
lars which locating at different layers and depths has
coefficients of loading on ICP and BP in comparison
no final decision.
with their original indications in unbroken massif
When complete overlapping after chamber re­
(before extraction of chamber reserves and ICP and
serves extraction intricate geomechanical construc­
BP forming) are presented in the table 1.
tion is formed: enclosing rocks and pillars, which are
Analysis of data of the table 1 shows that barrier
located at different levels separated by interlayers of
pillars of the bottom level (b.l) are the most loaded
different thickness. This construction in different
in a suit of 3 overlapping ledges, at the middle (m.l)
mining-and-geological conditions may be pliant or and the top levels (t.l) coefficients of load are corre­
stiff, depending on which loads are formed on inter­
spondingly 0.9 and 0.85 of k^oi the bottom level.
chamber (ICP) and barrier (BP) pillars. For estima­
For this maximum value of k^ is noted when /?,=8 m
tion of loads on pillars for 3 overlapping ledges con­
with a tendency to its decreasing when thickness of
ditions investigations were carried out by the method
interlayer increasing up to 15-30 m. With an in­
of centrifugal simulation with equivalent materials
crease of depth of mining (decreasing of L/H relati­
using. The method allows to save similarity of
onship when L = constant) k^ increases up by 20-

281
Table 1.Coefficients of loading on pillars for different depth and thickness of interlayer.
Depth of Degree of Thickness of
mining, H, overlap, L/H interlayer, hi l H for ICP kx for BP
h i, m t.l m.l b.l t.l m.l 2.4

100 1.5 0.08 0.67 0.61 0.58 2.0 2.14 2.75

200 0.75 0.04 0.55 0.51 0.48 2.45 2.57 2.9
300 0.5 0.027 0.53 0.50 0.45 2.6 2.75 1.9
100 1.5 15 0.15 0.71 0.67 0.64 1.57 1.71 2.4
200 0.75 15 0.075 0.60 0.57 0.53 2.0 2.28 2.7
300 0.5 15 0.05 0.54 0.50 0.47 2.3 2.5 1.6
100 1.5 30 0.3 0.75 0.71 0.65 1.4 1.5 2.2
200 0.75 30 0.15 0.68 0.60 1.8 2.06 2.4
300 0.5 30 0.1 0.55 0.52 0.40 2.1 2.3

Note: L - width of winning panel, m; k^ - coefficient of load on ICP in fraction by yHS^i^ (column of overburden rock strata); -
coefficient o f load on BP, which shows in how many times loads on BP are increased in comparison with weight of directly placing
above it column o f overburden rock strata.

-50%. Balance of loads with due account of their X2

redistribution on ICP and BP of all complex con­ and V, —+ 0^2
struction showed that on BP is pressed approxi­ X2 +«2
mately 70-80% of weight of all underworking rock Coefficients a j , a 1,^2 and a 2were estimated
strata within the limits of panel, that is why when BP when approximating of pair correlation depen­
calculating it is necessary to take ^jfor the bottom dences:
ledge and (0.9 and 0.85) - for the middle and the
top levels. M N
Li =- - + 0.5 and Lo - + 0.45
Behaviour of change of coefficient of load on M + 0.8 N + AA
ICP k^ is also run down by data of the table 1. ICP
pillars of the top level are more loaded when /i,=8, Calculation of parameters and a 2 was
15, 30 m and L/H = 0.5-1.5. From not complicated carried out proceeding from condition of minimal
calculations by data of the table 1 follows that coef­ sum of squares of variations of real data from data
ficient of loads ki at the middle and the top levels is calculated by the equation:
less than at the top level correspondingly by 5 and
10%. However in a purpose of mine safety, with EL(« o +(>\V\ +a 2 V2 ) - y f =min.
due account of variations of indexes entering in cal­
culated mathematical apparatus for determination of Special derivatives of this function by unknown
ICP parameters, their calculation at the middle and coefficients were equated to zero, on the base of that
the bottom levels must be carried out proceeding a system of linear equations was received. As a re­
from ki value for the top level. sult of its solution dependence was established of
Received data shows complex dependence between changes of coefficient of load k^ of interpillars as a
loads on ICP and degree of underworking of rock function of degree of underworking of overlaying
strata L/H and relationship of interlayer thickness to rock strata within the limits of winning panel and
depth of bedding of the top ledge h/H. Joint influ­ interlayer thickness - depth of mining up to the top
ence of these factors on value of loads on inter­ level relationship:
chamber pillars was evaluated with the help of cor­
relation analysis, smoothing out of experimental de- M N
pendenses - by the method of the lowest squares. On =0.45 + 0.2 - + 0.9-
M + 0,8 N + AA
the basis of plotted graphs of pair dependenses an
equation was offered of multiple correlation in the
form of linear combination of homographic func­ For the depth 400-600 m and interlayer thick­
tions: nesses, which are frequently encountered in condi­
tions of overlapping ledges of the Zhezkazgan de­
where V i=- - + ai posit, N value is changed from 0.25 up to 0.375,
Xi +ai M - from 0.01 up to 0.075.
Root-mean-square error of the equation, which is
equal to 0.021, shows that received dependence de-

282
scribes experimental data with sufficient accuracy. CONCLUSION
The data of the table 1 were the base for estima­
tion of minimum thickness of interlayer, showing The results of researches of loads distribution on
which overlapping ledges we may consider as iso­ pillars and definitions of their magnitudes are rec­
lated and place pillars independently from each ommended to use for definition of parameters inter­
other. When experimental data processing informa­ chamber and barrier pillars and their space arrange­
tion was taken about the most loading of structural ment on overlapping ledges at projection of their
elements in a suit of 3 overlapping ledges: for ICP of underground mining by a chamber-and-pillar sys­
the top level when L/H =1.5 and for BP of the bot­ tem.
tom level when L/H =0.5.
When mathematical processing of experimental
data pair correlation dependences were received in
the form:
for ICP ^1 = 0 .7 7 -^,
hi
hi
for BP k, =1.3-
k -3
Variations of calculated values and ki from ex­
perimental data are not more then 6%. Curve of hy­
perbolic type ki = f {hj ) and ki =(p{hi) have as­
ymptotes which estimate a field of values of
where values of A:|and are practically slightly
changed. Carried out by the formulae above calcula­
tions corroborate this conclusion (table 2).
So, for interlayer consisting of the most weak red-
colour rocks with thiclmess more then 35 m further
increasing of and k^ is so small, that we may con
sider them practically invariable, and hj= 35 m - is
minimal thickness of interlayer - hi mm-
Therefore, when the thickness of interlayer in­
creasing from 5 up to 40 m studying construction

Table 2. For estimation o f minimal thickness of interlayer.

Thicness o f inter­ Comments
h
layer, /z., m

30 0.74 2.4 When hi chan-

35 0.744 2.39
40 0,747 2,38
45 0,75 2.37

transforms from compliant to more rigid, top levels

of overlapping ledges unload lower levels practically
slightly, load on ICP tends to a level of loading of
pillars of isolated ledge.
That is why when thickness of interlayer hi >35
m at overlapping ledges it is possible independent
place of ICP and BP.

283
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Influence o f blast on stability o f elements o f mine methods when repeated

mining o f deposits

T.M.Eraiekov, K.K.Tulebaev & S.Z.Uisimbaeva

Kunaev's Institute o f Mining, National Academy of Sciences, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Sh.A.Dildabayev
Institute of Mechanics and Machine Sciences, Almaty, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT : The questions of simulation of influence of explosion effects by extended cylindrical charges
are considered. The expressions of displacements and stress fields from concentrated force as “plane center of
expansion” are presented. By using boundary integral equation method the stress state strain of mines vicinity
during repeated exploitation by blasting procedure is discovered.

1.INTRODUCTION. these gases effect runs into parts of a second.

Many important problems arising in practice are
reduced to mathematical models and are described
by the partial differential equations. The seeking the
solution of these equations with specific conditions
is a class of problems that are known as boundary
valued problems. The solution of such problems is
possible to reach by different methods. For bodies
having complicated boundary, complex boundary
conditions, it is impossible to construct the analytical
solutions and in this case numerical-analytical meth­
ods are used. Here we shall illustrate questions of
using numerical-analytical method - of boundary
integral equation method for the solution of mining
geomechanics’ problems.
Dynamic effect of charge placed at the beginning
of chosen system of coordinates mathematically may
be described as concentrated mass force of "plane
center of expansion ", which components are
( 1)
OK:
Here D- charge power, 5(x)- delta function of Di-
rak,X0 ■function describing time behaviour at some
given interval of time, x = (jci, xf)
In homogeneous isotropic linear elastic undis­
turbed rock massif mass forces (1) generate a field of
displacements u(x, t) components of which are
(Dildabayev 1997):

2 MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF EXTENDED Dr,.

CYLINDRICAL CHARGES w,(x,0 =
Ijupclr
At production practice mining operations useful
0-=l,2). (2)
mineral extraction is carried by drilling-and-blasting (i-r/c,)
methods and it causes necessity of simulation of
dynamic processes taking place when blasting ef­ And stresses field cstj (x, t)\
fects. Mathematically explosion sources may be de­
scribed by concentrated pulsed functions. It is quite
rightfully, first of all, because of little diameter of r A ^ f(t-T)-f(t-r/c,)
^ dr-
cylindrical charge in comparison with other geomet­ i (J-r/c^)
ric dimensions of mine workings. Secondly, analysis
of physical process when blasting shows, that gases tfjt-r/c^) '3r*
which are produced as a result of explosive burning (3)
creates great pressure on surface of a cylindrical cav­ V
ity, where a charge was placed, prompting destruc­ f ( t - T ^ ) - f ( t - r l c ^ ) + ( T - r l C t ) f Q- r / c ^ )
dr +
tion of rock massif in vicinity of charge. Time of (t-r!c,r^

285
 t{ 2 t^ Ic h , made with time step Af that correspond to time 0,4
{t-rlc,f'^
r(2t^ +2/r/C| - r ^ Ic})
/(i-r/c,)
c^{t^■rlc^Xt-rlc^)''^
Where c\ - velocity of longitudinal elastic waves,
Cijki- elasticity constants, p- rock density, r=|xl,
r.i—xjr. Received formulas (2) and (3) allow to esti­
mate values of fields of displacements and stresses
in any point of endless linear elastic medium (un­
disturbed massif) at the every moment of time.
These formulas has of important practical signifi­
cance because up today when calculating approxi­
mate formulas are used which are correct only in
specific range of distances from source of blast.
Practically all they are applicable only for account of
maximum values of stresses and not present tempo­
ral pattern of the process. Here it is necessary to note
that in formulas of stresses for random point of me­
dium we have the square of distance from it to
charge, which characterizes degree of decrease of
stresses when moving off a charge.
At calculating a function which describes behav­
ior of the process in time the function /(/) =
was used where a - a time interval at which mass
force increases and then decreases and tends to zero
when / 00.
By formulas (2,3) values of stresses were calcu­
lated for particular values of elastic constants of rock
massif As control values distance from blast charge
were chosen which equal 5 m and 20 m, for which
there are experimental data received in mine condi­
tions.
3 INFLUENCE OF EXPLOSION ON MINES
Lets consider two interacting deposits located one
over another at the depth 200 m from day surfaces.
Panels of top and bottom deposits are placed in line
with each other and either panels includes 8 ex­
tended rectangle chambers of 15m width and 10m
height. Interchamber pillars (ICP) have width d = 8
m, height h= 10 m.
Undisturbed rock massif is considered as a ho­
mogeneous isotropic semi-space with the following
physical-mechanical characteristics: E = 1x10"^ MPa
- Young modules, G = 0,4x10"^ MPa - shearing
modulus, p = 0,25 - Poisson's ratio.
Numerical experiment was carried out for re­
peated mining of flank interchamber pillar by set of
charges placed vertically on middle line of pillar.
By the technique of boundary integral equation
method was sequential studying of process of form­
ing of dynamic field of stresses in elements of ex­
traction chamber (pillars, roof) and near-contour
massif depending on time. All calculations were
286
my or distance cit=2 m when c; = 5000 m/5).
Calculated data, received as a result of dynamic
problem solution, comply with instantaneous blast­
ing of 30-35 kg of explosive in one delay in rock
with decrement of absorption of seismic waves a =
0. 5.
Let's consider a case of dynamic loading of a
model where extraction of flank pillar of bottom
ledge was carried out when thickness interlayer is
minimum and equal AL = 5m. At the fist stage for
steps by time cy/=6m and c/i = 10 m we may see that
interlayer and chamber roof of bottom ledge are
subjected to dynamic effect, and it may be discerned
two sources for concentration of dynamic stresses.
One source 133 MPa by value is places in the center
of the interlayer that give a reason to consider this
area practically destroyed, the second source with
maximum vertical stresses equal cjyy = 109 MPa is
placed at a contour of immediate roof. So, when
support pillar breaking interlayer, abutting on ex­
tracted pillar and the most part of a chamber locating
at bottom ledge will be destroyed or lose their bear­
ing ability. Further when time step equal c//=14m,
1. e. when front of seismic waves extended up to 14
m, an area of dynamic stresses occurs which is lo­
cated at the center of ICP locating under extracted
pillar. In this area stresses reach Gyy = 20-30 MPa.
Direction of these stresses action from center to wall
plane of the support pillar, that promotes formation
of tensile stresses which are able to do split or series
of splits. In mine conditions when blasting ring of
boreholes condition is created for dynamic effect
which may replenish by energy an area which will
create conditions for numerous splits.
When considering step cjt = 28m, then dynamic
field of stresses covers some chambers and the most
part of interlayer in two pillars of bottom ledge
zones of increased stresses occur numerical value of
which not more than 8 MPa. The nature of these
zones formation is interesting. They were formed as
a result of two front’s collision, one of which moves
by roof-pillar, the other - by floor - pillar. Such in­
teraction may favor to resonance advent, which cre­
ates condition of maximum tensile stresses forma­
tion in horizontal plane.
Now let’s consider a pattern of dynamic stresses
when flank extraction is carried out of pillar when
interlayer thickness is equal AL = 10 m. On Figure 1
are shown the isolines of intensity of tangent
stresses:
- ^ y y f + i^yy-< ^zzf + ( < ^ » - ^ + 6o ly
The first pattern of re-distribution of seismic
stresses around mine workings when step cjt = 6 m;
10 m; 14 m is analogous to that it may observe when
 a) 6m
b) C}t= 10m
-8 -7
19-^
c) cit= 14m
Figure 1. Isolines of tangent stress intensity
interlayer thickness AL = 5m. Different is in that
front of dynamic stresses cover only breaking pillar
and a part of interlayer. To roof of bottom chambers
front of dynamic wave come up only when step cit=
18 m. Numerical values of dynamic stresses 1,5-2 as
large as similar stresses when AL = 5 m. It is neces­
sary to not that when time step cit= 34m at a quiet
and even in numerical aspect field of stresses, having
values in limits 5,0 MPa in support pillars anomalies
287
-5 -4 -3
at different time step
occur with maximum values c>yy= 15,0 MPa. As a
result of interference of two fronts of waves, when
not full attenuating of one part of waves on phase of
the same name blast waves of the other delay are
superimposed, resonance takes place. Practically
such may take place when using of short - delay
(SDB) with not right selected intervals of delay. On
the basis or results of mathematical simulation let’s
consider variant when extraction or support pillar
being carried out when interlayer thickness is equal technology of drilling-and-blasting operations using
AL = 20 m. Here it is necessary to take account of potential energy of covering rocks.
coefficient of absorption which substantially de­
crease amplitude of dynamic by distance. If we con­
sider wave’s pattern when step is t = 5; 7, so it is not REFERENCES
highly differ from wave’s pattern when breaking is
carried out when interlayer thickness is Am =5 m. 1. Dildabayev Sh.A. 1997. Simulation of cylindrical
But when cuts of time t = 10; 12, 14 appreciable blast actions on mines. In '"Modern problems o f
difference may be observed both in qualitative and rock"'AAA6. Almaty.
quantitative aspects. When interlayer thickness t= 5 2. Baykonurov O.A. 1979. The methods o f control o f
m all area under extraction pillar appears in a zone physical&technical parameters o f underground de­
characterizing of increased fracturing. Dynamic velopment o f ores. Alma-Ata: Nauka.
stresses at a contour of chamber roof have value
more than 100 MPa. When interlayer thickness is AL
= 20 m values of dynamic stresses in chamber roof
very in limits about 10 MPa.
Analyzing received wave’s pattern when cjt
=3 8m we again face with occurrence of composition
of falling down and reflecting waves now at roof of
extraction chambers. Here as a result of interference
tensile dynamic stresses increasing was taken place
up to 30 MPa which are able to provoke cleaving or
series splits a large area. Thickness of cleaving or
series of splits will be characterized first in the first
turn by cyclic recurrence and duration of dynamic
effect.
Analyzing nature of appearance of areas with in­
creased dynamic stresses which obliged to their ap­
pearance first of all, to interaction of two fronts of
waves, and secondly cyclic recurrence of blast effect,
it is possible to forecast such areas appearance and
when it is necessary to avoid their appearance by the
way of change of blasting pattern. It is necessary to
note that such anomalous areas form only at low
level, and there are no such areas at that level where
breaking of support pillar being carried out.
When extraction of the second and the third being
carried out when interlayer thickness is AL = 5; 10;
20 m, dynamic pattern of stresses distribution not
suffer of radical changes. Here it is necessary to pay
attention to that fact that large areas of roof of top
ledge with extent 40 and 60 m have no supports.

4 CONCLUSIONS

Received calculations of d)mamic stresses ayy and

axx are evidence of the fact that extra effect 1,2 and
3-flank pillars of top ledge causes to situation when
within working panels high compression and tensile
stresses may drive the most part of the working area
to unstable condition. It is especially necessary to
mark converged ledges having interlayer with thick­
ness AL=5 m. Here zone of dynamic stresses, which
may cause the destruction, in maximum, and when
AL=20 m this zone is minimum. Carried out analysis
of received data of mathematical simulation gives a
basis to say that when repeat mining of converged
ledges it is necessary to carry out seismic-saving

288
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Geotechnical features for quarrying abandoned underground marble voids;

The Monte A ltissim o example, Apuane Range

M.Fomaro, R.Gennaro & C.Oggeri

Department of Georesources and Land, Polytechnic of Turin, Italy

ABSTRACT: In this paper the case history of an old underground quarry is presented. The quarry is located
in Tuscany (Italy), in the Alpi Apuane range. The problem of old quarries is the stability of the natural
structures, that is, roofs and sidewalls. For the assessment of the stability of the voids some analyses are here
discussed with the aim of furnishing an operative tool for an eventual re-opening of the exploitation.

1 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW limestone of sedimentary origin.

The marble basin of Monte Altissimo, which
belongs to the Alpi Apuane range, is located in
Versilia, in Tuscany (Italy).
The Monte Altissimo marble formation has been
known since the XVI century, in fact in the first
years of the ‘500 many famous artists such
asMichelangelo Buonarroti, Gianbologna, Vasari,
Ammannati, and others, came in this region to
obtain the material for their works. Michelangelo
transferred his activities to these mountains on the
suggestion of Papa Leone X, who knew that the
marbles present in this region were of the same
quality as those from the Carrara basin. He also
ordered some accessory works in this area, e.g. the
reclamation of some land in the valley and the road
to the sea, that is still used by the existing quarries.
In those years some of the local quarries were sold
to the Florentine managers, and this gave a strong
impulse to the extractive activities, while other roads
were opened to make the transportation of the
marble blocks, from the quarries to the valley easy.
At the beginning of the XIX century, an ex
Napoleonic officer purchased the Monte Altissimo
lands, and further developed the extractive
activities, thus many new quarries were opened.
2 THE QUARRY
Apuan marbles are the result of a process of re­
crystallisation, as a consequence of orogenic
pressure, that has involved a consistent strata of
The marble ore body of Monte Altissimo is
positioned at the centre of a wide synclinal whose
axis is elongated in the NNO/SSE direction, where
the marble lies on a complex of dolomitic rocks.
These two rock types are separated by some thin
layers of conglomeratic stone, which represent an
appreciated material due to their colours (grey, red
or green). Among the numerous types of white
marble extracted in this area, the most famous and
precious is the “statuary marble”, formed by some
ferric oxides dispersed within a nearly pure
limestone (98-99% CaCOa).
The Tacca Bianca quarry, the subject of the
present work, lies on the SW side of Monte
Altissimo, where, until twenty years ago, there were
about ten quarries, the most of which have been
closed as a consequence of a series of technical-
administrative problems, which required some
conspicuous investments for their solution.
The exploitation sites of the Tacca Bianca quarry,
which are mainly underground, are located at two
different levels at elevations 1081 m (figure 1) and
1190 m , respectively. On the first level the marble
was extracted from a large parallelepiped shaped
cavern, about 100 m in length, 20 m in width and 60
m in height (figure 2), opened by two little old
tunnels at the elevation of 1126 m. In the upper
level, the exploitation of the marble was carried out
both underground and on the surface, where there
are some sub-vertical faces with heights of 30-40 m.
At the beginning, the exploitation of the marble was
was not based on any particular scheme, so the
existing void shape is very complicated and

289
 a \ V
Figure 1. The adit of the cavern (elevation 1081 m).
irregular; as a consequence of this both the study and
the design of the future, eventual, excavation sites,
could result to be very difficult and complex.
In recent years, as a consequence of the increase in
demand of precious ornamental stones, the
opportunity to reopen this old quarry has been taken
into account, as there is still a big quantity of the
“statuary marble”. For this reason a feasibility study
was carried out to verify the present conditions of
the rock mass around the cavern and to suggest some
indications for the development of the existing
exploitation sites.
3 CHARACTERIZATION OF THE ROCK MASS
As a consequence of the bad conditions of the quarry
adits which would not allow the passage of ordinary
mechanical equipment, it was not possible to carry
out any detailed surveys such as prospective holes,
field stress measurements, etc.
The data relative to the rock mass, in particular as
far as the discontinuities are concerned were
obtained from a series of geomechanical surveys
carried out according to ISRM recommendations,
and by means of some laboratory tests on the intact
rock.
290
Figure 2. An internal view of the exploitation room.
Five principal systems of discontinuities have been
identified. These systems present relatively low
persistence values of persistence relatively low (1-3
m), except for some isolated fractures that affect all
the extension of the faces, and spacing which vary
from some decimetres to some meters. These
discontinuities are, generally, plane and closed, with
high compressive wall strength, as demonstrated by
some Schmidt hammer tests. Generally the structure
of the rock mass is reasonably good, as also
confirmed by the old sidewalls of the voids, which
do not present any evidence of falls.
The properties of the intact rock have been
determined through laboratory testing; in particular
tests was carried out on the compressive strength
(uni and triaxial), on the tensile strength (flexural
failure) and on the dynamic elastic modulus (wave
propagation velocity measure).
On the basis of these results it has been possible to
derive the basic assumptions for the creation of the
theoretical models, used for the stability analyses.
The fundamental assumption is relative to the rock
mass, that has been considered as a discontinuous
medium, in consequence of the real structural
characteristics, because the sizes of the blocks are of
the same order as those of the voids.
4 STABILITY ANALYSES
4.1 Wedge stability
The analyses carried out during this study was
mainly directed to the determination of the present
conditions of the rock mass around the underground
voids, with particular attention to the stress and the
strain state. Two different types of analyses have
been used for these examinations: one relative to the
local stability of the single sidewalls, and the other,
more complex and detailed, relative to the global
safety of the underground.
In this fractured rock mass, it could occur that
some blocks of rock are separated from the mass, as
a consequence of the intersection of two or more
discontinuity systems. These “isolated” blocks, can
present more complex three-dimensional shape, and
which can move in many different ways.
This particular problem can be examined with the
“Key Block Theory” (Goodman e Shi 1981, 1982,
1985), that allows the definition of the shape of the
isolated blocks, through some simple geometrical
relations on the plane of the discontinuities and the
excavation surfaces. These blocks can become
unstable as a consequence of the applied forces, of
their shape and their position within the mass. When
the key blocks fall down, they create new free
spaces and other previously stable blocks can move,
starting new displacements of a large quantity of
rock, which are sometimes very fast and
consequently dangerous.
This method can be divided into two main parts:
the first is relative to the definition of the shape and
the position of the removable blocks, which will be
Figure 3. Stereographic projection for the individuation of the unstable blocks.
291
studied, in the second part, according to the of limit
equilibrium criteria, to calculate the safety factor of
the rock elements.
Using stereographic orthogonal projection
properties it is possible to individuate the
combination of discontinuity planes and free
surfaces, which could cause the formation of
removable blocks; the same projections allow the
identification of the type of movement, that these
blocks will be subject to.
In this case this theory has been used to verify the
walls and the roof of the exploitation underground
cavern, on which many geological surveys have
been carried out and so it was therefore possible to
make a series of very realistic models. The software
that elaborates the relations proposed by Goodman
and Shi, in fact, allows one to represent the faces
with their discontinuities, with all their
characteristics (orientation, length, position,
cohesion and friction angle). A further option of this
program allows one to mix the discontinuities,
without changing their own characteristics and the
ones of the side; in this way it is possible to
represent a hypothetical situation that could occur
during the progress of the excavations.
In order to create as realistic as possible models,
the analyses has been carried out only on the faces
examined during the geological surveys. Generally
the height of these surveyed faces is lower than 3 or
4 meters, for obvious operative reasons. Therefore,
in the analyses, this restriction is not so important,
because the conditions of the other areas of the faces
could be simulated by the pseudo-maps generated
mixing the discontinuities.

//'X // ' \ \ \ ^ \ \ \
II 1 1
/ /
Figure 4. Discontinuity maps: a) real map; b) and c) pseudo-real maps.
The analysis of the stereographic projections,
elaborated in the first part of these analyses, show
that, in most cases, the orientations of the
discontinuities and of the excavation surfaces favour
to the formation of removable blocks. The
stereographic projection relative to a vertical side,
oriented in the W-E direction is shown in figure 3.
The intersection of the planes generates a series of
regions, that are indicated with a correspondent
series of numbers, which represent respectively the
upper (0) and the lower (1) half-space relative to
each plane. The position of these regions, with
respect to the trace of the free surface, define the
type of block; the regions that correspond to the
removable blocks are the finite ones which are
positioned in the half-space that correspond to the
free space (where the rock has already been
excavated). In the case reported in this figure, the
regions that correspond to the removable blocks are
the ones indicated in grey.
In the second part of the analysis, some maps of
the fractured faces are generated, on which the traces
of the discontinuities and the eventual unstable
blocks are represented. One of these maps is
reported in the figure 4, where it is possible to notice
that there are no unstable blocks (no connections
between the traces).
In conclusion, the results of these analysis show,
for each analysed face, that the orientation of the
discontinuities are favourable for the formation of
removable blocks, but, as a consequence of the low
persistence of the joints, these blocks do not form.
These final considerations are supported by the great
number of simulations that have been carried out on
all the faces of the cavern.
292
/
\
\ y / / a)
/ \ x /
b)
These simulations have been performed by also
elaborating many pseudo-real maps, obtained by
mixing the discontinuities, as previously explained.
4.2 Discontinuous modelling
Subsequently, a further analysis was performed, by
means of a bi-dimensional discontinuous model of
the distinct elements, to examine the global stability
of the voids. This study was carried out using the
UDEC code (Universal Distinct Elements Code -
Itasca Consulting Group) which allows both a
representation of the behaviour of the rock and the
behaviour of the joints, and the rock mass results
made up by an ensemble of blocks separated by
discontinuities.
This calculation code uses an explicit resolution
scheme. The fundamental equations that govern the
system are: the force-displacement law, the motion
law (Newton’s 2"^ equation) and the constitutive
laws of the materials. By applying these equations it
is possible to update both the displacements and the
forces applied to the elements of the system, until a
satisfactory equilibrium condition is obtained.
In this case, in order to study the evolution of the
stresses and of the strain during the progress of the
excavations, a model that examins a generical
transversal section (orientation: 265/90), located in a
central position with respect to the longitudinal
extension of the cavern, has been set up. As
predicted, the model is composed of an ensemble of
rock blocks separated by joints, oriented according
to the orientation of the principal discontinuity
systems, which have been derived from the
geological surveys. On the basis of these
assumptions, three different fracturation systems
Figure 5. Detail plot of displacements around the cavern at the end of the explotation.
have been considered: K1 (74/160) and K2 (68/353)
with their dips aproximately orthogonal to the
analysed section; K3, which is represented by sub­
horizontal traces on the model, groups all the other
systems whose dips have the same direction of the
analysed section.
The behaviour of the joints is represented by the
Mohr-Coulomb slip model, based on the stress-strain
law applied both in the normal and in the tangential
direction: in this law the strain increases are
proportional to the correspondent stress increases
(this two quantities are related by the normal and the
tangential stiffness).
The intact rock has been assumed as an elastic-
plastic material, for which the Mohr-Coulomb
failure criteria, with non associated flow rule, has
been adopted.
To complete the geometry of the model it has been
necessary to define the boundary conditions,
represented both by the external constraints and by
the applied forces. The constraints correspond to a
series of vertical and horizontal supports, positioned
respectively along the horizontal and the vertical
boundaries, which prevent any movement in the
perpendicular direction of the boundaries; the
external forces that act on the system are
represented, in this case, by only the gravity. The
dimensions of the model are very relevant so as to
avoid any effect of the boundary constraints on the
region where the cavern will be excavated.
After the definition of all the geometrical and
geomechanical properties of the model, it is possible
to start with the calculation, during which all the
293
operations that could change the geometry and the
property of the rock mass (excavation,
reinforcement,...) are simulated. Each of these
changes induces some disturbance to the system, so
it is necessary to take it back to a stable level
through a series of calculations.
The final geometry of the void is obtained by
simulating the excavation of a series of benches of 6
m in height and with a width equal to the one of the
cavern.
The displacements of the rock around the
exploitation room are mainly due to the movement
of the blocks along the discontinuities, as also
confirmed by an examination of the direction of the
displacement vectors, which generally result be
parallel to the joints (figure 5).
As a consequence of the excavation of the first
bench, the vertical stresses are reduced, in particular
in the region of the roof, where the rock can be
totally destressed or in tensile stress conditions.
During the progress of the excavation, the vertical
stress state remains almost unchanged.
At the same time the horizontal stresses decrease,
along the vertical side, where they can also assume
values of some kPa in traction (0^1 MPa).
Table 1. Geomechanical properties of the rock used
in the Udec simulation.
p , E c <t>
Material
(kN/m^) (MPa) (MPa) (°)
Intact rock 2.7 58000 5 42
Discontinuities - 0.1 32
 In conclusion, the final results of the simulation are
quite reliable, as both the strains and the stresses
around the excavation are sufficiently low and
perfectly compatible with the properties of the rock.
5 TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The re-opening of an abandoned quarry presents a
series of risks, which must be investigated and
resolved through some detailed investigations, while
considering the stability and the economic factors,
that could condition the feasibility project to a great
extent.
The analyses carried out in this preliminary study
are not sufficient to establish an effective degree of
safety of the underground exploitation sites, but they
are important because they allow to a definition of a
preliminary indicative scheme for the future
development of the exploitation, which shall be
verified during the executive planning.
Before starting with the excavation it will be
necessary to stabilize the walls of the existing voids,
removing all the old installations for the extraction
of the marble, such as the pulleys for the helicoidal
wire or those for the motioning of the blocks. At the
same time a scaling should be carried out and,
successively, some steel bolts with wire mesh
placed, in particular on the roof, to protect the
workers and the machinery from any eventual falls
of small rock blocks.
Another preliminary job is related to the
adjustment of the access road, that should be
enlarged, already in this first phase, so as to allow
the passage of mechanical equipments.
As far as the excavation method is concerned it
will be necessary to excavate a new access tunnel, to
enter in the upper part of the ore body, so as to
create a new series of benches, to go down towards
the present floor. This tunnel could be excavated by
chain saw, which could allow the extraction of some
marble blocks, already during the development
phase.
Successively, for the extensive exploitation wire
diamond equipment could also be used, principally
for the vertical cut, whereas, the chain saw could be
used again for the horizontal cuts and for the tunnel
drifts.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The study carried out on this underground quarry is
only the first step of a series of work for the final
design, which will take into account all the aspects
294
of the extractive activities (stability of the
underground, safety of the sites, technical
equipment, economical aspect, etc.).
In these preliminary stability analyses, the present
state of the rock mass has been examined, to find all
the eventual unstable situations, so as to suggest
some solutions for the rock reinforcement and for
the exploitation plan.
In the further analyses, a three-dimensional model
could be used, to study, in more detailed way, the
stress and strain state of the rock, especially in the
pillar or at the cross between the cavern and the old
lateral access tunnels.
A series of field surveys (stress and strain
measurements), to define the effective state of rock
around the voids would complete the study. In this
way it will be possible to check the results of these
first analyses, and eventually correct the
geomechanical properties introduced in the models,
so as to perform further more detailed analiyses and
verify the suitability of the predictions.
The authors have given the same contribution to the
extent of this paper, whose funds have been
supplied by a MURST project on quarry exploitation
(Prof G. Gecchele).
REFERENCES
Graverò, M. and labichino, G. (1997).
“Geomechanical study for the exploitation of an
underground marble quarry”. Int. Joum. of Rock
Mech. & Mining Sci., Vol.34.
Del Greco, O., Fomaro, M. and Oggeri, C. (1999).
“Underground dimension stone quarrying: rock
mass structure and stability”. Proc. Int. Symp. on
Mining Science and Technology, Beijing,
August, Balkema, pp.385-390.
Fomaro, M., (1999) "La coltivazione in sotterraneo
delle rocce ornamentali". GEAM. Quaderni di
studio e documentazione. Voi. 22. Torino.
Gennaro, R., (1999) "Analisi delle condizioni
geomeccaniche di stmtture rocciose per la ripresa
di una grande coltivazione di marmo in
sotterraneo sul Monte Altissimo". Graduating
thesis, unpublished Politecnico di Torino.
Oreste, P., Peila, D. and Oggeri, C. (2000).
“Stability analyses of a large cavern for quarrying
exploitation of a pink marble in Italy”. Tunnelling
and Underground Space Techn., (accepted for
publishing).
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Stability analysis o f M aydook Copper mine

K.G.Goshtasbi
Department of Mining Engineering, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran
M .Hosseini
Department of Mining Engineering, Imam Khomeini International University, Iran

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the results of an investigation that was carried out in order to analyze the
stability of slopes in Maydook open cast mine. Field and laboratory investigations were carried out and the
obtained mechanical, physical and structural properties of the rock mass were then used in the stability analysis
models. The Maydook open cast mine was analyzed by finite difference method and the code utilized according
to this method was FIAC. Results of the analysis that are presented as contours of stress, displacement and
safety factor show that there are no plane failure in the mine.

1 INTRODUCTION Field investigations were carried out on all parts

The factor of safety of mine slopes can be
determined by using either empirical, numerical,
limit equilibrium or physical methods (Giani, 1992).
In recent years numerical modeling has widely been
used in the design of surface and underground
mines (Pande, 1990). There are numerous
numerical softwares available for slope stability
analysis. However only a number of those can
simulate rock mass structures with discontinuities
and using Mohr-Coulomb and Hoek and Brown
rock mass strength criteria. One of these codes is
FLAC (ITASCA, 1991) which is based on finite
difference method. The FLAC software was used
to analyze the stability of Maydook open cast mine.
Maydook mine is one of the biggest copper mine in
Iran and is situated 132 kilometers north west of
Kerman province, in central part of Iran.
2 GEOLOGIC CONDITIONS
of the mine and the data were then analyzed by
DIPS software. The analyzed data show that there
are two major joint sets in the mine. Their dip/dip
directions are 62/24 and 55/285 respectively.
3 GEOMECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Series of laboratory investigations were carried out
in order to determine the physical and mechanical
properties of rocks and joints.
As the copper deposit is within andesite rock,
the determination of its material properties is
essential in order to design the slope. With this
respect physical property tests, point load, uniaxial
compressive, tensile and shear strength tests were
carried out. The experimental data were then
analyzed and the required parameters needed for
model simulation were calculated. The rock mass
properties and joint properties are out lined in
Table 1 and Table 2 respectively.

Maydook region is surrounded by volcanic rocks Table 1. Rock mass properties.

that are in contacts with sedimentary rocks, dikes Property Value
and porphyry stocks. Minor faults exist in the Tensile strength (Mpa) 3.43
Cohesion (Mpa) 0 .3 2
deposit, however there is non presence of any Friction Ang. (deg.) 50
major faults in the area. In volcanic and porphyry Unit weight (MN/m^) 0 .0 2 3 2
rocks shear zones exist. The Maydook deposit is Bulk Mod. (Gpa) 7.3
almost circular in shape with a diameter of almost Shear Mod. (Gpa) 4 .4
400 m.

295
Table 2. Joint properties.
Property Value
Friction Ang. (deg.) 30
Cohesion (Kpa) 25
3
Dial. Ang. (deg.)
Tensile strength (Mpa) 0 vertical and horizontal displacements are fixed.
4 NUMERICAL MODELING
The Maydook open cast mine was analyzed by
finite difference method and the code used
according to this method was FLAG.
This software simulates elastic and elasto-plastic
behavior of soil and rock structures. Materials are
represented by elements or zones that form a grid
that can be adjusted to fit the shape of the object to
be modeled. The FLAG software can model linear
and non-linear behavior of rock structures. It also
has the capability to model large strain condition
and simulate static & dynamic loading such as earth
quake.
4.1 Model analysis
The model was built up and the desire boundary
conditions were then set. The FLAG’Subiquitous
joint model was used. This model is heterogeneous
plasticity model that assumes a series of weak
planes embedded in a Mohr-Coulomb solid.
296
The grid mesh of rock slope is shown in Figure 1.
The grid mesh is 50 by 40. The horizontal
displacement is fixed on both left and right
boundaries while along the bottom boundary both
5 STABILITY ANALYSIS
The model simulation procedure was checked by
the resulting unbalanced force. The model
converged to an equilibrium state when the
unbalanced force in all the nodes in the model was
below lO'"^. With this respect the model ran
successfully and the achieved results are shown in
Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4. The displacement
vectors of the model is shown in Figure 2. The
maximum displacement is 2.5 mm and hence no
failure occurs. Figure 3 shows velocity vectors of
the model where maximum velocity is 6.28 E-11
m/s.
Figure 4 shows contours of safety factor being
calculated for rock slopes according to Mohr
Goulomb strength criterion. The minimum factor of
safety is 1.5. Therefore the factor of safety in all
parts of the slope is above 1.5 which clearly
indicates that no plane failure occurs in the mine
and the proposed slope is stable.
(<10^1 )
Figure 2. Model displacement vectors.

FLRC Z .2 T

S tep Z 4S 4 3 0
V e l o c i t y v e c t o r s
Max V e c t o r = 6 .2 8 T E - 1 1
B ou nd ary p l o t

Figure 3. Model Velocity vectors.

FLflC 2 . 2 7

step 24S430
rio hr-C aulam b S a f e t y F a c to r
Conto ur i n t e r v a l = 1 .5 D E 4 D D
s a f e t y f a c t o r s >10 o m i t t e d
B: 1 .5 0 0 E 4 0 0
F: 7 .5 0 0 E 4 0 0
Boundary plot

Figure 4. Contours of safety factor.

297
6 CONCLUSIONS

The FLAC code that is based on finite difference

method is a powerful tool for stability analysis of
mine slopes. In order to achieve the desire results
from the stability analysis it is essential that proper
models are used and the geomechanical properties
of joint and rock mass are measured with great
care.
The results gained from the analysis show that the
bench of Maydook open cast mine having a slope
of 69 degree, the safety factor in all parts of the
slope is above 1.5. This indicates that there is no
plane failure in the mine. The maximum
displacement in the model was 2.5 mm that
indicates the slope is stable and no failure occurs.

REFERENCES

Automac 1988. Maydook Copper deposit

geological report, Maydook open cast mine
library.
Automac 1988. Maydook Copper deposit
exploration report, Maydook open cast mine
library.
Giani,G.P. 1992. Rock slopes stability analysis :
Balkema.
ITASCA Consulting group 1991. FLAC manual,
Vol. I & II.
Pande,G.N., Beer,G. & Williams, J.R. 1990.
Numerical methods in rock mechanics: John
Wiley & Sons.

298
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The effect o f shock load on the stability o f tunnels

K.G.Goshtasbi & M.Mohamadi

Department of Mining Engineering, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT: The paper presents the results of an investigation that was carried out in order to analyze the
stability of tunnels due to shock loads. The dynamic behavior of the tunnels due to shock loads were
investigated using finite element method in which LUSAS 3-D finite element code was utilized. The structural
behaviors of all models were non linear elasto plastic. With this respect the effect of depth and geomechanical
parameters are studied. The tunnels were modeled using three different depths and rock types namely soft,
medium and hard rocks. The results of static, pseudo-static and dynamic analysis show that tunnels under
shock loads are more unstable at lower depth than those of higher depth.

1 INTRODUCTION dynamic displacement and stress analysis of

Underground structures at certain conditions may
be affected by dynamic loads. The dynamic loads
could be due to either explosion at surface or
underground. The deformation and induced stresses
of underground structures due to dynamic loading
differ greatly from that of static loading. Hence the
protection of underground structures such as tunnel
against probable explosion and the effect of wave
propagation is very important.
Many researchers such as St.John and Zahra
(1987), Brady (1993), Sinha(1997), etc., have used
different methods to study the effect of dynamic
loads on the stability of underground structures.
However in this study the effects of shock loads are
investigated by finite element method in which it
has widely been used in static and dynamic analysis.
However the method has its own advantages and
disadvantages in relation to rock mechanics
problems.
2 LUSAS FINITE ELEMENT CODE
The dynamic behavior of tunnels due to shock
loads are investigated using finite element analysis
in which LUSAS (Fea ltd. Co., 1998) finite element
code was used. LUSAS is a general purpose 3-D
finite element code that can be used for static and
structures, solids and fluid systems. LUSAS can
analyze linear and non-linear behavior of structures.
It can consider both geometrical and material non­
linearity.
3 NUMERICAL MODELING
The numerical mesh is generated by elements being
chosen from LUSAS element library. The elements
used for static and pseudo static analysis differ from
those for dynamic analysis. The HX8 3-D solid
continum element was used for static and pseudo
static analysis. However for the dynamic analysis
the PN6E 3-D solid continum explicit dynamic and
HX8E 3-D solid continum elements were used.
3.1 Description o f the models
The first stage in the numerical modeling is the
development of geotechnical model. In this study
the structure analyzed is an arched shape tunnel
having dimensions of 6.8 by 6.8 meters. Many
models were analyzed under different loading
conditions in order to investigate the effect of depth
and geomechanical parameters on the stability of
tunnels.
The models were analyzed at depth of 20, 40
and 100 meters. The effects of geomechanical

299
parameters were simulated by using material 4H
properties related to soft, medium and hard rocks. (1)

These parameters were gathered from tunnel

projects being carried out in different rock
conditions at various parts of Iran. Table 1 shows where T is the natural period, H is overburden
the material properties that are used in the model. It height, g is gravity, G is shear modulus and y is
should be noted that the term soft, medium and unit weight of structure material. After calculating
hard rocks used is only a comparison of strength the natural period of each structure and having the
values related to this study for investigating three impact load time and using related curves the
different rock conditions. dynamic load factor of each structure can be
Therefore, in all 27 models were analyzed. Nine calculated. These factors were calculated to be
of these models were analyzed in static condition, between 1.2 to 1.4 for the models analyzed.
nine in pseudo static and nine in dynamic condition.
Out of the nine models, three were in soft, three in 4.3 Dynamic loading
medium and three in hard rocks at depth of 20, 40
and 100 meters respectively. Shock load is used as a dynamic load on the
models. The magnitude of this load depends on the
amount of explosion used and is related to time.
Table 1. Material Properties Therefore a typical load time curve due to
property soft medium hard explosion is used for such an analysis. The dynamic
rock rock rock
load curve that is used in this study is shown in
Young’s modulus (Mpa) 900 1500 5000
U.C.S. (Mpa) 15 60 100
Figure 1. This curve is determined by the following
Cohesion (Mpa) 1 3 5 equation;
Friction Ang. (deg.) 35 50 60
Shear modulus (Gpa) 0.33 0.59 1.94
Unit weight (MN/m^) 0.02 0.024 0.026 P(t) = P J l ---- le ^ (2)

4 LOADING CONDITION The curve shows that maximum load reaches a

Three different loading conditions were utilized in
order to compare the tunnel’s behavior under these
conditions. These loading conditions are out lined
in the following parts.
4.1 Static loading
Non-linear static analysis was carried out in order
to analyze the stability of tunnels and comparing
their results with those of pseudo static and
dynamic analysis.
4.2 Pseudo static loading
In pseudo static analysis the applied load is a
dynamic load factor that is simulated as an
equivalent static load and therefore static model
analysis is used. The dynamic load factor is
determined from impact load time and the natural
period of the structure. According to Braja (1983)
the natural period of a structure is calculated as:
peak valve from the moment of explosion until a
time of 0.1 seconds. Afterwards it reduces to
atmospheric pressure at a time of 1.5 seconds.
5 STABILITY ANALYSIS
The results of finite element analysis of each
loading condition were achieved in terms of stress
and displacement contours. However because there
were many models analyzed and as there were large
amount of data available, the maximum stress and
displacement of each model were plotted as
fimction of depth and thereafter the results were
compared.
The results gained from static analysis are shown
in Figure 2 and Figure 5. The results show that all
the models were stable except the model that was
at a depth of 100 meter and with soft material
properties. The maximum displacement occurred in
the roof of tunnels. Figure 3 and Figure 6 show the
maximum stress and displacement versus depth
respectively for pseudo static condition. In this
analysis all the models reached plastic limit and the
tunnels were therefore unstable. The stress and

300
displacement contours of models analyzed in
dynamic condition show that seven models reached
plastic limit and were unstable. The remaining two —a — Soft Rock
models were stable. These were at depth of 100 —
LJ----Medium Rock
- X— Hard Rock
meters and with material properties of medium and
hard rocks. In dynamic analysis the maximum stress
and displacement decrease with depth. These
findings are shown in Figure 4 and Figure 7.

Figure 4. Maximum stress versus depth for

dynamic condition.

Figure 1 . The shock load curve due to explosion used for

dynamic analysis.

Figure 5. Maximum displacement versus depth for static

condition.

Figure 2. Maximum stress versus depth for

static condition.

Figure 6. Maximum displacement versus depth for pseudo

static condition.

6 CONCLUSION

LUSTS 3-D finite element code has proven to be

very capable in analyzing the dynamic behavior of
Figure 3. Maximum stress versus depth for
tunnels due to shock loads. The static analysis
pseudo static condition. results are only used as a comparison with those of
pseudo static and dynamic analysis. As expected in
such analysis instabilities increases with depth and
change of material properties.

301
 - A — Soft Rock
—I—I--- Medium Rock
- X— Hard Rock

Figure 7. Maximum displacement versus depth for dynamic

condition.

The pseudo static analysis is useful up to a

certain depth. However the dynamic analysis show
that maximum displacement and stresses decrease
with depth. In comparing the results from pseudo
static and dynamic analysis it is clear that up to a
certain depth their findings are compatible with
each other. However at higher depth the dynamic
analysis produces more real results. As dynamic
analyses are more time consuming and expensive to
run than those of pseudo static analysis, it is
recommended that at lower depth pseudo static
analysis can be used with great care being taken in
regard to dynamic load factor. However at higher
depth it is essential to carry out dynamic analysis.

REFERENCES

American society of civil engineers 1985. Design of

structures to resist nuclear weapons effects,
New York; American society of civil engineers.
Braja, M.D. 1983. Fundamental of soil dynamics.
Brady, H.G. 1993. Comprehensive rock
engineering, Vol. 1. : Pergamon Press.
Fea Ltd. Co. 1998. LUSAS Theory manual.
Henrych, J. 1978. The dynamic of explosion and its
use: Elsevier scientific Co.
Sinha, A. 1997. Explosive loading of Engineering
structures: Elsevier.
St. John and Zhara, T.F. 1987. A seismic design of
underground structures: Tunneling and
underground space technology.

302
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

G eom echanical analysis using sim ulated 3D natural joint networks

J.Hadjigeorgiou & M.Grenon

Department of Mining, Metallurgical & Materials Engineering, Quebec City, Que., Canada

ABSTRACT: The use of 3D joint network models can better capture the complexity of a rock mass than tradi­
tional rock mass characterization systems. This paper presents a methodology for developing such networks
based on field data. The generated 3D models are directly integrated into limit equilibrium and stress analysis
software packages allowing for stability analysis.

1 INTRODUCTION tended to its present form whereby it can simulate

1.1 Rock Mass Characterization
A rock mass is defined by intersecting discontinui­
ties that result in distinct rock blocks. The presence
of such blocks is a main source of structural instabil­
ity in any driven excavation. Rock mass classifica­
tion systems provide a unique index of rock quality
that may mask the importance of any particular
structural feature. The limitations of traditional clas­
sification systems to fully capture the structural re­
gime of a rock mass have been demonstrated in a se­
ries of case studies from underground sites,
Hadjigeorgiou et al. (1998).
1.2 3D Joint Networks
3D joint networks provide an attractive alternative to
simulate the natural complexity of a rock mass. Der-
showitz and Einstein (1988) provide an excellent re­
view of several models. A major challenge, how­
ever, is the field determination of the joint
parameters that provide the input for the different
models. A further requirement is the development of
an effective validation strategy for any 3D generated
model.
2 STEREOBLOCK
2.1 Background
Stereoblock is a computer model developed at Uni­
versité Laval to provide a means of characterizing a
rock mass based on field data collected during struc­
tural mapping. Stereoblock is based on the disc
model proposed by Baecher et al (1977). Over the
last 8 years Stereoblock has been modified and ex­
any number of joints in any generated volume. An
important feature of the model is that it can simulate
joints of finite length as well as account for ran­
domly distributed joints.
2.2 Methodology
Figure 1 outlines the developed methodology, from
the data collection stage to the analysis, simulation
and validation. Scanline mapping or oriented core
logging provide the best means for collecting the
necessary field data. These are methods readily
available to the majority of mining operations. Once
joint orientation, position and trace length are re­
corded stereonets are employed to identify the dif­
ferent joint sets as well as randomly oriented joints.
A series of statistical analyses determine the
distributive nature of joint orientation, spacing and
trace length. These data allow for the generation of a
3D model of the discontinuity network. Stereoblock
employs the Baecher model with its inherent advan­
tages and limitations. A major challenge in all gen­
erated joint networks is whether they adequately
represent the field conditions. In Stereoblock the
acceptability of the generated models is based on the
following procedure. A series of virtual scanlines are
run through the generated rock mass. The same
methodology employed in the field data collection is
used to record joint orientation, position and trace
length. The software package facilitates the statisti­
cal procedures that allow for direct comparison with
the input field data. At the present time. Stereoblock
provides a series of output data. These range from
complete 3D joint networks to scanplanes, showing
all present joints or block size distributions that pro­
vide a first means of rock mass characterization.

303
Figure 1. Methodology for generating 3D Joint Network models based on field data.

304
3 CASE STUDIES
3.1 Drift Analysis
Stereoblock has been successfully employed to gen­
erate 3D joint networks for several underground
drifts in Canadian hard rock mines. These data were
subsequently exported to an in-house developed
structural analysis package where it is possible to
visualize all possible wedges that can form on the
back or sides of a drift driven through the rock mass,
as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Simplified representation of wedges formed in the
back of an excavation.
Figure 3. Simplified representation of bolting in the generated
rock mass.
The main advantage of this methodology is the as­
sumption that all joints that form wedges are of fi­
nite length. Of further interest is the ability to ac­
305
count for random joints. The structural analysis
allows for the calculation of individual factors of
safety for every formed wedge. This information
when linked to the size and weight of every block
can be used to quantify the possibility and conse­
quences of failure. It is also possible to investigate
the influence of support systems. Figure 3 shows a
typical reinforcement pattern for a drift.
3.2 Stope Analysis
Grenon & Hadjigeorgiou (2000) report of how the
proposed methodology has been employed to deter­
mine the stability of an open stope with a width of
15 m, a height of 30 m and a length of 50 m. Follow­
ing data collection and analysis a 3D joint network
was generated. The dimensions of every possible
wedge formed by the intersection of all generated
joints were determined. A limit equilibrium analysis
was used to determine the factor of safety. In this
particular case it was shown that there was a large
number of unstable wedges, Figure 4.
500
o 300
Î 200
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Safety Factor
Figure 4. Safety factor for individual blocks.
A closer inspection of the results had shown that
these were of small size and were adequately sup­
ported by the use of Gage 9 welded mesh in the
stope back. The stability of bigger wedges was en­
sured by the use of 10 m cables on a 2 x 2 m pattern
and 2.1 grouted rebars on a 1.2 x 1.2 pattern. At this
particular site, the mine run cavity monitoring sur­
veys that allowed the quantification of any instabil­
ity. Both the results of the analysis and the field data
demonstrated the suitability of the employed rein­
forcement.
3.3 Stress Analysis
Traditional limit equilibrium structural analysis fails
to account for the influence of stress. Ideally it is de­
sirable that a stress model should also adequately ac-
count for the influence of both major and minor
structural features. Despite significant progress in
the way numerical models represent joints there is
no universally accepted model that can fully account
for all the dominant structural features present in a
jointed rock mass.
Stereoblock has been used to generate 3D joint
models. It has recently been possible to export any
selected 2D surface into a numerical stress analysis
model. In this work a distinct element code (UDEC),
has been used, Figure 5.
While it was possible to integrate the results of re­
alistic joint networks as input into a distinct element
program, it was not possible to explicitly introduce
discontinuities that do not end at another discontinu­
ity. This is due to current limitations of the distinct
element model. Further problems that have to be Figure 6. Linking in situ block size distribution with resulting
tackled is the use of appropriate mechanical proper­ fragmentation.
ties for the joint sets.
Hadjigeorgiou et al (2000) have shown that borehole
data can provide a preliminary estimate of rock mass
quality. This information is particularly useful in the
early stages of an operation when access is limited.
Block size distributions were used to determine the
potential for employing block caving as an alterna­
tive mining method for a mining operation in Que­
bec, Canada. Practical experience has shown that
there is a critical block size that dictates the geome­
chanical suitability of a particular site for block cav­
ing. In was further shown that random joints can
have the dominant influence on block size.

4 CONCLUSIONS

This paper provides a survey of recent work on im­

Figure 5. Distinct model simulation o f joint sets for a drift.
3.4 Rock Mass Characterization
Provided realistic joint networks are generated it is
possible to determine the resulting block size distri­
butions. The use of block size distributions has been
shown as a better means for capturing the full com­
plexity of a joint rock mass when compared to tradi­
tional rock mass classification systems, Hadjigeor-
giou et al (1988).
Grenon et al (1988) have demonstrated how in
situ block size distributions can be used as a means
of evaluating the efficiency of a blasting pattern. In
work undertaken at Heath Steele in New Brunswick
it was possible to link the in situ block size distribu­
tions with the resulting fragmentation. Figure 6. In
this study the resulting fragmentation was based on
two, image analysis software.
plementing 3D joint networks to geomechanical
problems. It is felt that this approach provides a use­
ful design tool that can facilitate the selection of op­
timal excavation dimensions as well as suitable rein­
forcement.
5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial
support of the National Science and Engineering
Council of Canada and the Institut de Recherche en
Santé et Sécurité au Travail du Québec.
6 REFERENCES
Baecher G.B., Lanney N.A. & Einstein H.H. (1977). Statistical
Description of Rock Properties and Sampling. Proc. 18th.
U.S. Symp. on Rock Mechanics, Colorado, pp. 5C1.1-
5C1.8.
Dershowitz W.S. & Einstein H.H. (1988). Characterizing rock

306
 joint geometry with Joint system models. Rock Mechanics
& Rock Engineering, 1,21-51.
Hadjigeorgiou J., Grenon M. & Nickson S. (2000). A practical
application o f borehole data to determine in-situ block size
distributions. North American Rock Mechanics Symposium,
Seattle.
Grenon M, Hadjigeorgiou J. & Liu Q. (1998). Quantifying in-
situ rock block size and resulting fragment size distributions
due to blasting. Fragblast, A.A. Balkema. 2, pp. 205-218.
Grenon M & Hadjigeorgiou J. Stope Design Based on Realistic
Joint Networks. MassMin 2000, Brisbane, Qld. (in press).
Hadjigeorgiou J., Grenon M. & Lessard J.F (1998). Defining
in-situ block size. CIM Bulletin, Vol. 91, No. 1020 pp. 72-
75.
UDEC, v3.0, Universal Distinct Element Code manual, (1996).
Itasca Consulting Group Inc.

307
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Practical applicability o f steel wire cable sensor for rock fall detection

M. Komazaki, K. Hirama & F. Ito

NTT DoCoMo Hokkaido Incorporated, Sapporo, Japan
M.Ujihira, Y.Kawamura & T.Tokunaga
Graduate School of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan

ABSTRACT: Authors propose a monitoring system using cable sensor for rock collapse and fall detection.
Practical applicability of this prediction system for concrete structures such as rock-shed or inlets of tunnels
had been already confirmed, stretching the sensors in grid pattern to the internal surface of the structures.
The tensile strength of cable sensor (CS) is 40 - 50 kgf and not enough for usage under real environmental
conditions. For this reason, a steel wire type cable sensor (SWCS) is proposed. Here, a field test of SWCS
for practical applicability for rock fall detection was carried out and the following points were made
clearly: 1) The output signal level of SWCS is lower than that of CS. However, the sensitivity of SWCS is
enough for practical use. 2) The falling trajectory of a rock was visually estimated from topographic
method of the output voltage of SWCS. Therefore, SWCS could be recommended for practical use.

1 INTRODUCTION Under rain and snow influences, small rocks are

Authors propose a monitoring system using cable
sensor for rock collapse and fall detection and
consider its applicability for various conditions
The tensile strength of cable sensor (CS) is about 40
- 50 kgf and not enough for usage under real
environmental conditions. For this reason, a steel
wire type cable sensor (SWCS) is proposed here
with the cable sensor coaxially rolled in steel wire
and the tensile strength of 7.5t was achieved. At
present, SWCS sensitivity characteristics are the
subject of study^\ In this paper, sensitivity
characteristics of CS and SWCS are compared
under practical conditions. Rock fall detection
abilities of the SWCS are tested by artificial rock
fall experiment. Also, a possibility to track a rock
fall trajectory through analysis of output voltage
changes of the sensor with the time lapse is
examined.
2 EXPERIMENTAL SITE
Usually, a metallic protection net is used at slopes
against rock fall danger. In this section, sensitivity
characteristics are measured of the CS and SWCS
installed in grid pattern on the net. As a place of
experiment, a slope of 20m length and 40-50
degrees inclination was chosen. A protection net
had covered the slope as shown in Figure 1(a).
accumulated at the low part of the net.
At the slope, 15 strings of CS were installed in
grid pattern with 2m interval. The length of 6
vertical CS is 16m and that of 9 horizontal CS is
10m. 15 strings of SWCS were installed the same
way as CS. Horizontal sensors were numbered from
the upper one as channel 1 through channel 9, while
vertical sensors were numbered as channel A
through channel F starting from the left-hand end.
Resinous bands were used for sensor fixation on the
net with interval of Im. A schematic view of the
experiment setting is shown in Figure 1(b).
3 EXPERIMENT ON THE ESTIMATION OF
SENSITIVITY CHARACTERISTICS
Here, an experiment on simultaneous measurement
of output voltage of two type cable sensors is
described, and their sensitivity characteristics are
compared.
3.1 Method o f experiment
As it is shown in Figure 2, rocks with a mass of
0.2, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 kg were dropped from the
height of 1.5m into the square, surrounded with
cable sensors C, D, 6, 7 and corresponding output
voltages were measured. Output voltage from each
cable sensor was amplified 2 times using small

309

Figure 1(a). Photo of the experimental site.
Figure 1(b). Photo of the slope with installed
cable sensors.
310
Time(sec)
Figure 3. Example of output voltage wave forms of
two kinds of the cable sensors.
Figure 4. Relationship between weight of rock and
output voltage of cable sensor.
amplifiers connected at the one end of each cable
sensor and registered by a data logger with sampling
rate of lOOkHz.
3.2 Characteristics o f wave form o f output voltage
In Figure 3, an example of output voltage wave
forms of two kinds of the cable sensors number 6 is
shown for the case when a 6 kg rock was dropped.
Figure 3(a) shows the output voltage of CS and
Figure 3(b) shows the output voltage of SWCS. It is
seen from comparison of the both curves that the
amplitude of the SWCS is lower than that of CS.
Also, in the case of small objects were dropped the
output signal frequency is high. These facts
correspond to the results of laboratory experiments^^
Then, the curves in Figure 3 are non-symmetrical
having substantial upper part. It is because the cable
sensors are fixed on metallic protection net, and the
vibration propagation itself is non-symmetrical in
mechanical sense. The same tendency was observed
when long-length cable sensor was laid on concrete
floor.
3.3 Evaluation o f fallen object weight
In Figure 4 a relationship between the dropped rock
weight and the output voltage is shown. The curves
are the data from the cable sensor number 6.
A phenomenon of the output voltage increase with
the rock mass increase is almost the same as the
experimental data^^ when steel balls of various mass
were dropped on the rock shed with installed cable
sensors.
Due to sensor output voltage scattering, exact
weight evaluation was difficult. However, in the
case when accurate resolution ability of weight
evaluation is not required, numbers of order of tens
kg or hundreds kg is possible to be evaluate. So the
method seems to be applicable.
4 EXPERIMENT ON ROCK FALLING
An experiment is described here in which a concrete
block is dropped from the upper end of the slope
shown in Figure 1. Rock fall detection abilities of
the SWCS are tested. Also, a possibility to track
rock fall trajectory is examined.

4.1 Method o f experiment

A concrete block of 16.5kg was dropped from the

point between channels C-D just above the channel
1, and wave forms of output voltages of all SWCS
channels were registered.
Output voltage from each cable sensor was
amplified 2 times using small amplifiers connected
at the one end of each cable sensor and transferred
Figure 5. Rock fall trajectory, (video camera) to the logger. Sampling rate of the data logger was
20 kHz.
® (2) @ @
® (D (3) @ (D
4—^ ◄ ----------------------► ◄ ---------------- ►

600 n
300^ ----------- A c h

-3 0 0 ^
-6 0 0
c) 11000 2000 3000
600n
300- ..----------- B e h

1 ,

eoon
300-
0 -
-3 0 0 -
() 1000

jr 3000

{3 1000 ,2 0 0 0 3000
600n
300- i . 77;— D eh
n r i r »

(U r 1 — 1
(3 1000 2000 3000
600n
'o 300- ----------- E c h
>
Jo o ^ 1 ' 1
(3 1000 2000 3000
f 6 0 0 -
O 30 0 - ----------- F c h

1 1
'c o o ^
0 1000 2000 3000

Time(msec)

Figure 6. Wave forms of output voltages of all cable sensors caused by rock fall.

311
Figure 7. Topographie representation of rock fall trajectory.
4.2 Waveform o f output voltage caused by rockfall
A falling trajectory registered by video camera is
shown in Figure 5. The concrete block was dropped
from the point above channel 1. Initially the block
rolled down along the net, rubbed the upper part of
channel 3, then jumped, fell between channel 4 and
channel 5, jumped one more time, and finally fell to
the slope foot. In Figure 6, the wave forms of output
voltages of all channels are shown, where ® is a
wave form immediately after a block was dropped.
(D is a wave form of the block rolling near the
channel 2. Then, (D is a wave form corresponding
to rubbing of the net upon the channel 3, while @
is a wave form of the collision against a point
between channel 4 and channel 5, and (D is a wave
form of the net vibration decrement.
4.3 Topographic representation o f rock fall
trajectory
For better visualization of the fall trajectory des­
cribed in the section 4.2, a topographic repre­
sentation of output voltage of SWCS with the time
lapse was made, when the products of maximum
amplitude values of output voltages of every
crossing SWCS were assigned to all crossing points
of the sensors. In Figure 7, the topographic
representation is shown which corresponds to
Figure 6.
312
Figures 7 - ® ^ ® correspond to Figures 6-® '^
® respectively, where ® , (D , ® , ® , ® are
topographies for time intervals 0-400ms, 400-800ms,
800-1250ms, 1250-2200ms, 2200-3000ms. In
Figure 7-®, a sharp maximum is seen which was
caused by the initial block fall. In Figure 7-®, a
smooth swell is seen which is the result of the block
rolling along the slope when output voltage from
both horizontal and vertical SWCS is small. In
Figure 7-®, the block collided to the net, and a
clear peak is seen at corresponding place. But the
block velocity is not so high, so the maximum
amplitude is lower than that in the Figure 7-®. In
Figure 7-®, the signal peak is most outstanding
because of sharp shot of the block to the net after its
jump over two-channel (3 and 4) zone. Amplitude
of the signal is low in Figure 7-® because the
block had no more collision, so the signal may be
considered as a decrement wave of the situation in
Figure 7-® or as a result of small rock falls after
preceding shot.
In this experiment, the 15 strings of SWCS were
installed on narrow limited space of 10m length and
16m height. However, it was concluded that rock
fall occurrence and fall trajectory could be visually
estimated under any slope conditions, for example,
slope undulations or various shapes of the protection
net.
5 ON PRACTICAL SCALE APPLICATION
The interval between cable sensors installed in grid
pattern in the above-described experiment was only
2m. The possibility of increasing of this interval
value for practical needs was also studied. CS and
SWCS of 10m length were laid in the bottom of the
trench in parallel and buried, and a 100kg weight
was dropped to points 0.3-7 m apart from the central
points of cable sensors in a right angle direction to
them. A relationship between the distance of falling
points and output voltage is shown in Figure
The signal/noise ratio for maximum output voltage
of cable sensor at 5m distance was more than 25 dB.
We can distinguish clearly the vibration signals
from white noise under this S/N ratio condition. So
the rock fall detection was possible. Therefore, it
was judged to increase the interval between sensors
up till 10m. Under an assumption that 1 ha area
(100m X 100m) is to be monitored, a huge number
of conventional vibration sensors is necessary, while
only 22 cable sensors (11 vertical and 11 horizontal)
should be enough to solve the problem.
Figure 8. Relationship between distance from fall
point to cable sensor and output voltage of cable
sensor.
6 CONCLUSION
In the presented study, CS and SWCS were installed
on a real slope and sensitivity characteristics of the
two sensors were compared. Rock fall detection and
trajectory tracking abilities of the SWCS were
studied through experiment. The following points
were made clear:
1) The output signal level of SWCS is lower
than that of CS. However, the sensitivity of
SWCS is enough for measurement. Therefore,
SWCS could be recommended for practical
use.
313
2) As compared to conventional sensors for the
same square area monitoring, SWCS could
provide with ease the same measurement
accuracy without using large number of
accelerometers. Furthermore, SWCS seems to
be more convenient and handy in practical
use.
3) Motion behavior of a concrete block dropped
to a slope could be tracked almost correctly
through analysis of the output voltages of
SWCS.
4) The falling trajectory was visually estimated
from topographic method of the output
voltage of SWCS.
REFERENCES
1) M.Ujihira, S.Suzuki, H.Saeki, M.Komazaki,
K.Hirama and M.Kawakita, Field test of rock
fall detection system by using cable sensor and
mobile multimedia network. Cold Region Tech­
nology Conference '97(Japan), Vol.l3,No.2,
pp.631-637.(1997)
2) K.Nakai, M.sato, S.Konno and M.Ujihira,
Fundamental study on rock fall detection using
string sensor for vibration detection. Jour. Japan
Soc. Eng Geol, Vol.55,No.l pp.62-67.(1998)
3) M.Ujihira, K.Ogawa, S.Suzuki, S.Hosoya,
H.Saeki, M.Komazaki, K.Hirama and M.Kawa­
kita, Rock fall detection system using cable
sensor and mobile multimedia network.
Proceedings o f the 7th Int. Sympo. on
MPES(Calgary),pp.151-156. (1998)
4) M.Ujihira, Y.Kawamura, S.Konno, K.Ikeda,
H.Konno, M.Komazaki and F.Ito. Sensitivity
characteristic of steel wire cable sensor for
vibration detection. Jour. Japan Soc. Eng. Geol,
Vol.56, No.l pp.204-207.(1999)
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

D efinition o f the roof strata m ovem ents in longw all m ining method

G.Konak, A.H.Onur, H .Kose, O.Turgay & ^.Tatar

Mining Engineering Department, DokuzEyliU University, Izmir, Turkey

ABSTRACT : In longwall mining method, one of the most important factor for production plannig and
support design is geomechanical properties of hangingwall and behaviour of the roof strata during cool
excavation. There are many mathematical formulations developed to determine the height of immediate roof
but in situ measurements always give a better idea to define the loads on support. In this study, a detailed
measurement results taken from Omerler underground coal mine that is a foundation of T.K.I (Turkish Coal
Enterprises) are given to determine the height of immediate roof For this purpose a special measuring
equipment was designed.

heights of Omerler Underground Mine, belonging to

1 INTRODUCTION T.K.i. (Turkish Coal Enterprises) had been defined
by in situ measurements. The results obtained from
In longwall mining one of the most important factor these measurements have been compared with
in selecting the support system and production results obtained from theoretical calculations.
planning is the mechanical properties of roof strata
and their behaviour during the coal production. The
height of immediate roof and the way of caving
forms play an important role in support selection.
In order to determine the way of roof strata
movements, many works have been done over the
years, these researches have resulted in different
approaches. Generally, cavity zones produced by the
longwall method can be separated in three parts
(Peng and Chiang, 1984). The first zone is the cavity
zone that constitutes by the immediate roof
(Figure 1). The second zone that formed over the
Figure 1. M oving mechanism o f roof strata in Longwall
cavity zone is the fractured zone. In this zone, due to
M ining (Peng and Chiang, 1984)
separation of strata, lateral and vertical directed
fractured happen. These strata are generally force­
transferring zones. The third zone is continuous
deformation zone that lays between fractured zone 2 GENERAL INFORMATION
and surface. In this zone, rock strata has
deformations without facing serious crushing. So the The longwall mining with caving method in Omerler
rock behaves as a continuous zone. Underground Mine performs the coal production.
For this theory, the loads carried by that the The average coal seam thickness is 8 m and the coal
support system come from the cavity zone seam deeps with inclination of 0 - 7 degree. The
(immediate roof). To define the height of immediate main rock formation that surround the coal is
roof (cavity zone) enables calculating the loads “clayrock”. This material shows a different physical
buried on support system for longwall mining. The and geomechanical properties in footwall and
immediate roof height can be found both from the hanging wall. Table 1 gives some geomechanical
theoretical formulations and the in-situ properties of these formations.
measurement. For this purpose the immediate roof

315
 The length of the upper face (No 500) on which
the measurements have been taken was 55 m, length
of panel was 400 m, and the height of excavation
was 2.2 m. In the stopes, support system was
hydraulic prop and still bar.
on the 9“ May 1994, the second one was established
on the 13* July 1994, just after the measurement had
been complicated on station T1 (Figure 2-3). The
position of the stations T1 and T2 was 16.5 m and
23.30 m in front of the longwall respectively.

Table 1 The geomechanical properties of coal-seam

and footwall - hangingwall formation
Formations Average Average Specific
uniaxial tensile gravity
com pressive strength g/cm^
stress (MPa) (MPa)
H angingwall
14.40 2.30 2.00
clayrock
Coal 1.30
Footwall
24.30 3.50 2.09
clayrock

3 DEFINING THE HEIGHT OF CAVETY

Figure 2. The position o f measurement device on station

3.1 Expected cavity height
T1
In longwall mining with caving, immediate roof
height simply depends on the height of coal face
from which production is done and the swelling
factor of the hanging wall. An opening formed after
excavation of coal (m) would be filled by broken
part of hanging wall (h). If the swelling is defined
with K, following equation can be written.

m + h = (Kxh) (1)

from ( 1 )

h=m/(K-l) (2)

m = excavation height
h = caving height
K = swelling factor of hanging wall
For the longwall in which this study had been done
excavating height is 2.2 m, swelling factor is 1.47
(Kose at all, 1994). When these values are put in
formula (2), the caving height can be obtained as:
h = 4.7m
The expected immediate roof height is 4.7 m
3.2 Measurement o f hanging wall movements
To define the height of caving zone in longwall
mining, two measurement stations ( T1 and T2 ) had
been established and measurements taken in
Omerler colliery. First station ( T1 ) was assembled
Figure 3. The position o f measurement device on station
T2
The measurement device designed to determine
the strata separation and height of immediate roof
consist of holding leg, a wire passing through the
leg, a reference point and a weight tied to the end of
wire (Figure 2). Measurements from the wires those
were attached to different levels of a vertical drilled
hole with anchor system had been taken with the
period of 8 hours, so that to define the amount of
movements.
The first wire at station T1 were fitted at 4.58*
meters of the roof, the second wire at 3.27* meters
and the third one at 2.64* meters (Figure 2). In a
similar way, at station T2 the position of wires were

316
6.71^^ , 4.31^^ and 2.61^^ meters from the roof in to
the hanging wall (Figure 3).
3.2.1 Results o f the Measurements
For Omerler colliery, the station established on the
footwall of the longwall, Nr. 500, showed 135 mm
of deformations in the 2.64^*^ meter of measurement
device, than 62 mm of deformation between 2.64
and 3.27 m and 52 mm of deformation between 3.27
and 4.58 m of the vertical hole. For the
measurements started from 16.5 m in front of the
coal face to the behind, total displacement measured
on the hanging wall was 249 mm (Figure 4). When
Figure 4. M ovem ents o f roof strata determined at station T1
Figure 5. M ovem ents o f roof strata determined at station T2
317
the result obtained from station T1 are examined, 52
mm of hanging wall displacement between level
3.27 m and 4.58 m showed that immediate roof
height would have been bigger than 4.50 m. For this
reason, to observe the movement on upper levels,
the second measurement station T2 was formed.
This station made possible to measure the
deformations occurred over 6.5 - 7.0 m level.
Due to the investigation obtained from station T2,
deformation values of hanging wall can be given as
below. Until 2.61 m from the beginning,
deformation was 120 mm between 2.6U^ and 4.3
it was 92 mm and between 4.3 and 6.7 U* meters
the deformation was 17 mm (Figure 5).
According to these measurements, the deformations
taken from level 4.31^^ and 6.71^^ meters showed that
the caving height was coming to an end. Moreover,
small separations, which could occur on the strata
above 6.71 m, would not affected from bearing
horizontal loads. In other words, these strata will not
form any additional loads in vertical direction. So,
by extrapolating the measurement values obtained
from station T1 and T2, it has been determined that
separation of roof strata stops approximately at the
7.0**^ meter of overlying formations (Figure 6). The
immediate roof height was defined 7.0 m from the
measurements taken from T1 and T2 for the
longwall in which the thickness of coal seam was
2.2 m
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Establishment. We deeply thank to the Garp Lignite
The position of anchor (m)
Figure 6. Extrapolation graph according to movements
obtained from station T1 and T2
3.3 Evaluation o f the Method
It can be seen from two measurements T1 and T2
that immediate roof height obtained from in situ
investigation (7.0 m) is bigger than the result
obtained from theoretical formulation (4.7 m). The
most important reason for that, strength parameters
of the overlying formations is too weak (Table 1).
When the formation of overlying rock is weak and in
the form of lateral type, the horizontal load bearing
capacity becomes limited. For this type of material,
it has been showed that the immediate roof height is
always bigger than the height calculated from
theoretical formulations.
The immediate roof height was also calculated
from the experiments done to define the loads by
back analysis method at the same panel other works
had been done 6.8 meters of immediate roof height
obtained from these experiments showed accordance
318
with the 7.0 m of in situ measurements (Konak,
1995). This result is in accordance with the
immediate roof heights calculated by using loads
measured on faces.
4 RESULTS
The immediate roof height has been defined as 7.0
m for longwall Nr. 500, of Omerler colliery
belonging to T.K.Î. For the longwall mentioned
above, the expected immediate roof height was
calculated from theoretical formulations as 4.7 m
There is a considerable difference between
theoretical method and actual measurement. For the
same longwall, 6.8 m of immediate roof height was
obtained from the back analysis of loads coming
from roof.
According to these results, immediate roof height
that is one of the most important parameters on
support design should be considered with both
theoretical calculations and in situ measurements.
Only one of them give rises to mistaken result that
never wanted to be faced to.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study is supported by T.K.t Garp Lignite
Establishment staff for their collaborations and
technical support.
REFERENCES
Peng, S.S. and Chiang, H.S., 1984, Longwall
Mining, John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp 17-
70
Kose, H, Tatar C., Konak G., Onargan T., Kizil
M.S., 1994, Strata Control, Load and
Convergence Measurements at Omerler Colliery,
D.E.U, Mining Eng. Dept, Izmir, Turkey.
Konak G., 1995, Measurement and Evaluation o f
Loads and, Convergences in Underground Coal
Mines With Regard to Roof Control, Doctorate,
D.E.U, Graduate School of Natural and Applied
Sciences, Izmir, Turkey.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

PREGAL - A program for choosing rockbolt support system s

T.Korini & V.Jorgji

Polytechnic University of Tirana, Albania
G.N. Panagiotou
National Technical University of Athens, Greece

ABSTRACT: This paper describes a methodology for the choice of rockbolt support systems, which is based
on the “convergence - confinement” and “critical depths” concepts introduced by Hoek & Brovm and Sauku
respectively. The methodology has been coded in the PREGAL computer program, which permits the user to
study different rockbolt types and patterns for a given underground support situation in a timely manner and
then choose the most appropriate ones. To demonstrate the methodology and the operation of PREGAL, a case
study is presented, which estimates the optimum rockbolt pattern in a section of the Klos-Bulqiza headings in
the underground chromite mine of Bulqiza, Albania.

1 INTRODUCTION support reaction curve. Generally, its shape depends

on the geometrical parameters and the mechanical
The primary aim of a support system is to improve properties of the support elements The total initial
the stability and maintain the load bearing capacity of displacement (convergence) Uio that occurs before
rock near to the boundaries of an opening, by mobi­ the support becomes effective, is also shown in Fig­
lising and conserving the inherent strength of the ure 1.
rock mass, so that it becomes self-supporting. The Equilibrium is achieved, if the support reaction
choice of the type of the support to be installed de­ curve intersects the rock mass characteristic curve
pends upon the extent of the zone of loosened or before either of these curves have progressed too far
fractured rock surrounding the opening. The “con­ (Hoek et al, 1995). Otherwise the support system is
vergence - confinement” method for studying the sta­ considered to be ineffective.
bility of tunnels (A.F.T.E.S.,1978) is based on the
rock-support interaction analysis and accepts that the
main objective of a support system is to limit the
stress-induced displacements around the tunnel pro­
file and the development of a pseudo-plastic zone
around it.
In Figure 2, curve (2) represents the relationship
between the support pressure pi and the inward radial
displacement Ui around a tunnel subjected to hydro­
static stresses. It is called the rock mass characteristic
curve and its shape depends on the behaviour laws of
the rock mass, the shape of the tunnel and the initial
state of stresses.
If the opening is supported, then the support reacts
to limit convergence. The reaction pressure of the
support in relation to the radial displacement is pre­
sented by curve (1) in Figure 1, and it is called the Figure 1. Rock-support interaction analysis curves

319
Table 1. Normal pressures around rectangular openings (after Sauku, 1992)

Pr = r - b
a
b =-
2q
>^*tan^ +-
knYH
P r^y'h i
________
bi- r
2
” kn- y- H
9 0 -(p
ai = Cl + /z- tan-

Y o^0-<p
p , = —(2b, + h)ta.n — ^

Pr^^y'bi a2=a^+2ae ^ tg
a2
b2 =
c,
X •tan (P
• m+ -
k„-rn
H>H,
y 90 - 0
p,= ^ (2 - b 2 + h )ta n ^ ~ Y ^
P0-®
p^ = 2- r ( b2+ h)

2 THE ROCK MASS CHARACTERISTIC

CURVE

The construction of the rock mass characteristic

curve is based on the load-deformation relation for
the tunnel’s roof and sidewalls. In order to estimate
the pressures around underground openings and the
extend of the deformation zone, Sauku (1992) intro­
duced the “critical depth” concept, according to
which, depending on the depth of the opening, the
normal pressure on the roof (pr), sidewalls (ps) and
ftoor (pf) of the tunnel are given, for a rectangular
cross-section, by the equations in Table 1. Usually pr
represents the maximum pressure in the opening.
The three “critical depths”, Hi, H2 and H3 (Fig. 2)
are deftned as follows:
C™
HP ( 1)
B
k„-7
2-hs

320
 ^0 + (p„ where:
2 •C m ' ^ ri - the radius of the opening (assumed
H ,= - ( 2) circular)
kt'kn'Y
kb - the rockbolf s stiffness at deformation
, 9 0 + (D I stage
Cm
•tan^---- (3)
2-k,-k„-r-^ (P ,

where:
B=2a
hs - the thickness of first rock bed in the roof, m
If it does not exist, then hs=ld
Id - the distance between discontinuities, m
X = v/(l-v); V - Poison ratio
kn - coefficient due to adjacent openings
kt - coefficient due to side stresses
Cm - interblock cohesion, Mpa
(Pm- interblock friction, degrees
y - unit weight of rock, kN W .

The stress-induced radial displacement Ui in the

roof is due to the presence of stress pr and is given
by:

(4)
P i P t

1 5 0 n- 1
This relation is applicable as long as the elastic limit
where: K = ---- k p i ' n - e 2 (5) of the rockbolt material has not been reached. Be­
r
yond this limit, in general, further deformation may
occur at constant pressure Psbmax which represents
^ ^ _ 2 - k . ' Y ' H
(6) the maximum load that can be undertaken by the
rockbolt.
kpi - coefficient of plasticity The stiffness of rock bolts is given by:

St Si 41
Equation (4) can be used for the construction of (8)
kb Vi db Eb
the rock mass characteristic curve for the tunnel
roof, while a similar curve can be made for the side- where:
walls. St - the transversal spacing between rockbolts
S] - the longitudinal spacing between rockbolts
1 - the rockbolt length
3 THE SUPPORT REACTION CURVE db - the rockbolt diameter
Eb- the Young’s modulus of rockbolt material
The construction of the support reaction curve in the
Q - is a quantity related to the load-deformation
case of ungrouted rockbolts is described by Hoek &
characteristics of the anchor, plate and bolt head
Brown (Hoek et al, 1980). This curve (Fig. 3) de­
The maximum support pressure, which can be gen­
pends mainly on the geometry and the mechanical
erated by the rock mass deformation is given by:
properties of the support element.
If Uio is the initial displacement of rock mass be­ _Tbf
Psbn (9)
yond which the support starts to react, the total de­ St Si
formation is given by:
where Tbf - the rockbolt tension given by pull-out
Ui = Uio+-^Pi (7 )
tests.
kb Finally, the relation that combines the support’s
reaction pressure and deformation is given by:

321
 II 430 m III 550 m IV 760 m V 540 m VI 390 m VII 440 m t-

Figure 4. Longitudinal cross-section of the T1 & T2 headings

Ui-U,,
P i =
( 10) It is interactive and user-friendly.
41
St Si +Q
^db Eb 5 APPLICATION IN THE KLOS-BULQIZA T1 &
T2 HEADINGS
The initial convergence of the rock mass before the
The Klos-Bulqiza T1 & T2 headings, each 7300m
application of the rockbolts (Uio) is calculated as a
long, are driven to provide access to the underground
function of the time that the opening remained with­
chromite mine of Bulqiza, Albania. They have a
out any support:
horse-shoe shape with an arch of 132 degrees, and
U,o = 0.1-K-p,- Inro. e"”) (11) both have the same dimensions: width B = 3m,
height of sidewalls h = 2.35m and arch height at the
where centre-line ho = Im (Sauku et al, 1990).
to - the time without support, months; Figure 4 shows a cross-section along one of the
z = kpiyH/ac. headings and displays the average depth from the
surface for each km of length (I to VII).
The results of a rock mass characterization study
4 THE PROGRAM along the heading are tabulated in Table 2.
PREGAL is a computer program developed for the
analysis of the stability of underground openings and Table 2. Rock type along the headings
the choice of rockbolt support systems, using the Rock type Hardness Percentage
“critical depths” & “convergence-confinement” con­ (Group #) (f) %
cepts. PREGAL is written in C, is menu driven, runs Very hard (I) 8 40
on Intel-based PCs and creates both colour graphics Medium hard (II) 6 35
screens and high quality printouts (Sauku et al, Weak (HI) 4 20
1995). Very weak (IV) 2 5
PREGAL features include the following:
^ Openings of various inclinations can be ana­
lysed; Based on laboratory tests and observations from
Calculates the strength parameters for the rock similar cases, the rock mass properties for the differ­
mass from the laboratory tests according to pro­ ent rock groups are given in Table 3.
cedures proposed by Sauku (1990);
^ Calculates the "critical depths"; Table 3. Properties for different rock groups
^ Allows the choice of the opening’s shape accord­ Shear Calculated
ing to the Rock Loading Index (yH/ac) and its Rock Density UCS strength properties
longevity;
Y, Cohesion Friction,
^ Calculates rock stress at the roof, sidewalls and Group 1-v
kN/m^ CTc, MPa X, MPa C, MPa (p, deg.
floor;
Calculates displacements for normal support re­ I 28.5 80 16 20 36.87 0.25
action; II 27 60 14 15.39 35.68 0.27
Displays the change of roof displacement with
III 26 40 9 10.78 33.37 0.3
time;
^ Displays the rock mass characteristic curve; IV 24 20 5 5.77 30 0.35
^ Allows testing of different rockbolt patterns in
order to choose the most appropriate one;
Displays stability fields and the position of the
opening;

322
Additional parameters which influence the rock
mass stability are taken also into consideration by
incorporating appropriate coefficients for: creased
rock structure with intensive tectonic fractures, me-
dium up to high rock crushing, up to three disconti­
nuity sets, average up to large groundwater inflow,
great longevity of the headings, unfavourable head­
ing axis orientation in relation to the tectonics, con­
tour rock breaking by explosives, and a high rate of
advance.
Discontinuity spacing generally varies from 0.8 to
1.0m, while near tectonic zones drops from 0.3 up to
0.6m.
To demonstrate the capabilities of PREGAL, a
study for the choice of the appropriate rockbolting
scheme to control roof instability along the 4* km of
the heading was carried out. The average depth of
this section is 650m and about 50% of the rock mass
is characterized as Group II.
Ungrouted rockbolts with expansion-shell me­
chanical anchor, having the following characteris­
tics, were selected for the support of the 4^^ km sec­
tion of the heading:
-length l = 2m
-diameter d = 0.022 m
-deformation modulus Q = 0.069 m/MN
-tensile strength Tbf= 0.127 MN
and the aim of the study was to determine the opti­
mum rockbolt pattern by varying the grid spacing.
Figures 5 and 6 display selected graphical outputs
from the PREGAL program. As showed in Fig. 6 a
pattern of 1.56 bolts per square meter is considered
as a suitable one because the rock mass characteris­
tic curve and the support reaction curve are inter­
sected.
323
Figure 6. Convergence - support reaction curves for
the proposed rockbolt pattern
6. CONCLUSIONS
The design of rock support systems tends to be based
upon empirical rules, but advances in rock engineer­
ing contributed towards the design of realistic and
reliable systems. The use of rockbolts as the princi­
pal element in a support system has become very
common, due to their ability to mobilise and con­
serve the inherent strength of the rock mass.
The method presented in this paper for designing
rockbolt support systems is based on the “critical
depths” and “convergence-confinement” concepts
and has been coded in the PREGAL computer pro­
gram, which permits the user to study different rock­
bolt types and patterns for a given underground sup­
port situation in a timely manner and then choose the
most appropriate ones.
However, the application in the field of the results
of studies carried out using PREGAL should be done
with great care, because they carry the simplifying
assumptions accepted for building the model and
they are based on input data with various degrees of
reliability. The complex behaviour of the rock mass,
which may change dramatically from site to site,
should be evaluated by the project engineer before
applying the suggested rockbolting pattern. After all,
models can never imitate reality.
REFERENCES
A.F.T.E.S 1978. Stabilité des Tunnels par la Méthode Conver­
gence-Confinement. Journée d’Etudes, Paris - 26 Octobre
1978, Rapport Général.
Hoek, E. & Brown, E.T. 1980. Underground Excavations in
Rock. London.
Hoek, E. & Kaiser, P.K. & Bawden, W.F. 1995. Support of
Underground Excavation in Hard Rocks, A. A. Balkema,
Rotterdam, Brookfiel
Sauku, H. & Korini, Th. 1990. Supporting problems o f T1 &
T2 Klos - Bulqiza headings. Mining Chair Fond, 21 /?., Ti­
rana
Sauku, H. 1990. Rock mass stability, rock pressures and rock -
support interaction. Tirana.
Sauku, H. 1992. Drift Support Estimated by "Critical Depths"
Method. Proceedings of the 8th Coal Congress of Turkey,
291-306.
Sauku, H. & Jorgji, V. & Korini, Th. 1995. PREGAL Ver.2.0 -
Programmer's and User’s Manual, Department o f Mining
and Mineral Processing Fond. Tirana.

324
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Plastic zones within the rock mass as a function of the shaft lining resistance

S.Krstovic
Faculty of Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade, Yugoslavia

ABSTRACT: The pressure resulting from the interaction of the shaft lining and the rock mass, produces
shaft lining resistance. The paper gives a graphic presentation of the effects of shaft lining resistance on the
size of the plastic zone around the shaft, based on the stress calculation accomplishment by an MCAD
programming package.

1 INTRODUCTION components of normal stresss (ere) will have

Within the field of underground mining works, a
rock mass should be considered as a constituent
part of underground facilities, namely together
with a support or linings activity.
The value of the required shaft lining resistance
may be obrained from the characteristic rock mass
lines and a selected lining. (Fig.l).
maximum value. The value exceeding the strength
pressure (ap) of the rock mass, will cause
formation of a plastic zone around the shaft (Fig.2)
The value of normal stress (ae) in function of a
distance from the shaft keeps on reducing to the
value above which the rock mass is characterized
by elastic stress strain.

Fig. 1 Shaft strain movement along the shaft

contour.
Fig. 2 Scheme of an elasto-plastic rock mass model
in the vicinity of the shaft
2 ELASTO-PLASTIC ROCK MASS MODEL 1 - Zone of elastic strains
2 - Zone of plastic strains
In case when after excavation the lining is set in the 3 - Limit of the zone of mining influence.
shaft, the components of normal stress (ar) along
the shaft contour will decrease to null, and the

325
 Keeping of plastic strains or occurrence of
fracture is directly affected by the type of rock
mass, regime of setting and type of lining.

From the condition r = re (Fig. 2) it follows

(Jie ~ Clip and cop —cee

where the boundary of plastic zone can be obtained

( 1):

1/a
yH
+ c ctg(p
rp - rniT:------- —^ (l-sm cp ( 1)
P| + c ctgcp

where: Fig. 3 Plastic zones depending on the shaft lining

y- bulk density resistance.
(p - the angle of internal friction
H - the shaft depth
REFERENCES
c - cohesion
ro - radius of shaft
Spiridonovic, B.N. 1989. Mehanika podzemnih
When the condition ro re is applied in the sooryzenij v primerax i zadacah. Moscow.
above equation, and when the plastic zone Sokolovski, V.V.1950. Teorija plasticnosti.
Moscow.
disappeares, a new condition is obtained for
establishment of elastic stress strain in the rock Kujundjic, B. 1977. Osnove mehanike stena.
mass given by the following expression: Gradjevinski kalendar. Beograd

2p-ap
Pi-- ( 2)
X + \

The calculations carried out by the MCAD

programme pack resulted in values for the
boundaries of the plastic zones and stresses within
plastic and elastic areas for the certain values of
shaft lining resistance. For thus obtained values a
graphic presentation is given illustrating the
influence of shaft lining resistance on the size of
the plastic zone around the shaft (Fig.3). On the
basis of the same it may be concluded that increase
in value of shaft lining resistance causes reduction
of the plastic strains zone.

3 CONCLUSION

The objective of this paper is to give a graphic

presentation of the effects of shaft lining resistance
on the size of the plastic zone around the shaft,
based on the stress calculation accomplishment by
an MCAD programming package.

326
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

High density spatial data collection for monitoring of steep wall movements

D.D.Lichti, M. Stewart & M.Tsakiri

Curtin University o f Technology, Perth, WA, Australia

ABSTRACT: The monitoring of potentially unstable mine slopes is standard engineering practice to prevent
disasters associated with wall failures and collapses. Most mine walls are monitored on a strictly as-necessary
basis due to the high cost, with the most common methods including conventional surveying or traditional
geotechnical techniques and more recently satellite positioning techniques such as the Global Positioning Sys­
tem (GPS). However, all these techniques can only sample discrete points on a surface and the interpretation
of possible deformations may be limited. An alternative method is the use of laser imaging systems that pro­
vide a dense set of three-dimensional vector observations relative to the scanner location. Given the volume
of points and high sampling frequency, laser-imaging systems offer surveyors and mine engineers an unprece­
dented density of geospatial information coverage. This paper discusses the feasibility of laser imaging sys­
tems for wall deformation monitoring in the context of real data collected on a steep slope of a dam in West­
ern Australia.

1 fNTRODUCTION 1989). Whilst the geotechnical monitoring tech­

Precise measurement of mine wall displacements is
one of the most important activities in mine survey­
ing. Subtle damage that can be sensed by measure­
ment could be of concern to safety and pose finan­
cial risks to mine operators. Mine industries spend
large sums of money each year on techniques and
systems to monitor movement fast and efficiently.
The most common way of checking for mine slope
instability is the use of various types of sensors
which can measure surface displacements, ground
water, the chemical properties of the soil, and pres­
sure and stresses within the ground itself. In some
slopes, inclinometers, extensometers and piezome­
ters are built into the internal fabric of the structure
on construction, giving cross-sectional information
from inside the structure. On surfaces such as natural
slopes and mine walls, this is not always possible.
On these types of surfaces, small displacements
are seen as a key precursor to many types of failure
because small motions precede failure for a consid­
erable period of time prior to collapse. In this case,
measurement of surface displacements is achieved
using traditional surface monitoring regimes in
which arrays of targets situated on the monitoring
surface are measured by electronic distance meas­
urement devices (EDM) and theodolites. Recently,
satellite-based positioning methods such as the
Global Positioning System (GPS) have also been
used to provide coordinates of monitoring points in
deformation monitoring applications (e.g. Hudnut &
Behr 1998, Gillespie 1997, Chrzanowski et al.
niques can be effective in areas on a slope where the
mode of deformation motion has been previously
identified, satellite techniques are more promising in
that their three-dimensional position information can
aid in the detection of small motions. However, all
the aforementioned techniques are limited by two
main drawbacks. First, they all require access to the
monitoring surface in question for installation and
maintenance of instruments. The second and main
drawback is that these techniques can only sample a
few sparse, discrete points on a monitoring surface.
Thus, they only provide local information about in­
dividual point displacements and do not offer spatial
information about the behaviour of the whole mine
wall under investigation.
Laser scanning is an alternative technique that can
offer the accuracy required and the spatial resolution
for monitoring mine slopes. While laser scanner sys­
tems have been available for some time for small
scale engineering tasks, their use in larger scale envi­
ronments is not widespread. Several terrestrial laser­
imaging systems have been recently released. These
have ranges of up to 350m and can acquire up to
6000 points per second. These types of imaging sys­
tems provide the user with a dense set of three-
dimensional vector observations relative to the scan­
ner location. Given the volume of points and high
sampling frequency, laser-imaging systems offer
surveyors and mine engineers an unprecedented den­
sity of geospatial information coverage.

327
 This paper describes the data collection on a steep
slope using a three-dimensional terrestrial laser
scanning system and discusses the feasibility of the
method for deformation monitoring purposes in the
mine environment. Issues regarding hardware con­
figuration and accuracy quantification are discussed
in the context of real data collected in a steep slope
of a dam in Western Australia. Comparative results
of several known points, established with GPS, are
given to evaluate the accuracy of the technique and
to illustrate the benefits of rapid data acquisition in
monitoring applications where the environment is
changing, such as in mines.
2 OVERVIEW OF LASER SCANNING
Three-dimensional laser scanning systems are cur­
rently used in high precision, small-scale industrial
metrology applications as well as for airborne map­
ping. However, their use for large scale (i.e., greater
than a few metres in range) ground-based measure­
ment operations is still in its infancy.
With this technique, a range finder emits a laser
pulse, illuminating the point on the surface to be
measured while the azimuth and elevation of the
transmitted pulse is recorded. A portion of the pulse
energy is returned from the surface to the scanner de­
tector. The range is then calculated based on the time
taken between the emission of the pulse and its de­
tection. The amount of energy reflected depends on
the characteristics of the surface, such as the texture
and material, incidence angle, atmospheric condi­
tions and ambient illumination. The amplitude of the
returned pulse is recorded, giving an intensity or
brightness value. All these data are then recorded as
a unique vector in space relative to the scanner ori­
gin. Finally, all the sampled points from the scene
are used to build a three-dimensional data set. Scans
can be compared at different time epochs to provide
a useful source of information for potential surface
motion. Perhaps the greatest advantage of such a
system is that it provides a very dense sampling of a
deforming surface.
Several terrestrial laser-imaging systems have
been recently released (e.g. CYRAX 2400 3D laser
Mapping System and the Maptek 1-SiTE System.
The scanning mechanism typically consists of a po­
lygonal mirror rotating at a constant rate about a
horizontal axis. Each laser pulse is transmitted at a
known elevation angle incremented in discrete steps
within a vertical plane. A second mirror, oriented in
the same plane as the first, deflects the reflected
beam into the laser detector, which is mounted
alongside the transmitter. After one vertical line scan
is completed, the scanner head rotates around a ver­
tical axis through a specified increment and another
vertical scan is performed. By repeating this opera­
tion over very small angular increments, a 3D sam­
pling of the deforming surface is obtained.
328
One of the main advantages of laser scanning
technology for deformation monitoring applications
is the extremely rapid data acquisition (up to 6,000
points/s). Furthermore, the fine sampling permits de­
tailed mapping of complex surfaces, allowing easy
computation of changes (e.g. wall creep). Terrestrial
laser-imaging systems can be fully integrated with
conventional surveying instrumentation. However,
scanners do not require reflectors and thus eliminate
the need for dangerous high wall access such as in
mine walls. Furthermore, the scan data can be refer­
enced in any coordinate system using a 3-D rigid
body transformation. The majority of terrestrial la­
ser scanner units can be mounted on a standard sur­
veying tripod and can be force-centred over a known
control point as with typical survey instrumentation.
A full scan over the horizontal range of 300° of arc
and 80° in the vertical takes about 6 minutes, result­
ing in a data volume in excess of 2 million points
(Lichti et al. 2000). For greater detail on the princi­
ples of laser scanner operation, readers are referred
to Marshall (1985), Baltsavias (1999) and, Wehr &
Lohr(1999).
Notwithstanding the possibilities of rapid data
collection, the achievable accuracies of existing laser
imaging systems are somewhat untested. Manufac­
turers’ specifications tend to vary from system to
system. Initial tests regarding the quantification of
accuracy and resolution for one of these systems in
controlled environments have been performed
(Lichti et al. 2000). A benchmark test performed on
the Maptek I-SiTE system involved the direct com­
parison of range measurements with known values
on an EDM calibration baseline. Repeat scans and
the implementation of target reduction methods in
order to overcome the halo effect (multiple reflector
returns), gave individual baseline component repeat­
ability of the instrument in the order of 0.02m (ibid
2000). The same instrument was tested in a steep
slope of a rockfill dam in Western Australia. The
following section describes the test and the feasibil­
ity of the method for mine wall stability monitoring.
3 SCANNING OF STEEP SLOPES
In Western Australia, all dams are monitored regu­
larly under the auspices of the Water Corporation.
The common monitoring strategy involves initial
monitoring surveys conducted regularly to show ini­
tial trends in settlement. If these movements are
within the expected values of the design engineers,
the frequency of monitoring may be reduced depend­
ing on the risk/hazard associated with that structure.
The monitoring is performed using terrestrial survey­
ing techniques (total station and electronic level) at
time intervals ranging from 1 to 6 months. This in­
strumentation allows Water Corporation specifica­
tions to be met routinely (ICOLD 1988). However,
each dam survey takes approximately one week to
complete using conventional techniques.

Figure 1. Plan view o f North Dandalup dam monitoring points
and scanner locations.
The dam discussed in this paper, North Dandalup,
is a relatively new construction and is regularly
monitored using a combination of GPS and terres­
trial surveying techniques. The main dam is some
50m high and is inclined at an angle of approxi­
mately 60°. Commencing in September 1996, the
monitoring takes place at three-month intervals at
the same time each year. The GPS surveys take
about three days for over 40 survey monitoring (SM)
points. Of the monitoring points covering the dam
complex, depicted in Figure 1, ten were selected for
the test with the terrestrial laser scanning system.
Reflective prisms were installed at these points. The
coordinates of these points were established with ac­
curacy greater than ±5 mm in both the horizontal and
the height component (Stewart et al. 1999).
A total of six laser scans were taken from three
locations around the face of the dam. The instrument
was set up over a known survey point, but due to the
lack of forced centring and levelling bubbles (since
rectified), the precise location of the instrument’s
electrical centre remained unknown.
The target was comprised of a low-cost reflector
affixed to a standard surveying mark. The target cen­
tre height above the reference point was measured
for each SM, as were temperature and barometric
pressure at the time of each scan. The reflectors were
oriented towards the instrument location for each
scan.
Figures 2a and 2b show examples of the scans
from two of the locations as grey-scale images. The
targets appear as bright spots on the dam due to their
high reflectance. These images were prepared using
MAPTEK VULCAN software package (Maptek,
http://www.maptek.com.au).
It must be noted that although prisms were used
in the test to provide returns from specific points,
thus allowing easy recognition of the control points
for the benchmark testing, reflectors are not gener­
ally required for the scanning process.
329
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. North Dandalup dam scanner intensity images, (a)
View from location 1. (b) View from location 2.
The test described in this paper relies on returns
from reflectors situated at known control points.
These returns were much stronger (by up to a factor
of 4) than the average return from the rocky dam
wall at distances of up to 250m. In the following
analysis, it is therefore assumed that the accuracy of
the measured ranges to reflective targets is inde­
pendent of the strength of the returned signal.
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
At the time of the test (October 1999), it was not
possible to centre the 1-SiTE unit on a tripod over a
known point because no level bubbles or force cen­
tring apparatus were available on the unit. Also,
some doubt existed regarding the exact location of
the electrical centre of the unit (Lichti et al. 2000).
Therefore, for each of the six scans at North Danda­
lup, the phase centre and three orientation angles of
the scanner were estimated via a three-dimensional
resection from the ten known control points on the
dam wall. Since the scanner observables are coordi­
nates, the resection problem can be formulated as a
three-dimensional rigid body transformation of
points from object space to scanner space or vice
versa (ibid 2000).
Results from the resection are shown in Figure 3,
in which the estimated residuals in each dimension
have been plotted as a function of range. The stan­
dard deviations of the 58 residuals (in each dimen­
sion) are ±0.043m in x, ±0.023m in y and ±0.034m
 £ 0.05

II -0,05 -

-0.1p ■
-0.15'-----

i, -■ ‘ -• ■

B 0.05
1

Figure 3. Dam resection residuals (all six scans).

-0.11-
i
- 0 .3 '-

-0.1
-0.2
-0.3

-0.1

-0.2

Figure 4. North Dandalup dam coordinate differences (28 points).

in z. The maximum residual was -0.125m. These
standard deviations include the uncertainty in the
GPS coordinates but, by solving for its location, ex­
clude the uncertainty as to the position of the electri­
cal centre of the scanner. No dependence on base­
line length is evident from the x, y, and z component
graphs.
Direct comparison of the repeat measurements of
three-dimensional vector to the reduced centre of
each control point yields a ‘measurement repeatabil­
ity’ independent of both the GPS coordinates, and
the supposed position of the electrical centre of the
laser scanner instrument. However, a total of 28 re­
peats are available.
Coordinate differences between the two scans are
shown in Figure 4. The repeatabilities are -0.010 ±
0.066m, -0.014 ± 0.038m and 0.021 ± 0.037m in the
X , y and z components, respectively. Once again, no
distance dependence is obvious. However, it is in­
teresting to note that the furthest ranges (257m for
SMI5 from location 3, 247m for SM8 for location 3)
exhibit the highest overall repeatabilities (in terms of
difference vector magnitude) of 0.281m and 0.169m,
respectively. It can also be seen that, in general,
scans at distances under 100m have lower repeat­
abilities in all components. However, given the size
of the data sample, these observations are not con­
clusive.

330
 Similar analysis of repeatability against direction
to the control point from the scanner yielded no ap­
parent correlation; i.e. results appear to be independ­
ent of direction as well as distance from the instru­
ment. It must be noted though that only about one
third of the scanner’s horizontal angular range was
utilised.
The strategy of placing reflective prisms at known
points to provide control for the vector measure­
ments is hindered by the nature of the scanning ap­
paratus itself This issue is perhaps not such a prob­
lem given the large number of points to be collected,
but does pose some issues for benchmark calibration
tests. The above results are contaminated by the
technique of reducing a number of vector coordi­
nates from strong returns to a single central point
that is assumed to be coincident with the known con­
trol point. This is because the user has no control
over beam alignment when reflective prisms are
used at known points (i.e., one cannot point to a par­
ticular point) due to the scanner’s uniform sampling
scheme (in both elevation and direction). Intuitively,
the accuracy of individual point vectors may be more
optimistic that the above results indicate.
Results from North Dandalup indicate accuracy
of approximately ±3 - 7cm, with some large repeat­
abilities at individual points. These represent more a
deficiency in the data reduction techniques (Lichti et
al. 2000) than the true resolution of the scanner.
The same methodology described above for the
scanning of the dam slope can be applied in any
steep wall such as in open cut mines. During the
scanning process, point collections are usually ran­
dom and no two points will be measured twice, ei­
ther from scans at different locations or scans from
the same location but at a different time. Therefore,
the direct comparison of control point coordinates,
as per traditional deformation surveying, is not fea­
sible. Instead, with the information collected from
the large number of points using laser scanning, a
smooth surface which can accurately represent the
steep slope can be developed using standard gridding
procedures (e.g. bilinear, bicubic, kriging, spline).
The modelling of deformation and the accompa­
nying error analysis of the smooth surface requires
specialised image processing techniques. Classifica­
tion is necessary to remove unwanted returns occlud­
ing the scanned surface. For example, the reflections
from the vehicles, fences and roads visible in the im­
ages of Figure 2 need to be removed prior to analy­
sis. Furthermore, intelligent filtering algorithms are
required to handle possible surface discontinuities of
the deforming object. Surface modelling results can
be displayed in any standard three-dimensional finite
element visualisation package to identify any possi­
ble surface deformation.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Terrestrial laser scanning technology offers survey­
ors and mine engineers a rapid means of collecting
dense sets of three-dimensional point sets. For
331
structural monitoring applications, laser scanning
can be considered advantageous over geodetic meth­
ods (e.g. surveying, GPS), as entire deformation sur­
faces can be measured, as opposed individual point
displacements.
Preliminary results from scanning of steep slopes
on North Dandalup dam indicate accuracy of ap­
proximately ±3 - 7cm, with some large repeatabili­
ties at individual points.
Such dense data sets give rise to issues such as
data handling and filtering issues and suitable de­
formation analysis procedures. Future work will
concentrate on these aspects and integration of laser
scanner data with measurements from other sensors
(e.g. GPS, digital cameras).
6 REFERENCES
Baltsavias. E.P. 1999. Airborne laser scanning: basic relations
and formulas. ISPRS Journal of PhotogrammeUy and Re­
mote Sensing, 54 (2-3): 199-214.
Chrzanovvski, A., Chen, Y.Q., Romero, P. <fe Maravan, J.L.
1989. Integration o f the Global Positioning System with
geodetic leveling surveys in ground subsidence studies.
0 5 4 /4 3 : 377-386.
Gillespie, P. 1998. GPS monitoring at Argyle Diamond Mine-
An overview. In M. Tsakiri (ed.), Ach’ances in GPS Defor­
mation Monitoring; Proc. Intern. Workshop, Perth, 24-25
September, Australia.
Hudnut, K.T. & Behr, J.A. 1998. Continuous GPS monitoring
o f structural deformation at Pacoima dam, California. Seis-
mological Research Letters 69(4): 299-308.
ICOLD 1988. Dam monitoring-general considerations. Inter­
national Commissionfor Large Dams, No 60, 69p.
Lichti, D.D., Stewart, M.P., Tsakiri, M. & Snow, A. 2000.
Benchmark Tests on a Three-dimensional Laser Scanning
System. Geomatics Research Australasia (in press).
Marshall, G. F (Ed.) 1985. Laser Beam Scanning: Opto-
Mechanical Devices, Systems and Data Storage Optics.
New York: Macel Dekker, Inc.
Stewart, M., Tsakiri, M. & Duckrell, B. 1999. Dam deforma­
tion monitoring with episodic GPS. Proc. 6'^ South East
Asian Surveyors Congress, Fremantle 1-6 November, Aus­
tralia, Session 8A, pp. 477-485.
Wehr, A. & Lohr U. 1999. Airborne laser scanning - an intro­
duction and overview. ISPRS Journal of PhotogrammeUy
and Remote Sensing, 54 (2-3): 68-82.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

H ighw all m ining system with backfilling

K.Matsui, H.Shimada, TSasaoka, M.Ichinose & S. Kubota

Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

ABSTRACT: Highwall mining system is to extract coal with an auger machine or a continuous miner. With
the highwall mining system, there are many factors that have to be considered. Major factors are the coal
recovery and the stability of the highwall. A large amount of coal remains isolated and undeveloped as pillars
due to previous indiscriminate mining operations performed by the use of an auger or a continuous miner.
Therefore, highwall mining may cause the highwall instability and also remain a precious coal reserve
undeveloped as pillars. Backfilling in the highwall mining would allow for a high coal extraction ratio while
greatly reducing the threat of failure of the pillars and highwall and damage caused by subsidence at the
surface.
This paper describes the highwall mining system and the importance of the backfilling system in highwall
mining and discusses the geotechnical and mining problems in highwall mining system by means of the
non-linear finite element method.

1 INTRODUCTION reducing the threat of failure of the pillars and the

Final highwalls of open cut coal mines can form the
starting point for other mining methods, such as
underground or highwall mining. In its basic
application, highwall mining is a technique utilized
after the open cut portion of a reserve has been
mined, sometimes prior to the introduction of
underground mining (Seib, 1993).
Highwall mining is performed by a set of
machinery positioned adjacent to the final highwall
of an open cut. The equipment is closely related to
underground mining machinery, and is operated by
remote control as it excavates the coal seam. This
unmanned, remote operation contributes
significantly to highwall mining’s well-earned
reputation as being one of the safest mining methods
available today.
However, a large amount of coal tends to remain
isolated and undeveloped as pillars due to previous
indiscriminate mining operations performed by the
use of an auger machine or a continuous miner.
Moreover, the highwall mining causes highwall
instability and surface subsidence.
Backfilling in the highwall mining would allow
for a high coal extraction ratio while greatly
highwall and damage caused by subsidence at the
surface.
In this study, the highwall mining system and
backfilling system were considered and geotechnical
and mining problems in the highwall mining system
were discussed by means of non-linear finite
element analysis.
2 HIGHWALL MINING SYSTEM
Highwall mining system extracts coal from exposed
seams at the base of open cut or strips operations as
shown in Figure 1. Continuous miners and auger
machines are suited to all applications where a seam
of coal has been exposed as a result of open cut
mining.
The continuous miner system is categorized into
two types: one is an Add-car system and the other is
an Archveyor system. The former consists of a
continuous miner, launch vehicle, add-cars, stack
conveyor and loader. The latter consists of a
continuous miner and Archveyor chain conveyor,
which conveys coal and trams the machine itself
The continuous miner system can excavate

333

Figure 1. Highwall mining system scheme.
rectangular holes over 350 m, and the size of the
hole depends on the size of the machine. Fully
automated control of the system is achieved with the
aid of advanced navigation technology onboard the
continuous miner - including a roof and floor
passive gamma detector system, inclinometers, a
ring laser gyroscope and programmable logic
controller - from a control room on the surface.
The auger machine can excavate holes over 100
m long and 1.0 m diameter and greater into the coal
seams from highwalls, depending on the method of
application. The auger is more maneuverable than
the continuous miner system and can be applied
when shorter lengths of highwall are presented. It is
also suited to recovering open cut end walls and
major pillars of coal remaining after a continuous
miner operation.
3 ASPECTS OF BACKFILLING
Waste disposal in underground mines is not a
revolutionary concept. Waste rocks have been used
in the world for many years as backfilling materials
to provide additional support to underground
excavations in mines. Recently, for the lack of a
dumping site the use of backfill for regional and
local support has been receiving increasing attention
in the mining industry.
According to the previous research work (Afrouz,
1994), backfilling presents the following merits to
the underground coal mines:
1) Fills the excavated areas, promoting better
support and ground control.
2) Provides a better environmental control on the
waste rocks and coal preparation plant wastes.
3) Increases coal recovery, especially in room and
pillar mining and highwall mining systems.
4) Reduces ventilation short-circuiting between
adjacent mining sites.
5) Reduces cost of waste transportation to the mine
334
surface dumping sites and tailing ponds, and
associated up-keeping and monitoring of these
facilities.
In the USA, increased opposition from
environmental groups is severely restricting the
operation and planning of large-scale surface mines.
Some projects of mountaintop removal mining have
to be cancelled and downsized. In this case, as
discussed in the previous section, the highwall
mining system would be applicable and useful for
protection of the environment and reclamation. The
backfilling would increase the coal extraction ratio,
keep the pillars and the highwall stable and control
the subsidence at the surface.
The required strength of the backfill depends on
the strata and mining conditions: cover depth, rock
types and properties, mining method, etc. At a
shallow mine, the required strength is not critical
compared to that at a deep mine. According to the
research work in South Africa, backfilling shallow
underground room and pillar mines with pulverized
flyash slurry could significantly improve the mine
operating conditions by providing improved roof
support and increased extraction ratio (Wagner et al,
1979). The research also suggests that the complete
filling of the rooms, up to the roof level, is not
necessary for improved roof control. Filling up to
70% of the pillar height provided adequate
confinement that constrained the lateral expansion
of the pillar under concentrated compressive stresses.
Moreover, by providing confinement to the pillars,
thick coal seams have been successfully mined with
a subsequent reduction of pillar height to width ratio
and improved load bearing capacity of the pillars.
4 BACKFILLING MATERIALS
Backfilling materials that are of concern to the
mining industry can be broadly classified into the
following three categories:
1) Waste originating from coal mines.
2) Waste originating from coal burning power
plants.
3) Waste originating from other industries.
4.1 Waste from coal mines
The waste generating from coal mines is waste
rocks from the underground sites and waste from
preparation plants. The waste rocks that are
inevitably produced during roadway drivage and
repair work such as re-ripping and dinting are coal
measures rocks, such as sandstones, shales,
sandyshales, mudstones, conglomerates and so on.
At Ikeshima Colliery, Japan, about 1.2 million tons
of clean coal is produced and over 0.4 million tons
of waste rocks is transported from the underground
sites to the surface dumping sites.
Moreover, a large amount of wastes from the
preparation plant is produced. The properties of the
wastes vary depending on the mineralogical
contents of the mother rock in which the coal is
embedded. The waste quality depends on the
method of mining and cleaning. The waste mainly
consists of clays, quartz, carbonaceous materials,
mica, pyrites and so on. At Ikeshima Colliery, about
0.5 million tons of wastes is produced from the
preparation plant every year.
When using waste rocks, some problems for
backfilling arise from the deterioration of the rocks
due to weathering and slaking, loss of compacted
strength and the eventual formation of acid water as
a product of the leeching of the acid producing
ingredients with in the waste, such as pyrite. There
are other problems with using coal refuse, namely,
the liberation of methane and the possibility of
sudden ignition due to the amount of carbonaceous
materials within the wastes.
4.2 Waste from power plants
The wastes generating from coal burning power
plants are flyash, scrubber sludge, ash, spent bed,
and fluidized bed wastes. In Japan, these types of
wastes are generally called “coal-ash” and classified
into two groups: flyash and clinker-ash (JFA, 1995).
In Japan, over 130 million tons of coal is imported
and about 40 million tons of coal is burned annually
for generating electricity. Approximately 15 percent
of all the coal burnt is transformed to coal-ash of
which 85 to 95% is flyash and 5 to 15% is
clinker-ash. The size of clinker-ash is larger than
that of flyash. Therefore, it is crushed for utilization.
About 55% of coal-ash is now utilized and the
remaining is disposed of at the disposal sites.
However, the life of the disposal site is limited. It is
difficult to find a new disposal site. It is requested
that the percentage of the utilization of the coal-ash
has to be increased in every field in Japan. However,
the quality of flyash, depending on the coal type,
restricts the extensive use of flyash.
The predominately spherical particle shape of the
flyash provides a smooth flow of the mix by acting
as a lubricant that increases the flowability of the
mix and reduces the wear and tear of the equipment.
The particle size range is from less than 0.1 up to 1
mm, the majority (90%) being less than 0.1 mm.
The addition of flyash also increases the specific
surface area per unit weight and produces beneficial
335
aspects on: segregation and rate of settlement,
permeability, bleeding and pozzolanic activity.
Moreover, the low heat properties of flyash
effectively reduce the temperature of hydration in
mixes containing Portland cement by as much as
30%. In Japan, the mixes are called flyash cement
and there are three types of Portland flyash cement:
class A contains 5 to 10% flyash, class B; 10 to 20%
and class C; 20 to 30%. The mix cement contributes
to a cost saving of concrete mix without adversely
affecting the long-term strength of the concrete.
4.3 Waste from other industries
The waste generating from other industries is
industrial waste, such as soil from construction sites
and waste concrete from destroyed old buildings and
domestic garbage. A great deal of combustion
residue is produced from domestic refuse
incineration plants every year. The amount of this
type of waste is expected to be higher each year.
The public is less accepting of the storage of these
materials in the surface dumping sites. In the past,
the possibilities of depositing these materials in
underground stable excavations where accessibility
can be guaranteed have been investigated
intensively. However, in Japan, the law strictly
regulates the use of waste as backfilling material at
underground mines.
5 CONFIRMATION OF BACKFILLING
EFFECT BY MEANS OF FEM ANALYSIS
Finite element modeling was used to clarify the
effectiveness of the backfilling system on stability
of pillar, openings and highwall. For simplicity, a
two dimensional model was used in this analysis as
shown in Figure 2. The coal seam thickness is 3 m.
The immediate roof and floor are siltstone being of
4 m thickness and 3 m thickness, respectively. The
initial vertical stress (Py) was assumed to be the
depth pressure (Py = y h: y = unit weight of
overburden and h= cover depth or highwall height)
and the initial horizontal stress (Ph) was variable.
The ratio of Ph/Py was considered to be 1/3, 1/2, 3/4,
1, 1.5 and 2 in the analysis. The height of the
highwall (h) was assumed to be, 30 m-100 m. Five
rectangular openings being of 4 m wide and 3 m
high were excavated one after the other in the coal
seam. After the excavation of each opening, the
opening was backfilled. And then the next opening
was excavated. The pillar width (Wp) between two
openings was assumed to be 4 m and 2 m wide.
 Table 1. Mechanical properties and parameters o f coal, rocks and backfilling material.

Young’s Poisson’s Uniaxial compressive Unit weight: y

modulus :E ratio: v strength: a c m s
(MPa) (MPa) (M N W )
Sandstone 5700 0.28 26.6 7.5 0.1 0.0243

Siltstone 4650 0.27 20.9 2.0 0.02 0.0247

Coal 1530 0.30 11.9 2.08 0.07 0.0134

Backfill 1530 0.30 30.0 7.5 0.1 0.027

The non-linear analysis was performed by using
the two-dimensional FEM cord Thase^’ that was
developed by Geomechanics Software & Research,
Canada.
The following well-known Hoek & Brown
criterion was employed as a failure criterion:
(j \! (j c= a 3 / a c + ( ma 3 / a c +
where a i = major principal stress at peak strength,
0 3 = minor principal stress, m and s = constants
that depend on the properties of the rock and the
extent to which it had been broken before being
subjected to the failure stresses, and o c = uniaxial
compressive strength of the intact rock material.
The mechanical properties and parameters of the
coal, rocks and backfilling material are listed in
Table 1.
Figure 3 shows the failure development around
the openings at different depths. With increasing the
depth, the failure zones develop around the openings.
The pillars and ribs tend to fail with shear failure
and the roof and floor with tensile failure with
increasing mining depth or highwall height. These
failure modes depend on the initial stress conditions,
of course.
Figure 4 also shows the failure development
around the openings under the different initial
stresses. The failure conditions depend on the stress
conditions. Under high horizontal stress conditions,
the roof and floor of the openings tend to make
shear failure easily. On the other hand, under small
horizontal stress conditions, tensile failure is
dominant in the roof and floor.
Figure 5 shows the failure development around
the openings with narrow pillar. With the narrow
pillar, the openings show the less stability and the
pillars fail much severer than the wide pillar case as
shown in Figure 3. This situation will lead to
unstable work conditions, and sometimes the cutting
machine would be caught in the opening being
impossible to withdraw.
Figure 6 shows the failure development around
the openings with backfilling. It is clear that the

336
 O: Tensile failure Ph/Py 1/3 O: Tensile failure h = 100 m
X : Shear failure Wp = 4 m X : Shear failure Wp = 4 m
T c n u n : r i i i ~ Or>f/l^p 0 ,n 0 __r.f0 „ ------------------ -
..............................................
11'; ...
h = 30 m
” Ph/Pv = l/3

" L T 1
|V lyT
L

h = 40 m 1y. . X . . 0 n° 1 ^ .............
1 ^ ^ i i i M ^ ^
1
li
______________ _ _ r P^/Pv = l/2
1,
h = 50 m Ò-

i ! X- .< O ■X o _¡2,^^______________
X
_____J ijw r Ò IV [ i i T i n r i r

h = 70m p ,y p ,= 3 /4

. ft.. ^L-. [>

; 1 J ' ; < i
U<>' ^A, L
h = 80 m r m r - r i .. n .r r

-__ Ph/Pv = l
^ ri i -i f i 1
o-
h = 90 m
.«CAMC
C1-, r.O
y. ^
¥
1 i ^ i
... **
1- 1
P ./P = 1 .5
h = 100 m
Figure 3. Failure development around the openings c:>-
at different depths.

¡¿A..
backfilling helps the openings keep stable compared
to the situation as shown in Figure 5. However, at
greater depths, the effectiveness of backfilling P,/Pv = 2
cannot be obtained well. In such a case, we have to
Figure 4. Failure development around the openings
consider the use of wider pillar, narrow opening and
under the different initial stresses.
stronger backfilling material. Although the
backfilling function was not dealt clearly in the
analysis well, it must be understood that the 6 CONCLUSIONS
confinement by backfilling and the infiltration of
backfilling slurry content into the failure zone Highwall mining system can sometimes be the final
improve mechanical properties of the broken pillars. mining method used in open cut mines, or it can be
The most important consideration for backfilling serve as a means of transition, with low capital cost,
is to establish the optimal backfilling system that from surface mining to underground mining.
does not obstruct the coal production.

337
 O : Tensile failure Ph/Pv = l/3 O : Tensile failure P k/P v= 1 /3
X : Shear failure Wp = 2 m X : Shear failure Wp = 2 in
n -O p ooo p , ¡5«

ÌÀ
-‘O
« m
OwT'd'^ K IE L M K H
h = 70m h = 70m

<
14

h = 80 m h = 80 m

Sf^ i:f

h = 90m h = 90 m

B
ix p x f ^ x l^
h = 100 m h = 100 m
Figure 5. Failure development around the openings Figure 6. Failure development around the openings
with narrow pillar. with backfilling.

The backfilling in the highwall mining system not
only increases the coal extraction ratio and the
highwall stability, but also contributes to the
protection of the environment around the mines.
However, the optimal backfilling system needs more
intensive investigation, because there are many
factors to be considered.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
edited by Hargraves, A. J. and Martin, C. H. The
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metalugy, pp.
238-242.
Wagner, H. and Galvin, J.M. (1979). Use of
hydraulically placed PFA to improve stability in
bord and pillar workings in South African
collieries. Symposium on the Utilization of
Pulverized Fuel Ash, Pretoria, South Africa,
Report No. CONF-7906215, pp.27.

The authors are grateful to the managers and

engineers of the Matsushima Coal Mining Co., Ltd.
and the Mitsui Matsushima Resources Co., Ltd. for
their assistance in this study.
All the opinions stated in this paper are those of
the authors themselves and are not necessarily those
of the coal mine.

REFERENCES

Afrouz, A.A. (1994). Placement of backfill, Mining

Engineer, February, pp. 205-211.
JFA (Japan Flyash Association). (1995). Coal Ash
Handbook, (in Japanese).
Seib, W. T. (1993). Australasian Coal Mining Practice,

338
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The geom echanics and m ine planning: A case study

Hugo Merconchini Vega & Lineu A. Ayres da Silva

Rock Mechanics Laboratory, Mining Engineering Department, Sdo Paulo University, Brazil

ABSTRACT: The processes o f stress relieve observed at some dimensions stones quarry are discussed. The
phenomenon is very important since the widespread o f the elastic energy dissipation may produce cracks or
fractures in this type o f deposit, sometimes h i^ i quality blocks are fragmented resulting in low block recov­
eries. In this work the case study o f the “Desenhado” mine located in the Medeiros Neto area in the southern
Bahia State, in Brazil is presented, where monzogranite gnaisses are extracted for ornamental purposes. It was
explained a characterization o f the rock mass using the concept o f geological and geomechanical models. This
allows to establish preferential orientations o f the exploitation faces which results in improved block recov-

1 IN TRO DUCTIO N mechanics to understand the behavior o f rock mass

In the last years, the exploitation o f dimension
stones for ornamental purposes from rock mass in
the territories o f Brazil, have been intensified, and in
present over-step the output o f the large boulders o f
unconsolidated stone deposits.
The majority o f ore deposits, mainly o f the hy­
drothermal geneses, show its rock mass highly com-
partmented but in the ornamental rock deposits its
behavior has an important relationship with the dis­
continuities, because the material produced should
has a such quality that joints, cracks and any kind o f
discontinuities should have such small persistency as
to its behavior can be considered into the theory of
elasticity. During the exploitation o f rock masses is
more evident the stress relief processes because its
potential energy stored producing cracks and dam­
age in the exploited blocks and would reduce its
quality to be exported.
An important feature to be considered is that
these processes are brought about in conditions o f
low confining pressures.
The region o f the south o f the Bahia State, spe­
cifically in the site o f the mineral enterprise “M in-
eraçâo Corcovado do Sudeste Ltda” that corresponds
with the area o f Medeiros Neto have presented rock
burst phenomena o f relative low intensity in the
mine “Desenhado”, that have produced fragmenta­
tion, cracks, and a significance depletion o f the
block recovery during the quarry operation.
The present works tends to call the attention
about the importance o f the study o f rock fracture
and forecasting the direction o f crack propagation
and orientation o f fracture in this type o f brittle rock
materials, in order to reduce the lost during the ex­
ploitation.
There are many factors that have significant in­
fluence in the rocks fractures process, among them
the in-situ stress field and the geological structure
are o f the most importance. For this reason is neces­
sary to know the regional systematic fracture system
and its provable relationship with the specific area of
study.
ITie rocks studied corresponding with the type o f
granite gneiss which has a typical sheeting structure
displayed on convex topographic forms.
Were characterized the main mechanical and
physical parameters o f the intact rocks and estimated
the directions o f the principal stresses in the area o f
the “Desenhado” mine.
It is important to recognize that the estimate o f in-
situ stress by geological methods can not substitute
the in-situ stress measurements carry out with the
use o f suitable instrumental techniques known at the
present moment.
2 PURPOSES A ND METHODOLOGY OF THE
WORK
The main objectives o f the investigation were.
1) To study the geological and structural features
o f the rock mass in the “Desenhado” mine.

339
 2) To study the behavior of intact rocks undergo to granulitic faces. Tertiary sediments of the Barrei-
to compressive and tension stresses. ras Group and deposits of the Quaternary age.
3) The understanding of the mechanism of the
stress relief and its incidence in the fragmentation
during the exploitation of dimension stone deposits 4 GEOLOGICAL MODEL
from rock masses.
4) To estimate the direction of the major maxi­ In relation with the principal aspects to characterize
mum in-situ stress in the mine. the geological model of the “Desenhado” quarry is
5) To try of establish a systematic study to fore­ possible to say that the main lithological-type is rep­
casting potential occurrences of cracks and the study resented according with classification of the QAPT
of alternatives to deplete the lost of block exploita­ triangle of Streckeisen (1976), as garnet monzo-
tion in these types of dimension stone deposits. granite gnaisse. .The classification of Shand (1947)
The methodology of investigation considered the the rocks studied can be classified as peralkaline
following tasks: granitoid rocks.
1) The study of the geological and structural pa­ The structure of the rock mass is a very important
rameters of the rock mass that would be undergo re­ concept to the determination of the geological
sidual stress freíd. model, and the superposition of the characteristics of
2) The testing of laboratory samples and to verify structure, texture and fabric of the intact rocks with
its correlation with the field geological-structural the discontinuities are the basic support to built up
observations. the geological model of the rock masses.
In order to get the goals of before statements, the In the figure 1 is showed the Map of Photolinea­
scope of the work was subdivided as follows: tions at the scale of 1:000.000 of the area of Medei­
1) Desk study of the previous works. ros Neto from airphotointerpretaion at scale of
2) Photointerpretation of airphotos at the scale of 1:60.000 locate in the south of Bahia State.
1: 60.000 with detail in the photolineations and the
preparation of the map and rossete diagram of the
region of Medeiros Neto
3) To do geological and structural field observa­
tions and sampling in the area of “Desenhado” mine
to determinate the geological and mechanical model.
The structural data were elaborated with the help of
the Trade Computational Program.
4) Mechanical testing of the intact rocks.
5) Analysis of the geological and structural data
by means of the methods of rock mechanics and its
relationship with the rock fracture mechanics.
6) Conclusions and suggestions to further works
that will be applied to the dimension stone deposits
to ornamental uses.
In the classification of the lithological types was
used the QAPF double triangular diagram of
Streckeisen, 1976.The sampling included pet­
rographic, chemical, physical and mechanical sam­
ples. The most important mechanical parameters
considered were: Uniaxial compressive strength. Figure 1 M ap and rosette o f ph otolineations o f region o f
Triaxial compression strength. Tension strength. M ed eiros N e to in the south o f the B ahia State, B razil in sca le
Young Modulus, Coefficient of Poisson, Criteria of 1: 000.000.
rupture, and Behavior of rock in post-rupture.
The rosetee diagram shows that the main prefer­
ential regional direction of the lineation corre­
3 GEOLOGICAL SETTING sponding with the sector N 45® W. Accordingly with
the field observations, the principal structural ele­
According to the Design of South of Bahia ments of the “Desenhado” quarry are the foliations
(DNPM/CPRM/1974), the main rocks present in the that corresponds with the post-tectonic events in the
region are represented by, the Pre-Espinaha9o, region. In subordinate quantity are evidenced the
Group, represented by the Migmatitic-Metamorphic joints systems.
Complex formed by Pre-Cambrian rocks with an The foliations have an a weak scattered of the
metamorphic grade that can range from green schist data but its preferential directions are: N 10® E /80®
N W and NIO® E/80® SE. It is showed in the

340
stereonet representation of poles showed in the fig 2. Table 1 Overall findings o f mechanical characterization
and it can be observed in die outcrops of the actual Parameters Orthogonal Parallel
open pit. About the joints, although there are relative to Foliation to Foliation
small quantities of observations as compared with Uniaxial compressive
the regional area, it is possible enhance three sys­ strength 106.8 MPa 107.8 MPa
tems of fi*actures or joints gathered in the structural Young Module 43.584 MPa 50.293 Mpa
data and showed in the stereonet representation of Poisson
Coefficient 0.34 0.34
poles of joints. There are two sub-vertical and one Tensile Strength 7.6 MPa 7.6 MPa
sub-horizontal systems. The main direction of the Cohesion 16.5 MPa 16.5 MPa
sub-verticals systems are: N20® E/87® NW and N 70® Friction Angle 55.9° 56.9°
E/85® NW and the sub-horizontal is N 50® W/20® NE Constant m * 26.6 25.9
showed in the figure 3. Constant s * 1.0 1.2
* Criteria o f rupture o f Hoek & Brown, 1988.

6 SOME THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL

CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT THE CRACKS
FORMATION AND PROPAGATION IN THE
“DESENHADO” QUARRY

The rocks of the “Desenhado” mine are represented

by granitic gneiss are exposed in outcrops with an
typical granitic exfoliation or sheet fractures that re­
fers to joints in rock masses that run parallel to the
contemporary outcrops.
Various ideas were exposed by geologist about
the genesis of exfoliation but the tendency most ac­
cepted would be corresponded with the variation in
the applied loads.(Dale, 1923; Holzzhausen, and
others (apud Nemat-Nasser and Horii, 1982). The
basic idea about the genesis of the sheet fractures is
the fact that the load of the overburden can be re­
duced by the erosion of the overlying materials and
The rocks mass in the mine is practically sound the sheet fractures are developed by the action of
because the fragmentation processes occurs during tectonic compressive forces acting parallel to the
the operation of excavation and the drainage proc­ contemporary outcrop surfaces.
esses is favored by an appropriate topographic mor­ During the excavation by open pit methods are
phology. The rock mass can be classified either by evidenced rock bursts phenomena that are results
Bieniawski or Barton as the class I. from the stress relief by the variation of the load
during the process of exploitation. In the sector of
“Desenhado. ’’with the use of Jet Flame has been
5 MECHANICAL MODEL evidenced processes of closed of cracks brought
about by this cut practically in a very short interval
In order to verify the existence of mechanical anisot­ of time together with the occurrences of rock burst
ropy in the rocks studied, were tested in the direc­ events. These events are most intensive when the di­
tions parallel and orthogonal with the foliations be­ rection of the front excavation in the quarry has an
cause it modify the behavior of rocks undergo to the orthogonal direction with relation to the major
compression and tensional tests especially during the maximum compressive stress .producing fragmenta­
processes of deformation of the rocks and its de­ tion and lost of ornamental rocks blocks during the
pends of angle between the applied stress and the exploitation
planes of discontinuities. About the crack propagation have been observed
The rocks of the “Desenhado quarry have weak that as results of these processes were created frac­
structural anisotropy but it does not have signifi­ tures that run parallel to the direction of the major
cance influence in its mechanical properties such maximum compressive stress and orthogonal to the
was showed in the finding of testing. low major stress. The figure 4 shows this situation.
The findings of the mechanical characterization The stress field of the “Desenhado” quarry may
are shown in table 1. be compared with the results of Nemat-Nassert and
Horrii (1982 in the special situation of pre-existing
crack near the surface where the ground surface has

341
an suitable profile A tensile stress normal to the di­
rection of the maximum tectonic compression, may
be developed such it results as an unstable growth of
a tension crack that run parallel to the free surface as
is showed in the figure 4.
Figure 4 Stress fractures relief in an exploitation faces in the
“Desenhado” mine.
Figure 5 Coalescence o f fractures in an exploitation face.
When it is produced the coalescence of micro
cracks, then those shows macroscopic morphology
such as are exposed in the figure 5.
7 CONCLUSIONS
1) The mechanical characterization of intact rock
was carry out in the directions parallel and orthogo­
nal with relations of the foliations of the rocks. It
showed that there are structural anisotropy but not
mechanical and according with the results of testing
its behavior is practically isotropic.
2) The rosette diagram shows that the main pref­
erential direction of the photolineations and it seems
that has not direct relation between this regional
structural characteristics and the local one observed
in the outcrops of the actual open pit. of the ‘Desen­
hado” mine.
342
3) The geological and mechanical models supply
and important support to understanding the mecha­
nisms of stress relief and the rock fracture mechan­
ics.
4) The understanding of the mechanisms that
producing the stress fractures relief in the rocks
masses and the estimation of the direction of maxi­
mum major principal stress improved the output and
the economical findings in the sector of dimension
stones of the ‘Desenhado” mine and allowed the
change of orientation of the exploitation face.
REFERENCES
Caranassios, A. ; Stellin, A. Jr. ;Ayres da Silva, L. A. Consid-
era9oes Acerca do Estado de Tensoes dos maci90s na Lavra
de Rochas Omaamentais. In: Atas Congresso ítalo-
Brasileiro de Engenharia de Minas, Verona, Italia, p 283-
285, 1994.
Erickson Jr, A.J.Geologic Interpretation, Modeling and Repre­
sentation. In: SME Mining Engineering Handbook, Hart­
man, L. H. Editor Colorado, USA, 1992, v .l. p. 333-343.
Krishnan, G.R. & Zhao, L.X., Fracture Touglmess o f Soft
Sandstone. Pergamon, Great Britain, 1998, International.
Rock. Mechanics, Mining . Sciences. Vol 15, NO 6, p.695-
710.
Merconchini Vega, H. A., Ayres da Silva, L.A. Sáo Paulo,
Brazil, 1999. Problemas Relacionados a Tensoes Naturais
na Lavra de Rochas Ornamentáis, Theses to Master De­
gree.
Nemat-Nasser, S; & Hoiii, H Compression induced nonplanar
crack extension with application to splitting, exfoliation and
rock burst. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol.87,
NO.B8,.p.6805-6821, August 10,1982.
Suppe, J Principles o f Structural Geology. Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1993.
Whittaker, B. N & Sing, R. N. Rock Fracture Mechanics Prin­
ciples, Design and Applications. Elseiver, The Netherlands,
1992.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

D B -BASE: A geom echanical database for destress blasting applications

in hard rock m ines

H. S. Mitri & J. Marwan

McGill University, Montreal, Que., Canada

ABSTRACT: Destress blasting is a rockburst control technique that is used to alleviate problems of face burst
in deep hard rock mines. The technique has been successfully used in mine development and mine produc­
tion situations. A recent survey of literature by the authors has revealed that the information on the subject of
destress blasting is widely scattered, and that, to date, its application has been largely done by trial-and-error.
This paper describes a new database software which has been developed to compile data and information on
destress blasting programs in hard rock mines. The newly developed database, called DB-BASE, includes in­
formation such as the ore deposit, mining method, rockburst history, and ground support, together with the
relevant data on destress blasting. The paper describes the structure and the contents of the database, with fo­
cus on the application of destress blasting in hard rock mines.

1 INTRODUCTION to offer some shielding to both the occurrence of and

Destress blasting is regarded as one of two ground
preconditioning techniques that are used to stress-
relieve burst-prone rock; the second technique being
the drilling of destress slots or boreholes. As illus­
trated in Figure 1, ground preconditioning, rock sup­
ports and alternative mining methods, are three dis­
tinct techniques that are well recognized today for
the control of rockburst in underground hard rock
mines (Mitri, 2000).
The technique is implemented in the field by drill­
ing and blasting with relatively small charge explo­
sives, prior to a mining cycle. The length, number
and pattern of drill holes vary depending on the ap­
plication, however, the location is generally where
high stress and energy are likely to accumulate as a
result of mining activities. In face advance situa­
tions, like in the development of drifts, cross cuts,
and ramps, the length of destress holes is usually
twice that of the production blast round. The blast-
holes are loaded from the toe for one length of round
as illustrated in Figure 2. When integrated in the
mining cycle, the repeated application of destressing
should assure that the immediate face rock is stress-
relieved.
Destress blasting was first developed and widely
used in the Witwatersrand gold mines in South Af­
rica in the 1950s (Roux et al., 1957). The concept of
destress blasting evolved from the observation that
the zone of highly fractured rock immediately sur­
rounding some deep underground openings seemed
damage from rockbursts. By extending and main­
taining this zone of fractured rock ahead of a face, it
was argued that both the occurrence and effects of
rockbursts should be reduced.
The technique of destress blasting, also referred to
as preconditioning, became eventually popular in
North America and successful destress blasting trials
were reported over the years at several of Ontario
mines like Creighton (Dickout, 1962), Falconbridge
(Moruzi and Pasieka, 1964), Macassa (Hanson et al.,
1987) and Campbell Red Lake (Makuch et al., 1987)
In the United States, the cut-and-fill mining opera­
tions in the Coeur d'Alene mining district of Idaho
reported several destress blasting programs in the
Galena mine (Blake, 1972), Luck Friday mine (Wil­
liams et al., 1990) and the Star-Morning mine (Kar-
woski et al., 1979).
A literature study by Borg (1989) reported that
destress blasting was practiced in several Swedish
mines and at least one Finnish mine by the Boliden
Group, to control rockburst occurrence and to im­
prove ground stability.
In recent years, the CSIR of South Africa renewed
their interest in the destress blasting technique, and
successfully conducted what is considered to be the
most detailed investigations on the mechanics and
monitoring of longwall face destressing by face par­
allel and face perpendicular blastholes at the Bly-
vooruitzich gold mine (Lightfoot et al., 1996, Toper
etal., 1998).

343
Figure 1: Destress blasting as a rockburst control technique
Length of blasting round=R
Length of destress holes=2R
Length of loaded part=R
Mining face Face holes
Mining face
Corner holes
Figure 2; The use of destress blasting in face advance mining
2 WORLD-WIDE LITERATURE SURVEY
A comprehensive literature review has been recently
conducted by the authors (Comeau et al., 1999). As
destress blasting is a rockburst control method, the
review has also covered papers on closely related
subjects like rockburst phenomena and their moni­
toring and control. A total of 370 references were
reviewed, collected and catalogued in the following
categories:
■ Mechanics of rockburst
■ Rockburst prediction and /or monitoring
■ Rockburst alleviation and control (by meth­
ods other than destress blasting)
■ Destress blasting
A web site dedicated to the subject of rockburst con­
trol by destress blasting has been constructed, and is
now readily accessible through Internet. The site is
located at the following address:
http://Scandium.minmet.mcgill.ca
The web site contains a complete bibliography on
the subject of destress blasting and related subjects,
and will permit its future updates as new information
becomes available.
344
Based on the literature reviewed, a number of im­
portant conclusions were drawn. First, it appears that
there is currently no consensus on the interpretation
of the fundamental rock breakage mechanisms in­
volved in destress blasting. There is also no dedi­
cated method of design at present, for the evaluation
of blasting parameters and blastholes density, length
and orientation. In other words, destress blasting re­
mains to be treated by the mine operators as a site-
specific problem and lessons learned from other sites
with similar conditions may prove useful. The latter
conclusion led to the development of a new, geome­
chanical database for destress blasting, called DB-
Base. This is described below.
3 DB-BASE SOFTWARE
DB-Base is database software, which runs in a Win­
dows 98/NT environment. It contains information
about hard rock mining operations with special em­
phasis on destress blasting applications. The purpose
of the database is to provide easy access to technical
data and information on mining operations which
have used destress blasting in the past as a measure
of local rockburst control. This information can be
of help to the mining engineers when similar situa­
tions are encountered in their mine site. Such infor­
mation includes the ore deposit, mine layout, mining
methods, rockburst history, and destress blasting ap­
plications.
The database adopts a simple tree structure, as
shown in Figure 3, with four levels of information
namely, the company (Level 0), the mine (Level 1),
mining methods (Level 2), and destress blasting ap­
plications (Level 3). As can be seen from Figure 3, a
mining company can have more than one mine, and
a mine can have more than one mining method, etc.
The database includes, wherever possible, graphical
illustrations of mine locations, mining methods, etc.
The section "Ore Deposit" on Level 2 can have
multiple records of the following data:
■ Mineral/ore being mined, in situ grade and ex­
traction ratio.
■ Surrounding rockmass (hanging wall and foot-
wall)
■ Ore deposit geometry, dip, strike, plunge and
relevant geomechanical data.
■ Basic geological setting.

The section on “Mining Methods” on Level 2 can

have multiple records for the same mine. Each re­
cord reports the mining method, layout image and a
short description.
The section on "Destress Blasting" is on Level 3.
For a given mining method (Level 2), there can be
more than one application of destress blasting. The
data entries for each destress blasting application in­
clude:
■ Type of blast (production or development),
■ Classification (frequency, date, mining
depth, mine level, zone),
■ Layout,
■ Explosives,
■ Monitoring, and
■ Comments
■ Graphical illustrations

4 DESTRESS BLASTING APPLICATIONS

From the literature surveyed, 20 metal mines were

selected for inclusion in the database. They are listed
in Table 1. As mentioned earlier, the application of
destress blasting is site specific, and therefore it is
difficult to come up with a recipe that will delineate
the best blasting parameters. The best approach ap­
pears to be the trial-and-error. In the following, the
applications that were found successful are summa­
rized.
One case history, which eventually proved suc­
cessful is the drift development at Inco’s Creighton
mine (Oliver, 1975). It required much attention trial
and error in blasting procedure and ground support
over a period of 10 years. The blasthole pattern is
similar to the one shown in Figure 2, however, the
length of the face and wall holes varied from 0.83R
to 1.67R, depending on the face advance or length of
round, R. Face destressing was implemented with
six holes; 2 in the face and 4 in the drift comers. The
face holes are parallel to the drift axis while the cor­ Figure 3: Tree structure of DB-Base software
ner holes are fanning out into the host rock. All
holes were loaded to lengths varying from 0.9m to
1.5m, for blastholes varying in length from 2.4m to ing of a crown pillar at the Galena mine [Blake,
5.5m respectively. 1972]. The pillar is 15m thick, and is situated above
Another destress blasting program at Inco’s the stope 40-135E, which was being mined by cut-
Creighton mine was conducted during the sinking of and-fill method. Pillar destressing was scheduled af­
Number 11 retum-air shaft (Oliver et al., 1987). The ter two consecutive pillar bursts had taken place.
shaft is circular and extends to 1770m below sur­ The destress holes were drilled on 1.5m (5 feet)
face. Successful destressing was achieved with two spacing, to a length of 12.2 m long, and a diameter
32mm, 3.7m long blastholes dipping at 45 degrees in of 47.6mm (1-7/8 inch). The holes were loaded to 3
the shaft wall, and oriented in a plane perpendicular feet from the collar, with high-velocity packaged ex­
to the major principal stress. The bottom 1.8m of the plosives and fired with millisecond delays.
hole was loaded and fired with the bench blast. At Macassa mine, destress blasting concerned a
In-vein pillar destressing has been practiced at a stope crown pillar, in a steeply dipping ore vein
number of mines in Canada and USA such as Ga­ (Hanson et al., 1987), see Figure 5. The destress
lena, Macassa and Campbell Red Lake. Figure 4 blastholes were drilled on the mid-plane of the pillar.
shows the drill hole pattern adopted for the destress-

345
Table 1: List o f mines in the database DB-base
Company Mine Location Minerals recovered
Placer Dome Campbell Red Lake Balmertown, Ontario Gold
Lake Shore Gold Mines Ltd Macassa Kirkland Lake, Ontario Gold
Falconbridge Ltd Strathcona Onaping, Ontario Copper-Nickel-cobalt
Falconbridge Ltd Falconbridge Sudbury, Ontario Zinc-copper-silver
Hecla Mining Lucky Friday Mullan, Idaho Lead-silver
Hecla Mining Star-Morning Burke, Idaho Lead-zinc-silver
Coeur d’Aleine Mining Galena Wallace, Idaho Lead-Silver
Inco Limited Creighton Copper Cliff, Ontario Nickel-copper-cobalt
LKAB Malmberget Malmberget, Sweden Iron (magnetite)
Boliden Group Laisvall Norrbottens, Sweden Lead-zinc
Sumtomo Corp. Besshi Niihama, Japan Copper
Boliden Pyhäsalmi Finland Iron
Lake Shore Mine Lake Shore Kirkland Lake, ON Gold
Kerr Addison Mines Ltd Kerr Addison Kirkland Lake, ON Gold
East Rand Prop Ltd East Rand South Africa Gold
Vaal Reefs Reefs Expl. Vaal Reefs South Africa Gold
Western Deep Levels Ltd South Mine South Africa Gold
Kloof Gold Mining Libanon South Africa Gold
Driefontein Consolidated V/est Driefontein South Africa Gold
Durban Roodepoort Deep Blyvooruitzich South Africa Gold

Table 2: Summary of destress blasting applications gence, before and after the destress blast, were used
Mine Destress blasting applica­ to monitor the results. Simulation of the process was
tion done using linear and nonlinear numerical modeling.
Campbell Red Lake Crown and sill pillar
Macassa Crown pillar At Campbell Red Lake Mine, destress blasting was
Strathcona Ramp used for a number of years to overcome problems of
highly stressed ground and rockbursts. Three at­
Falconbridge Hanging wall tempts were made to destress cut-and-fill crown and
Lucky Friday Sill pillar sill pillars and one attempt in a shrinkage boxhole
Star-Morning WallA^ein pillar (Makuch, 1987). One program involved the
Galena Crown pillar simultaneous destressing of the crown pillar of the
Creighton Drift development, shaft 1902E stope and the overlying sill pillar of the
sinking 1902E stope; see schematic illustration in Figure 6.
Malmberget Drift development Table 2 summarizes the applications of destress
blasting in the mines surveyed and logged into the
Laisvall Stope comer database.
Besshi Crown pillar
Pyhäsalmi Crown pillar
Lake Shore Long hole destressing 5 CONCLUSIONS
Kerr Addison Crown pillar A new, geomechanical database for destress blasting
East Rand Longwall face applications in hard rock mines has been developed.
Vaal Reefs Longwall face
South Mine Longwall face
Libanon Longwall face
West Driefontein Longwall face
Blyvooruitzich Longwall face

This was done after about 60% of the stope was

mined out. Stress on the pillar was so high that some
blastholes could not be loaded with explosives. The Figure 4: Crown pillar destressing in stope 40-135E at Galena
Mine (Blake, 1972)
blastholes were fired on separate delays with about
45 kg/delay. Seismic event location and conver­

346

Figure 5: Crown pillar destressing at Macassa Mine (Hanson et
al., 1987)
The database software, called DB-Base, runs in a
Windows 98/NT environment. It adopts a simple
tree structure, which allows the user to build several
records of mining methods, and destress blasting ap­
plications for a single mine.
The purpose of DB-Base is to provide an easy ac­
cess to valuable information on the mining situations
which could benefit from the application of destress
blasting. In view of the fact that there is currently no
method of design for the determination of adequate
blasting parameters and blasthole pattern, the data­
base could serve as a tool to search for and benefit
from previously conducted destressing programs. It
is shown that destress blasting was applied to sill
and crown pillars in cut-and-fill mining, as well as to
the drift face and walls during its development.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work has been financed by a grant from
r Institut de Recherche en Santé et en Sécurité du
Travail (IRSST). The authors gratefully
acknowledge their support.
Lightfoot, N., Kullmann, D.H., Toper, A.Z., Stewart, R.D.,
Grodner, M., Janse van, Rensburg, A.L. and Longmore, P.J.
1996. Preconditioning to rduce the incidence of face bursts
in highly stressed faces, CSIR, Division of Mining Technol­
ogy, SIMRAC report, GAP 030.
Makuch A., Neumann M., Hedley D.G.F., and Blake W. 1987.
Destress blasting at Campbell Red lake mine. Part 1: Rock
Mechanics concepts o f destressing pillars. Part 2: Practical
applications of pillar destressing at Campbell Mine, Part 3:
An instrumented destress blast of the 1604E crown pillar.
CANMET, Elliot Lake Laboratory, Report produced for
Canada/Ontario/industry Rockburst Research Project, Re­
port SP 87-8E.
Mitri, H.S., 2000. Practitioner’s Guide to Destress Blasting in
Hard Rock Mines, McGill University.
Moruzi, G.A. and Pasieka, A.R. 1964. Evaluation of a blasting
technique for destressing ground subject to rockbursting, 6'^
U.S. Rock Meek Symp., Rolla, Missuri.
Oliver, P.J. 1975. Ground control in transverse cut-and-fill
mining operations at FNCO. 10‘^ Can. Rock Mech. Symp.
Queen's Univ. Kingston, vol. 2, pp. 1-27.
Oliver, P., Wiles, T., MacDonald, P. and O'Donnell, D., 1987
Rockburst control measures at Inco's Creighton Mine, Proc.
6‘^ Conf on Ground Control in Mining, West Virginia.
Roux, A.J.A., Leeman, E.R.,and Denkhaus, H.G. 1957.
Destressing: a means of ameliorating rockburst conditions.
Part I: The concept o f destressing and the results obtained
from its applications, J. S.Afr. Inst. Min. Met., October
1957.
Toper, A.Z., Srewart, R.D., Kullmann, D.H, Grodner, M.,
Lightfoot, N., Janse van, Rensburg, A.L. and Longmore,
P.J. 1998. Develop and implement preconditioning tech­
niques, CSIR, Division of Mining Technology, SIMRAC re­
port, GAP 336.
Williams, T.J. and Cuelier, D.J. 1990. Report on a field trial of
an underhand longwall mining method to alleviate rock­
burst hazards. Proc. 2"^ Int. Symp. Rockbursts and Seismic­
ity in Mines, Minneapolis, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp.
349-354.

REFERENCES
Blake, W. 1972. Destressing test at the Galena Mine, Wallace,
Idaho, Trans. SME-AIME, September 1972, vol. 252: 294-
299.
Borg, Torgny. 1989. Destress blasting literature study (in
Swedish), Report DS 1989 :4, SveDeFo, Stockholm, Swe­
den.
Comeau, W., Mitri, H.S., Mohanimed, M. and Tang, B. 1999.
World-wide survey o f destress blasting, practice in deep
hard rock mines. In the Proc of the 25th Annual Conf. on
Explosives and Biasing, Nashville, TN (1999), Sponsored
by Int. Soc. Explosives Engineers, pp. 189-205.
Dickout, M.H. 1962. Ground control at Creighton Mine of the
International Nickel Company o f Canada Limited, Proc. P'
can. Rock Meek Symp., McGill University, Montreal,
pp.121-139.
Hanson, D., Quesnel, W., and Hong, R. 1987. Destressing a
rockburst prone crown pillar- Macassa Mine, CANMET
MRL 87-82(TR).
Hanson, D., Malinski, D., Kazakidis, V., Laverdure, L., and
Brummer R. The design and evaluation o f a destress blast at
Strathcona mine. pp. 35-42
Karwoski, W. J., McLaughin, W. C. and Black, W. 1979. Rock
preconditioning to prevent rock bursts-report on a field
demonstration. Report o f investigations 8381, United
States Department of the Interior, Bureau o f Mines.

347
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A m ethod for analyzing and designing frictional rock bolting system s

in room -and-pillar m ining

N. Nikolaev
Antech TFA Limited, Sofia, Bulgaria
VParushev
University of Mining and Geology, Sofia, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT: An increasing the roof rock stability with frictional pipe anchor TFA (invented in Bulgaria) by
room and pillar extraction is considered in the paper. A method is proposed for analyzing and designing the
frictional rock bolting by room and pillar mining. Rock bolting effects are analyzed by application of fric­
tional and resin grouted rock bolts acting along whole anchor length at this conditions.

1 INTRODUCTION An accepted theoretical model is the isotropic-

One of the most effective supports in room-and-
pillar mining is the rock bolting. The maximum op­
portunities of rock bolting are provided by the right
choice of its parameters, such as anchor length and
number of rock bolts in an unit area and the right
distribution according to the chosen type of rock
bolts.
The methods for determining these parameters in
supporting underground excavation, which is known
by mine literature could be divided in two basic
groups.
1. To the first group one can attach so called sus­
pension effect/ suspension of soft or loosen rock to
the solid rock/. In this pattern the anchor length is
usually designed to be long enough to ensure that
with in certain limits, the portions of the bolts an­
chored inside the solid rock will be capable to hold­
ing the weight of loosen rock. The number of the
rock bolts will be calculated on the base of the dead
weight of rock to be supported by a single bolt.
2. All models, which take in a count the building
of a rock bearing structure caused by interaction of
the system “ anchors - rock mass” belong to the
second group . Here, the building of multi layer
beam, threejointed rock arch, multi jointed arch and
others can be added
Disadvantage of both methods is that they do not
take into account the rock mass state of stress before
and after rock bolting.
Much better theoretical formulation of the problem
is developed by Ershanov (1981).
elastic semi-space supported by preliminary
stressed inter rooms pillars .
2 METHOD OF ANALYZIS
The aim of the porpoise is to be determine the forces
of the anchors with end lengths contacting with the
rock along the whole length and installed perpen­
dicularly to the room contour.
However, in this theoretical model structural dis­
turbances in the rock mass, which affect its proper­
ties, are not taken into account.
Nikolaev (1998) proposed a new correction of the
solution using a strength criterion of Hoek and
Broun and a deformation modulus of Serafim and
Pereira including RMR factor of Bijenevski pre­
sented in Hoek (1997).
In combined action of the rock bolting and rock
mass the real workable characteristic of frictional
pipe anchors TFA applied in Bulgaria and abroad
should be taken into account ( Nikolaev & Parushev
1989).
The first stage of solving the problem is carried out
in the following sequence:
In the roof of the room a single rock bolt is in­
stalled. The deformation of the weight semi- space
presents a source of forces in the rock bolt, so the
problem is solved by the method of “additional
stresses”. The following fictitious stresses are ap­
plied to the boundary contours of the room:
horizontally Ox= P and vertically Oy = Q

349
 o ti) D\\)
mi

TTTTTTTTTTT
Q cf(y) tin
P P -H q*(y)
+ +
1^ M M U I U ^
i
ml 0
Do- OtO) 0 *(0 )

Figure 1. Applied fictitious stresses to the boundary contours of the room.

The rock mass is assumed to be an elastic medium
with increased deformability and low strength in­
dexes.
The characteristic of TFA determines a new ficti­
tious deformation modulus of the system “anchor -
rock mass”.
The influence of anchor hole on the general state
of stress of the rock mass is not taken into considera­
tion.
Rock mass deformation at this place is limited by
the resistant of frictional forces arising between an­
chor and rock mass, i.e. the deformation at this me­
dium is coordinated with characteristic of the an­
chor.
The effective modulus of elasticity is calculated by
the expression:
Ee “ E a Es)
where E a = modulus of elasticity of the anchor; Esp =
deformation modulus of the rock with reading RMR
of rock mass.
Deformation modulus of the rock is obtained by
means of the expression proposed by Serafim and
Pereira as follows:
[( R M R - IO ) /4 0 + 3 ]
Esn=10
The coordination of both modulus through the
equation (1) gives an opportunity for more real de­
scription of the deformation properties of the system
anchor-rock mass. In this case, the end values of E^p
are accepted as constants, i.e. it is assumed, that one
will consider a new material system with changed
deformation properties.
The solution reduces to superpose of tree simple
tasks:
1. Determination of the elastic equilibrium of the
space with rectangular opening and applied load ac­
cording Ershanov (1973).
2. Semi space inside on which concentrated forces
are applied along the length of the anchor P*(y).
3. An element considering the action of the rock
mass on the anchor.
The tension distributed on the unit length of the
anchor is marked with q*(y).
The forces acting on the anchor are connected by
the equilibrium equation.
d P * (y )/d (y ) + q(y) = 0 3)
The first task is reduced to a plane task from the
( 1) theory of elasticity and is solved in (Ershanov at al
1973 ).
Relatively small cross section of pipe of the anchor
TFA with respect to its length allows to be used as a
linear relation between load and deformation and is
to be expressed with equation:
P *(y )/F a = E * e * ( y ) 0<y<la (4)
where Fa is area of the cross section of anchor TFA;
G(y) = relatively axial elongation in cross section
(2) “y” of anchor.
Although the solution of the basic problem is sim­
plified by dismembering in three new problems, the
relations between formulations “b” and “c” and
their relation with “a” (Fig la, b, c) lead to solution
of two complicated integral - differential equations.

350
With the solution of these equations we obtain long 0.125L 0.30L
and inconveniently for analyzing expressions. The
analysis of the results obtained is made on the base
of solutions implemented by means of computer.

3 CASE OF APPLICATION

The solution of one concrete problem is given in

Figure 2 graphically for determining the tension
forces in anchors installed at the roof of room with
length 2L. The mining and technological conditions
of ore extraction were as follows: depth of mining H
= 300 m; density of overburden rocks y = 26 kN/m^;
Rock Mass Rating RMR = 65. The length of the
room 2L and the y/L range within 10 < 2L < 25 and
0.96 < y/L < 0.28.

ife/L

Figure 2. Graphical illustration of the tension anchor forces.

On the Y-axis values of Pa/Pmax are plotted, where Pa

is a tension force of the rock bolt and P^ax is a maxi­
mum tension force, which an anchor could be beard
before slipping.
On X-axis the values of ratio y/L are plotted, where
‘y” is the distance from the room surface along the
anchor length and “L” is a semi-length of the room.
All conclusions drown are valid for rooms with
length range within 10m < 2L < 25 m. Anchor Figure 3. Distribution o f the anchor tension forces against dif­
ferent distances to the room pillar.
length could be ranged >vithin 0,096 < la/L < 0,28,
but not less of la = y = 1,2 m, unless for subsidiary
aims - suspension of steel nets and others. One can see from graphical illustrations (Fig.2),
Distribution of anchors investigated is a square net that with increasing the length of the anchors 1 and
with a space between anchors 1 m along the square 2, the load is decreased, where as at the anchors 3,4,
side, i.e. Ipc/m^. Because of symmetry distribution 5 and 6 it is increased, i.e. the first two anchors
to the middle of the room is investigated, i.e. to x = placed close to the pillar should be with short length.
L. In this case, as it is seen from Figures 3a, b, c, d by
The illustrated curves (Fig. 2) express distribution 30% utilization of the anchor, for anchor “a” the
of the anchor forces - removed from the pillar as length is 0.82 m only, and for “b” - 1.08 m.
follows: 1->0.125L; 2->0.30L; 3^0.45L; The influence of the number of anchors on the
4^0.65L; 5->0.80L; 6 -^LOOT. strip with length 2L and width 1 m is investigated:

351
 In fig.4, the cases are illustrated with density of
distribution of the anchors 0.096L pcs/m^; 0.13 IL
pcs/m^ and 0.30L pcs/m^ by the equal length of an­
chors la = 0.16L m.
s%
Figure 4. Relationship between increasing the bearing capacity
and density o f the anchor distribution.
For the above accepted geological and technical pa­
rameters investigations show, that the room roof
stability with density of distribution 0.13L pcs/m^
has been increased v^th about 60% against that with
density of 0.096L pcs/m^, i.e. by the density in­
creased of about 35%, where as by density of an­
chors of 0.30L pcs/m^ it is increased of 8% only
against the density of 0.13L pcs/m^ and this is by
increasing the density with about 131%.
For central section of the room the utilization of
longer anchors is more advisable, than the utilization
of rock bolts with higher density of distribution.
Utilization of rock bolts with different lengths is
more advisable, as these with smaller length are
placed close to the pillar and wdth getting near to the
middle of the room their lengths are increased.
The influence of the ratio between width of belt
pillar and that of the room results (by ratios Ip/L =
0.4 and Ip/L = 1.0, where Ip is a width of pillar), as
follows:
1. By the anchors placed closer to the pillar the
tension along the length of anchor in the range of
0.04L to 0.08L is of 1.8 times higher in the first
case, than that in the second case and vise versa in
the range of 1.8L to 0.28L the tension in the second
case is higher than that in first case.
2. By the anchors in the middle of the room the
area of increasing is of 0.1 L to 0.12L in first case. A
creation of stress field still in installation of the an­
chor, increasing the pool force with time and self­
regulating yieldability by slipping, characteristics
typically for fnctional pipe anchor TFA are reflected
particularly favorable.
352
Investigation of space between anchors shows, that
still at depth of 0.0IL tensile stresses are transferred
to compression.
General analyses shows, that the rock bolting ef­
fect increases faster than linear low.
With increasing the ratio between modulus of elas­
ticity of the rock bolts and of the rock mass, the
bearing capacity of anchor increases substantially.
This relationship provides a possibility for compar­
ing the anchor bearing capacity of both types of rock
bolts, made by two different materials (with differ­
ent modulus).
The relation given below expresses an exceeding
the bearing capacity of one anchor type against oth­
ers in percents.
[0,66(E2/Ei)2 - 1 + 35(0,66E2/.Ei - l)Esp/Ei]100
= AC % (5)
1 + 35Esp/Ei
where E2 is a higher modulus of elasticity of the
comparing anchors; Ei = a smaller modulus of elas­
ticity; Esp = a modulus of rock obtained according
equation (2).
When rock bolt is consisted of materials with dif­
ferent modulus of elasticity, such as resin grouted or
cement grouted rock bolts, the modulus is defined
with “theory of materials with different modulus”.
For example rock bolt with resin grout and steel rod
with diameter of 22 mm and anchor hole of 32 mm
has a common modulus of 1.12 x 10^ Mpa by
modulus of elasticity 2.1 x 10^ Mpa for steel rod and
of 2.4 X 10"^ Mpa for resin grout respectively.
Comparing a bearing capacity of frictional pipe
anchor with modulus of elasticity of 2.1 x 10^ Mpa
with resin grouted one by modulus of elasticity of
rock mass Esp = 4 x Mpa, AC = 32% is obtained
by equation (5), i.e. density of rock bolts TFA could
be reduced by 32%.
The relation (5) is valid for anchors with modulus
of elasticity in the range of 3 < E/Esp <12 I = 1,2.
One should take into account the fact, that by de­
termining a bearing capacity of anchors the ,
stresses qmax(y) should not exceed cohesion of grout
(resin, cement) with steel rod and rock mass .
4 CONCLUSIONS
From considerations and practical application of the
discussed method, following conclusions can be
drown:
1. The developed method gives an opportunity for
designing frictional rock bolting in room-and pillar
mining with taking into account structural distur­
bances of the rock mass.
 2. The proposed method can also be used for de­
signing other types of rock bolting systems, which
contact with rock mass along the whole length of the
anchors, such as grouted resin or cement rock bolts.
3. The method allows to be compared effects of
different type of rock bolt systems effects to be
compared.
4. Practical example shows, that by anchoring in
room-and-pillar mining, anchors with different
lengths should be used.

5 REFERENCES
Ershanov,G.S., Sergin, U.N. & Smirnov, V.F. 1973.
Calculation of overload supporting pillars. Alma-Ata:
Nauka.
Ershanov,G. S.1981. Design of grouted rock bolts in the roof of
extraction room. Alma- Ata: Nauka.
Hoek, E. 1997. Strength o f rock and rock masses. News
journal, Volume 2,Number 2.
Nicolaev, N. & Parushev, V. 1989. Ein neues Ausbausystem
filer schwere gebirgsmechanische Bedingunngen.
Proceedings of 8-th International Gebirgsdruecktagung,
Dueseldorf, Deutschland.
Nikolaev, N. 1998. About some results of anchor support work
testing in extraction chamber. Proceedings of XXX October
conference. D. Milanovac, Serbien Republic 1-3 October,

353
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A n application o f integrated m easuring technique for rock pressure

determ ination in coal m ines

TOnargan
Mining Engineering Department, DokuzEylUl University, Izmir, Turkey

ABSTRACT: Various types of weak swelling strata occur in many mine areas in Turkey such as Soma-I§iklar,
Alpagut-Dodurga, Soma-Darkale etc. Excavations in these strata become badly deformed and deteriorated by
the violent swelling rock pressure, so that frequent repairs are needed, influencing the ongoing production and
mine construction, greatly. Therefore, it is of vital importance to research on rock pressure and supports in
drifts built in weak swelling strata. In this study, in-situ measurements on test supports were conducted to
determine the rock load around the opening on steel set supports for the main drift in Soma-I§iklar Colliery of
Turkey.

1 INTRODUCTION for the back analyses of rock pressure by Kovary and

In order to understand the earth pressure phenomena,
it is very important to investigate the distribution of
stresses and deformations, which in general, is
influenced by different mechanical properties of rock
surroundings of the underground openings. The failure
criterion of a material is usually given in terms of
stress. Therefore in order to obtain a quantitative
interpretation of the results of displacement
measurements, the stress distributions around an
opening must first be obtained by a back-analysis
considering the measured displacement. These are
then compared with the failure criterion to evaluate the
adequacy of construction procedure. This back-
analysis for stress, however, is questionable both for
accuracy and reliability, because it requires in
formation about the stress-strain relationship of in-situ
geological materials, which can not be easily
determined.
In this study, rock loads around the openings for the
main drift were determined using back analyses of the
rock pressure method and results were compared with
the direct load measurement results in Soma-I§iklar
Colliery of Turkey. Rock pressure was determined by
in-situ measurement of deformation.
2 BACK ANALYSES OF THE ROCK PRESSURE
The support installed in the drift was deformed as rock
pressure increased. A technique has been developed
is known as the integrated measuring technique. In
this study, rock pressure was determined through in-
situ measurement of deformation of the support.
By Hook’s law, if 8i and £2 are strains at two point
yi and y2 respectively in the same plane (Figure I), the
axial force, N and the bending moment, M can be
expressed as follows;
AE(eiy2-e2yi)
N= -
y2 -yi
( 1)
E l (8 2 - 6 1)
M=-
y2 -yi
where E is Young’s modulus, I is the moment of
inertia and A is cross sectional area.
For solving the load applied to the arch, consider
a segment of circular arch applied with the
continuous load. In Fig. I (a), s is the length of the
arch, p(s) and t(s) are normal and shear loads,
respectively.
An arch unit with the measuring points A, B and C
is shown in Figure 2. These points are defined by
measuring points, which lie at a distance e from the
axis of the arch. Considering the infinitesimal element,
ds in the circular arch, the load applied to the arch can
be expressed as Fig.l. (b).

355
 (deformed)

(undeformed)

Figure 1. Internal and external forces to the support

(After K.Kovari et.al. 1977 )

(a) finite segment o f the arch support carrying a

distributed rock load, Figure 2. An arch segment in the un-deformed (A,B,C)
(b) infinitesimal element for equilibrium and deformed (A,B,C) state.
considerations
Measured quantities: changes in F and L.
The component of the moment and force must be
satisfied the equilibrium condition, which can be given f= F -F \
as follows: l= L -L \ (5)

-dM+t ( R+h/ 2) ds- RdN = 0

d M - Q s -t(h/2) =0
d Q - N da + p ds = 0 ( 2)

Where R is the radius of the segment of the circular

arch, h is the thickness of the support. In these
equation, (fill) ds is ignored because h/2 is small
compared to R. Solving for p and t from equation (2),
the resulting equations are.
Figures. Curvometer-deformeter device (Photography)
p = ( N/ R) - (<f M/ d s ^ )
t = (l/R)x(Dm/ds)+(dM/ds) (3)

Thus, normal and shear load applied to the arc can be

determined from the differentiation of internal stress.
Using the first and second order derivative of N and
M, pi and ti can be obtained from equation.(3)

P, = ( N , / R ) - ( ( l / L ^ ) ( M ,-, - 2M, -+Mm ))

t, = (1/2L)x((Nm N,., + (1/R)(Mm - M,.,)) (4 )
Figure 4. Variations of convergences as a function of
Where L is the distance between the measuring points. measuring time (462 m.)

The chord AB designates the stretch L and the

perpendicular distance between C and L defines the 3 PRINCIPLES AND DESIGN OF THE
“height” of the arc F. The measured quantities are the INSTRUMENT
changes in the lengths of F and L.
They are chosen positive for a shortening of the To measure the two-quantity f, 1 an instrument was
lengths F and L. Before presenting the calculation of constructed based on well-known principles, each of
curvature and axial strain using the measured values F which works purely mechanically. The instrument was
and L it is appropriate first to give consideration to the built in G.L.7. at Tungbilek-Kutahyaiy^tsX Lignite
order of magnitudes of several terms involved in the Colliery). It consists of two measurement principles: a
problem. curvometer and deformeter. Origin of the this

356
measurement technique which was improved by
KOVARI and the others, to measure the three
quantities f, 1, and dn three separate instruments were
constructed. These instruments are Curvometer,
deformeter and distometer-iseth. Curvemeter and
deformeter were combined as an instrument, which is
illustrated in Figure 3.
This instrument measures indirectly the change in
curvature of a straight or curved beam at a given
point. Actually the change in the perpendicular
distance between the mid-point C of an arch unit and
the base line AB is measured.
The device consists of a simply supported rigid Figure 5. Distribution of the measured values F, and L
frame form with in the midlle point a mechanical along the arch after 28 days. The Main Drift, m 462.
dial gauge fitted. This device was also used as a
deformeter by turning the dial gauge. When the
device was used as a deformeter, it is a mechanical
extensometer with fixed base length L.

4 APPLICATION IN THE FIELD

4.1 Description of the Test Field

It was proposed that the main access drift to in the
mine will serve both the KM3 and KM2 seams at the
test site in Soma-I§iklar coal mine. The main conveyor
drift is driven at an inclination of 12.8°. Total length of
the main drift was 960 m, 5.2-m wide, and 3.9 m high.

Figure 6. Distribution of Moment and Normal Force

Table 1. Engineering Properties of Samples along the steel support after 28 days (The Main Drift,
Properties Unit Clay m462).
Samples
Natural Unit Wight g/cm^ 1,90
Specific Gravity — 2,36
Natural Water Content % 35,20
Porosity % 41,00
Uniaxial Compressive Strength Kg/cm^ 3,26
Young’s Modulus Kg/cm^ 200
Friction Angel 0 14,00
Cohesion Kg/cm^ 1,42
Clay 36,9-20,0
Grain Composition Silt % 63,1-77,0
Sand 0,0-3,0

Table 2. Index Values of Clay Samples

Index Characteristics Unit Clay Samples
Plastic Limit, PL % 44,40
Liquid Limit, LL % 92,00
47,60 Figure 7. Distribution of rock pressure (P, \Jrcr) along
Plasticity Index, Cl —
the steel support from the F and L readings. (The
Activity, A — 1,52
Main Drift, m. 462).
Consistency Index — 1,19
Bulk Shrinkage Index, S Ib % 10,96

357
Its length was 505 m at the measurement time. The
support is the three-piece steel set using GI 100 I-
beam.
4.2 Properties of Soft Soma-I§iklar Silty-Clay
Different bloc samples, which are obtained from the
drift face, has been used in this study. The test results
are summarised in tables as follow;
4.3 Variations of Convergence
Figure 4 shows variations of convergences in the main
drift at 462 m in Soma-I§iklar Colliery. The cross-
section of the test drift and the measuring points are
illustrated.
4.4 In-Situ Test Results
The results of the in-situ measurement, characterised
by parameter f and 1 are given as a function of the arch
length. The solid line was obtained by spline
interpolation (Figure 5). The determination of the
moments and normal forces from these values is best
done with the aid of a diagram even on site (Figure 6).
The corresponding distribution of the stress resultants
M and N along the axis of the arch is shown in Figure
5.
The derived rock pressure distribution at drift length
462 m and its development with time is shown in
Figure 7. The maximum value of the radial load was
determined for the last but one reading and found to be
around 79 t/m^.
5 CONCLUSION
From the support point of view the concept of weak
swelling strata should be based on the characteristics
of rock pressure of the swelling strata and the
conditions for their formation. The deformation of the
drift caused by different main reasons. The
deformation of the drift caused by the swelling
pressure is mainly due to the physical and mechanical
characteristics of weak swelling rock strata and nature
of their behaviour.
1. Low strength (Cb = 3.26 Kg/cm^)
2. High moisture content silty clay (% 35.2)
3. High plasticity (PI, %47.6)
Under the influence of these factors, the strength of the
surrounding rock is reduced substantially, weighting
occurs in all directions from the opening, and the
amount of floor lift increases obviously. So it is very
important to avoid the harmful effect of these factors
on the surrounding rock.
The load measurement result shows that the load
distribution on the drift support system is not uniform
and maximum rock load is around 79 tones/m^ (0.77
MPa).
REFERENCES
Bieniawski, Z.T.1984. Rock Mechanics Design in
Mining and Tunnelling, A.A. Balkema,
Rotterdam.
Brown, E.T. and Hoek, E. 1978. Trends in
Relationships Between Measured In-Situ Stresses
and Depth. Int. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. &
Geomech. Abstr.,, pp. 211-213.
Kovari, K. 1979. Basic Considerations on the Design
of Underground Openings, Int. Assoc. Bridge and
Structural Engineering Surveys, No. S-1079,
August, pp. 1-23.
Kovari, K., Amstad, C. and Gob, H. Displacement
Measurements of High Accuracy in Underground
Openings, In advances in Rock Mechanics, Proc.
3rd. Congr., Int- Soc. Rock Mech., Denver, ZA,
Nat. Acad. Sci., Washington, DC, pp. 445-450.
Nishimatsu,Y., 1981 “Some Technical Developments
and Geomechanical Difficulties on Weak Rocks
in the Field of Mining in Japan”, Proceeding of
the International Symposium on Weak Rock,
21-24 September , Tokyo-Japan.
Onargan,T. 1995. The Support Design of Drives In
Soft Ground at Soma-I§iklar Colliery. Ph.D.
Thesis. Dokuz Eyltil University, Graduate School
of Natural and Applied Sciences, Izmir-Turkey.
Otto,B. and Thut,A. 1991. Assessment of the
Deformation Behaviour of the Jet-Grouted Arch
Support of Monteolimpino Railway Tunnel Using
In Situ Measurements and Back Analysis.Field
Measurements in Geomechanics. Proceedings of
the 3Rd International Symposium on Field
Measurements in Geomechanics. Oslo(Volume 2)
p.833 - 844.

358
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A case study for an open pit coal m ine induced slope failure affecting
an industrial plant in Turkey

A.H.Onur, G.Konak, H.Kose, Y.Koca, H.Yenice & D.Karaku§

Mining Engineering Department, Dokuz Eyliil University, Izmir, Turkey

ABSTRACT : Qm Lignite Establishment belonging to T.K.i (Turkish Coal Enterprises ) has been operating
an open pit over two decades. Three years ago, the boundary of the open pit came close to one of the biggest
Ceramic Factory in Turkey namely (^anakkale Ceramic Factories. Since the beginning of the coal extraction
in the area, small scale slope failures including several benches have been observed. But in 17 August 1999,
due to catastrophic earthquake centred in Golciik, huge amount of material started sliding. Bigger size of
landslide provoked by both the earthquake and activities in open pit mining showed itself with tension cracks
in backyard of the Ceramic Factory. This paper introduces the measurement done to define the slip surface
then what precautions have been taken to stop slope failure.

Just a few days after the catastrophic earthquake

1 EvjTRODUCTION
centred in Golciik that is a couple of hundred km
away from the investigation area, some tension
The area subjected to this study is situated at the
cracks were observed by the Ceramic Factory staff
North-West part of Turkey near the city of
In some areas these cracks reached over 10 cm in
Qanakkale. ^an Lignite Establishment produces
length. There were mainly three rows of tension
lignite coal from open pit by using 10 yrd^ cracks following each other with the distance from 2
excavators and 50 stons of trucks. Coal is dipping to
to 10m. The worse of all, sliding mass affected the
the east direction with the thickness of
Ceramic Factory in which several small shear
approximately 20m. The base of the pit bottom is
surfaces could be seen on the concrete base. This
-80m below sea level that produces 26 degree of
made the directors of the factory aware of the danger
slope angle up to the top of the pit. The highest level
that they faced to. Therefore they decided to do a
of the pit is +82m above sea level which is 50m
detailed slope stability analysis which would show
away from the boundary of (^anakkale Ceramic the magnitude of the landslide effecting their
Factories (Figure 1). Within this distance there are a factory.
derivation box that prevent the “Incegay” river from
flowing into the pit, a natural gas pipe line that
supply energy to the Ceramic Factories and a run out
2 FIELD MEASUREMENTS
of mine road on which 50 ston of trucks operate. On
the factory side of the open pit the main formation is
For the definition of formations and to use them later
tufa and in some levels clay layers that occurred
for the inclinometer measurements, four
from decomposition of tufa. The depth of this
perpendicular bore holes were drilled. Not only the
formation is about 80m reaching to +6m level then
samples from bore holes, but also some surface
marls and mudrock starts from this level and
block samples had been collected to obtain
continues to the bottom of the pit. There has been no
mechanical properties of the soil. During the drilling
movement seen on this formation for years but at the process very useful data were obtained such as
upper lithology small-scaled failures have often been reduction of the carrot recovery and drilling liquid
observed. The upper formation behaves like soil but
leakage at the level of sliding surface, and stacking
with increasing water inflow the strength parameters
the drilling tube at the same level. They all gave an
of the material changes dramatically.

359
 Figure 1. General view of the investigation area

idea where the failure surface would be. When the
drilling were over, inclinometer tubes were installed
in to the holes. From the laboratory tests done on
both hole samples and surface block samples with
different water contents, 18 degree of internal
friction angle and 0.45 kg/cm^ (45 kPa) of cohesion
had been obtained from direct shear tests. These
were the results for clay that contain the same
amount of water as it is in original one which is %23
(Kose 1999).
Beside the laboratory tests for the borehole drilled
cracks. These station measurements gave the time
scale of the movements but the most important
facility of the slope failure, depth of sliding surface
was still unknown. To find out this property of the
circular failure, results from inclinometer readings
were used (Figure 2).
Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)
n Nov'ii
23Nov'

inside the factory. Standard Penetration Tests (SPT) evNcv'11

were done. The result for the test changed between 2
and 15 that shows very poor material features.

2.1 Measurement o f the Mass Movement Depth

(ml

For the measurement purposes, 22 observation

station were established on different benches of the
sliding area defined by tension cracks that could be
observed from surface. In approximately two months
time period, position of observation stations had
been measured in every two weeks. These
measurements were used to find the direction and
•25 (T 25
the size of landslide. For some stations, in two Incremental Deflection

months time period, 250 mm of lateral, 80 mm of Direclion 8

vertical displacements with the tolerance of ±5mm

were measured perpendicular direction to the tension Figure 2. Print-out taken from the inclinometer reading

360
Figure 2 shows one of the print-out results from
inclinometer measurements. The first reading were
taken on 16 November 1999 then on the 17^, 18^,
and 24^^ of November respectively. The results
from three inclinometer readings on different dates
are giving in Table 1. It is clear to see from figure 2
that the mass movements started approximately 23 m
beneath the surface for drill hole CS4.
When the data collected from other inclinometer
tubes were put together, the circle of failure surface
would be described. It was done so to prepare data
for the slope stability analysis that was the most
important part of the study.
3 SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
After defining the circle of failure, eight cross-
sections perpendicular to tension cracks were taken
throughout sliding mass. As mentioned in the
previous section, sliding surface had been plotted or
projected on each cross-section to apply
computerised Modified-Bishop Method (ETU LTD
COM) that is mostly used for the circular type of
failure in soil. In the slope stability analysis, the
cohesion of the material had been accepted as 0.15
(15kPa) and internal friction angle 13^ These
values contradicts with the original clay parameters
obtained from laboratory tests. Instead of using
original parameters of soil, residual soil parameters
of the clay had been accepted because of the reason
that movement had already started. Due to existing
movement surface, clay had affected in two ways;
one of them was clay reacts with residual parameters
and the other one was the leakage of water
throughout the sliding surface that causes the
decomposition of clay. So sometime clay behaves as
mud.
Apart from the soil properties, dynamic loads
coming from blasting operations had been included
in the slope stability analysis. For this purpose,
particle acceleration of different part of sliding mass
were taken from the blasting operations
approximately 500m away from the investigation
area, at the same time vibrations due to heavy pit
trucks were measured and results from those
measurements were added to the slope stability
analysis. In table 2, Factor of Safety values of the
existing slope and three different alternatives are
given.

Table 1. Results o f inclinometer measurements

Bore Date of Displacement Direction Displacement Direction Sum Direction of

hole Measurement In Direction A In Direction B Displacement Sum
No A (mm) B (mm) (mm) Displacement
1 7 .1 1 .1 9 9 9 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 -
1 8 .1 1 .1 9 9 9 -0 .5 -0 .1 -0 .5 N IO O E
CS2 1 9 .1 1 .1 9 9 9 -0 .3 N92W -0 .1 N2W -0 .3 N106E
2 3 .1 1 .1 9 9 9 0 .0 -5 .1 -5 .1 N178E
2 4 .1 1 .1 9 9 9 3 .2 1.2 3 .4 N71W
1 6 .1 1 .1 9 9 9 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 -
1 7 .1 1 .1 9 9 9 1.3 0 .7 1.5 N 72W
1 8 .1 1 .1 9 9 9 2 .2 2.1 3 .0 N56W
CS3 1 9 .1 1 .1 9 9 9 3.1 N IO O W 2 .4 N lO W 3 .9 N 62W
2 3 .1 1 .1 9 9 9 5 .4 5.1 7 .2 N 57W
2 4 .1 1 .1 9 9 9 6 .1 6 .6 9 .0 N53W
1 8 .1 1 .1 9 9 9 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 -
1 9 .1 1 .1 9 9 9 2 .0 0 .5 2.1 N IO O W
CS4 2 3 .1 1 .1 9 9 9 4 .2 N115W 4 .2 N24W 5 .9 N 70B
2 4 .1 1 .1 9 9 9 6 .2 6 .4 8 .8 N68W

361
Figure 3. Cross-Section 5 for Alternative 1 and 2

Figure 4. Cross-Section 5 for Alternative 3

Table 2, Factor of safety for eight cross-sections factors throughout the cross-sections changed from
Cross- Original Alternative Alternative Alternative 1.33 to 0.93 which was not enough to remove the
Section Slope 1 2 3
danger. For some sections, with the backfilling
No
2 1.06 1.22 1.67 1.49
system, safety factors became less than the original
3 0.94 1.33 1.62 1.50 surface, the reason for that the additional weight has
4 1.03 1.27 1.51 1.51 been loaded on unnecessary upper part of the slope.
5 0.92 0.98 1.06 1.20 Alternative 2 : In this alternative backfilling system
6 0.93 0.99 1.05 1.67 was designed to overcome the disadvantage of
7 0.95 0.94 1.07 1.72 Alternative 1 with both filling and excavating. In
8 0.90 1.01 1.08 1.60
this alternative filling would be done from level +20
9 0.98 0.93 1.12 1.56
up to +55m level then original surface would have
been excavated, another saying a lightening
excavation would be done (figure 3). This
In table 2 definition for three alternatives are given
alternative, again designed to let TKI produce the
below ;
lignite that had been opened up several months ago
Alternative 1 : As it is seen from table 2, factor of
for production. Alternative 2 again couldn’t provide
safeties for the original surface changes between
adequate safety factors for all cross-sections. Event
0.90 and 1.06 that is very critical as far as slope
it reached 1.67 in one cross-section, as far as all
equilibrium is concerned. Even there are some
cross sections are considered together, it didn’t
factors bigger than 1.00, most of the cross-sections
satisfy safety requirement.
they are below 1.00 so a sliding can be expected. To
Alternative 3 : There is a deep pit bottom with a high
maintain bigger safety factors one of the alternative
slope angle on the base that’s why alternative 1 and
taken into the consideration is to backfilling the
2 didn’t meet the requirement of at least 1.4-1.5 of
corresponding part of the pit starting from level
safety factor. In this alternative, backfilling would
+20m up to level +70m (Figure 3). With this filling
start from the pit bottom at -40 below sea level,
process, spoil bench heights are designed as 15m,
continue up to the +55 level (Figure 4). With this
and overall slope angle is chosen as 18° (Kulaksiz
alternative about 1.5 million m^ of waste material
1991). In this alternative the main purpose is to force
will be transferred to fill the area in consideration.
a solution that does not disturb the coal production
Unfortunately, about 400.000 tons of lignite will be
of TKi. But because of the size of moving mass,
lost under the spoil. Alternative 3 will provide the
alternative 1 didn’t provide necessary increase in the
reliable stability conditions with 18 degree of
safety factors. As can be seen from table 2, safety
general spoil slope angle.

362
4 CONCLUSIONS

For Qm Lignite Establishment the original slope

angle of 26° has been using over years but the lateral
dynamic loads occurred in the 17 August 1999
earthquake provoked a land slide affecting the
Ceramic Factory. For the mining activities practised
close to the Industrial Plants or urban areas and for
the regions in which the earthquake risk is very high
like Qan basin, a detailed slope stability analysis
must be done before mining operations start by
taking all dynamic loads into considerations. In this
kind of regions factor of safety should be accepted
as high as to remove all risks to protect such
industrial plants. It is almost impossible to stop this
scale of land slide after it starts. In this project other
way of preventing the factory with vertical
reinforced concrete pile, retaining wall were
considered but because of the size of mass
movement and lateral moments affecting the piles
are very high, this option became too expensive to
apply
TKi decided to stop lignite production at this area
and changed the pit extension direction to the west
benches by loosing about 400.000 tons of lignite.
TKi started to apply the solution named Alternative
3 in January 2000, since then backfilling has been
doing under strict control and at the same time
inclinometer measurements have been continuing
with 15 days intervals. These measurements show
that the movement is still going on with descending
rate as it is compared with the movement before.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This study is supported by both (^anakkale Ceramic

Factory and T.K.t Qan Lignite Establishment. We
deeply thank to the (^an Lignite Establishment staff
for their collaborations and technical support.

REFERENCES

ETU, LTD COM, Modified Bishop Slope Stability

Program, Technology and Computer Application
Company Software.
Kose, H, Onur,A.H., Konak, G., 1999, The Effect of
Mine Induced Slope Stability Problems on
Qanakkale Ceramic Factories, D.E.U, Mining
Eng. Dept, Izmir, Turkey.
Kulaksiz S., Giirer, 1, §enturk A., 1991, TKl (fan
Open Pit District Hydrogeology and Soil
Mechanic Final Report, Hacettepe University,
Mining Engineering department, Ankara, Turkey

363
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

O ptim isation o f longw all face advance rate

K.Oraee
Department of Mining Engineering, University ofTarbiat-Modarres, Iran

ABSTRACT; Longwall mining is now predominant especially where deep coal mining is practiced. It is a re­
quirement of the method that long faces are equipped with exceedingly expensive machinery. The high capital
cost of such faces necessitates high volumes of output and hence high rates of advance. Any attempt to in­
crease the rate of advance is constrained by ground control considerations. The precise way in which these
constraints are imposed is analysed and appropriate models developed. A mathematical model that relates
ground control criteria to the rates of face advance is introduced. The model is used to determine the most
economical rate of advance with respect to roof stability in different parts of the longwall panel. The results of
this research can serve as useful tools in designing future highly mechanised longwall faces.

1 INTRODUCTION coal produced from longwall faces.

Mineral resources are potentially limited and practi­
cally irreplaceable. Utmost effort should therefore be
spent to achieve highest efficiency in their production
and consumption. Coal is one of these valuable sub­
stances, which is used for many purposes, from power
generation to making fertilisers, graphite and artificial
diamond.
Longwall method for mining coal is an old method
whose popularity increased in the 20th century. Its
main virtues are: flexibility under different geological
conditions, susceptiblity to expansion and hence the
use of larger production units and high degree of men-
chanisability. As the results of all these, coal is mined
at a relatively low cost per ton. ^ the face. The weight of the loose material inside this
In longwall mining, the seam is first divided into
rectangular panels. The height of these panels is usu­
ally equal to the seam thickness, its length, say 1,200 m
and its width approximately 200m. The width of the
panel is used as the production area (coal face), from
where coal is cut in thin (approximately 0.7m) slices.
The coal is loaded automatically onto the conveyor,
fitted under or next to the cutting/loading machine.
The conveyor takes the mineral to the face end, from
where belt conveyors transport it to the shaft. All these
equipment and people at the face are protected by the
canopy provided by the powered supports.
There are a few types of cutting/loading machines in
use, but the shearer loader is the most common one,
being responsible for cutting and loading some 90% of
The number of cuts per day determines the total
output of a face. In theory, modern machines can
achieve a high number of cuts per day, but this is re­
stricted by rock mechanic criteria and economic con­
siderations.
2 LOADING CRITERIA ON THE LONGWALL
ROOF
All the forces around the working area are in equilib­
rium before any opening is made. When the face is
opened, the magnitude and direction of these forces
change and an arched shaped structure is formed above
arch, constitutes the main load exerted on the longwall
roof This arch is made in a way that, the front base
rests on the virgin part of the coal seam beyond the
production area and the other one on the caved area
behind the working face (fig. 1).
For the purpose of analysis, the load exerted on the
roof is assumed uniform along the face, although its
magnitude increases with time. The rate of increase of
this weight depends on the angle of friction between
the overlying beds, the coal seam thickness and the
depth of working from the surface.
The magnitude of the normal load exerted on the
coal face roof depends on the size and hence weight of
the pressure arch, at any given time. This force is
therefore equal to:

365
 : f Wdt (1) We know the value of Hmax (Piggout and Eynan 1977)
Jo
as:
where P is the normal load exerted on each powered
support set (tons), W is the weight of the pres­ (5)
sure arch section directly above each powered L l.
support set, at any given time (ton per hour), Yf
and T is the period of time after each cut is
made (hours). And also the value of Wr (Dutta 1986) as being:
It is known that:
W = A S Yr (2) W = L +0.05h'L‘' ' + 16t
M
(6)
where A is the vertical cross-section area of the pres­ ^ -1
sure arch, at any given time (m^ per hour), S is
the width of each powered support set (m), and
where M is the coal seam thickness (m), Yr is the aver­
Yr is the avergae in-situ weight of a unit volume age weight of a unit volume of the caved mate­
of the beds above the face roof (tons per m^). rial (tons per m^),
Lc is the length of the powered support canopy
' r (m ),
"7“ ’• '.. ' h' is the roof caving potential (cm) (table 1),
L is the roof quality index, and
te is the tensile strength of the in-situ rock (tons
per m ).

I I I ■ f a Table 1- Roof caving potential

h' (cm) Roof condition
h '> 2 0 Dangerous
10 < h' < 20 Problematic
f “ i r " 'T " T T 1 I I I h '< 1 0 Normal
1 n

Table 2- In-situ strength coefficient

Ki Rock type
0.33 Sandstone
0.42 Mudstone
Figure 1. Forming of pressure arch above a longwall face 0.50 Claystone, siltstone

The parabolic area of the vertical cross-section of

K2 Rock type
the pressure arch, above each powered support set is 0.7 Sandstone
calculated as: 0.6 Mudstone, Claystone and
siltstion
A = -W h (3)
3 ' Table 4- In-situ water content coefficient
where Wr is the face width (m), and h is the height of K3 Rock type
0.6 Sandstone with 50% relative
the pressure arch, at may given time (mper
moisture content
hour). Claystone, and Mudstone with
0.4
50®/» relative moisture content
Amongst all these parameters, h, height of the pres­
sure arch is variable, and at any particular time it is
equal to:
Safety factor Immediate roof type
h =f -dt (4) 1.5 Sandstone: semi strong to strong
Jo and compact
1.2 Other rock types
where Hmax is the maximum height of the pressure arch
(m), and T is the time taken for the maximum
height (or the maximum load) situation to occur
(hours).
366
And the roof quality index is defined (Dutta 1986) as: The value of Cd is determined (Wilson 1975) by:
L = 0 .0 0 6 4 C * '^ K i ,K 2 .K 3 (7 ) ^ sina
- + COSÔ ( 10)
where C is the laboratory uni-axial compressive tan(|)
strength of the roof rock (kg per cm^),
where a is the face angle of dip; ^ is the angle of inter­
Ki is the in-situ strength coefficient (table 2),
nal friction between the beds inside pressure
K2 is creep coefficient (table 3), and
arch above the face; and 5 is the coal seam full
K3 is the in-situ water content coefficient (table
dip.
4).
As the coal is cut and the face advances, the overly­
ing beds tend to move downward by the virtue of their 3 ADVANCE RATE OPTIMISATION
own weight. These beds eventually collapse into the
It can be deduced from the above discussions that if
caved area. During this period, the normal load exerted
the time taken from each cut approaches T, then the
on the face roof and hence on the powered supports
load exerted on the powered supports is equal to P,
constantly increases, until caving occurs. Just before
calculated by equation (9). If two cuts are made during
this instant the load exerted on the powered supports
each period of T, assuming a linear relationship, then
is at tis maximum. At this time the normal load de­
this load reduces to P/2. The maximum load applied on
creases sharply to near zero value, after which it starts
the roof of the coal face reduces in this way as the ad­
its gradual increase with the face advance again.
vance rate increases. If we now assume that the time
The cycle is repeated as the face advances forward.
period T, is equal to one working shift (approximately
Since the maximum force applied on the powered sup­
8 hours), we will have:
ports is the basis of calculations for choosing the ca­
pacity of these sets, it is therefore taken as the main
p '= - p (11)
criterion, hence substituting Hmax for h, according to n
previous relations, the value of P, the normal force ex­
where P' is the maximum load applied on powered
erted on each powered on each powere support set is:
supports (tons), and n is the number of cuts
made per shift.
P= (8) It is therefore the case that the higher the number of
cuts in any given shift, the lower the magnitude of the
This equation holds in ideal situations. In practice
maximum load applied on the roof Theoretically this
there are some others factors that tend to increase the
relation hold indefinitely and in doing so, an implicit
value of P. These factors colud be: the existence of
assumption has been made. The assumption is that the
coal and other loose rock particles between the roof
bases of the pressure arch could always progress for­
and the canopy and similarly between the floor and the
ward with the same speed as the face advances. This is
base of the powered supports, causing inefficiency in
an implausible assumption, since in practice this speed
the operation of the powered supports hydraulic sys­
is limited. Most probably this speed is near or equal to
tem; eccentric and non-uniform loading on the pow­
the speed with which the pressure arch ceiling moves
ered supports, caused by the presence of cavities in
upwards. We can therefore conclude that,
overlying beds; and the fact that often the face line is
not totally linear. The corrective factor of 1.25 has
V , = (1 2 )
been suggested (Ashwin et al 1970) to adjust for this
inaccuracy.
where Vi is the forward speed of pressure arch
Bearing in mind the importance of powered supports
(m/hour).
selection, there is also a safety factor required to be in­
serted in the model. These factors (Samikumar 1995)
On the other hand, we can calculate the advance rate
are tabulated in table 5.
of the face as:
Finally, since coal faces are seldom totally horizontal,
the effect of gradient also needs to be considered. The n W

ultimate equation for P therefore becomes: V2 - (1 3 )

P = 2 .0 8 3 W rH n ^ x Syr S fC d (9 ) where V2 is the coal face advance rate (m/hour), Wc is

where Sf is the safety factor (table 5), and Cd is the ef­ the depth of cut (web) of the shearer loader
fect of gradient on the mean load exerted on (m).
each powered support set.
367
 Table 6- Cost components models

Cost compnent Depreciation cost Energy Cost Other Costs

Powered support ( E s p )
Csn
F - N
20000

Shearer Loader (E s h ) Epsh = P s h x K W H

c _ ^ sh N
5 0 0 0 0

. Armoured face Conveyor (E afc)

c E p afc = N a fc x T xt| x K W H

E = N
5 0 0 0 0

Panel Services (E p s ) Eps = 1 4 .8 6 + 0 .0 5 9 Lp

Gas Drainage (E g d ) Eod = 5 3 0 + 0 .2 7 4 Ps

Ventilation (E v ) Ev = N v x T x K W H

Cables and hoses (E h & c ) E h &c = 0 . 0 2 1 P»

Cnoveyor (E c o n )
E< ,oon = 2 . 6 4 L p ' ’ ' ' ' ‘' Ep^„ = 0 . 0 1 8 ( 2 P , ) ‘’ ''” x

0 .0 0 3 x (L p + LBp)'’- ^ a E = 0
E peon “ Ep con X (0 .9 8 3 "P

0 .3 5 5 a s )

ttE ^ 0

We can now equate equations (12) and (13) and
produce:
nW,
T T
which leads to H„ax = nWc
and therefore n =
W„
Equation (14) provides the maixmum number of cuts
that is possible to be made at the face, from the point
of view of rock mechanics constraints.
4 ECONOMIC CONSTRAINTS
Equation (14) shows the technically maximum possible
number of cuts per shift. If we take a face 200m long,
1.6m thick, with the specific gravity of coal being
about 1.3 tons/m^, and assuming that the maximum
height of the pressure arch reaches 15m and the web is
0.8m, we will have:
face output per shift
= (200 X 1.6 X 0.8 X 15 X 1.3) ^ 0.8 = 6.240 tons
which is a high tonnage for a normal longwall face.
We new consider economic conditions that may im­
pose further constraints on the advance rate of the coal
face.
As the number of cuts per shift increases, the total
face cost per shift also increases. The total face cost
per shift is composed of fixed and variable compo­
nents, as regards the number of cuts per shift. For the
purpose of finding the economically best number of
cuts per shift, with the aim of minimising the cost per
ton of coal extracted, the total cost function will be:
(14)
C t = [Esp + Esh + Eafc + Eps + Egd + E v + Eh&c
+ E con + E w ]C c s (1 5 )
where Cc« is a corrective coefficient to adjust for un­
foreseen costs (equal to 1.1), and all the E
terms are different cost components, explained
in table 6.
Models for all these cost components have been
obtained from data available (Misra 1994, 1996). To
minimise the cost per ton of coal, the objective func­
tion becomes:
C= (1 6 )
Pt
where Ct is the cost extracted, per ton, in US$
Pt is the total output of the panel.

368
 Misra, A. (Feb 1994, 1996), Longwall production and
face cost evaluation with particular reference to the
Australian coal mining industry. Mining Eng.
Piggott, R.I. and Eynan, P. (1977), ground Movements
arising from the presence of shallow abandoned
mine workings, proc. conf large ground move­
ments and structures, UWIST, Cardiff, pp 749-780.
Samikumar, D. (May, 1995), Determination of opti­
Figure 2- Total cost at different number o f cuts mum capacity of powered roof supports in the
longwall face in medium thick coal seams. Journal
Equation (16) can be used to calculate the cost per o f Mines, Mining Magazine.
ton of coal extracted, with different number of cuts Wilson, A.H. (June, 1995), Support load requirements
made in any given shift. The graph showing the values on longwall face. The mining engineer, 134, pp
obtained from this equation is shown in figure 2. This 479-491.
graph shows a diminishing trend within the constraints
provided by the models of the previous section. This
implies that, within these limits, the higher the number
of cuts made per shift, the lower the cost per ton of
coal produced.
Csp is the total purchase price of all the powered sup­
ports on the face
Csh is the purchase price of shearer loader
Psh is the power consumption of shearer loader per
shift (Kwh)
KWH is the cost of each Kwh of energy (US$/Kwh)
Cafe is the purchase price of AFC
Nafc is the power consumption of the AFC per shift
(KW)
Lp is face length (m)
Ps is output per shift (ton)
Nv is power consumption for ventilation in the panel
(KW)
a is the entrie’s gradient

5 CONCLUSIONS
It is concluded that although the maximum load ap­
plied on the roof of the longwall face is reduced with
increases in the face advance rate, but there is a con­
straint caused by the limited speed with which the
pressure arch moves forward with the face.
Economic considerations, on the other hand, do not
produce a limit on the face advance rate and it was
shown that, within the scope provided by rock me­
chanic criteria, the higher the rate of face advance, the
lower will be cost per ton of coal produced.

6 REFERENCES
Ashwin, D.P. et al (1970), Some fundamental aspects
of face powered supports design, Min. Eng., 129,
pp 659-671.
Dutta, D (Mar 1986), Longwall face support design -
A micro-computer model. Journal o f Mines, Metals
and Fuels.
369
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

M ajor causes o f accidents in tailing dam due to geological

and geotechnical factors

Lindolfo Soares, Fernando Ivan Vasquez Amez & Wildor Theodoro Hennies
Mining Engineering Department, Polytechnic School, University of Sdo Paulo, Brazil

ABSTRACT: Currently, as environmental laws become stricter, it should be mentioned that the mining indus­
try generates a large volume of solid and liquid waste, which may be used to form dams to hold the waste it­
self, and that this usage needs adequate control as there are individual, assets and environmental safety issues
to be addressed. Considering these circumstances, this article introduces the major features of tailing dams
and building techniques, as well as waste deposition at the dam and reservoir. The article also discusses the
major geotechnical features of the waste so that these dams display superior performance and safety levels, to
avoid and/or reducing accidents that may cause irreversible environmental damages as well as interruptions of
the mining production operations. Subsequent evaluations of major causes of accidents at tailing dams are
performed to correlate them to geological and geotechnical factors obtained from a universe of statistically se­
lected data. Finally, most frequent triggering causes of accidents (liquefaction and piping) are technically ana­
lyzed and possible solutions are proposed.

1 INTRODUCTION metals, sulfides, etc. As these are thrown at the

The mining industry is considered one of the largest
sources of environment contamination and deteriora­
tion. One of the most common pollution sources is
the waste deposition from the production process,
when residues are thrown as pulp and contain mostly
the same chemical components of high toxicity, as
well as suspension and dissolved particles, heavy
deposition areas, they contaminate the water and
sterilize the soil, thus changing the ecosystem to
great extent and the consequences of such contami­
nation are generally irreversible.
Abrao (1987) demonstrates that the minerals that
generate larger quantities of waste are ranked as:
gold, copper, phosphate, coal and iron, as can be
seen in Figure 1.

H Product

□ W aste

Phosphate Copper SoiiKe: Abrào (1937)

Figure 1. Average estimated quantity o f waste and product (per/lt. o f ore).

371
 Throwing this waste without any form of treat­
ment in a body of water may cause from a light tur­
bidness from suspended particles to silting, and in
the case of highly acid, toxic waste with sulfide­
generated metal content, the water may get so acid
that rivers and lakes become useless for consump­
tion or irrigation purposes. All the oxygen content in
the water is consumed and it becomes less adequate
or hostile to aquatic life forms, and destroying agri­
cultural and farming areas.
It should be emphasized that both solid and liquid
waste generated by mining activities demand ade­
quate technology and control to be used for tailing
dam building, as there are public concerns about the
dams stability during the operation phases, as well as
maintenance and environment contamination issues
after the production phase is over. For mining com­
panies it becomes an opportunity to preserve the ma­
terials that form the dams for future treatment and
use, as they constitute mineral sources for eventual
exploitation. Thus, dam buildings must constitute a
part of the production process and be fully integrated
to the mining project.
Tailing dams accidents raise domestic as well as
international concerns, and indicate the importance
of mining residue disposal. This issue deserves ade­
quate studies, mostly because of irreversible dam­
ages to the environment and to communities located
downstream to the dam.
2 TAILING DAMS
According to Vick (1983), owners of hydraulic
power generation dams consider them as high value
assets. On the other hand, tailing dams are consid­
ered as cost, and their value should be kept to a
minimum. Moreover, in most cases these dams were
considered to be temporary buildings and could ad­
mit lower safety factors.
For a long time the prevailing mining culture led
to lower priority for waste contention systems during
the design and operation phases. Traditionally, tail­
ing dams were always small sized, and thus could be
quickly repaired and maintained with available
equipment at the mining site. Most recently, follow­
ing a trend to reduce cut-off and to increase produc­
tion rates, the size of these operations have signifi­
cantly increased and this requires more care as well
as the need for improved technology. Currently, sev­
eral tailing dams are larger than the average power
generation dams, and so the temporary status for
such dams is no longer adequate.
According to Chaves and Fujimura (1991), tailing
dams are a suitable alternative for controlled and
cheap disposal of these materials to allow their fii-
ture exploitation based on changing market condi­
tions and improved processing techniques. As an ex­
372
ample, there is the manganese mine at Serra do
Navio (Estado do Amapa - Brazil), where the ore
fines content was deposited for several years while
the coarse content was sent to the market. In the
meantime, there was the development of a process to
concentrate the fines content and an agglomeration
(pelleting) process for the resulting concentrate, thus
creating a new marketing front and assuring an ex­
tended life to the enterprise. Thus, tailing dams are
huge, smart and relatively low-cost deposits for col­
lecting byproducts from the mining process for pos­
sible future use.
The building of tailing dams includes building up
consecutive layers of waste material. At the initial
design phase the first problem is that the waste mate­
rial is not available for assessment. This means that
it is necessary to determine the geotechnical features
of a still non-existing material.
The building of these dams in different phases
brings several benefits to the project: in financial
terms, it lowers the required initial investments that
provides better cash flow; in technical terms, it al­
lows for progressive loading of foundations; it also
relieves neutral building pressures and allows design
reviews to compensate for variations in waste mate­
rial features.
2.1 Major building methods
The building of the structures for the dam start from
a pilot dam or starting dike, built from lending mate­
rials taken from stone quarries or from sterile mate­
rials from the mine. Successive layer build-ups are
scheduled to follow the level of waste material
thrown into the reservoir, plus a wave wall for flood
control or to build up a water source for the mining
process.
As to the method used to deposit the waste mate­
rial to build up the dam, Barron (1986), mentions the
use of cyclone separators. This system includes a se­
ries of cyclone separators placed along the dam's
crest or cluster of cyclone separators that is moved
along the dam longitudinal axis.
Cyclone separation of waste material is a com­
mon practice to separate coarse waste material to
build the dam from the fine waste material to be
thrown into the decant pond.
As to actual dam building, there are three most
widely used methods: upstream, downstream, and
center line methods (Figure 2), whose name comes
from shifting the dam’s longitudinal axis as it is built
up.
With the upstream method (Figure 2A), the dam
structure starts from a pilot dam or starting dike. Af­
ter this dike is complete, the waste material is
thrown upstream from the crest, thus forming a
beach that will be the basis for next build-up phase.
The cyclone separators segregate the material and
the coarse fraction is laid along the crest to form the
basis for the following build-up.
According to Soares and Fujimura (1998), this
method requires 40% to 60% sand content in the
waste and low pulp density to promote adequate seg­
regation.
With the downstream method (Figure 2B), each
build-up sequence is laid on the dam's crest and the
downstream slope of the previous dike. Only coarse
waste material is used for building up the dike, and
373
the dam may be designed to any given height, in­
cluding drainage and impermeable blanket systems.
The centerline method (Figure 2C) is an interme­
diate solution between the downstream and the up­
stream methods, even in terms of costs, although its
structural behavior tends to be similar to the down­
stream method. First, a starting dike is built and the
waste is thrown upstream to the crest, thus forming a
beach. The following build-up phase develops as the
waste is thrown on the boundary of the beach and on
the downstream slope of the starting dike, so that the
crest axis of the starting dike and the crest axis of the
subsequent build-ups remain in the same centerline.
From the three techniques, the upstream method
lowers the dam cost as it uses up less material for the
build-up layers.
3 WASTE PLACEMENT AT THE DAM AND
THE RESERVOIR
Waste material is generally transported to the accu­
mulation basin as pulp, in a high viscosity fluid
state. The clay fraction under these circumstances
loses its plasticity and cohesion as it is above its liq­
uid limit (LL) and behaves as a viscous fluid.
Sedimentai segregation is a ranking process of the
minerals within the waste material as it is thrown
into the reservoirs, as a function of granulometry,
particle shape and density, and this process is impor­
tant to the development of beaches upstream to the
tailing dams. Deposition or rest angle depends on the
solid percentage within the pulp, generally for
higher dilution values correspond lower rest angles.
This factor is important to evaluate the width of the
beach, decant methods position and the hydraulic
calculations for of the decant structures.
4 MAJOR GEOTECHNICAL FEATURES OF
WASTE MATERIAL
To understand the nature of the waste material and
the elementary knowledge of how it is developed,
we mention some fundamental procedures in mining
operations: stripping, digging, internal ore transpor­
tation, production, waste placement, product ware­
housing, and auxiliary operations.
Looking for alternatives to use the growing vol­
ume of waste, Klohn (1982) indicates that regardless
of the disadvantages of the waste, as it is prone to
piping, liquefaction, surface erodibility and poor
compactiveness features, it may be an adequate dam
building material considering that:
1 waste segregation in coarse (sand) and fine frac­
tions, using just the sand content for building the
dam;
2 segregation procedure control to obtain materials
with the required granulometry; internal filter and
drain installation to prevent piping and to allow
the lowering of the water level;
3 waste compaction to increase its density to the
maximum design project values. This density in­
crease leads to higher resistance to liquefaction as
well as increases shear stress parameters, allow­
ing safe, steeper slopes;
4 protection of high erodibility areas with vegeta­
tion or coarse gravel cover. Please notice that
374
sandy waste materials are subject to water as well
as to wind erosion.
This author considers that waste material is not
suitable for building dams, but must be used as it
forms the major readily available material.
Major geotechnical features of waste material to
be considered are: sedimentation, compaction and
relative density, as well as void rate; while the major
engineering factors to be considered are: permeabil­
ity, compressibility and shear strength (drained and
non-drained).
5 ASSESSMENT OF MAJOR CAUSES OF
WASTE CONTENTION DAM ACCIDENTS
Specific information about dam accidents in the
early 80's is limited to those that had great impact.
Nevertheless, in recent years the number of registers
is significantly high, and this reflects an increase in
environmental concerns.
Selecting and colleting data to write down a list
of tailing dam accidents caused by geological-
geotechnical reasons or those with different causes
but with significant geological-geotechnical circum­
stances, was possible after consultation with differ­
ent sources such as the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP, 1996), newspapers, publica­
tions, internet, domestic and international techni-
cal/scientific magazines, etc. The description pro­
vided from these sources emphasizes the magnitude
and the problems caused by the accidents, with date
and location of the accident, possible causes and ac­
tual damages, not only material but mostly in human
lives.
A tailing dam failure may involve simple and
limited problems with no social or economic conse­
quences, but also get to extreme circumstances such
as flooding large areas, damages to property and
losses of human lives, sometimes with irreversible
damages to the environment and disruption of the
mining productive process.
5.1 Statistical evaluation
From the information about waste contention dam
accidents caused by geological-geotechnical factors,
a statistical analysis was performed to rank these ac­
cidents and the results are in Table 1.
Table 1. Frequency distribution according to accident cause.
Accident Cause N° o f Accidents Relative Frequency (%)
Liquefaction 21 46.7
Undetermined causes 13 28.9
Piping (internal
regressive erosion) 11 24.4
Total 45 100.0
 From this table, the major cause for tailing dam
failure is liquefaction, with 46.7%, followed by un­
determined causes for dam failure with 28.9%, and
piping with 24.4%.
This evaluation must consider that among “unde­
termined causes” there could have been several geo­
logical and geotechnical circumstances that were not
adequately diagnosed and presented in the sources
for this study.
5.2 Technical evaluation
The evaluation of the statistical distribution of tail­
ing dams demonstrates that liquefaction and piping
correspond to 71.1% relative frequency and that this
suggests a focused study of these geological and
geotechnical causes.
Most causes of liquefaction and piping accidents
are related to the presence of fluid that is not con­
trolled, either during the building phase or the opera­
tional and termination phases; since the lack of con­
trol may lead to serious problems, such as excessive
water losses and neutral pressures that may lead to
dam failure (Klohn, 1982). Percolating water
through the dam core must be effectively drained;
otherwise the developing neutral pressure may affect
the stability of the dam slopes.
5.2.1 Piping
Vargas (1977) remarks that this phenomenon oc­
curs when there is internal erosion, which is the
dragging of soil grains because of percolation forces.
It starts at a point where water flows backwards
and drags soil grains within a slight water flow
whose gradient is enough to drag the grains. Thus, it
is an underground backwards erosion. Vick (1983)
demonstrates that piping problems are caused by the
lack or improper use of filters at the tailing dams,
where coarse waste material remains in direct con­
tact with finer waste material.
Within the core, considering a water flow in a
sandy environment, water percolation will happen
through the inter-grain void, thus overcoming the re­
sistance from its own viscosity. From this, there is a
reduction of the piezometric load, and the pressure
difference will be transferred to the soil grains. If the
path in the flow direction is D/ (cm) and piezometric
loss is Dh (cm), the water flow will exert pressure on
the grains equivalent to Dh/D/ per soil unit volume,
where this ratio is the hydraulic gradient in the direc­
tion of the flow. From this relationship, it is clear
that the resulting pressure from water percolation on
the soil is directly proportional to the load difference
for a given horizontal distance. At the slope toe, per­
colation speed and corresponding percolation pres­
sure are much higher than at the top of the slope, and
that percolation pressure will cause more intense soil
particle movement along the flow path towards the
slope toe.
375
5.2.2 Liquefaction
According to Tognon (1985), liquefaction is the
sudden reduction in shear strength of a soil because
of fast increase of interstitial pressure. This phe­
nomenon is generally linked to dynamic efforts on
granular soils.
The sudden reduction of shear strength on sand or
silt from its regular values to almost zero, with no
percolation pressures, is known as spontaneous liq­
uefaction. It corresponds to a material structure col­
lapse associated with an increase in interstitial pres­
sure.
There is a tendency to liquefaction with non-
cohesive materials, mostly with round-grain fine
sand and coarse silt, when these are saturated or un­
derwater, and tailing dams are generally affected by
these circumstances because of their building as well
as material features.
Liquefaction is generally caused by earthquakes,
the impact of waves, explosions, heavy traffic, and
staking or heavy equipment operations that send vi­
brations to the foundations.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The studies demonstrate that accidents because of
geological and geotechnical causes occur mostly
through liquefaction and piping processes, and this
suggests that these aspects must be carefully evalu­
ated during the project, building, operation and ter­
mination phases, through constant field inspections
and analysis of data gathered with adequate instru­
ments.
During the project development, building and op­
eration phases, conditioning aspects of processes
that eventually lead to accidents must be empha­
sized, with corresponding bibliographic references,
essays, material samples, instrumentation, and other
resources.
Some recommendations for the development and
verification of criteria and procedures for tailing
dams are summarized below:
1 prior to any project development to repair dam­
ages caused by an accident or incident, check if
the causes and consequences, as well as the ex­
tension of damages, were duly investigated, re­
ported and corrected;
2 prior to any repair caused by an accident or inci­
dent, check if the extension of damages requires
further stability analysis of structural elements
that were affected, and the need for a structural
project for the rebuilding work;
3 before resuming operations, check that every
element of the dam that sustained any damage
was properly repaired and that normal perform­
ance and safety conditions are met;
4 check other preventive and corrective measures to
be implemented to avoid other accidents;
 in case of structural damages or material deterio­
ration of remaining components from a non-
operational dam, check the possibility of demoli­
tion instead of rebuilding.

REFERENCES

Abrào, P. C. 1987 Deposi^ao de rejeitos de minera^ao no

Brasil. In: Simpòsio sobre barragens de rejeitos e
disposigào de residuos industriáis e de mineragào. Anais,
Rio de Janeiro 1987 Associa^ao Brasileira de Mecánica de
Solos - ABMS/Associa 9ao Brasileira de Geologia de Enge-
nharia - ABGE/Comité Brasileño de Grandes Barragens -
CBGB.
Barron, K. 1986 Waste embankment. Edmonton, University of
Alberta. Mining Engineering Department.
Chaves, A.P.; Fujimura, F. 1991 Utiliza9ao de barragens de
rejeitos na industria minero-metalúrgica. In: Seminàrio
sobre recuperagào de rejeitos da indùstria. Anais, Sào
Paulo novembro de 1991 ABM- Associa9ao Brasileira de
Metáis/COREME.
Klohn, E. J. 1982 Tailings dam design. In: Seminar on Geo­
technical Aspects of Mine Design and Tailings contain­
ment, Edmonton Proc. p. 1-53.
Soares, L,; Fujimura, F. 1998 Barragens de contengao de
rejeitos :mQioÓLo\o%m de implanta9ào, opera9áo e
manuten9áo. Sào Paulo, Departamento de Engenharia de
Minas, Escola Politécnica da Universidade de Sào Paulo
PMI-EPUSP.
Tognon, A.A. 1985 Glossàrio de termos técnicos de geologia
de engenharia. Sào Paulo, Associa9ào Brasileira de
Geologia de Engenharia - ABGE.
United Nations Environment Programme. 1996 Environmental
and safety incidents concerning tailings dams at mines.
Paris, UNEP- United Nation Environment Programme.
Vargas, M. 1977 Introdugao à mecánica dos solos. Sào Paulo,
Mcgraw-Hill/Editora da Universidade de Sào Paulo -
EDUSP.
Vick, S.G.1983 Planing, design and analysis of tailing dams.
New York, John Wiley.

376
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The importance o f interlayer friction on the stability o f underground

bedded roofs

A.I.Sofianos, RPNomikos & C.E.Tsoutrelis

National Technical University, Athens, Greece

ABSTRACT: The response of competent unbolted roofs formed by rock layers of similar rigidity is usually
evaluated with the assumption that the lower layers support their own unit weight only; i.e. they are not
loaded by the overlying layers. However, it is acknowledged that if the layers may be made artificially
thicker, e.g. by bolting, their response may be significantly improved. The friction angle between the layers is
an important parameter in enabling the formation of such stronger layers. Its effect on the deflection, the
strain and the distribution of the stress in the roof of an underground opening is investigated numerically.

1 INTRODUCTION at the abutments. Grouted bolts ~2.80m long are

arranged in a 2x2m pattern. They are pretensioned
Layered and competent rock forming the roof of with 75kN.
underground openings has been studied initially by The span s of the opening is 20m; the layer
Fayol (1885). He noted experimentally that the thickness t is 0.50m. The unit weight y of the rock is
immediate roof was not loaded by the overlying 30kN/m^. On top of the model a vertical load is
layers. Therefore, any analysis could ignore the acting in order to simulate a depth of overburden
interaction between unbolted layers of similar above the roof of 100m. The modulus of elasticity
rigidity above the roof Nevertheless, any friction of the rock is lOGPa. The friction angle ^ between
developed between the layers, which holds
especially for bolted strata, would enhance the
stability of the roof Hence, the interface friction
angle between the rock layers would be a parameter
of primary importance for the stability of such an
underground roof This is investigated with the use
of a model whose response is calculated with a
pertinent computer code.

2 THE MODEL

Due to symmetry only half of the model of the

underground opening investigated in layered rock is
shown in Figure la. It represents case 1 of the four Scale 0 1m
cases examined. Case 4, which is shown in Figure
lb, refers to the same opening configuration as
Figure 1. Geometric idealization of half of a symmetric
before but now the roof layers are crossed by joints layered roof of an underground opening; a. continuous layers,
3 m in depth and the layers are bolted. Case 2 is b. layers crossed by vertical joints and bolted.
similar to case 1 but with bolted roof that follows the
same pattern as that shown in Figure lb. Case 3 is
similar to case 4 with the roof unbolted. the layers is taken to vary between 30° and -90°.
The vertical joints are formed at the midspan and Analysis of the model is performed with the
computer code UDEC^'^.

377
3 RESPONSE OF THE LAYERED ROOF
The response of the roof is investigated for layers
that are continuous or crossed by vertical joints and
that are either bolted or unbolted.
3.1 Midspan deflection
3.1.1 Continuous layers without bolts
Initial researchers analyzed such roof layers as
engineering beams. The midspan deflection 6 may
be evaluated (e.g. Sofianos and Kapenis, 1998a) as
follows;
= 0.120 ==> ^ = 60mm
" t 32
30-10'^-20
~ ~ 10-10'
= 6-10" ( 1)
s„ - —= — = 40
" t 0.5
where: 5n is the normalized deflection, Qn is the
normalized load and Sn is the normalized span.
In Figure 2, the relation between the midspan
deflection and the interlayer friction angle as
evaluated numerically for the aforementioned
models is shown. For case 1, i.e. for the continuous
(i.e. without vertical joints) and unbolted model, the
deflection may be seen to approach asymptotically
the predicted by equation 1 value. Nevertheless this
value is reduced up to 2/3 of its original value as the
friction is increased.
3.1.2 Continuous bolted layers
Panek (1956) investigated the behaviour of such
reinforced roofs on physical models and provided a
chart, which evaluates the decrease in the abutment
outer fiber bending strain, due to bolting. As a rough
approximation only this decrease may be considered
for the midspan deflection. For such a bolted roof
Panek’s diagram would predict a 22% reduction in
bending strain, i.e. this might then correspond to a
value of ~46mm in midspan deflection. It may be
seen for the numerically evaluated values drawn for
case 2 in Figure 2, that the deflection of the roof for
(p<30° is 43mm, which is close to the predicted value
from the diagram. Nevertheless, the deflection tends
to reduce much more as the friction is increased.
However, even for a very high value of friction, the
deflection is still much larger than that for a solid
beam with thickness equal to that of the bolt length.
3.1.3 Unbolted layers crossed by vertical joints
Subsequent researchers, starting with Evans (1941),
analysed the behaviour of single bed roofs, but with
cracks, and provided graphs, tables and algorithms
for the prediction of their behaviour. The first order
deflection of such a beam crossed with vertical
378
cracks at the abutments and the midspan only may
be evaluated (Sofianos, 1996) by the following
formula:
60 -10"' -42'
^^zO -“ A a
16 16
0.28 > 0.19 => failure
40 ( 2)
s^ = —^ = ----- = 42
0.95
= l- - - ( o .3 - 0.14 0.95
3 ^
This deflection may not exceed the value of 0.19m
without failure; hence according to equation 2,
failure occurs.
In case 3 of Figure 2 the deflections, as evaluated
numerically for the layered and crossed with joints
model are drawn as a function of the fiiction angle.
For a friction angle of 30° failure occurs, as
predicted by the above formula. However, for a
friction angle larger than 45°, the roof deflection
does not change with the friction angle and attains
an almost constant value equal to ~ 125mm.
3.1.4 Bolted layers crossed by vertical joints
Bolting of the roof strata is anticipated to increase
further the stability of this roof In case 4 of Figure
2 the numerically evaluated midspan lower layer
deflection, for the bolted and crossed by vertical
joints layered roofs, is related to the interlayer
friction angle. It may be observed that the roof
remains stable even for the interlayer friction angle
of 30°. Further, by increasing the friction angle an
almost linear and monotonically decreasing value of
the deflection is achieved. Beer and Meek (1982)
suggested an effective strata thickness teq of about
one half to two thirds of the thickness of the bolted
strata to be effective, i.e. teq==1.5 to 2.0m. In Figure
3 the deflection of the conventional voussoir beam
model (Sofianos and Kapenis, 1998) is related to the
thickness of the beam. It may be observed that the
thickness of the equivalent conventional voussoir
beam is between 0.7 and 1.3m, with a more realistic
value of ~0.85m.
3.2 Compressive strain at midspan
In Figure 4 the compressive strain Smax, mid at the
extreme upper fiber at midspan of the lowest layer,
as evaluated numerically by the models, is drawn as
a function of the interlayer friction angle. For case
1, the strain decreases almost linearly with
increasing friction angle. Its value for low friction
angle approaches asymptotically that evaluated
numerically for a lower stratum beam clamped at
both ends:
 _Q „ s„ _ 6 0 1 0 -^ -40 3 reduction. For higher friction angles this strain
^max.mid “ . ~ I — O.O-IO (3) almost vanishes; i.e. it corresponds to a point close
to the neutral axis of a thicker equivalent beam.
0.14 For case 3, i.e. for layers crossed by joints without
any bolting, the strain decreases slowly and almost
0.12
Case 3: wj,ub linearly with increasing friction angle.
0.10 For case 4, i.e. for layers crossed by joints and
^ 0.08 bolted, the strain decreases very rapidly, and
^ Case 4: wj,wb vanishes for a friction angle larger than 60°, which
I 0.06
CO
Case 1: nj,ub
indicates a movement of the neutral axis above the
0.04 top of the lowest layer.
B-
0.02
Case 2: nj,wb
—O-
-a
0.00 ^ ^ ^ I ^---------1
3.3 Closest to the abutment tensile strains
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 First crack development in a layered roof is usually
Friction angle, (j) (degrees) anticipated close to the abutment. However, due to
interlayer friction the tensile strain may not develop
Figure 2. Deflection o f layered strata at midspan, as a function above the haunch but further inside the opening.
of interlayer friction angle.
The maximum tensile strain will develop even
further inside the opening.
The distance of the closest tensile strain and the
maximum horizontal tensile strain close to the
abutment are evaluated numerically for case 1, i.e.
for continuous layers without bolts. In Figure 5
these are drawn as a function of interface friction
angle between the rock layers.

Friction angle, (|) (degrees)

Figure 5. Distance of closest to the abutment tensile strain.

The distance to the closest tensile strain is seen to

Friction angle, ^ (degrees)
Figure 4. Compressive strain at extreme fiber at midspan of
the lowest layer.
For case 2, i.e. for continuous bolted layers, the
compressive strain decreases more rapidly with
increasing friction angle. According to Panek, strain
at the abutment would decrease by 22%. Assuming
similar reduction at midspan, for a low friction angle
of 30°, the measured strain approaches such a
be approximated by a parabolic function of the
friction angle. For a low friction angle the tensile
horizontal component of the strain is within the
pillars at the abutment and starts 0.40m from the
haunch. For a friction angle larger than 45°, the
closest tensile horizontal component of the strain
develops inside the opening and reaches almost
0.60m inside the opening.
The maximum tensile horizontal component of the
strain develops in all cases further inside the
openings and is an almost linearly increasing
function of the friction angle.

379
3.4 Arching above the opening
The development of arching is investigated for case
1, i.e. above continuous unbolted strata. In Figure 6
the boundaries of the unloaded areas are drawn for
various values of the friction angle. It may be
observed the significant increase in the unloaded
volume with decreasing of the friction angle.
REFERENCES
Beer and Meek 1982. Design curves for roofs and hanging
walls in bedded rock based on voussoir beam and plate
solutions. Trans. Inst. Min. Metall., 91, A 18-22.
Evans W.H. (1941). ‘The strength of undermined strata’ Trans.
Inst. Min. Metall, L(50), 475-500.
Fayol M. 1885. ‘Sur les movement de terrain provoques par 1’
exploitation des mines’. Bull. Soc. 1’ Industrie Minerale 14,
818.
Panek L. A. 1956. Design of bolting systems to reinforce
bedded mine roof Bureau o f Mines Report of
Investigations 5155, 16.
Sofianos A.I. 1996. Analysis and design of an Underground
hard rock voussoir beam roof, I. J. Rock Mechanics &
Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 33, 2, 153-166.
Sofianos A.I. and Kapenis A.P. 1998a. ‘Stability of
underground stratified hard rock roofs’. Advances in Rock
mechanics, 217-226, World scientific.
Sofianos A.I. and Kapenis A.P. 1998b. Numerical evaluation
of the response in bending of an underground hard rock
voussoir beam roof, I. J. Rock Mechanics & Min. Sci. &
Geomech. Abstr., 35, 8, 1071-1086.

Figure 6. Arching above continuous unbolted strata (case 1),

for (p=30, 45, 60, 70 and 90°.

4 DISCUSSION-CONCLUSIONS

For a layered roof, the analysis has shown the

importance of the interface friction angle between
the layers on its response. The deflection, the strain
and the distribution of stress are shown to be
significantly affected. Therefore to obtain an insight
of the behaviour of layered roofs, modelling of its
most significant parameters is necessary, in order to
install the most effective bolting system. This may,
however, require adequate knowledge of the
geometry and the properties of the rock mass under
consideration. If these are not known, conservative
values usually have to be used.
However, even if a thorough research on the
behaviour of such roofs is to be performed, the use
of the existing analytic formulae will still remain of
paramount importance. These are used then either
as checking tools or as models that include the most
important parameters, which still may give useful
insight information in the response of layered roofs.

380
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

D istribution o f discontinuities in Jakubcovice m ine, South W est o f Ostrava

City, C zech Republic

H.Tavakoli
Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, Iran
V. Petros
VSB, Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic
M.Romana
University o f Valencia, Spain

ABSTRACT: Knowledge of the spacing and size of discontinuities in a rock mass is of considerable impor­
tance for the prediction of rock behaviour. In order to characterise rock slope stability and reliability assess­
ment it is necessary to evaluate discontinuities and measurement of discontinuity spacing, in this study the
area is segmented according to statistical homogenity of rock mass. Scanline surveying on spacing in three di­
rection is carrying out then statistical classification and at the end fitting the best curve give negative exponen­
tial and log-normal as the best distributions for different directions.

1 INTRODUCTION 342 million years). Interbedd of clayey slate and

slate with main layers of sandstone is composed the
1.1 Geological definition geological setting of the area. A number of faults
Jakubcovice mine is located 30 km South West of with strike of NS and dip to west cut the layers and
Ostrava city Czech Republic. In this huge quarry crushed zone near this faults shows critical unstabil­
rocks of the Hradec - Kyjovice Fm. occur repre­ ity, and some landslides because of this faults have
sented by thick beds of greywackes alternating with been occurred. The area of study extends from the
siltstones and shales. The quarry is situated in a cen­ eastern slope of mine level 440m to level 460m
tral and rear parts of a duplex. It is sand stone mine above the sea level. One main landslide in shape of
with bench height 25m and directions of excavation plane failure in zone of fault with strike of N30E and
to north and east In Figure 1. you see a three dimen­ dip to west happened in period of excavation of
sional picture of mine bench. Unstability of slopes lower benches after heavy rain ten years ago.
and occurrence of some failure made it necessary to
perform measurement and analysis of discontinuity
characteristics specially in critical zones. W
In the left part of area an eastward thrusting of a rock
sequence with a true thickness amounting 100-150
m is well visible. Inside the duplex body, minor
thrusting along the bedding planes occurs which is
compensated by local overthrust cutting the bedding.
In the rear of the duplex the greywacke beds are
stretched-out as a consequence of the movement of
overlaying beds. The
amount of shortening due to thrusting can be esti­
mated at 37% at most.
The region shows a big inclined synclinal with
trend of axes to south and trend of wings to west. Figure 1 . Block diagram of bench slopes arrows
Most of the geological materials are sedimentary show directions of excavation.
rock, greywack and polymictic sandstone, aleurit and
graphitic clay with slate. Local name of this partition
is Hradecky and deposit of Jakubcovice nad Odrou 1.2 Measurement o f spacing characteristics
belongs to this part. About moravsko-slezská kulm
lower carboniferous facies equal to epoch Visean The spacing of adjacent discontinuities largely
belong to Mississippian Carboniferous period (327 - controls the size of individual blocks of intact rock.

381
Several closely spaced sets tend to give conditions of number of observation
low mass cohesion whereas those are widely spaced
are much more likely to yield interlocking condi­ 300
tions. These effects depend upon the persistence of
the individual discontinuities. In exceptional cases a
close spacing may change the mode of failure of a
rock mass. From translational to circular or even to
flow (e.g. a "sugar cube" shear zone in quartzite)
with exceptionally close spacing the orientation is of
little consequence as failure may occur through rota­
45 44
tion or rolling of the small rock pieces.
As in the case of orientation, the importance of m 6 1 2 1 2 0
spacing increases when other conditions for defor­ 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
mation are present, i.e. low shear strength and a suf­
spacing [ m m ]
ficient number of discontinuities or joint sets for slip
to occur.
Spacing of discontinuities is the distance between
Figure 2. Histogram of spacing of observed data on
them measured along a line perpendicular to discon­
scaneline measured normal to bedding
tinuity planes. The required equipment are measur­
plane(direction 1).
ing type of at least 3m length, calibrated in mm divi­
sions, compass and inclinometer. The sampling plan
must be representative in the sense that (1) every num ber of observation
element of the sampled population have a non-zero 48
probability of appearing in the sample (2) the rela­
tive probability of each element appearing is known,
and (3) the importance given to observing a particu­
lar element be in inverse proportion to its probability
of appearing in the sample. In most cases the cost of
analysis is much less than the cost of field data col­
lection, so plans which minimise the sampling effort
are to be favoured.
Joint surveying on three orientation were done
according to ISRM suggestions. Scanline orienta­ 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
tions are shown in Figure 1. because structural geol­
ogy of area scanlines should be set up on line of spacing [m m ]
maximum dip, strike and normal to bedding planes.
And observed data were measured at exposed rock
faces which enables the direct measurement of dis­ Figure 3. Histogram of spacing of observed data
continuity spacing. on scaneline measured parallel to bedding(direction
One disadvantage of this approach is that the rock 2).
face may suffer from blasting damage and excava­
tion. Although skilled personnel are needed to take
the measurements, equipment and labour costs are Later it will be discussed that suitable distribution is
negligible compared with borehole sampling costs. log - normal distribution.
Care should be exercised when selecting the face to
ensure that the rock material and discontinuities are
representative of those across the site and also to en­ 2 STATISTICAL DISTRIBUTION
sure that the face is safe to work at.
2.1 Definitions and principles
The location, orientation and condition of the
rock face are recorded on forms then classified in The probabilistic characteristics of a random phe­
different intervals for each case. Figure 2 gives his­ nomenon is sometimes difficult to discern or define,
togram of data observation on joints normal to bed­ such that the appropriate probability model needed
ding planes. As it is seen in the figure there is an ac­ to describe these characteristics is not readily ame­
cumulation of data on the left and later you will see nable to theoretical deduction or formulation. In par­
that distribution of these data is negative exponen­ ticular, the functional form of the required probabil­
tial. ity distribution may not be easy to derive or
As you see in the histogram of spacing Figure 2 ascertain. Under certain circumstances, the basis or
there is skewness of data on the left and in the first properties of the psychical process may suggest the
view it looks like negative exponential distribution. form of the required distribution. If the frequency

382
diagram for a set of data can be constructed, the re­ Table 1. Distributional forms of joint spacing (af-
quired distribution model may be determined by ter Kulatilake)
visually comparing a density fimction with the fre­ Investigator Spacing distribution
quency diagram. Alternatively, the data may be plot­ Steffen et al. (1975) log normal
ted on a probability papers prepared for specific dis­ Bridges (1975) log normal
tributions. If the data points plot approximately on a Call et al. (1976) negative exponential
straight line on one of these papers, the distribution Priest and Hudson negative exponential
corresponding to this paper may be an appropriate (1976)
distribution model. Furthermore, an assumed prob­ Barton (1977) log normal
ability distribution (perhaps determined empirically Baecher et al. (1977) negative exponential
as described above, or developed theoretically on the Einstein et al. (1979) negative exponential -
basis of prior assumptions) may be verified, or dis­ about 80%
proved, in the light of available data using certain log normal
statistical tests, known as goodness-of-fit tests for about 20%
distribution.
Wallis and King negative exponential
(1980)
Sen and Kazi (1984) log normal

It can be easily seen that an exponential distribution

is a special case of gamma distribution, with parame­
ter a = 1
The probability, P(X<x), can be determined from
the cumulative distribution frmction on a random
variable X having an exponential distribution an is
given b y :

F(x) = P(X<x) = { 0 forx<0

0
I
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
forx>0

Refer to figures 2 and 3 it is clear that the best fit

Spacing [mm]
for distribution of spacing is negative exponential
distribution, and mathematically expressed as f(x) =

Figure 4. Histogram of spacing of observed joints
on scaneline length measured parallel to strike,
(direction 3)
2.2 Distribution o f spacing
many investigators have looked into the joint
spacing distribution based on the measurements ob­
tained from scanlines. The summary is given in Ta­
ble 15. The negative exponential distribution appears
to be the most favoured one, however in some cases
log normal distribution has provided the best.
A continuous random variable X is said to have
an exponential distribution with parameter X (X>0),
if the probability density function is given by :
-Xx
E(x; X) = f(x) = Xe' for X > 0
{0 elsewhere
Further E(x) =1/ X
and V(x) = l/X^
where f(x) = frequency of a discontinuity spacing x
X = the average number of discontinuities
per meter
e =2,7182
for this figure calculation is as follows :
The total number of discontinuity = X \.
where L = scanline length, X = mean number of dis-
continuity/meter
For case of Figure 5 the observed discontinuity on
scanline of 41 m is 472
Therefor XL = 472 and L = 41 m
X = 472 / 41 m = 11,48 joints per meter
= 0,011 joints per millimetre
Table 2. gives the comparison between observed
data (Figure 2.) and theoretical case with negative
exponential and different X :
Comparing the values of E (Oi - ei)^/ei for dif­
ferent X shows that X = 0,007 is valid for exponen­
tial distribution therefor for the case of spacing nor­
mal to strike of bedding
PDF; f(x) = 0,007 0 < x < oo
PCF: F(x) = 1 - e'®’®®’’'

383
E(x) = 1/X = 142,8mm = 0,142m
V(x) = 1/X^ = 20408mm = 20,40m
a(x) = VV(x) = 142,8mm = 0,142m
Figure 5. Show probability density function of joint
spacing normal to bedding
Joint survey parallel to bedding (Figure 3) also
has exponential distribution and X for this case is
calculated as follows:
A,L = 91 , L = 13,848 m = 13848 mm (total num­
ber if joint and scanline length is 13,848m)
A, = 91/13848 =0,066 joint per millimetre
Comparing between different values of Z(Oi-ei)^/ei
shows for A.=0,007 exponential distribution is a
valid model . Figure 6. shows probability density
fonction of this case:
Figure 6. PDF of spacing parallel to bedding
planes
384
Therefor for the case of spacing parallel to bedding
there is:
PDF f(x) = 0,007e -0,007x
E(x) = l/X -> E(x) = 1/0,007 = 142,8 mm
V(x) =1/A,^ ^ V(x) = 1/0,007^ =20408 mm
Gx = 142,8 mm
-0,007x
PCF : F(x)=l-e
Figure 7. Cumulative probability of m/(N+l) ver­
sus spacing.
Observation of data parallel to strike of layer Fig­
ure 4. has negative exponential distribution
Then experimental data obtained therefrom should
be approximately linear when the m-th value among
N observations and their plotting positions m/(N+l)
are plotted on the log-normal probability paper. If
the plotted data yield a straight line, this line repre­
sents the particular log-normal distribution for the
underlying population. Table 2. gives observed data
of spacing parallel to strike of layers.
Figure 7. gives cumulative probability of
m/(N+l) versus spacing.
Mean and standard deviation of log-normal dis­
tribution for this case are:
Px = Sxi / n = 1020,5 cm / 36 = 28,34 cm
n f n
Iw j _ 36*56102,75-1020,5'
36'
Gx^= 754,84 cm^
Qx = 27,47 cm
 Table 2. Observed spacing data parallel to strike
of layer for probability paper.
m spacing X [cm] m/(N+l)
1 2 0.027
2 2 0.055
3 4 0.083
4 4.5 0.111
5 7 0.138
6 7.5 0.166
7 8 0.194
8 9 0.222
9 10 0.250
10 10 0.277
11 10.5 0.305
12 11 0.333
13 12 0.361
14 15 0.388 Figure 8 ¡Probability density function of spacing
15 15 0.416 parallel to strike of layer (direction 3).
16 17 0.444
17 18 0.472 Probability density of discontinuities that are on
18 19 0.500 direction 3 (Figure 1.) is log-normal and you can see
19 20 0.527 related curve of this distribution in Figure 8.
20 20 0.555
21 20 0.583
22 20 0.611 CONCLUSIONS
23 25 0.638
24 25 0.666 With method of scanlines surveying set up on strike
25 28 0.694 of layers, dip direction and normal to bedding planes
26 30 0.722 on a part of s)mcline formation. It is found by using
27 40 0.750 certain statistical tests, known as goodness of fit
28 40 0.777 tests and probability paper that exponential distribu­
29 44 0.805 tion is suitable for normal to bedding plane and
30 45 0.833 parallel to bedding plane. Also log-normal distribu­
31 45 0.861 tions for spacing measured parallel to strike of lay­
32 60 0.888 ers. These results also verifies the works of the
33 80 0.916 other researcher on distribution of spacing.
34 80 0.944
35 100 0.972
REFERENCES
36 117 1
Alfredo, H. S. Ang & W. H. Tang 1984. Probability
And Y = Ln X follows normal distribution therefor concept in engineering planning and design.
mean and variance of y are: John Wiley and sons Inc.
Cruden, D. M.1977. Describing the size of
Py = Ln px - (<^y / 2) discontinuities. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci.
Oy^ = Ln [(ox/Px) +1 ] & Geomech. Abstr. Vol 14 : Pergamon Press
= Ln [ (27,47 / 28,34) ^ +1 ] = 0,662 Einstein, H. H. & G.B. Baecher 1983. Probabilistic
and statistical methods in engineering geol­
Oy= 0,81 ogy. Rock mechanics and rock engineering
Evert, H & JOHN, B. 1974. Rock slope engineering.
Py = Ln 28,34. (0,662 / 2) =3,013 London: Gresham.
ISRM Suggested Methods. 1978. Quantitative
and probability density function of x is: description of discontinuities in rock masses.
1 _ (ln X -3 ^ Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. and Geomech.
/w = - Abstr. 15:319-368
' 2*0,81
081*Y *(2n)2

385
Jaroslav, D. 1994.Varisky flysovy V ^ o j v Nizkem
Jeseniku na Moravè a ve Slezku. Cesky ge-
ologicky ustav. Praha.
Jorda, L. & Seron, J. B. & M. Romana. 1999. Appli­
cation of the geomechanical classification
SMR to slopes in limestone and marls. In
Proc. Int. Cong, on Rock Mechanics. France.
Palmstrom, A. 1975. Characterising the degree of
jointing and rock mass quality. Internal re­
port. Berdal, Oslo.
Priest, S. D. & J. A. Hudson. 1981. Estimation of
discontinuity spacing and trace length using
scanline surveys. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min.
Sci. and Geomech. - Abstr.
Romana, R. M. 1993. A geomechanical classifica­
tion for slopes : Slope Mass Rating. Compre­
hensive Rock. Eng. Voi 3.

386
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Stability m onitoring o f open pit m ines in Australia using GPS

M.Tsakiri & M. Stewart

Curtin University o f Technology, Perth, W.A , Australia

ABSTRACT: Open pit mines in Australia are usually designed with steep slope walls to reduce the volume of
waste material to be mined. With potentially severe consequences of wall failure, deformation monitoring has
become an integral part of Australian open pit mining operations. The majority of monitoring surveys employ
conventional terrestrial techniques. On the other hand, the advent of the Global Position System (GPS) has
revolutionised many aspects of surveying methodology and can offer several potential benefits over conven­
tional surveying methods. This paper discusses the application of GPS to mine wall deformation monitoring
and describes a dedicated GPS monitoring system designed at Curtin University specifically to overcome the
problems imposed by the open pit environment. The system represents an economical and precise technique
for monitoring both slow permanent and intense short-term movements. Issues regarding hardware configura­
tion and real-time data collection are discussed in addition to data processing strategies.

1 INTRODUCTION identified. Conventional surveying techniques are

Western Australia alone has more than 300 open cut
mines with the majority being designed with steep
slopes. The main reason for this design is maximisa­
tion of ore production and reduction of volume of
waste material to be mined. A second reason is the
adoption of cut backs of mines to allow access to
deeper extensions and thereby extending mine life
significantly (Gillespie 1999). Typical open cut
mine designs have wall heights between berm levels
of about 20m, with the berm widths usually 5m. Bat­
ter angles vary greatly depending on the geotechnical
conditions of the wall rocks and in some cases can
reach 70°.
With such designs as described above, wall fail­
ure has become a serious problem in the Australian
mining industry and thus, continuous monitoring of
the stability of pit walls is of great importance. Wall
stabilization by means of cuts and fills is a method
customary used in the mining industry to improve
the stability conditions of slopes characterized by re­
duced margins of safety (Greco 1991). Nevertheless,
regular measurements of the magnitude, rate and di­
rection of movement of the steep wall are necessary.
Deformation monitoring techniques using geotech­
nical or conventional surveying equipment are cur­
rently favoured by the mining industry. Geotechni­
cal sensors, such as inclinometers and
extensiometers, can provide only one-dimensional
type of measurements. It is therefore hard to extract
true three-dimensional motions with this type of
equipment resulting in difficulties in detecting cer­
tain modes of motion that have not been previously
based on distance and angle measurements to reflect­
ing prisms, situated permanently at critical points on
a pit wall, with the use of equipment such as
theodolites and total stations (eg Rueger et al. 1994).
However, the operation of conventional surveying
techniques relies on Tine-of-sight’ observations, a
requirement which cannot always be satisfied in a pit
environment. In addition, extreme conditions, such
as temperature changes, atmospheric refraction and
fluctuations, and the large amounts of dust in the pit
can alter the optical properties of the environment,
thus inhibiting the operation of this equipment
(Dunnicliff 1993).
The advent of satellite-based positioning technol­
ogy, namely the Global Positioning System (GPS),
has revolutionised many aspects of surveying. To
date, GPS is a relatively mature technology with
many advantages over conventional surveying meth­
ods mainly in that three-dimensional measurements
of monitoring points can be obtained more accu­
rately and quickly. The resolution of GPS is theo­
retically at the millimetre level (when phase observa­
tions are used) thus making the system sufficiently
precise to compete with traditional survey measure­
ments. The hardware required does not overrun the
cost of terrestrial surveying equipment necessary for
deformation monitoring. No line-of-sight observa­
tions between receivers are necessary. The rate at
which sites can be measured using GPS, though de­
pendent on access, allows more sites to be monitored
than conventional techniques, without the inherent
drawback of atmospheric problems, effectively in­
creasing the efficiency and accuracy of monitoring

387
surveys whilst reducing the cost and labour intensity
associated with this task.
This paper discusses how deformation monitoring
in open pits can be performed using GPS and de­
scribes a dedicated GPS monitoring system designed
at Curtin University which is based on the use of
several antennae and only two receivers. Issues re­
garding system design, hardware configuration and
real-time data collection will be discussed in addi­
tion to data processing strategies.
2 GPS DEFORMATION MONITORING
Whilst GPS has been used in a number of deforma­
tion monitoring applications (eg dams, landslides),
open pit mines are one of the most challenging envi­
ronments for the utilisation of this technology. The
aim in mine wall monitoring is to establish a net­
work of points distributed on the surface of the wall
which are monitored regularly in order to follow
critical rates of change in ground motions. How­
ever, the monitoring points situated in pits can be up
to several hundred metres deep and may cause limi­
tations in the observability of the full available satel­
lite constellation.
The monitoring of these points with GPS can be
performed either in a continuous regime or at regular
time intervals (episodic monitoring). To date, suc­
cess has been achieved using permanent arrays
where dedicated receivers observe continuously each
monitoring point (eg Hatanaka et al. 1995). The data
from all the receivers are transmitted to a central
processing facility and real or near real-time results
are produced (eg Hudnut & Behr 1998). This ap­
proach is unfeasible for most industrial applications
due to the expense of operating one GPS receiver
permanently at every point to be monitored.
Alternatively, repeat GPS measurements, known
as fast-static surveying (in which single points can
be occupied for thirty minutes or less) can be per­
formed. This involves the periodic occupation of the
monitoring points on the mine wall while simultane­
ous collection of GPS data is performed at one or
more stable reference points in the vicinity of the
mine site (eg Gillespie 1998). In this approach, re­
peat solutions from periodic GPS surveys are di­
rectly compared, an approach that has been derived
from the simple fact that most commercial GPS
processing software packages rely primarily on least
squares processing techniques to compute station
coordinates from a particular set of GPS observa­
tions. Whilst fast-static surveying can be performed
on timescales from one week upwards on a larger
number of monitoring points than in permanent net­
works, at a lower cost, this approach has still, in
practice, time limitations. For example, a fast-static
GPS monitoring survey of around 40 points located
on a steep slope of a dam takes about three to five
days to complete (Stewart et al. 1999). With re­
quirements of monitoring every few months, it is
clear that the expense of increasing the density of
monitoring points on a mine wall is prohibitive.
388
In relation to fast-static GPS, GPS kinematic
methods offer the prospect of positioning monitoring
points with very short (theoretically instantaneous)
occupation times with little degradation in position
accuracy relative to rapid-static GPS. A basic GPS
kinematic solution computes the position of the GPS
antenna from measured ranges to satellites using a
single epoch of data. In the case of carrier phase ob­
servations, the integer ambiguity (the unknown
quantity in the phase measurements) must first be re­
solved before the measurements can be converted to
range observations.
The basic idea in using GPS kinematic methods
in pit wall deformation monitoring is that every
point on the body in question is moving slowly.
When re-observing a site, it is assumed that the co­
ordinates of the monitoring points have not changed
by more than a few millimetres. For a GPS deforma­
tion kinematic survey (rather than a standard fast-
static GPS survey where no a priori knowledge of
the coordinates of the points can be assumed) the
coordinates of the control points are known, to an
accuracy of a few centimetres at worst, from the pre­
vious survey. This allows ambiguities to be solved
instantaneously, theoretically with just a single ep­
och of GPS data. A subsequent ambiguity fixed solu­
tion solving for coordinate changes produces the de­
formation solution. Furthermore, all these
measurements obtained from short and repeat obser­
vation sessions have an implicit connection between
them which can be utilised to strengthen the final so­
lution by integrating data observed in the current ep­
och with data observed in previous epochs. In this
way, the system can be effectively treated as a
slowly moving kinematic problem. This is the stan­
dard GPS navigation problem, which can be applied
to mine wall stability monitoring and is usually
solved using Kalman filtering techniques (Stewart et
al. 1996).
Whilst kinematic methods offer the prospect of
pseudo-real time positioning at frequencies of IHz
or faster, they are considerably more vulnerable to
multipath and poor satellite visibility. These issues
render the latest generation of rapid GPS positioning
techniques (Real Time Kinematic - RTK) unreliable
for mine wall monitoring at resolutions of 1cm or
less. For further information on GPS positioning
techniques the reader is referred to a number of text­
books available on the subject (eg Parkinson &
Spilker 1996, Leick 1995).
3. DEDICATED GPS MONITORING SYSTEM
The key problems facing designers of any deforma­
tion monitoring system are therefore ensuring fast
and reliable monitoring and improving existing lev­
els of GPS accuracy to something close to the theo­
retical resolution for measurement of raw carrier
phase observations within the receiver. Along these
lines, a concept that takes the best of continuous and
episodic GPS monitoring techniques to produce a fi­
nancially viable monitoring system is the multiple
antenna array system (eg Santerre & Beutler 1993).
 A dedicated monitoring system designed at Curtin
University to employ multiple antennae connected to
only one receiver realises the aforementioned con­
cept (Ding et al. 2000). This configuration has the
advantages of the permanent receiver array but with
significantly less cost because it utilises only two
GPS receivers but multiple permanent antenna
mounted at each monitoring point. The system is
automatic, with similar maintenance as continuous
monitoring. By switching between the antennae, the
two receivers may be used to survey a large number
of monitoring points as frequent as it is required.
Similar systems designed for monitoring of steep
slopes such as landslides have recently been trailed
(eg Petrovski et al. 1998).
The in-house system comprises a base reference
station and a set of rover receivers, each of which
employs several remote stationary antennae as illus­
trated in Figure 1. By sharing antennae between one
receiver the requirement for multiple receivers, each
with its own communication system, is eliminated.
data link data link
processing ) seems insignificant in relation to $15 000 - 30 000
deformation model database
Figure 1. Schematic o f the configuration for the multi-antenna
deformation monitoring system (after Ding et al. 2000).
The antennae are connected to the rover receiver
via a switching mechanism which allows the re­
ceiver to sequentially allocate time to each antenna.
The antennae can be powered by solar batteries
mounted with them.
The type of switcher device used in the system
can only limit the number of antennae connected to
the remote receiver. The switcher has a principle
role in that it directs the changing of antenna, data
logging intervals and gap intervals between different
antennae. In this way, the user may eliminate re­
ceiver dependent errors by connecting the same an­
tenna to different receivers or may schedule a time­
table of logging depending upon the constellation
visibility and antenna position.
389
Figure 2. Hardware setup for the antenna array.
The antennae are connected to the receiver via
coaxial cables and for longer distances fiber-optic
cables can be used (Petrovski et al. 1998). Cur­
rently, the system utilises coaxial cables of approxi­
mately 300m with preamplifiers to connect up to six
antennae for every rover receiver. Figure 2 shows the
testing version of the system with two antennae con­
nected at the switching device. Tests have shown
that there is no significant degradation of signal
strength with this length of cables (Tsakiri et al.
1998).
This issue of cable length is the main weakness of
this type of system because cables of some several
hundred metres must be run between the terminal
structure and individual antenna. GPS antenna ca­
bles are not generally longer than about 30m and
longer cables require line amplification. Also, the
cost of cables is an additional expense, although at
current prices of around $3000 US per km, this cost
US for a geodetic GPS receiver. Because the cables
are vulnerable to severance, these can be covered or
partially buried in the construction phase of the pit.
The data transmission from the reference and
rover receivers to the processing centre is performed
via a data link, Depending on site conditions, the op­
tion may include mobile telephones, radios or a dedi­
cated wired communication facility. The raw carrier
and pseudorange GPS data from both receivers can
be either processed in real-time or post-processed
mode to provide three-dimensional coordinates of
the monitoring points.
As with all types of monitoring, the aim of the
multi-antenna monitoring system is to identify small
scale temporal motions on the mine wall within a
specified degree of confidence. However, it is more
difficult to extract a statistically significant mode of
motion from a limited time series of data points for
episodic monitoring than from a regime of perma­
nent monitoring stations delivering continuous posi­
tion fixes. The multi-antenna system has the capabil­
ity of providing the user with frequent streams of
data thus enabling the establishment of a time series
database for each antenna, with additional data
added each time the antenna is operating. This data­
base is necessary to build up a site history and ap­
propriate deformation models that could be used by
the geotechnical engineers for wall failure predic­
tion. Although this system configuration provides
less GPS data than in a fully continuous system, it
may be argued if baseline lengths remain short (in
mine deformation monitoring baseline lengths do not
usually exceed 1km), much data collected by con­
tinuous systems are redundant.
The history of the site can indicate the pattern of
deformation that a mine wall exhibits before a fail­
ure or collapse may occur. From this information
along with the particular geological properties of the
mine wall, appropriate threshold values are preset
within the data processing procedure that can be
compared with the changes in the position solutions
of one or more of the antenna array. When the
threshold values are exceeded, the deformation
monitoring system can alert users that a potentially
dangerous situation may develop. Nevertheless, a
sudden acceleration in wall deformation is indicative
of instability. Conversely, the monitoring system
should be sufficiently reliable to avoid setting off
false alarms which may cause potential large produc­
tion losses related to a false emergency evacuation.
Therefore, quality control algorithms implemented
during processing that can check the reliability of
data and solutions are necessary to ensure that warn­
ings are real.
4 CONCLUSIONS
GPS episodic surveys are quicker and more efficient
than conventional surveys and have the potential to
provide accurate and economically viable mine wall
deformation monitoring systems. However, the mine
environment can restrict the ‘off-the-shelf GPS sys­
tems and it may be several years before an affordable
continuously operating GPS monitoring system will
be installed in every open pit mine.
The multiple antennae monitoring configuration
represents an economical technique for mine wall
deformation monitoring. The system has the advan­
tages of permanent receiver arrays but only two re­
ceivers may be used to survey a large number of
monitoring points as frequent as it is required.
The feasibility of using very short observation
time spans in open pit deformation monitoring,
where few satellites are visible is of importance if
GPS is to be accepted as an economically viable
technique for mine deformation monitoring. Fur­
thermore, because of the slowly moving nature of
the deformation problem, accurate solutions requir­
ing fast-ambiguity resolution can be obtained easily.
However, other factors, such as multipath noise and
quality control issues, must be addressed before a
GPS deformation monitoring system could success­
fully operate in the challenging open pit environ­
ment.
390
5 REFERENCES
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M. 2000. Slope monitoring using GPS- A multi-antenna
approach. CP5'itor/i/ 1 1(3): 52-55.
Dunnicliff, J. 1993. Geotechnical Instrumentation for Monitor­
ing Field Performance. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Gillespie, P. 1999. Remote slope monitoring at Argyle Dia­
mond mine. Australian Centre for Geomechanics Newslet­
ter,'NovembQr. 1-9.
Gillespie, P. 1998. GPS monitoring at Argyle Diamond Mine-
An overview. In M. Tsakiri (ed.). Advances in GPS Defor­
mation Monitoring: Proc. Intern. Workshop, Perth, 24-25
September, Australia.
Greco, V.R. 1991. Slope stabilizarion by means o f cuts and
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Wight, 15-18 April. Thomas Telford.
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H. 1995. Application o f GPS Kinematic Method for Detec­
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 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

M odelling o f discontinuity surface roughness by digital photogrammetry

and geostatistical m ethods

M.Unal, B.Unver & E.Tercan

Department of Mining Engineering, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey

ABSTRACT: Probably, the most important parameter influencing overall strength and stability of
surrounding rock mass in both surface and underground excavations opened in jointed rock mass is the shear
behaviour of discontinuities. Therefore, parameters that affect the shear behaviour of discontinuities should
be carefully studied for better understanding of the phenomenon of rock supporting. Roughness of
discontinuities is closely related with the strength characteristics of joints and discontinuities.
Various means of discontinuity surface roughness determination methods developed for the isolation of the
effects of discontinuity surface roughness on shear strength, dilation and friction properties of surfaces. The
close-range photogrametry that was used for the digitally three dimensional modelling of discontinuity
surfaces. Digital stereo pictures and subsequent numerical surface determination analysis were used
successfully for comprehensive modelling of discontinuity roughness.

1 INTRODUCTION 1989) profilometry (Frecker & Rengers 1971;

Characterisation of surface properties and roughness
has been studied for many years in the discipline of
mechanical engineering. Research studies on
roughness of rock surfaces have been started in
1970’s. The rock surface roughness is an important
property that affects the mechanical and hydraulic
behaviour of the rock discontinuity. Therefore, in
order to estimate the behaviour of the rock joint
system confidently, discontinuity surface roughness
should be modelled in detail.
A numerical description of the roughness of a rock
surface is essential for the estimation of shear
strength, dilatancy and stiffness of the discontinuity.
In rock engineering practise, widely used method for
characterization of surface roughness profiles, is the
joint roughness coefficient (JRC) proposed by
Barton (1973) and Barton and Choubey (1977) and
then adopted by the ISRM (1978). This measurement
method (standart profiles) is accepted as highly
subjective (Miller et al. 1989) so many investigators
have tried to develope more objective and
quantitative methods such as stringline (Carr 1987),
photographic technique (Franklin 1987; Carr 1989),
classic photogrammetry (ISRM 1978; Miller et al.
Weisbach 1978; Aydan et al. 1996), laser
(Yoshinaka et al. 1990) etc. to measure rock surface
roughness. Discontinuity surface roughness can be
digitized with many methods such as mentioned
above, to provide detailed elevations data along
cross-sections or surfaces that form the basis for
various statistical (Wu & Ali 1978; Tse & Cruden
1979; Reeves 1985; Liu & Sterling 1990; Aydan et
al. 1996), geostatistical (Ferrerò & Giani 1990; Roko
et al. 1997), fractal (Berry & Lewis 1980; Brown &
Sclohz 1985; Carr & Warrine 1987; Türk et al. 1987;
Carr 1989; Lee et al. 1990; Miller et al. 1990) and
empirical (Barton 1973; Barton & Choubey 1977)
determination of surface roughness numerically.
Advances in computer technology and
photogrammetry, now make it possible to efficiently
collect and display detailed x, y, z coordinates of
surface data; such technology could provide a viable
new approach to measuring rock discontinuity
roughness, particularly in regard to field studies.
This paper briefly presents a part of the results of a
comprehensive research study on the determination
of the effect of discontinuity surface roughness on
the shear strength characteristics. For this puipose,
digital models of discontinuity surfaces were

391
prepared by means of close-range photogrammetric
technique. Digital 3-D surface maps of
discontinuities were analysed by using geostatistical
methods. After determining the details of surface
roughness characteristics, same surface was
subjected to a predetermined shear load. At the end
of each test, changes on the surface roughness
characteristics were determined by taking new
stereoscopic photos and subsequent digitazing and
geostatistical analysis. This procedure was repeated
for several times at different normal load and shear
displacement levels. In this paper. Only a sample of
the results regarding the application of digital
photogrammetric technique and quantification of
surface roughness by means of geostatistical
methods will be presented.
2 DIGITAL PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SYSTEM
Development on the computer sciences in terms of
hardware and software has reflected important
improvements in the discipline of photogrammetry.
The stage of the photogrammetric development can
be listed as analog, analytical and digital systems.
Although digital systems have better stability, higher
precision and better capability of image processing
than that of analog systems, they also have the most
advantages of the analytical systems. In the digital
photogrammetric systems, the light on the plate of
appearance in camera is recorded not as
photogrammetric but as electronic means. These
results are evaluated with the use of computer
techniques which are simulated with human eyes
(Ebner 1991).
The use of digital technology in the
photogrammetric systems has been resulted to that of
variation in the application fields. It has also been a
step on the digital map production and to establish a
database for the information systems.
3 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE
The aim of the study was to obtain the surface map
of a rock in terms of rock surface coordinates
determined by means of digital photogrammetry
technique and to analyse the provided data by using
geostatistical method. A flow diagram of the study is
given in Figure 1.
A series of 80mmx80mmx 120mm prismatic
andesite specimens were used. The specimen is
splitted into two pieces to get a 80mm x 80mm joint
surface using the indirect tensile machine. The
392
research approach is mainly comprised of three
stages as follows:
• Taking the rock sample surface stereoscopic pairs
with non-metric digital camera,
• Evaluation of the pair of pictures with the use of
computer program (Pictran) and to obtain the map
of the rock surface in relation with to the surface
coordinates,
• Successive direct shear tests on specimens.
SPRCTMRN PRRPARATTON
T A K IN G T H E R O C K S U R F A C E S T E R E O S C O P IC P A IR S
Digital non-metric camera (PDC 2000/40)
D IG IT A L IM A G E P R O C E S S IN G A N D 3 - D P L O T T IN G *•
Digital photogrammetry workstation (DPW)
Hardware and photogrammetric software
CAD, surfer and other Plotter or
graphic software printer
G E O S T A T IS T IC A L AND D IR E C T S H E A R T E S T S
F R A C T A L A N A L Y S IS A T D IF F E R E N T N O R M A L ^
GS +, Benoit, etc. STR ESS LEVELS
Portable shear box
IS O L A T IO N O F T H E E F F E C T O F R O U G H N E S S O N S H E A R
C H A R A C T E R IS T IC O F T H E D IS C O N T IN U IT Y
Figure 1. A flowsheet of research approach
In this study, in order to acquire the 3-D models of
the rock surface, firstly the formation of the stereo
pairs which will be quantified, entails certain
conditions. Therefore, taking of pictures should be
carried out in a way to provide the following
conditions (Unver & Unal 1998):
• Determination of the object coordinates which is
measured from marking points on the rock
surface,
• Selection of a suitable camera for the
specifications of the application,
• Taking the stereo pairs from different points
providing the formations of the 3-D model,
• Picture taking being carried out in an order which
will allow the details on the rock surface to be
easily perceived,
• Providing the picture taking system which will
form the scale in evaluation.
A clear perception of all the peaks and valleys on
the surface over the photogrammetric projection is
important for detail mapping of rock surface.
Therefore, the rock sample was placed on a white
platform so that contrast was achieved between the
dark colour of the surface and the base in the images.
In taking the picture of rock surface, close-range
photogrammetry was applied and the taking pictures
was proceeded with the polaroids PDC 2000 non­
metric digital camera at 22 cm height and having
high precision i.e. sensor resolution 1 million, printer
resolution 1600x1200 pixel, 24 bit colour, standard
lens 11mm. Figure 2 presents a schematic view of
the method applied for photographing.
Figure 2. Diagram shows the overlapping stereopairs
in photogrammetry
The pictures of the rock surface were taken from
two different points, as shown in Figure 2 and stereo
pairs were formed. The second stage of the digital
photogrammetry is to determine the 3-D surface
model of the stereo pairs by means of a computer
software called ‘PICTRAN’. By using this software,
3-D model of the object could be accurately formed
25mm range to yield precise results. The
photographs and the topographies of the rock surface
are given in Figure 3 (a, b).
4 METHODS OF QUANTIFYING ROUGHNESS
4.1 Fractal Dimension
Fractal dimension is the most widely used measure
in characterisation of roughness of natural fractures.
Two major type of fi*actals are distinguished; self­
similar fractals and self-affme fractals. The latter is
also called fractional Brownian fractals by
Mandelbrot (1982). Self-similar fractals are
isotropic; they look same as the length scales along
all spatial directions are changed by the same factor.
Self-affme fractals are anisotropic; they look the
same only if the length scales along different
directions are changed by different vectors (Voss
1985).
393
Most of the natural fractals such as joint surfaces
in rocks exhibit self-affine fractal behaviour (Carr
1997; Develi & Babadagli 1998). A variety of
methods exist to estimate the fractal dimension of
self-affine fractals. Among them, the spectral
method and the variogram method (Carr & Benzer
1991; Wen & Larsen 1997; Develi & Babadagli
1998) have been widely used in practice.
4.2 Spectral Methods
Let Z(x) denote an intrinsic stationary random
fimction at location x. The spectral method is based
on calculation of the spectral density of RF Z(x)
with the following proportionability:
P(f) a f ■' ( 1)
where P(f) is the spectral density, f is frequency
and P is the slope of power spectra on a log-log
plot. The fractal dimension has the following
relationship with p and topological dimension E:
D= E + (3-p)/2 (2)
4.3 Variogram Method
The variogram is a fimction that measures the spatial
dependence of RF Z(x) as variance of the difference
between Z(x) and Z(x+h):
2 y (h) = Var [Z(x)-Z(x+h)] (3)
where h is the separation vector.
A RF Z(x) that shows the fractal property can be
represented by the power-low variation model:
2y (h) = C. (4)
where C is a scaling parameter and H is the Hurst
component and is calculated from the slope P of
fitted lines for variograms on a log-log plot by
P = 2H (5)
and the fractal dimension is equal to
D = E -H (6)
The spectral and variogram methods can be used
in estimation of the fractal dimension of both natural
surfaces and profiles. However, the spectral method
is computationally difficult and requires much more
 Specimen Name: Andesite (77.5 mm x 77.5 mm)
Surface position: Fresh surface

a)

b)

CO
CD

c)

^-zietae / D=1.304 D= 1.382

•Z5«67
-asz -0» osa Q3i oiss -QS -0» aoB ct31 qs -a s -0 » q03 031 QS

bg(aTBrafcnCls&ra^

Figure 3. a)Photographic images of rock specimens, b) topography of rock surface roughness and c) calculation of fractal dimension by using variogram
method
data processing than the variogram method. In
addition, the spectral calculation requires that data
be sampled at an equally spaced interval. More about
comparison of the methods for estimating the fractal
dimension can be found in Klinkenberg (1994), Wen
and Larsen (1997) and Develi and Babadagli (1998).
Because of these shortcomings of the spectral
method, we prefer to use the variogram method in
estimating the fractal dimension.
4.4 Estimation o f Fractal Dimension from
Variograms
The variogram is most widely estimated by using the
following estimator:
N (h )
2y*(h) = 1/N(h) X [Z(xi)-Z(Xi+h)]^ (7)
i= l
where 2y*(h) is the experimental variogram; N(h)
is the number of data pairs separated by distance
vector h. Using the above estimator omnidirectional
variogram values are calculated up to fifteen lag
distances. Unit lag distance was 0.25 cm. A
regression is made between the logarithms of y*(h)
and h for each direction. The fractal dimensions are
computed from the slope of fitted lines. Figure 3(c)
shows experimental variograms on the log-log scale
and fitted lines together with fractal dimensions.
5 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS
Test results show that it is possible to model surface
roughness of discontinuities by means of digital
photogrammetric method. The method is fast and of
low cost.
Surface roughness characteristics are shown in
Figure 3 together with geostatistical analysis results.
In Figure 3, the surfaces are located in a series
starting fi'om low fractal dimension. Surface
roughness of discontinuities is successfully modelled
by using fractal dimension. However, the appearance
of 3-D surface maps seem to be different. This is
simply due to automatic scale assignment of the
software. When the difference in the altitude of the
highest and the lowest points increased irregularly,
the visual appearance of lower points is decreased.
Test results revealing fi*actal dimension are in a
good accordance with visual examination of surfaces
in the laboratory.
395
6 CONCLUSION
Advances in computer technology in terms of
hardware and software influences the technology of
the photogrammetry and also causes many changes
in the basic photogrammetric structure. The main
change is however that the transition from analytical
photogrammetry to digital photogrammetry. This
development also effects the application of
photogrammetry at various subjects such as rock
surface roughness measurements.
Results of this study show that method of
photogrammetry and subsequent variogram analysis
is capable of modelling of discontinuity surface
roughness realistically.
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396
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A critical assessm ent o f an exploration pilot tunnel in adverse geological

conditions: A case study

B.Unver & E. Aygar

Department of Mining Engineering, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey

ABSTRACT: Geotechnical assessment of the route of a tunnel is a prerequisite for safe and stable tunneling
operation. Especially, when adverse geological and structural conditions are encountered, prior knowledge is
of crucial importance. The twin tube three-lane motorway tunnels being driven between Istanbul and Ankara
possess probably the most difficult ground conditions ever encountered from geological and tectonic
viewpoints. The tunnels were designed according to general rules of New Austrian Tunneling Method
(NATM). However, severe stability problems were faced during tunneling operations. Therefore, a new
supporting scheme had to be used which was significantly different from the original design. A more rigid
and strong support type had to be used in contrary to the original the NATM design, which proved to be
inadequate. Therefore, a pilot tunnel was driven prior to full-face advance of the tunnel. This paper presents a
discussion of the pilot tunnel in a critical manner stating that it would be possible to foresee the inadequacy of
NATM and revise the support strategy if a pilot tunnel was opened at the beginning of the project.

1 INTRODUCTION tunnel was driven. Hence the opening of pilot tunnel

Bolu Tunnels designed in accordance with the
NATM are being opened under severe geotechnical
conditions. The presence of a well-known active
North Anatolian Fault and its successors nearby
makes the conditions even worse. There are phllite
series including low angle faults and meta-
sedimantary series bearing water reservoir at high
amounts. Serious instability problems have been
encountered especially in these areas. The main
reason of instability problems was thought to be the
inadequate determination of geotechnical and
tectonic characteristics of the route of tunnels.
Therefore, initial support design has been
tremendously changed leading to a rigid and strong
support application. A 30 cm of deformation
tolerance foreseen during design well exceeded 100
cm after outer lining. Hence, immerse repair and
reinforcement works had to be applied that slowed
down the speed of whole operation and significantly
increased the cost of tunneling.
In order to prevent instability problems likely to
occur in the future, a 1300 m long exploration pilot
enabled the characterization of the rock and soil
mass in detail. This paper briefly presents the
characteristics of pilot tunnel and the outcome.
2 A BRIEF PRESENTATION OF THE PROJECT
Bolu is a province located at inner North-West of
Anatolia where Ankara-Istanbul motorway passes.
The opening of Bolu Tunnels was planned during
the construction of the motorway in 1992.
At the end of the project, there will be two three-
lane tunnels as shown in Figure 1. When facing to
the direction of south, the tunnel at the righthandside
is called as the right tunnel whereas the other one is
the left tunnel. Tunnels are being excavated at four
tunnels. The average thickness of overburden is 950
m with a maximum of 1050 m. Locations and route
of the tunnels are presented in Figure 1. Lengths of
the right and left tunnels are 3236 and 3287 m,
respectively. There is 30 to 60 m distance between
tunnels. The width and height of excavation are 16
and 11.5 m respectively as shown in Figure 2,

397
whereas the final width and height values are 12
and 8.60 m, as shown in Figure 2.
IitaijhnJ DiriKtion
Figure 1 Location map of the tunnels
Figure 2. Cross- sectional view of the tunnels
3 INSTABILITY PROBLEMS FACED AT
BOLU TUNNELS
Excavation of the tunnels at northern entrance
started in 1993 and approximately 500 m was
excavated without any major difficulty. In this part
of the tunnel, geomechanical conditions were in
close proximity with the anticipated conditions. A
geological and structural cross section of Asarsuyu
398
Tunnels can be seen in Figure 3. However, from this
point on geomechanical conditions have become
worse. Therefore a dramatical increase in the rate of
deformations was observed reaching to five fold of
deformation tolerance. Deformation tolerance at the
design was 25 cm whereas the actual deformation
value was as high as 125 cm. Face operations had to
be ceased due to difficult ground conditions at the
end of 1994.
A new strategy of tunneling was prepared and
tunnel drivage started in 1996 once again. A roof fall
took place at southern entrance right tube while
passing through a clayey fault gauge. As a result of
caving the operation at the face had to be stopped
again.
The situation at the northern entrance tunnel was
troublesome due to water inrush at a quantity of 400
It/s that caused regional roof falls. Immense
maintenance and repair work had to be performed
due to high rate of deformations at flyschoide series
and short fault zones at southern entrance left tunnel.
Tunneling operation was stopped once again at four
tunnels at the beginning of 1998.
Discrepancy between anticipated and encountered
structure of the tunnel route in terms of geological,
geotechnical, tectonical and hydrological points led
to instability problems. Details of predicted and
encountered conditions at northern and southern
entrances are presented in Figure 3 and 4
respectively. The difference between anticipated and
encountered conditions can be clearly seen in these
figures. In contrary to the slope of fault planes were
expected to be high, faults happened to be of low
slope.
3.1 A b r ie f description o f su pport strategies a t
difficult conditions
Different support types and strategies had to be
applied for maintaining stability. Apart from
changing the size and characteristics of bolt,
shotcrete and roof and wall ties, there are three main
different support strategies that have been applied at
and around problematic regions. These are namely
modified C Modified support (CM), lower bench
pilot tunnels filled with concrete and Bemold lining
support systems. These systems are described below
in brief:
a) M odified C -C lass S upport System (CM):
CM support system was used at southern entrance
right tunnel for a length of approximately 60 m in
fault zones having clayey gauge. CM support system
is in comply with the NATM. However, an intense
bolting pattern is used with a flexible lining as
shown Figure 5. Nevertheless, high amount of
 6 1 -4 0 0 0 1 -5 0 0 0 1 -6 0 0 0 1 -7 0 0 6 1 -8 0 0 6 1 -9 0 0

Chaînage Geological section as predicted

Asarsuyu Portal
6 1 -4 0 0 6 1 -5 0 0 6 1 -6 0 0 6 1 -7 0 0 6 1 -8 0 0 6 1 -9 0 0 6 2 -0 0 0 6 2 -1 0 0

Chaînage Geological section as encountered

Figure 3. Predicted and encountered geological conditions at the northern entrance Asarsuyu
Tunnels

E lm a lik P orta l
64-150 64-200 64-250 64-300 64-350 64-400 64-450
C h a in a g e
G e o lo g ic a l s e c tio n as p re d ic te d

E lm a lik P o rta l
64-150 64-200 64-250 64-300 64-350 64-400 64-450 C h a în a g e
G e o lo g ic a l s e c tio n as e n c o u n te re d

Figure 4. Predicted and encountered geological conditions at the southern entrance Elmalik
Tunnels

399
deformations have occurred exceeding the limit of
tolerance at the sections of the tunnel where CM
support system has been applied. Despite an intense
bolting pattern applied, the bolts were determined to
be within the plastic zone surrounding the tunnel.
NATM. Obviously, NATM principles could not
maintain a stable tunnel support system and a rigid
support type had to be applied.
SrtOTCRErEUMNGifc.70ai.

Results of bolt load measurements have revealed

that bolts did not carry as much load as they were
supposed to be. Stability of the tunnel face could not
be maintained due to caving at the face. CM support
system has not proved to be adequate and face
advance at this part of the tunnel was stopped and
stability could only be maintained after filling the
gaps at the roof by cement injection and concrete
filling.

Figure 6. Bench pilot tunnel method (Geoconsult,

1997)

c) Bernold Lining: Especially, the southern

entrance left and right tunnels exhibited high amount
of deformations exceeding tolerance. Despite of
using longer bolts with closer spacing and increasing
the thickness of shotcrete lining, deformations could
not be kept within the limits of tolerance. Therefore
an additional lining called as Bernold lining (as
Figure 5. CM support system for fault zone shown in Figure 7) between inner and outer linings
(Geoconsult, 1997) was applied in order to increase the strength of
overall support system. Total thickness of inner,
Bernold and outer linings was up to 90 cm, which
b) Pilot Tunnel at the sides o f the bench meant a very rigid support. This support application
method: A serious roof fall was experienced at the does not comply with the principles of NATM.
left tunnel of southern entrance. In order to pass this
problematic region, a very strong support had to be
applied. As shown in Figure 6, two pilot tunnels
having a diameter of 5 m each were driven at two
SHOTCBETE LINING ds=40
sides of the bench forming two strong legs for tunnel
lining. Pilot tunnels were equipped with steel
structure and consequently filled with concrete.
After the consolidation of pilot tunnels, tunnel face
was excavated and 70 cm thick steel fiber reinforced
shotcrete lining was applied together with heavy
steel ties. After six cycle advance at the top tunnel,
four-cycle excavation was done at the lower bench
and the invert was constructed. By the application of
this rigid support system, this problematic area could
be completed without experiencing any instability
problem. This part of the tunnel was opened without
using any rock bolts.
Support strategy as applied in this part of the
tunnel was not in accordance with the principles of Figure 7. Bernold lining (Geoconsult, 1997)

400
4 PURPOSE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE
EXPLORATION PILOT TUNNEL
As stated earlier, anticipated and encountered
characteristics of the tunnel routes were significantly
different from each other that forced to change the
initial design considerably. There were still 1300 m
of tunnel to be opened. Therefore, it was decided to
open a 5 m diameter exploration pilot tunnel to see
the definite state of rock types and structures. The
location of the exploration pilot tunnel is shown in
Figure 5. This would also help in decreasing the risk.
During drivage of the exploration pilot tunnel;
load, deformation and piezometric water pressure
values were measured at regular intervals, which
were thought to be helpful in correct design of rest
of the tunnels. At every 10 m interval, five optic
reflector surveying marks were placed. Multi-wire
extensometers, seven double embedded strain
gauges, load cells and piezometers were installed at
the measurement stations located at every 100 m of
the pilot tunnel. Samples were also taken from this
stations and Atterberg limits, particle size
distribution, water content and porosity values were
determined. Triaxial and shear characteristics were
also tested in the laboratory.
Rock and support classes along the pilot tunnel
were also determined. Meta-sedimantary series and
calcareous sandstone with clayey fault zones at
intersections were encountered at the northern
entrance side. The contact between meta-
sedimentary series and calcareous sandstone
contained high amount of water reaching to a
quantity of 240 It/s. This water was drained.
There were three main lithologies at the southern
entrance side namely; metacrystalline, flyschoide
and clay series having a high capacity of swelling
and squeezing between these formations.
5 BENEFITS OF THE EXPLORATION PILOT
TUNNEL
Pilot tunnel drivage has enabled the certain
characterization of the geological formations before
driving the tunnels.
Surely, knowing all the characteristics of the
ground where the tunnels were to be opened was an
invaluable information. But the main point to be
stressed on here is that whether it would have been
possible to foresee the deformational behaviour of
the surrounding rock and to decide the application of
three support strategies explained above. The answer
of this question is quite difficult because of the fact
that the tunnels had been designed in accordance
with the NATM. Neither filled bench pilot tunnels
401
method nor Bemold lining could have been
suggested during design stage. Because these
support systems are rather rigid opposing to main
principles of NATM. So, the situation proves that
NATM principles are not adequate under
extraordinary circumstances and need to be verified.
In short, even if the geological and structural
characteristics of the tunnel route were knovm by
means of the exploration pilot tunnel, it was not
possible to select the rigid support systems as
applied; simply it states a contradiction with the
general principles of the NATM. Basic points
leading to this conclusion can be listed as follows
(Aygar 2000):
1. It was difficult to foresee that rock bolts were
not carrying enough load, before the excavation was
made.
2. It was almost impossible to decide the use of
bench pilot tunnels method and Bemold lining due
to their very high costs. The NATM is said to be the
most economical method of tunneling. This makes a
contradiction.
3. Filled bench pilot tunnels method and Bemold
lining are rigid stmctures. Formation of a rigid
stmcture definitely contradicts with the NATM.
Therefore, this support methods could not have been
chosen.
4. An 80 m long pilot tunnel at the southern
entrance right tube had been opened and then CM
support class has been applied. Serious instability
problems were encountered at this part of the tunnel
and consequently this part was filled with concrete
and filling material. As a conclusion, although the
stmcture of the rock to be excavated was knovm
before the operation, a stable support strategy could
not have been chosen and applied within the
framework of the NATM.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The success and applicability of the NATM at
adverse geological conditions should be reassessed.
Within the framework of NATM, it is not possible to
use a rigid support system as the case at Bolu
Tunnels. Therefore, the success and functions of the
exploration pilot tunnel at Bolu Tunnels should be
evaluated considering the project as a whole. In spite
of increasing the overall cost of the project, the
exploration pilot tunnel maintained an invaluable
information about the stmcture of the rock mass.
However, this information could not be correctly
evaluated for the selection of optimum support
system. In this regard, the application of NATM
should be reevaluated under adverse geological
conditions and needs modifications.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Authors would like to thank to the General

Directorate of Highways for their cooperation.
Opinions presented in the paper belongs to the
authors not necessarily to the General Directorate of
Highways.

REFERENCES
Aygar, E. 2000. A Critical Approach to The New
Austrian Tunneling Method in Bolu Tunnels, M.Sc.
Thesis, Hacettepe University , 267 pp.
Geoconsult. 1997. Review o f Geotechnical
Conditions at Bolu Tunnels (Techical Report) 27 pp.

402
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Finite elem ent m odeling o f underground openings in bedded rock

I. Vicenzi & H. S. Mitri

Department of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Que., Canada

ABSTRACT: It is extremely difficult to develop a model that describes the behavior of naturally occurring
rock types to a stage adequate for design purposes and yet is simple enough for stability analysis carried out at
a reasonable cost. In this paper, the authors adopted the mechanical model of rock joints suggested by Amadei
& Goodman (1981a) and implemented it into an existing finite element code, performing 2-D linear elastic
analysis. The code, called e-z tools, is designed to solve practical design problems involving a set of bedding
planes. The code e-z tools for bedded rock mass was initially verified via a parametric study where the influ­
ence of bedding planes and scale effect on the stress and displacement distributions has been examined. A
case study was then conducted on a tunneling project in the Swiss Alps.

1 INTRODUCTION ■ Properties of the bedding planes (shear and

normal stiffiiess)
Rock mechanics science together with numerical The first two parameters can be easily treated by a
modelling attempt to better understand and predict wide variety of numerical modelling software. How­
phenomena that occur in rock masses. In mining and ever, the treatment of the bedding planes as discrete
tunnelling problems, joints and other geological fea­ layers or not will depend on the layer thickness.
tures play a major role in evaluating stability. In par­
ticular, engineering design of drifts and tunnels in
jointed rock masses must take into consideration the
scale effect.
When the spacing between joint sets is relatively
small compared to the size of the excavation, the
strength and deformation properties of the rock mass
are influenced by both the properties of the rock ma­
terial and those of the joints, while on a large scale,
the jointed rock mass may demonstrate the proper­
ties of a pseudo-continuum. These considerations
suggest that both the intact rock and the joints
should define the characterisation of the rock mass
in a numerical model. This may not be an easy task,
particularly when the mass has more than one family
of joints. Distinct element codes are best suited for
this type of problems.
When the rock mass contains parallel bedding The following three scenarios can be postulated:
planes, it may be characterised as layers of intact Closely spaced discontinuities. In this case, the
rock separated by a single set of discontinuities; see excavation roof can be treated as a homogeneous,
Figure 1. This situation is commonly encountered in but transversely isotropic material where proper­
sedimentary rock formations, e.g. limestone and ties in the direction parallel to the joints are dif­
sandstone, in underground mines as well as in civil ferent from those perpendicular to them;
engineering tunnels. The response of the rock exca­ Moderately spaced discontinuities. Here the effect
vation in bedded rock will depend primarily on a of discontinuities between layers must be consid­
number of major parameters. They are: ered. Both the shear and normal stiffhess charac­
■ Excavation span, B teristics of the bedding plane must be considered.
■ In situ stress (or depth below ground surface) The rock layer may be treated as isotropic or
■ Spacing between bedding planes, S transversely isotropic as in the first case;
■ Dip angle of bedding Widely spaced discontinuities. In this situation.

403
 the presence of discontinuities may have little or
no influence on the deformation and strength be­
haviour in the excavation roof The rock may be
treated as homogeneous isotropic.
The design of mines and tunnels has been tradi­
tionally carried out using empirical formulae which
are derived either from the local experience in the
mine or based on the rock mass classification meth­
ods. Several rock mass classification systems have
been developed during the past 50 years, and some
of them have become popular in tunnelling and min­
ing project. Of those, the “Rock Load” method (Ter-
zaghi, 1946), the Rock Quality Designation or RQD
method (Deere et al., 1967), the Rock Mass Rating
or RMR (Bieniawski, 1973) and the Q-System (Bar­
ton, 1974) are noteworthy. Beside these methods
some analytical procedures have been also devel­
oped such as Pacher’s Rock Characteristic Curve
(1964) and the closed-form solutions for simple un­
derground openings.
It is only in the last two decades that numerical
modelling has emerged as a design / analysis tool of
underground excavations. A widely accepted classi­
fication of numerical models divides them in two
groups: discontinuum and continuum models. In dis-
continuum models, the joints are explicitly mod­
elled, and large movements along the joint faces are
permitted, such as sliding and toppling. In the con­
tinuum models, the jointed rock mass is either
treated as a continuum with equivalent material
properties to reflect the effect of the joints, or the
joints are modelled to predict potential slips and
stress changes due to such slips. Continuum models,
like the finite element method, are very commonly
used by design engineers, and will be further used in
this paper to model the bedded rock mass.
There are many geomechanical finite element
codes that are available today on the market. Never­
theless, the majority of such software do not take
special consideration of the modelling of bedded
rock. Thus, the objective of authors was to develop
a simple numerical model, based on the finite ele­
ment method to perform deformation and stress
analyses, which will simulate the behaviour of a
bedded rock mass around underground openings tak­
ing into consideration following features:
■ Arbitrary excavation geometry
■ Presence of in situ stresses
■ Mechanical properties of the rock (E, v)
■ Bedding planes, in particular:
■ Spacing between joints
■ Inclination (dip) of bedding plane (angle p)
■ Normal and shear stiffhess characteristics of
the bedding planes
This paper presents a numerical model imple­
mented in a finite element code, which treats the
rock mass as a continuum by simulating the proper­
ties of the bedding planes. The use of this feature is
demonstrated through a detailed model parametric
study. The new model has been applied to a case
study in the Swiss Alps.
404
2 MODELLING TECHNIQUE
2.1 Basic assumptions
Stratified or bedded rock masses are clearly non-
homogeneous. They may be divided into several lay­
ers of randomly varying thickness and properties.
Sometimes, only two types of rock are regularly in­
ter-layered. Since it does not seem feasible to take
into account the individual properties and geometry
of each stratum in any mechanical model of a strati­
fied rock mass, it is more practical to replace the lat­
ter by an equivalent homogeneous continuum. Sala-
mon (1968), and Wardle & Gerrard (1972) have
worked on this subject and their theories have been
used as a basis for developing more complex consti­
tutive laws by other authors.
Another procedure is to replace the regularly
jointed rock mass by a homogeneous, anisotropic
and continuous medium, the behaviour of which is
equivalent to the behaviour of the jointed rock mass
(Singh, 1973). This procedure can be used when
rock anisotropy is derived from regular discontinui­
ties and the intrinsic character of the intact rock. The
concept of an equivalent medium can be also used to
describe the non-linear behaviour of a discontinuous,
non-homogeneous and anisotropic body containing
up to three orthogonal joint sets (Amadei & Good­
man, 1981a). They noted that the basic problem to
be addressed in proposing constitutive relations for
jointed rocks is the mechanical behaviour of a single
discontinuity surface. The experiments conducted by
Goodman in 1976, led to establish a normal stress-
deformation curve describing the behaviour and
normal stiffhess of the joint Kn. under constant shear
stress; see Figure 2. Thus,
kn = / ds ( 1)
Now let us consider the behaviour of a joint under
changing shear stress with constant normal stress.
Such a deformation curve can be characterised by
elastic, peak and post-peak regions as depicted in
Figure 3. Peak and residual shear strengths and their
relative importance, as well as the shear stiffhess are
greatly influenced by the joint type, joint properties,
filling material, state of applied stress and testing
procedures. Note that the slope characterising the
elastic region is termed the unit shear stiffhess ks
Regarding the concept of an equivalent anisot­
ropic continuum for an isotropic body with one joint
set, Amadei & Goodman (1981b) assume the intact
rock is linearly elastic and isotropic with two con­
stants: Young’s modulus E and Poisson’s ratio v.
The deformations within jointed rocks subjected to
both normal and shear stresses result from compres­
sive and shear strains within the rock between the
joints and from interface normal and shear displace­
ments on the joints. They considered a basic unit
consisting of a single thickness of rock and a single
joint as depicted in Figure 4.
 î'

61,4=f^ oint)
62,3 = fCmtact rock)
Figure 2 Idealized normal stress-deformation of a joint (Good­
man, 1976)

ÎÎÎ ÎÎÎ

l A I I ÆA
Ô3+Ô4
Figure 3 Idealized shear stress-deformation of a joint

The basic concept of the model is to replace the

jointed body by an equivalent anisotropic contin­ f i r m
uum. As a result, shear and normal deformations of
the equivalent continuum are equal to those of the Figure 4 The concept of equivalent anisotropic continuum
jointed body. In the plane (n, t), the equivalent me­
dium is described by two moduli: Gnt and The
shear modulus Gnt is given by:

l/Gnt = ( l / G ) + [l/( ks. S) ] (2) iz : Intact

Joint rode
spacing S
Where G = E / [2 (1 + v)] is the shear modulus of the
intact rock and S the spacing between two joints.
Note that the joint thickness must be negligible
compared with S. The modulus En is given by: B ed d in g
p la n es
l/En = ( l / E ) + [l/(kn.S)] (3) i^ span —4

As shown by the above two equations, only four

elastic constants are required to describe such a ma­
terial: E, V, k s, kn. The authors of this paper have
adopted this conceptual model proposed by Amadei
& Goodman (1981a,b) for a rock mass characterized
by one family of discontinuities. The model is then
formulated for the implementation into a two-
dimensional finite element code based on the 4-node
isoparametric quadrilateral element previously de­
veloped at McGill University to enable 2-D linear
elastic analysis or underground and surface excava­
tions on a personal computer (Mitri, 1993).
Figure 5 Definition of the B/S ratio
2.2 Finite elementformulation
The formulation of finite element equations is based
on the 4-node quadrilateral, isoparametric element.
In the following, only the concept of equivalent elas­
ticity matrix is briefly explained. Complete details
of the finite element equations are given elsewhere
(Vicenzi, 2000).

405
 ■1 -V -V 0
E ~T

[D]-
-V m -V 0
]= ~ T ~E~
-V -V 1 0
~Y ~Y E
0 0 0 n (5)

Where:
Figure 6 Roof settlements as a function o f E
m = —1 + ------
1
( 6)
E knS
_J[_
(7)
E = 40 GPa ” ~ 2G 2ksS
11.0

3 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
The performance of the model can be shown by the
means of a sensitivity analysis of an underground
8 10.0 opening for the parameters: the joint spacing S, the
D
si
0.10 0.20 0.40 span-to-joint spacing ratio (B/S), Young’s modulus
Poisson's ratio E an Poisson’s ratio v, see Figure 5. The dimensions
of the opening are B x H = 5m x 5m.
Figure 7 Roof settlements as a function o f v The deformation of the tunnel roof is presented in
Figure 6 for different E and in Figure 7 for different
V. Here, the other parameters of the rock mass have
been held constants, i.e. normal and shear stiffhess
kn respectively ks, the dip angle as well as the B/S ra­
tio. The result of the analysis indicates that the de­
formation of the roof is practically not affected by
the variation of the Poisson’s ratio. The deformation
of the roof is, however, only slightly dependent on
the magnitude of the Young’s modulus E. Figure 8
shows the sensitivity of k„ and ks with constant
Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of E = 40 GPa,
and V= 0.2. As can be seen, the shear stiffhess of the
ks/kn [G P a] bedding planes plays a more significant role than the
normal stiffhess in controlling the large deforma­
■ " " kn “ks tions.
Figure 9 presents the roof deformation as a function
Figure 8 Roof settlements as a function o f normal stiffness k„
and shear stiffness kg
of the B/S ratio and the dip angle for a constant
Poisson’s ratio of v = 0.2 and a Young’s modulus of
E = 40 GPa. It may be noticed from the surface re­
The total stress at any point due to gravitational sulting that by changing simultaneously the two pa­
load and in situ stress can be calculated from; rameters B/S and the dip angle, the roof deforma­
tions are not linearly dependent on both the dip angle
{a} = [D]{E} +{ao} (4)
and the B/S ratio. Furthermore, it may be noted that
they cause only a small influence on the elastic de­
where {ct} is the stress vector, {oo} the in situ stress formations of the roof in the range of low and very
vector and [D] the plain stress-strain elasticity ma­ low value of B/S. Otherwise stated, for the case de­
trix which takes the special form shown below fol­ picted in Figure 9, one can say that for a spacing be­
lowing the model of equivalent elastic medium for tween discontinuities greater than 0.5 m (or B/S <
the bedded rock mass. 10) the roof settlement is geotechnically insignificant
- i.e. 6roof/B less than 1/500 - and regardless of the
strata inclination and spacing. This confirms the as­
sumption of “isotropisation” of the rock media for
small B/S ratios tending to zero. This is simply ex­
plained by the scale effect. In fact, for very large
spacing S between the joints, their effect at the work

406
scale vanishes and only the properties of the sur­
B/S=20 / E=40 GPa / Kn=15 GPa / Ks=10 GPa
rounding intact rock control the behavior of the /v =0.2/K =1.0/D ip = 0°
opening.
In addition, increases in stresses arise in the side-
walls of the opening. In the case where the bedding
planes are horizontal, the increase in the vertical
stress extends along the X-axis over a length, which
is approximately 4 times the opening span S as de­
picted in Figure 10. It is of interest to notice how the
shape of the opening influences the flow of the stress
at the same point. In the case of circular opening the
stress reaches its maximum value at the centerline of
the sidewall (for an ideal isotropic hydrostatic case x/B
this is equal to twice the in situ stress) while the (relative distance from the opening wall)
highest vertical stress for the square opening is
Figure 10 Extent of vertical stress in the sidewall
reached at the comer. Thus, the increase of stress at
the sidewall is much less abmpt.
DISPLACEHENT
The influence of the discontinuities may also be
UECTORS PLOT
recognized from the deformation of the opening wall
illustrated in Figure 11 for strata dipping at 45°.

3.1 Discussion
It should be mentioned that Figure 9, if applied to s im u latio n
TO-26^
a specific case, can be used when making a first ap­
proach of design for an opening. In fact, it is possible
to optimize the excavation shape as a function of the
discontinuity spacing or to give a rough interpreta­
tion of measured deformations caused by driving. On
SCALE [m ]
this subject, it is worth mentioning that even when
plastic deformations arise, the elastic deformations dispUccMcnt fa c ta r : 56.906
are also present and must be taken into account dur­ Figure 11: Unsymmetrical tunnel deformations for a dip angle
ing the design and the interpretation of the deforma­ of 45°
tion measurements. In addition, elastic sensitivity
analysis like the one presented here should always
form the basis, if requested, for further elastoplastic 4 CONCLUSIONS
analyses.
The significance of discontinuity properties to the
All these factors therefore influence stability. It is
rock mass behavior around an opening should be
thus of great importance that the elastic constants
clear from the example presented by this sensitivity
and the geometry of the joints be determined as re­ analysis. It shows that the spacing and dipping of the
liably as possible and that the influence of scatter be bedding planes of a rock mass exhibit a considerable
investigated in parametric studies as demonstrated influence over the form of deformation, and thus on
here. stresses around the opening. Additionally, the influ-

Figure 9 Roof deformation as a function of B/S and dip angle

407
ence of the rock’s elastic constants has been found to
be considerable as absolute value, however, the con­
tribution to the range in which each constant sepa­
rately modifies the displacement pattern around the
opening is smaller than the contribution due to varia­
tion of joint spacing and dipping.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work was partially financed from a research

grant by the Natural Science and Engineering Re­
search Council (NSERC). The authors are grateful
for their support. The authors wish to thank
Lombardi Consulting Engineers SA, Locarno, Swit­
zerland for their co-operation and assistance and in
providing the geotechnical information.

REFERENCES
Amadei, B. & Goodman, R.E., 1981a. A 3-D constitutive rela­
tion for fractured rock masses. In Proceeding of the interna­
tional symposium of mechanical behavior of structural me­
dia: 249-268. Ottawa.
Amadei, B. & Goodman, R.E., 1981b. Formulation of complete
plane strain problems for regularly jointed rocks. In Pro­
ceedings 22nd US symposium on rock mechanics: 245-251.
Cambridge, Massachusset
Barton, N.R., Lien, R. and Lunde, J., 1974. Engineering classi­
fication of rock masses for the design of tunnel support. In
Rock Mechanics: (6): 189-236.
Bieniawski, Z.T. 1973. Engineering classification of jointed
rock masses. In The civil Engineer in South Africa: 335-
343.
Deere, D.U., Hendron, A. J. and Patton, F. D. 1967. Design of
surface and near-surface constuction in rock. In Failure and
Breakage of Rock: 237-302. C. Fairhust (ed.). New York;
AIME.
Goodman, R.E. 1976. Methods of geological engineering. New
York: Wiley and Sons.
Mitri, H.S. 1993. e-z tools, 2-dimensional finite element soft­
ware. Numerical modelling laboratory. Dept, of mining and
metallurgical engineering, McGill University, Montreal.
Pacher, F. 1964. Deformationsmessungen in Versuchsstollen
als Mittle zur Erforschung des Gebirgsverhaltens und zur
Bemessung des Ausbaues. In Felsmechanik und In-
genieursgeologie Supplementum: (4) : 149-161.
Salamon, M.D.G. 1968. Elastic moduli of stratified rock mass.
In International journal of rock mechanics in mining sci­
ences: (5): 519-527.
Singh, B. 1973. Continuum characterisation of jointed rock
masses - part I and II. In Rock mechanics and rock engin-
nering.
Terzaghi, K. 1946. Rock defects and loads on tunnel support.
In RockTunnelling "with Steel Supports. Youngstown, Ohio:
Commercial Shearing Co.
Vicenzi, I. 2000. Numerical modelling of underground open­
ings in bedded rock mass. In A thesis submitted to the Fac­
ulty of Graduate Studies and Reaserch. Montreal: McGill
University.
Wardle, L.G. & al. 1972. The equivalent properties of layered
rock and soil masses. In Rock mechanics: (4): 155-175.

408
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

M ethods com puter m odelling and analysis o f geom echanical processes

M. A. Zhuravkov & U. N. Lazurenko

Belarus State University, Minsk, Belarus
I. S. Nevelson & N. A. Dakuko
PA ‘Belaruskaliy', Soligorsk, Belarus

ABSTRACT; In the report the problems of modelling, study and analysis of geomechanical processes have a
place in the rock’s massif with intense development of underground space are discussed. Today there is high-
power effective methods of computer modelling of various mechanical processes (finite element methods,
boundary element methods etc.), so important is the development of the basic general approaches and schemes
to construction of model mathematical problems circumscribing the whole class of geomechanical processes
and formulation of boundary problems and correct interpretation of outcomes of numerical calculations. The
most effective way of the solution of the given problem is building up the system intended for fulfilment of calculations of
a stress-strain state of the rock’s massif and study deformed processes in massif as one from elements of a general sys­
tem of geomechanical monitoring. Such approach actively develops by us at creation of systems of geomechanical moni­
toring for regions of development of liquid and hard mineral resources.

1. THE MAIN PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL c. Definition of main fundamental conceptions.

MODELLING ANALYSIS OF GEOME­
CHANICAL PROCESSES
1.1 General positions
Modelling of geomechanical processes and study of
stress-strain state of rock’s massif is a complicated
and complex process, and it requires a nonformal
point of view for study of geomechanical processes.
Such, this procedure include many principle prob­
lems. Among main problems are next;
• definition type of external loading;
• elaboration of mathematical models for descrip­
tion of deforming processes in massif and for
forecast state of cavities;
• evaluation of stress-strain state of massifs region,
study d)mamic of its modification;
• analysis of state of massif in region of under­
ground cavities as function of time;
• modelling analysis of protection’s actions etc.
Process of model geomechanical analysis requires
the carrying out of certain stages in analysis. Among
these stages the following ones can be distinguished
(Zhuravkov & Martunenko 1995, Zhuravkov et al
1995):
a. Choice of mechanical-mathematical model of ex­
amined region of massif as physical medium.
b. Building up of geomechanical model of the mas­
sif-underground constructions system taking into
account a concrete mechanical- mathematical
model of massif
d. Building up of analytical formulas and estimations
for physical-mechanical properties of rocks and mas­
sif taking into account structural and mechanical pe­
culiarities of massif and degree of its technological
nonhomogenety.
It is shown, it is necessary to distinguish three di­
rections of investigations as regards typical size of
examined region of mining massif
• determination physical functions of efficient char­
acteristics for nonhomogeneous layers;
• determination of those values for volumes are com­
parable with sizes of cavities;
• determination efficient characteristics of massif in
whole as nonhomogeneous half-space.
The functional expressions are built for physical
and mechanical properties of layered massif taking
into consideration a lot of factors (Zhuravkov &
Martunenko 1995).
e. Building up of mechanical-mathematical model and
choice of method of investigation and solution of
formulated problem.
1.2 Peculiarity o f the modelling analysis o f a
stress-strain state o f block-layered rock's massif
The solution of boundary geomechanical problems
become complicated in case of block-layered struc­
ture of rock’s massif
From the point of view the mechanics of a de­
formable rigid body a layered nonhomogeneous mas-

409
 Figure 1. Example calculation stress state in massif with large cavity by FEM.

■»iafgi

noxiH. __

Figure 2. Example modelling the earth’s surface deformed processes in regions with large-scale mining aciiviiy.

410
 sif represents an assembly of blocks incorporated in
some layered structure in which the mobility on con­
tacts between blocks is various. It is essential that the
mechanical characteristics of such massif are defined
not so much by properties of layers in blocks how
many by physics-mechanical properties of zones of
contacts of blocks, layers and structures as a whole.
Therefore the mechanical deformation of a blocking
massif differs from deformation of massif as of con­
tinuous environment.
In a block-layered massif it is possible to allocate
deformations o f two levels, deformations purely of
rocks inside layers, blocks and other allocated struc­
tures both deformation of large rock’s structures and
massif as a whole at the expense of moving blocks
(structures) rather each other on certain surfaces -
surfaces of localization of deformations. Thus the
blocks are turned so that their new situation again
reminds "continuous" environment. The account of
the factor of presence of surfaces of localization is
important at study of dynamic processes.
In (Zhuravkov & Martunenko 1995, Zhuravkov &
Smuchnik 1997) is shown that fo r block-layered
massif at realization o f the modelling analysis o f
geomechanical processes the choice o f spatial scales
is reduced in a final to a reasonable choice o f the
formulation o f a model problem in "local” or
"global" statement. In those books is shown that de­
pending on scale of length it is represented natural to
distinguish three levels of the description of geome­
chanical problems. The borders of levels are deter­
mined by ratio between the characteristic sizes of a
massif
The construction of model of stress-strain state of
a layered massif in basic is reduced to construction of
effective numerical - analytical model of the solution
of the appropriate problem the mechanics of deform­
able rigid body. One of main ways is in this case con­
struction of system of the appropriate equations for
layer and on the basis of it by connection of boundary
conditions and model of stress-strain state of a mul­
tilayered massif
Concepts of a primary and secondary stratification
are entered for modelling analysis of geomechanical
processes connecting with stratification of massif
For a primary stratification it is possible to consider
massif as continuous body (except for the special
geological sites), and for solution use of results, re­
ceived by methods of mechanics of continua is allow­
able. Thus it is necessary to know of an arrangement
of weak contacts with the indication of their types
and parameters of durability.
The character of distribution of stress and dis­
placements of a massif depends on its structure. At
account of stress-strain state of strongly layered
massif it is necessary to take into account presence of
surfaces of contact and opportunity of sliding on the
given surfaces. However account of each separate
surface creates significant difficulty at the solution
411
even of a less difficult problem. Therefore arises re­
quirement of construction some "equivalent" homo­
geneous model for layered body.
Problems o f modelling o f geomechanical proc­
esses we can divide into three parts.
1. Study stress-strain state around of one or some
underground cavities with restricted (not large)
linear sizes;
2. Study stress-strain state in regions of rock’s mas­
sif with one or some cavities of large linear sizes;
3. Study deforming processes in Earth surface in re­
gions with underground excavation of deposit.
2 THE METHODS FOR SOLUTION OF
MODELLING GEOMECHANICAL
PROBLEMS
2 .1 General positions
For solution model’s problems wide spectrum of
methods and approaches is used. These methods are
united in complex which is a internal part of general
system of geomechanical monitoring.
A software package being developed based on
mesh free technology for general-purpose engineer­
ing computations. The package is designed aiming
for stress-strain analysis in rock’s massif for both
static and dynamic situations in a two- or three- di­
mensional space.
Conventional mesh-based computational methods
such as finite element methods (FEM), finite volume
methods (FVM), boundary integral methods (BIM)
etc. have been well-developed and seen great success
in engineering applications. As a result, they domi­
nate the commercial market of engineering applica­
tions. Common to these methods is that they rely on
an underlying mesh to establish the connectivity for
interpolation of field variables. For example, FEM
discretizes the problem domain using finite elements,
making it easy to formulate shape functions as well
as to perform local and global domain integration.
However, the accuracy of FEM results can only be
ensured on conditions that the mesh is not severely
distorted and elements maintain to be well shaped
throughout the computation. For situations that the
domain undergoes very large deformation and suffers
discontinuity in the form of phase changing or
cracking caused by material failure, the above re­
quirements cannot always be guaranteed. The only
strategy which mesh-based methods employ to han­
dle the situations is to remesh the current domain
throughout the evolution of the problem. This not
only introduces the burden associated with a large
number of remeshings, but also leads to degradation
of accuracy and complexity in the computer pro­
gram. The difficulties arise mainly because the entire
algorithms are based on a mesh structure It is a
natural progress that more and more people resort to
meshless methods to overcome the above difficulties.
Meshless methods (as so named) do not use meshes
but scattered nodes to discretize the problem domain.
The objective of meshless methods is to eliminate at
least part of the mesh structure by constructing the
approximation of field variables entirely based on a
group of nodes.
The major advantages of meshless methods over
FEM include: complexity of domain discretization is
reduced significantly by using discrete nodes; ap­
proximation of field variables can be of higher order
as desired; mesh-related problems such as mesh dis­
tortion do not exist; adaptive refinement procedure
can be implemented more easily.
More often finite element method, methods of in­
tegral equations and especially method of Green’s
quazifunction for solution of problems of mechanics
of deformable rigid bodies are used (Zhuravkov &
Martunenko 1995, 1999).
The method of Green’s quazifunctions consists in
reduction of differential boundary problems to inte­
gral and integral-differential equations, kernels of
which are function of a special kind - Green’s quazi­
functions. Use them is explained by that them easier
to build in comparison with classical functions of
Green. In a basis of this operation the theory of R-
fimctions is. An essential moment is that fact that the
kernels of subintegral expressions contain the infor­
mation on border of area at an analytical level. Be­
sides the integral and integral-differential representa­
tions for the characteristics of stress-strain state have
equivalent structure at the various approaches to the
solution of that or other problem (solution within the
framework of the theory of elasticity, viscoelasticity,
plasticity; consideration the non homogeneity, non­
linearity, thermal effects; consideration statics and
dynamics process and etc ).
2.2 Study o f stress-strain state o f massif around o f
deep underground cavities
Study of geomechanical processes is make based on
the theory of deforming geomechanics of block­
layered rock’s massif (Zhuravkov & Martunenko
1995). The principle statement of this point of view
is a statement about necessary research of geome­
chanical processes in block-layered massif fi'om point
of view of strain state but not stressed one. The main
principles of this theory are in (Zhuravkov & Mar­
tunenko 1995).
The methods of integral equations and finite ele­
ment method are used for computer solution of
simulation mathematical problems.
General kind of expression for mechanical char­
acteristic of massifs have next structural;
Z {x ,t)= Y i
412
where, for example: Z j ( x ) take into considera­
tion a natural nonhomogeneous of massif;
Z 2 (x ) take into consideration of destroy of con­
tact zones of layers; Z 3 ( x ) take into considera­
tion a change of mechanical properties with depth;
Z 4 ( X , / ) define a change of mechanical properties
on account of technology destroy of massif ;
Z 5( X ) take into consideration effect of scale
factor.
On the basis of Green’s quazifunctions method the
approaches of transforming of nonlinear problems to
elastic problems are developed and the model re­
searches for massifs of salt potash rocks are made.
The result of calculations is, for example, that the ac­
count o f orthotropy o f behavior does not introduce
essential qualitative changes to a picture o f distri­
bution o f the characteristics o f stress-strain state o f
massif in a neighbourhood o f underground cavities.
Quantitative changes the characteristics of the stress-
strain state mainly are observed, but in such scales,
that at the solution of application problems them is
possible practically to not take into account, espe­
cially in cases when the difference in the mechanical
characteristics on directions does not exceed sizes up
to 1,4 times. Besides is established, that the given
method of a disturbance of isotropic elastic proper­
ties allows to find the solutions with the greatest de­
gree of accuracy for orthotropic bodies with elastic
properties unsignificantly deviating from properties
of isotropic environment.
In correspondence with such procedure the model
researches for massif with physical nonlinearity be­
haviour were executed. The result of calculations is
that the account o f physical nonlinearity o f geome­
chanical processes the concentration o f stresses in a
neighbourhood o f underground cavities is reduced,
but the values o f displacements to a normal o f cavity
are increased. However, the quantitative changes in
the characteristics of the stress-strain state achieve
such values, that at the solution of application prob­
lems of a geomechanics they can be taken into ac­
count by input of correction coefficients.
On the basis of use of the Green’s quazifunctions
method for solution of viscoelasticity problems the
complex researches of geomechanical processes in a
vicinity of underground cavities are executed. For
example, study of processes of a progressing stratifi­
cation layered massif, influence of natural measures
of protection on deforming processes etc.
At study of natural measures of protection it was
taken into account, that "ideal" measures of protec­
tion should "to concede" to elastic deformations, to
be pliable and at the same time to prevent movement
on surfaces of localization of deformations. One of
the important properties "ideal" measures of protec­
tion - to suppose an opportunity of development of
deformations owing to reological properties of a
massif, as such deformations all the same to not keep
by any forces. As have shown results of the executed
numerical accounts, for rocks massif having brightly
expressed reological properties, to achieve complete
suppression of moving on a contour of a under­
ground cavity practically it is impossible.
2.3 Analytical researches o f the stress-strain state
o f a massif in areas with a large number of
cavities with complex boundary contours and
large linear sizes
Analytical researches of the stress-strain state of a
massif in areas with a large number of cavities with
complex boundary contours and large linear sizes
was carried out by numerical methods on the basis of
a finite elements method.
The considered tasks, from the point of view of
mechanics of deformed rigid body were resulted in
study of the stress state of space weakened by cavi­
ties, having a complex geometrical configuration and
mutual arrangement (some cavities in massif with a
various mutual arrangement).
The study of a geomechanical state of a massif in
a considered case was carried out with the account
stratification of massifs structure. Thus, we took
into account effect of a primary and secondary strati­
fication. For a primary stratification massif of breeds
it is possible to consider as continuous body (except
for the special geological sites), and use of results re­
ceived by methods of mechanics of deformable rigid
body. Thus it is necessary to know about an ar­
rangement of weak contacts in considered thicker
with the indication of their types and parameters of
durability - factors of coupling ( c ) , factors (or
corners) fi-iction (/? ) and strength on pick off
The first stage of process of destruction is accom­
panied by achievement of limiting condition on weak
contacts between layers. The infi-ingement of contact
between a layers is checked by a limiting condition of
such kind r „ > C + ( J P The second stage of
destruction is characterized by approach of limiting
condition inside separate layers.
The example of calculation of stress-strain state in
massif with large linear sizes cavity is represented in
Figure 1. The technology scheme use man-made
supports (from rocks). The calculation was made on
the base of Finite Elements Method.
2.4 Methods o f computer modelling o f the stress-
strain state o f large regions o f massif and Earth
surface
The new direction of modelling of geomechanical
processes had been now generated which can be de­
scribed as methods of computer modelling. Using
methods of computer modelling of the stress-strain
state of large regions of massif and Earth surface may
413
be devided on such groups; 1.Methods are used as
base a finite element methods; 2.Methods are used as
base a boundary intergal equations methods;
3.Methods are used as base experimental-analytical
approaches.
We building up applied computer systems on base
on all these three approaches.
Let’s consider methods of computer modeling
theoretical base which are the approaches of a me­
chanics of deformable rigid body.
For example, the fundamental solutions o f a me­
chanics o f deformable rigid body are used for mod­
elling o f deformed processes o f earth surface.
The use of the fundamental solutions of a me­
chanics of deformable rigid body is represented
rather perspective at construction of the effective
methods intended for simulation of a stress-strain
state of large volumes of massif with wide network
of underground cavities.
In (Zhuravkov & Martunenko 1995) the condi­
tions are obtained at which fulfilment learning of de­
forming processes in large areas of mining massif and
on an earth surface on the base of approaches of a
mechanics of deformable rigid body is correct.
Effect of a cavities on a earth surface it is possible
to modelling by effect of some forces which are op­
erational in the massif The representations for such
force’s functions are built on base of lows of geome­
chanics, and for definition of its numerical coeffi­
cients the special procedure is used (solution of con­
verse problems).
On the base o f the half-return method o f the
Saint-Venant the researches were made and some
problems o f the geomechanics are solved
The idea of a half-return method of the Saint-
Venant consist of decreasing of number of unknown
functions which are being a subject to determination
at solving a problems of the theory of elasticity by a
task by some fi-om them of certain analytical expres­
sions.
For example, the approach for investigation of
deformed processes in undersurface massif is built.
This approach use the known experimental values of
earth’s surface displacements. Such approach may
be effective application for system of geomechanical
monitoring.
The example of representation of fields of calcu­
lating values of deformation processes in earth’s
surface in region with intensive underground mining
work is in Figure 2. There are scheme of mine and
color picture of vertical displacements of surface.
2.5 Study o f processes o f movements o f earth
surface in areas o f geological infringements
Deforming processes in areas of geological in­
fringements have the features in comparison with
those, proceeding on "quiet" sites of rocks massifs.
As well as on sites without breaks they may develop
under such schemas: the small, large deformations,
“quiet destruction" (critical deformations) and "dy­
namic destruction" (dynamic impacts) (Zhuravkov &
Smuchnik 1997). But alongside with it there can be
processes of significant and large mutual displace­
ments of borders of regional zones, which we shall
name "deforming failures". Last can be static and dy­
namic. For the description of deforming processes in
zones of geological infringements concept " the ex­
ited earthquakes" or "silent earthquakes” now are
widely used. This definition understands the exited
dynamic failures induced by technical activity of the
people, for example, large-scale excavation of de­
posits of minerals. Besides the areas with the raised
level of geodynamic activity owing to the high in­
duced seismicity are usually characterized by newest
and modern tectonic movements and significant on
size by horizontal stresses in the underground massif
The long-term analysis of statistical laws of earth­
quakes, the modem seismic data testify that on a
planet there are no seismically safe breaks, is only
temporarily not active structures. The given circum­
stance assumes necessity and importance of study of
tectonic breaks, is especial in areas of large-scale de­
velopment of underground space.
The executed researches for some technogeny-
intense territories of republic of Belams alongside
with the revealed seismic phenomena, which power
class is defined by modern mobility of rocks and soil
massif, are found out the local seismic phenomena
(up to thirty per one year), caused by technogeny ac­
tivity (underground engineering stmctures, concen­
tration on a surface of ground of large volumes of
rigid and liquid waste of production and large-scale
engineering objects etc ), rendering essential influ­
ence on change of a geodynamic mode (Zhuravkov
et al 1999).
The complex researches for region of excavation
of Starobin deposit of potash salts (Belarus) have
shown concurrence of high-mark earthquakes and lo­
cal seismic phenomena with zones of the increased
activity of newest tectonic movements, that allows to
make the assumption of their close genetic connec­
tion, i.e. the active movements of earth’s structures,
earth’s landscape and local earthquakes are con­
nected among themselves. In connection with reflec­
tion on space snapshots of a plenty lineaments, vari­
ous on the importance and intensity, the reception of
the additional items of information about features of
structural-neotectonic plan of area and connected to
it of local seismicity is possible.
In territory of excavation of Starobin deposit of
potash salts the complex researches on study of de­
forming and stress state of a rocks massif and earth
surface in regions of geological infringements in most
geodynamic active zones of a deposit are executed.
These complex researches include as experimental
414
investigation (Zhuravkov et al 1999) as theoretical
ones.
The mathematical statement of a problem corre­
sponds to determination of the stress-strain state in
the half-space with break and various boundary con­
ditions. For example, the expression for vertical dis­
placements in zone of a break has the following kind:
V = 4 ^ ------------------------\ e x p ( - m„x . ) cos(A:„Xi )
^ 4 < + s in (2 a * „ ) ^ » 2; ^ „ i;
The accordingly expression for tangent stresses in
boundary zones of a break is determined under the
formula:
klG.
^ 1,, = -4 < ^ Z exp(-ffí„X2)án(A:„x,)
4ak^ + án(2írf:„)
2.6 Computer mathematical model o f deposit and
region
Computer complex model of region with deposit is
very importance part of system of geomechanical
monitoring. More acceptable from point of view of
its effective using is complex digital model including
a set of layes with various geometry and atributing
information. Digital technological models reflect
qualitative state of mine from point of view engi­
neering and technical structure. Modules with
geomechanical information about rocks and massif
are necessary part of computer model.
REFERENCES
Zhuravkov, M.A. & M.D. Martunenko 1995. The theoretical
bases o f deformed mechanics o f block-layer massif o f salt
mining rocks. Minsk: Ed. by University.
Zhuravkov, M.A. & M.D. Martunenko 1999. Singular solu­
tions and integral equations in mechanics o f deformed
rigid body. Minsk; Ed. by Belarus State University.
Zhuravkov, M.A. & A.D.Smuchnik 1977. Design o f
geomonitoring systems fo r regions o f large-scale familiari­
zation o f underground space. Minsk. Ed. by Int. Academy
of Ecology and Life Protection Sciences.
Zhuravkov, M.A., M.D. Martunenko & S.S. Andreyko 1995.
The system of geomechanical monitoring for block-layered
massif of salt rock. Mine planning and equipment selec­
tion’95. 1109-1113. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Zhuravkov, M.A., V.V. Ponariadov, I.N. Tyashkevich & A.A.
Kovalev 1999. Study and monitoring of earth surface
movements in areas of geodynamic activity. Materials o f
tenth Int. Symp. on remote sensing integrated system:
satélites, receiving, stations and applications. Syria: Ed.
by
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

G eotechnical investigations during underground tailing storage

S.N.Zhuiin
Research and Development Institute VIOGEM, Belgorod, Russia

ABSTRACT; This paper presents preliminary results of integrated in-situ and theoretical study to develop
safe technology that will utilize total tailings from mineral processing plants without dewatering, solid phase
size classification and cementation. The tailing backfill is repetitively gravity fed underground via boreholes
from the surface and pipe work into the open stopes. Three heavy armored concrete bulkheads were con­
structed at the bottom level to isolate mining. Obtained results showed that fill permeability can realistically
be inferred by inverse method only. Calculated bulkhead deformations were in good agreement with observa­
tions and field measurements. Future numerical modeling will be an essential means for bulkhead construc­
tion design and establishing filling strategies.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 PROJECT DESCRIPTION

Iron ore tailings are normally stored on the surface
in Kursk Magnetic Anomaly region (Russia) as is
conventional around the world. Surface tailing stor­
age creates a serious negative environmental impact,
because it requires expensive land areas, creates risk
of groundwater contamination and air pollution. One
way out of this situation is to place tailings under­
ground (Cooke 1999, Nantel 1998).
The Gubkin Mine personnel have attempted to
develop a tailings management plan whereby all
tailings are disposed in old and contemporary under­
ground caverns. The technology will utilize total
tailings from mineral processing plants without de­
watering, solid phase size classification and cemen­
tation. To hold the backfill within the caverns until
the water drained, a set of bulkheads are constructed
at each entrance of the stopes. The latter will sim­
plify backfill process, reduce the operation costs and
eliminate possible backfill transportation obstacles.
While hydraulic backfilling has a number of ad­
vantages it has technical problems during filling
phase. Many of them caused by a significant amount
of water retained in the fill. This accumulated water
could potentially endanger underground facilities
and workers by break-through of the filling. To de­
velop safe hydraulic backfill technology integrated
in-situ and theoretical geotechnical studies were
conducted.
Since 1954 Gubkin Mine extracts about 3 million
tons of iron ore per year by an underground method
known as open stoping. In this method large exca­
vations (stopes or caverns) are created in the ore-
body. Generally, open stope size ranges from 20 m
by 30 m to 30 m by 75 m in area and from 50 to 65
m in high. At present there are more than 400 open
caverns at depth 270 m.
In 1997 Gubkin Mine developed a conceptual
project to fill the old and contemporary created un­
derground caverns with tailings. At the first stage of
project realization two stopes were selected for the
purpose of the technology demonstration (Fig. 1).
Selected stopes are approximately 25 m by 25 m in
area and 50 m in high. The stopes are separated by
pillar of 20 m width and connected by relative small
entrances at the upper and bottom levels. Three
heavy armored concrete bulkheads were constructed
at the bottom level to isolate mining.
Backfill is a low density material, with solid
content of about 20% by volume. The fine fraction
with the grain size less than 0.25 mm makes up more
then 90% of solids.
The backfill is repetitively gravity fed under­
ground via boreholes from the surface and pipe work
into the open stopes. Each cycle included filling
caverns up to its complete height, tails settlement,
decanting of clean water through special boreholes
or by overflowing at the cavern top.

415

' K Bulkhead 1 ^ Bulkheads 2,3^
2^ Bulkhead 2^ a Drainage
P illa r e ¥
Bulkhead 3/ \j/
Drainage
Figure 1. Experimental filling panel and equipment of the
stopes with pore pressure transducers (marked as stars).
Tailings supernatant was pumped out by mine
pumps and recycled as mill processed water. The
remaining water, after complete filling of the cav­
erns with solids, will undergo complete drainage
through special filters within the bulkheads.
3 HYPOTHESIS
The first objective was to determine whether or not
there are relatively high residual pressure zones
within fill and establish factors affecting drainage
time. The main assumption was that the drainage
rate is a function of backfill permeability and driving
hydraulic head. The second objective was to validate
the assumption made on bulkhead loading, that is
backfilling pressure on the bulkheads is due to total
weight of tails and pressure of water.
4 DESIGNED EXPERIMENTS
During slope filling, comprehensive measurements
on pore pressure, fill and water volumes entering the
stope, water and fill levels within the stopes and
bulkhead deformations, have been conducted. The
monitoring system allowing data collection on peri­
odic or cyclic basis consists of the followings.
Ten piezometers were installed within each cav­
ern and at the bottom entries. The shallow cavern
piezometer is placed at a depth of 10 m below the
fill table during final filling stage, the intermediate
416
and deep piezometers are completed in the middle
and bottom parts of caverns to a depth of 20 and 30
m below the fill table. The deepest piezometers are
located behind each bulkheads and at the connecting
drift in the bottom level (Fig. 1). Each piezometer is
instrumented with a pressure transducer connected
to data recorder for periodical measurement of hy­
draulic head. Piezometers have a pressure range of
3.0 MPa with total error of 4 % and variation (CV)
of no more than 1 % of data values. In addition each
bulkhead is equipped with water pressure gages
(manometers). Static pore pressure is recorded at
regular time intervals within zones where transduc­
ers have been installed.
To control bulkhead deformations linear wire
strain gages were placed within a body of each bulk­
head. The gages have an upper limit of 2x10'^ MPa
with total error of no more than 2 % and variation
(CV) of less than 1% of measurement values. At
each monitoring bulkhead, one triple-completed
gage nest is scheduled to be installed. The locations
of established gauges are given in the Figure 2.
5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Hydraulic simulation and. results
The finite element method was used to simulate
drainage. The following assumptions were made:
Darcy's law is applicable, pore pressure is zero at the
active drains, water flows through drains only, fill
level is constant. The boundary conditions is zero
pressure at the drains. The initial pore pressure dis­
tribution within the filled material is hydrostatic. Fill
and drains permeability were varied during model­
ing. Two essentially different situations are consid­
ered during modeling. The first model assumed uni­
form fill properties and constant permeability of
drainage filters.
Steel
reinforcement
Figure 2. Equipment of bulkhead with strain wire gages.
 Permeability was defined as the relationship be­
tween the volumetric flow rate per unit area of a
particular wetting liquid through a porous medium
and the gradient of the effective fluid pressure
(Vermeer & Verruijt 1981). Some authors refer to
the definition of permeability, (units of LT'^), as the
"hydraulic conductivity" of the porous medium.
The second model examined pressure distribution
with variable permeability of drainage device.
The extremely fast pressure decrease behind the
bulkheads and within the fill above drainage devices
is typical for the first model. Pressure distribution
within the fill is strongly non-uniform. The in­
creased pore pressure zones are formed because of
slow water filtration in a horizontal direction. The
permeability value effects the speed of water level
drop only, but does not change the whole picture of
pore pressure distribution (Fig. 3a). This model will
be valid in cases, when the drainage permeability
exceeds the fill permeability. Second model series
reveal hydrostatic pressure distribution within cav­
erns during entire drainage process. The water level
remains horizontal everywhere but for a very small
zone behind the drainage. These models are applica­
ble when the drainage device permeability is much
less than fill permeability (Fig. 3b).
b) Height, Stope
m
40 - 0.0
30 - 0.1
20 - ■ 0.2
Uniformpore
Drainage 0.3 pressure distribution
point
P=^MPa
10 20 30 40 50
Distance, m
Figure 3. Computed pore pressure distribution (pressure
isolines are in MPa): a) uniform fill permeability, b) low fill
permeability zone near drainage.
417
The comparison of pore pressure distributions
calculated for both models with field observations is
presented in Figure 4. There is poor agreement be­
tween the results of the first model and field data.
The magnitude of computed pore pressure for the
second models in comparison to field values can be
considered very good. The presence of high perme­
able filter generates zones with high residual pore
pressure. As it shown in Figure 3b an almost zero
pore pressure zone is formed near bulkhead filters
and pressure must drop very rapidly in time (Fig. 4).
The field observations, however, do not confirm this
forecast.
All measurement instruments register near hydro­
static pressure during filling, gages of equal eleva­
tion had less than 0.1 MPa readout differences and
pressure decrease was relatively slow. Nevertheless,
good agreement between computed and field values
is observed for second model approach. Therefore,
the major factor contributing to the pressure decline
rate is the filter permeably instead of fill permeabil­
ity.
The best agreement between field and computed
results can be obtained with the filter permeability of
10'^ m/s and filling permeability more than 10'^ m/s.
The last fill permeability estimation can be consid­
ered as its upper boundary due to the high value.
Laboratory experiments provide the range of tailings
conductivity within 0.5-0.7x10'^ m/s.
5.2 Bulkhead modeling
In order to estimate the impact of lateral filling pres­
sure on the bulkhead deformation the set of 2D and
3D bulkhead models were constructed with variable
boundary conditions and total load. Tensile (shaded)
and compressive (white) zones obtained from finite
element analysis are shown in Figure 5.
time, days
Figure 4. Pore pressure distribution for pressure transducers lo­
cated near bulkhead above the filters.
 tensile
Lateral fill
pressure
Figure 5. Stress distribution for the 2D (left) and 3D (right) FEM analysis of bulkhead stress state.
As could be seen, two separate tensile zones
could be observed. One is observed on the free
bulkhead surface. Another tensile zone is observed
near the contact between frontal bulkhead surface
and host rock. The size of tensile zones increases
with the strengthening of the perimeter constrain. It
is obvious, that the bulkhead construction can be fa­
cilitated by abatement of amount of concrete in a
back non-working part and by collimating the con­
cave form. The main assumption during filling pres­
sure estimation was that during backfilling the fill is
fully saturated and free water exists above solid tails.
In this case the total pressure on the bulkhead con­
sists of effective lateral fill pressure and hydrostatic
pressure. The major uncertainties exist on the value
of lateral fill pressure, which was an estimated pa­
rameter.
T im e , day.s
Figure 6. Comparison of observed (open circles) and predicted
(solid lines) deformation
418
Selected inferred and observed lateral bulkhead
deformation are compared in Figure 6. It may be
noted that the lateral pressure coefficient, K, of 0.5
produces the most reasonable data fit at the filling
stage (FS) and the lateral pressure coefficient of 1.0
is more suitable for drainage stage of experiment.
6 CONCLUSION
Obtained results showed strong differences in fill
conductivity values obtained during laboratory ex­
periments and forward numerical modeling. The up­
per limit of the fill conductivity estimation require
an application of inverse methods to the existent
field data set.
Bulkhead deformation values are in good agree­
ment with observations and field measurements.
Future numerical studies will be an essential
means for bulkhead construction design and estab­
lishing filling strategies.
REFERENCES
Cooke, R. 1999. Design Procedure For Hydraulic Backfill
Distribution Systems, CIM 99, May 1999. Calgary.
Nantel, J. 1998. Recent Developments and Trends in Backfill
Practices in Canada, Minefill 98, April 14-16 1998. Bris­
bane: AusIMM.
Vermeer, P. A. & Verruijt A. 1981. An Accuracy Condition for
Consolidation by Finite Elements. International Journal for
Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics 5: 1-
14.
4 M ine evaluation - Financial and managem ent issues
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

M anagem ent o f underground m ine econom y in the period o f m ining activity

dam ping

J.Dvofacek
VSB, Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic

ABSTRACT: The basic reason of underground coal mine closure in the Czech Republic is the long-term
negative economic result. The process of underground mine closure and mine liquidation is economically
demanding, but the greater part of cost is covered by state budget. Exacting character of mine closure is
decreased by coal production income in the last period of its activity, namely after mining activity damping
announcement. The coal production is invariably decreasing and particular parts of underground mine are
liquidated. The contribution deals with basic problem solution concerning the period length from mining
activity damping announcement till the production finish. The solution is based on economy development
management in this period of mine activity.

1 INTRODUCTION analyses results the suitability of mineral deposit for

The last years economic development in the Czech
Republic was connected with the substantial changes
which affected also the mining industry. In the
course of several years after the year 1989 it came to
the extinction of home ores mining, to substantial
limiting of uranium production with the perspective
of all mining capacities closing and to limiting of
coal mining in the underground and opencut way as
well. It can be stated that the time when the raw
materials were mined „at all costs“ represents the
past definitively. In conditions especially of
underground coal mines it is not necessary to solve
the problem „if to close mines“ but „how to close
them“. The subject of our interest is the last stage of
a mine service life where the production is being
decreased up to the mining finishing and when the
measures connected with a mine closure start to be
realized. This so called stage of the damping
takes time since the mining damping announcement
until the mining activity finishing.
2 ORGANIZATION OF MINING DAMPING
In conditions of the concrete mine its existing state
and perspective from the viewpoint of economic
results, ensuring of its production sales, ecological
load following from its activity, mining activity
safety, from the viewpoint of social, technical and
other factors are considered. On the basis of these
further mining or the finishing of mining activity and
mine liquidation will be decided.
The mining damping and mine liquidation is very
costly process. In the case of the appurtenant
documents approval concerning the mining activity
damping by the Czech Republic government and
Ministry for Industry and Trade the majority of costs
for damping is settled from the state subsidy. The
rest of costs is settled by the mine owner from the
operation means or from yields connected with the
mining damping. It is the question of yields of scrap
sale, sale of coal mined after the mining damping
announcement etc. It is necessary to note that there is
no legal claim for the state subsidy and its amount is
not stable.
Under such situation the mine owner will want to
maximise the yields of mining activity damping. The
experience has shown that the most significant yield
item of the damping stage are the receipts from
industrial mineral sale during the damping stage.
The amount of the receipts, at stable level of the
selling price, depends on the total production
volume. For certain volume of monthly output the
total production volume depends on the mining time
period, i.e. on the damping stage duration. In this
way we come to the basic problem which is the
determination of the damping stage, i.e. the time
period between the damping announcement and
mining activity finishing.

421
 cumulative increasing of contribution for settlement
cumulative increase of fixed costs
3 DETERMINATION OF THE V ' MEvilNG
ACTIVITY DAMPING STAGE DURATION
It is evident that the decision making in this sphere
will have an economic character because also the
basic cause of the damping announcement had the
economic substance - it was the long-term negative
economic result of single mines.
In the previous part the importance of output
volume for the maximisation of damping yields is
given. If we take the volume and value of industrial
mineral production (e.g. coal) cumulatively, in the
course of time also the costs connected with the
mining process increase. It can be stated then that a
mine can be in operation, during the stage, for
such a long time period until the cumulative yields
of damping equal to cumulative costs for this
activity, i.e. until the cumulative economic result of
coal mining equals to zero.
On the basis of stated above the following formula
can be expressed:
f ^HV = f ^ { V - N ) = f ^ { c . T - N F - n ^ . T ) = 0 ( 1)
After modification:
'¿ T .{ c - n ,) = '^ N F
where:
n
^H V cumulative economic result for n
1
months, i.e. for the whole period of the damping
stage
V yields of mining per month
N total costs for mining process per
month
c selling price for one ton of coal
T volume of monthly coal output
NF fixed costs for mining process per
month
Hv variable costs for one ton of coal
On the left side of the equation (2) there is the
product of monthly output and contribution for fixed
costs and profit creation (i.e. the difference of
production unit price and individual variable costs)
for the whole time period of the damping stage,
on the right side of this equation there is the sum of
fixed costs for the whole time period of the
damping stage. It is necessary to emphasise that the
equation (2) includes the time period in the
framework of the damping stage when it comes to
the monthly output decrease, to decrease of
individual variable costs and to increase of monthly
fixed costs.
( 2)
We presuppose that after the commencement of
the mining activity damping stage the preparation
works go on for a certain time period and then, after
422
their stoppage, the fixed costs for maintenance of
driven mine workings preparing the reserves for
extraction and for ventilation of these mine
workings will start to grow. Then, the equation (2)
can be illustrated as per in Fig. 1.
The upper broken line records the cumulative
increasing of contribution for settlement. The
development dynamics recorded by the decline of
line segments between single points is derived from
the average volume of monthly output.
We presuppose that the volume of this output is
the same in the framework of single time periods ti
to t4, however, it gradually decreases between single
time sections in the connection with depletion of the
reserves prepared. The point 0 indicates the damping
announcement, i.e. the commencement of the F*
stage. The point 1 corresponds to time of the
preparation works completion when it comes to
decrease of individual variable costs and to increase
of contribution for settlement. In the points 2 and 3
(there can be more breaks as well) it comes to
decrease of average monthly output, and, that’
s why, to slowing-down of the development
dynamics of cumulative contribution for settlement.
The lower broken line in Fig. 1 illustrates the
cumulative increase of fixed costs during the
stage of mining activity damping. The point I
corresponds to the time of preparation works
stoppage from which the dynamics of fixed costs
growth is being temporarily increased due to costs
for maintenance and ventilation of long mine
workings for coal reserves preparation. In the point
n the cumulative of fixed costs equals to the sum of
contribution for fixed costs settlement and profit
creation. In this point the aggregate economic result
for the whole time period since the damping
announcement equals to zero, the mining should be
stopped and also the duration of the I^^ stage of
mining activity damping should be finished.
The determination of the stage of mining
activity damping duration can be carried out
simulatively. From the previous mine development,
technical and economic measures carried out before
the damping announcement the basic economic
parameters included in the equation (1) can be
determined. On the basis of the existing
development also the fixed costs for maintenance
and ventilation of long mine workings for coal
reserves preparation can be estimated. The capacities
of operated or prepared working faces, in the
moment of the damping announcement, determine
the average monthly output in the time period ti. The
plan of reserves working out sets the average
monthly output in the time periods t2 and ts. In the
423
last period (in Fig. 1 indicated as t4) we shall issue
from the capacity of the last working faces operated
which determine the average volume of monthly
output and the time period t4 can be calculated in a
such way so that the equation (2) would be valid. It
is evident that the volume of average monthly output
in single time periods ti to t4 and also time periods ti
to ts can be simulatively changed according to
mining and geological situation, and, the time period
t4 can be calculated then with the respect of the
relation (2) validity.
The above mentioned procedure was applied in
conditions of underground coal mine closed in the
Ostrava-Karvina District which is the biggest district
with the hard coal mining in the Czech Republic. It
is necessary to emphasize that the so called go-ahead
and also the step by step variant of damping was
applied in this district what caused substantial
differences as to the duration of the mining
activity damping stage in single mines. The duration
of this stage ranged from 3 up to 39 months. In
case of the above mentioned mine the F* stage
duration made 18 months, the mine, however,
finished its activity with negative economic result.
The simulative calculations have shown that for
keeping of the condition given by the equation (I)
the duration of the F* stage should make
approximately 15,5 months.
4 CONCLUSION
The duration of time period of the mining coming to
a close limited from the mining activity damping
announcement up to the mining finishing (so called
the F^ stage of mining activity damping) will affect
the mine organisation and control, technical
parameters of operation being reached, and, by that,
the economic result as well, the way of solution of
social problems of workers being released, and
finally also the yields volume of mining activity
damping. These yields decrease the financial means
amount required from the state budget for a mine
closure what is important very much because the
needs of a mine are greater, as a rule, than the
subsidy granted.
The model situation illustrated in Fig. I determines
the duration of the F^ mining activity damping stage
as the sum of time periods ti to t4. It is necessary to
emphasise the favourable influence of duration of
the F* stage on the situation in a mine because:
1. the prepared coal reserves are extracted
2. the depreciation degree of investment property
used in the framework of a mining enterprise will
be increased
3. the time space of the damping stage will make
possible the carrying out of liquidation and
clearance works in a mine which anyway would
have to be carried out for safety or ecological
reasons
4. the time interval of the 1^* damping stage can be
used for less costly solution of social problems.
The experience from the existing damping of
underground coal mines in the Czech Republic
shows the preference of the so called step by step
variant of a mine damping compared with its quick
closure. The procedure presented is the trial to
determinate the optimum duration of the 1^^ damping
stage in the framework of this step by step variant.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This contribution has arisen thanks to the support of
the grant from the Grant Agency of the Czech
Republic in the framework of the project GACR
105/99/0080 what is greatly appreciated.

LITERATURE

1. Economic and Technical Problems of

Underground Coal Mine Closing In:
Proceedings of the English International
Symposium on Mine Planning and Equipment
Selection, Dnipropetrovsk, June 15-18, 1999,
National Mining University of Ukraine,
Dnipropetrovsk, ISBN 966-7476-12-X, p. 623-
627
2. Dvofacek, J.: Decision Making Process
Concerning the Mine Closing from the
Chronological Point of View. In: Proceedings of
the ’99 International Symposium on Mining
Science and Technology, Beijing. China, August
29-31, 1999, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, ISBN 90
5809 067 l,p. 629-632

424
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

O ptim izing a project’s tm e rate o f return

M. M. Hajdasinski
Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ont., Canada

ABSTRACT: This paper relates to the search for a project-representative rate of return, to replace the
popular, but flawed and dysfunctional internal rate of return criterion. Subsequently, the notion of the true
rate of return (TRR) is introduced in the environment of a constant market interest rate (Hajdasinski 1995),
and the TRR-optimization procedure is presented as a flow chart. The environment of a variable market
interest rate is then considered, and the corresponding mathematical TRR-optimization model for a sample
investment project is defined. The optimal TRR is found using genetic algorithms, and the profitability-
benchmark market interest rate is determined, applying the concept developed earlier by Hajdasinski (1993).

1 INTRODUCTION compatible rate of return (ROR) for any investment

For the better part of the 20th century, the internal
rate of return (IRR*) has consistently been the most
popular criterion applied to project evaluation in the
mining industry (Gentry & O'Neil 1984, p.267) and
elsewhere (Sullivan et al. 2000, p.l57). However, in
recent years, it has become increasingly clear that,
except in special cases, the IRR's value, if it happens
to be defined at all, does not reflect a project's true
rate of return (TRR^) (Wright 1936, Rapp 1980,
Hajdasinski 1984, in press). Accordingly, this
criterion needs to be replaced, in order to satisfy the
demand from financial analysts in the mining and
banking industries for a profitability criterion
expressed in an interest rate format. Consequently,
since Solomon's 1956 paper, a number of different
IRR-surrogates have been proposed (Hajdasinski
1987, 1995); unfortunately, their concepts are
inadequate or, at best, incomplete (Hajdasinski
1995).
Recently, Hajdasinski (1995) introduced the
concept of the TRR, which defines a homogenous,
theoretically sound and Net Present Value (NPV)
The list of all the acronyms used in this text is provided
at its end.
^ The term true rate of return is adopted here from
Kirshenbaum (1964), but is used in a broader sense than that of its
original definition. Also, unlike in (Kirshenbaum 1964) and
(Hajdasinski 1995), the acronym TRR relates in this paper to the
rate o f return of an investment or borrowing project.
or borrowing project (BP) in the environment of a
constant market interest rate. Since the TRR’s
numerical value generally depends on a user-
adopted market-interaction strategy, a simple TRR-
optimization approach was also developed, to find
the best ROR that an investment or BP can possibly
generate.
This paper expands the scope of previous
considerations by placing an arbitrary project into
the environment of a variable (time-dependent)
market interest rate, to which the logic of the
above-mentioned TRR-optimization approach no
longer applies; consequently, a different approach is
needed, and is duly presented.
2 THE TRR FOR A CONSTANT MARKET
INTEREST RATE
Let us adopt, for the sake of consistency, the same
assumptions of certainty, as well as a perfect capital
market, that have accompanied all past ROR
considerations. This means that the market
opportunity investment interest rate is assumed to be
identical in its value m, but not in its substance, with
the market opportunity borrowing rate. In technical
literature, this rate is also referred to as a minimum,
for investment projects (IPs), or maximum, for BPs,
attractive ROR (MARR). Initially, it is assumed that
the MARR m is constant with time; later, this
assumption will be relaxed to allow the MARR to
vary with time.

425
 The RORs, proposed over time to substitute for
the flawed and dysfunctional IRR (Hajdasinski, in
press), have been designed primarily for IPs and are
based on various concepts of project interaction with
the market through discounting or compounding the
project's intermediate cash flows (CFs). With the
exception of the approach proposed separately by
Kirshenbaum (1964), Henke (1973), and White et al.
(1976), these rates are based on concepts which
sacrifice the theoretical soundness for computational
c o n v e n ie n c e, thus p r o d u c in g hybrid
investment^orrowing RORs which cannot be
meaningfully compared with the homogenous
benchmark market-interest-rates (Hajdasinski 1995).
The one ROR approach that is an exception, while
being conceptually sound, reflects only a single
special case out of a, generally, infinite number of
possible cases.
2.1 The TRR concept
Let us define by the following sequence
( 1)
the CF pattern (CFP) of a project to be evaluated
within the time-period [0,n], assuming, without a
loss of generality, that bo^O. Then, if ¿?o<0, the
project is an IP, whereas if b^>0, the project is a BP.
The NPV of project (1) is defined as
NPV[CFP(1)]= S ¿./l+m)'-', me(-l,+oo). (2)
J=0
The TRR concept, introduced by Hajdasinski
(1995), applies to both investment and BPs, and it is
derived from the fundamental philosophies of an
investor and borrower.
An investor's mission is to invest during the
course o f the project fo r the final return, whereas the
philosophy of a borrower is to borrow during the
course o f the project fo r the final repayment.
Applying to project (1) a philosophy that is
consistent with the type of project, transforms
project (1) into a transformed CFP (TCFP)
{b lb ^,,...,b lX }. ’ 0, (3)
where bo =Z?o<0 and ¿»^<0,y=l,2,...,«-l, if (1) is an IP,
or b*=bo>0, b*>0,j=l,2,...,n-l, if (1) is a BP. Let us
further define the NPV of CFP (3) as the following
function of the discrete interest rate /€ (-l,+oo):
NPV ( 0 = ie(-l,+oo), (4)
j=0
426
and denote by r project (l)'s TRR associated with
that particular reinvestment/reborrowing policy that
has lead to the creation of the TCFP (3). Then, this
rate can be defined as
{ /|/€(-1,+«>)aNPV*(i)=0},
if sgn(6o)6r<0. (5)
= { -1 if sgn(i>o)i*^0,
where sgn(x)=+l, 0, or -1, if x>0, x=0, or x<0,
respectively.
Observe that if sg[i{bj)b*0, the TRR generally
needs to be approximated as a unique zero of the
NPV-function (4) in (-l,+°o). Depending on the
approximation method used, mathematically defined
bounds to, or guesses of, the TRR are always helpful
in this process (Hajdasinski 1998)^
The profitability conditions for the TRR,
consolidated for both investment and BPs, are now
as follows:
if sgn(^?o)r < sgn(Z>o) then project (1) is strictly
profitable (NPV>0); (6)
\ir = m, then project (1) is marginally
profitable (NPV=0); (7)
if sgn(6^)r > sgn(^o)m, then project (1) is
unprofitable (NPV<0). (8)
The above profitability conditions are fully NPV-
compatible (Hajdasinski 1995), which means that if
project (l)'s NPV is positive, then any
reinvestment/reborrowing scenario applied to this
project will produce a TRR satisfying condition (6).
Similarly, if the NPV (2) is negative, then whatever
the reinvestment/reborrowing scenario, the resultant
TRRs will all satisfy condition (8). It is also easy to
show that if the subsequence y = 0 , o f
CFP (1) has more than one sign change, then if the
NPV (2) has a non-zero value, there will always be
an infinite number of reinvestment/reborrowing
strategies, each producing a related TRR. It is only
in the special case of the zero-valued NPV (2) that,
regardless of the reinvestment/reborrowing scenario
applied, there will always be TRR=m.
^ The following corrections should be implemented in this
reference: Eq.(5) on p.2 should be replaced by the equation
v(r)
Q(r) = Z j k j |, r=l, 2 ,.,.,z+l;
j=u(r)
eq .(ll) on p.2 should be replaced by the equation i^j =
|i|i€(-l,+oo)Af(i)=0}; and the sentence "Any of the CFP (18)'s
sign-changing RORs which produce a zero-valued NPV (2) is
CFP (l)'s ROR of even multiplicity." should replace the similar
sentence in the middle of the second column on p.4.
Figure 1. TRR-optimization algorithm for a constant MARK.
2.2 Optimization o f the TRR
If a project has a potential for generating an infinite
number of TRRs, all of which correctly indicate the
project's profitability status, the inevitable question
arises, which one of these rates should be considered
representative for the project. From an investor's
point of view, obviously the higher the ROR on
investment, the better, while a borrower's natural
desire is to pay as low a borrowing rate as possible.
This calls for a TRR optimization; specifically,
maximization of the TRR of an IP, and minimization
of the TRR of a BP.
It can be proven'^ that the optimal TRR, and the
related reinvestment/reborrowing strategy, can be
found by following the simple algorithm presented
in the flow chart in Figure 1. Numerical examples
^ Because o f space constraints, the proof will be presented
in a separate publication.
427
illustrating this algorithm can be found in
(Hajdasinski 1995).
3 THE TRR FOR A VARIABLE MARKET
INTEREST RATE
In a more realistic setting, the market opportunity
rate changes with time, rather than remaining
constant. With this assumption, the MARR-
environment for project (1) is now defined by a
vector where an anual market
interest rate mj^ relates to the time-period (k-lf],
k=l,2,...,n. Under these assumptions, the TRR still is
defined by formulas (3)-(5), with the difference that
the TCFP (3) is now obtained in the environment of
a time-dependent MARR. It can be demonstrated by
way of a numerical example that, in this
environment, the optimization algorithm from
Figure 1 is no longer valid.
Indeed, consider an IP
{bj] = {-950,900,-800,-500,600,-600,-1100,4000},
y=0,l,...,7, (9)
that operates in the MARK environment defined
within the time period (0,7] by the following MARK
vector:
/«==(0.2,0.08,0.141,0.1,0.1,0.147,0.03),
7=1,2,...,7. (10)
Since project (9)'s NPV=495.506>0, then, according
to Figure 1, the optimal reinvestment strategy for
this IP would be to reinvest as soon as possible
(ASAP) the project's intermediate positive CFs
(IPCFs) in the project by financing its subsequent
intermediate negative CFs (INCFs) to the maximum
possible extent. This strategy would lead to the
following TCFP:
(-950,0,0,-303.748,0,0,-1031.18,4000}
and to the related TRR=0.1361954/yr. However, a
mixed market-project reinvestment scenario leading
to the TCFP
{-950,0,-250,-30,0,-100,-900.5167,4000}
would produce a better TRR=0.1363196/yr, which
invalidates the algorithm devised for the constant
MARR case, and proves the need for finding an
adequate optimization approach for the case of the
variable MARR.
3.1 The optimization model
Before deciding what approach can be applied to
solving the underlying optimization problem, the
optimization model must first be defined. Rather
than formulating a completely general model, which
would inevitably become quite comprehensive and
complex, let us formulate instead a model that would
apply specifically to project (9) and to the MARR
environment defined by (10). Note that the
reinvestment process starts here with the IPCF 900
at time 1, and encounters four potential decision
points (DPs) at times 2, 3, 5, and 6. Depending on
the reinvestment decisions taken at those DPs, the
values of the respective CFs in the post-reinvestment
TCFP may be different from their original values in
CFP (9). This amounts to identifying four decision
variables, Xy, ^2, Xj, and in the optimization
model, which will represent the TCFP's CFs at the
four DPs specified above. As a result, the TCFP of
CFP (9) will be defined as
{b*,0,Xi,X2,0,X2,X4,b*}, ( 11)
428
wh er e the p r o j e c t ' s t e r m i n a l r et ur n
¿7* =^7(xy,X2,Xj,x^), defined explicitly below, is a
function of the four decision variables.
To formulate the mathematical TRR-
optimization model, let us first introduce the
following notation:
ai = bi(\+m2)+b2,
a2 = 02{Xj) = (flfy-Xy)(l+m2)+Ò2,
a2 = «5(xy,X2) = [(a2-X2)(l+m^)+òJ(l+m5)+Ò5,
04 ^ a4(Xj,X2,X2) = (iZ2-X2)(l+m<5)+Z?^,
b* bjip^ii 1^X4) = (a4-X4)(Hmy)+b2,
and define the NPV of the TCFP (11) as the
following function of the decision variables and the
discrete interest rate /€ (-l,+°o):
f(Xy,X2,Xj, X 4 , i)=b* +Xy ( 1+z)’^+X2( 1H ) '^ + X 2 ( 1+0'^+
The optimization model is now as follows:
Maximize: r = r(xy,X2,Xj,x^) ~
{/| / e ( - \,+^)^î{x„X 2,x¡,x^,i)=0 } (12)
Subject to:
b2< Xj <0 (13)
¿3 < X2 < 0 (14)
< X3 < 0 (15)
b^<X4<Q 06)
Xy < Oj (17)
X2 < a2{xi) (18)
X3 < ûf3(Xy,X2) (19)
X 4 < a^(Xy,X2,X3) (20)
According to (12), the solution r=r* to this model
amounts to the maximum IRR that can be obtained
from project (11) under the restrictions (13)-(20).
Note that, in this particular problem situation, the
odd number of sign changes in CFP (9) guarantees
exactly one sign change in any TCFP produced from
CFP (9); hence, a unique optimal solution always
exists. In contrast, original projects with an even
number of sign changes in their CFPs, can
potentially produce TCFPs with no sign change, in
which case the TRR is set, according to (5), by
convention, as being equal to -1, in order to be
defined and NPV-compatible.
3.2 The optimization procedure
Because of the unique formulation of the objective
function (12), which is defined implicitly and
requires approximation, no standard operations
research approach could be utilized to solve the
above model. Out of necessity, therefore, genetic
algorithms (GAs) have been called to task and were
successfully employed. Since the above optimization
model also applies to CFP (9) in the environment o f
a constant MARK, which is a special case o f the
variable MARR, the optimization program coded in
Visual Basic was first tested on that special case,
whose results could be independently verified by the
application o f the flow chart in Figure 1.
After obtaining high quality results from many
test examples, the program was then successfully
applied to the actual model (12)-(20), from which
the following results were obtained: x* =-44.638872,
X* =-252.815047, x* =-585.817015, x* =-359.247884,
Z?7=4000, and the maximal TRR r*=0.136618/yr.
However, this TRR is single-valued and it needs to
be compared with some single-valued MARR that
would be representative for the variable market
opportunity rates. Hajdasinski (1993) demonstrated
that such a representative MARR is defined as the
IRR o f the following hypothetical CFP:
{ ¿ * ,0 ,4 ,4 ,0 ,x * ,x :,c * } ,
where
1 1 1
c*= -b^ tl (l+nij) -x * n (1+mj) -x*II (l+m^)
j= l j= 3 y=4
7 similar to that presented above, GAs have produced
- 4 1 1 (1+7W,.) -x*(l+my)= 3504.494045
7=6
Using (22) and (21), the average MARR m*, related
to the optim al TRR, w as found to be
m*=0.106982/yr. Since, after substituting m=m*, the
profitability conditions (6)-(8) also remain valid in
the variable-MARR case, the above results indicate
that IP (9) is profitable by the TRR standards. This
is, by definition (Hajdasinski 1993), consistent with
the NPV evaluation, as verified by project (9)’s
NPV=234.408>0.
In order to have some control over, and
verification of, the optimal results in the variable-
MARR case, the author developed an intuitive
approach to calculating the best TRR, without,
however, making any claims as to its optimality.
Surprisingly, in most instances, the results o f this
approach were marginally better than those o f the
GAs; only in one example did GAs emerge
victorious, and by an equally slim marigin. There is,
however, nothing unusual in the discovery o f an
even better result than that obtained by the GAs, as
these algorithms, generally, only approximate the
strict mathematical optimum, thus leaving some,
however small, room for marginal improvement.
For example, in the case under consideration, the
intuitive approach yielded the following results:
4 = - 2 6 6 .2 1 2 , 4 = 0 , 4 = - 6 0 0 .0 0 , x i= -3 4 2 .9 8 ,
4 = 4 0 0 0 , the maximal TRR r*=0.136716/yr (better
than the GAs result), and the related average MARR
m *=0.107731/yr. Notice the significant numerical
differences between the corresponding decision-
variable optimal values o f the two approaches, on
the one hand, and the small difference between the
related optimal TRR values, on the other. This
phenomenon can be explained by the fact that, in
some instances, the impacts on the TRR o f
reinvesting either in the market or in the project are
almost the same; hence the resultant TRRs are very
close, while the related TCFPs may be quite
dissimilar.
3.3 TRR-optimization fo r a borrowing project
For the sake o f balance and completeness, an
optimization o f the TRR o f a BP will also be
demonstrated. The project is defined within the time
period [0,7] by the following CFP:
(21) {1050,-1000,800,500,-800,600,1100,-3100}, (23)
and the environment o f the opportunity market
interest rates is reflected by the MARR vector
m =(0.2,0.08,0.101,0.15,0.1,0.104,0.148). (24)
After solving an optimization model that is very
(22) the following results: the optimal TCFP
{1050,0,646.490717,264.885691,0,393.249309,
466.484475,-3100),
and the resultant optimal TRR r *=0.100991/yr. The
associated average MARR is m *=0.124795/yr, thus
indicating, via profitability condition (6) with bj>0
and m=m*, that BP (23) is profitable.
The TCFP
{1050,0,46.02803,141.0431,0,181.9486,
590.0088,-3100), (25)
obtained by the author's intuitive approach, was,
again, quite different from that produced by the
GAs, in contrast to the optimal TRR o f
r*=0.093543/yr, which is slightly better than its
genetically generated correspondent. The average
MARR defined by the TCFP (25) and the MARR
vector (24) was m*=0.126152/yr, indicating
consistently, via (6), that BP (23) is profitable.
4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
The paper presents the concept o f an IRR surrogate,
the TRR, which is NPV-compatible and free from
the conceptual shortcomings o f both the IRR and its
429
earlier surrogates. The discussion focuses on the Hajdasinski, M.M. in press. The IRR - a Flawed and
question o f the optimization o f a project's TRR in Dysfunctional Project Evaluation Criterion.
two cases: when the MARK is constant in time, and M ining Engineering.
when it is time-dependent. In the first case, a simple Hajdasinski, M.M. 1998. Approximating a project's
optimization algorithm is presented in form o f a flow rates o f return. SM E Transactions 1998. 304:
chart; in the second case, a mathematical 1-7.
optimization model is developed and solved by using Hajdasinski, M.M. 1995. Meaningful rates o f return
GAs. Numerical examples o f both investment and for project evaluation. Proc. o f the 4th Intnl
BPs are demonstrated and the average MARRs are Symp. on M ine P lanning and Equipm ent
calculated to serve as the projects' profitability Selection: 81-87. Rotterdam: Balkema.
benchmarks. Hajdasinski, M.M. 1993. A Generalized True Rate
While the quality o f the numerical solutions o f Return o f a Project. Proc. o f the 24th
delivered by the GAs can still be marginally A P C O M Symp. on A pplication o f Com puters
improved, the successful application o f this approach an d OR in the M in eral Industries: 280-287.
is in itself quite significant in that it enabled the Montreal: CIM & Ecole Polytechnique.
optimization o f a conceptually challenging model Hajdasinski, M.M. 1987. An Analysis o f the True
that could not be approached by the conventional Rate o f Return Project Evaluation Criterion,"
operations research methods. Proc. o f the 20th A P C O M Symp. on A pplication
The presented optimization algorithms for both o f Com puters an d OR in the M in eral Industries.
the constant and the variable MARR cases give the 1 (Mining): 133-151. Johannesburg: SAIMM.
decision maker a useful tool for determining the best Hajdasinski, M.M. 1984. Analysis o f internal rate o f
TRR o f an arbitrary investment or BP, a ROR that is return as an investment evaluation criterion for
meaningful, dependable, and fully NPV-compatible. the mineral industry," Proc. o f the 18th
A P C O M Symp. on A pplication o f Com puters
an d OR in the M in eral Industries: 503-513.
5 LIST OF ACRONYMS London: IMM.
Henke, M. 1973. Vermögensrentabilität - ein
ASAP - As Soon As Possible einfaches dynamisches Investitionskalkül.
BP - Borrowing Project Z eitschrift fü r B etriebsw irtschaft. 43 (3):
CF - Cash Flow 177-198.
CFP - Cash Flow Pattern Kirshenbaum, P.S. 1964. A Resolution o f the
DP - Decision Point M u ltiple R ate-of-R eturn Paradox. The
GA - Genetic Algorithm E ngineering Econom ist. 10(1): 11-16.
INCF - Intermediate Negative CF Rapp, B. 1980. The Internal Rate o f Return Method
IP - Investment Project - A Critical Study. E ngineering Costs and
IPCF - Intermediate Positive CF P roduction Econom ics. 5: 43-52.
IRR - Internal Rate o f Return Solomon, E. 1956. The Arithmetic o f Capital­
MARR - Minimum/Maximum Attractive ROR budgeting Decisions. Journal o f Business. 29
NPV - Net Present Value (2): 124-129.
ROR - Rate o f Return Sullivan, W.G. et al. 2000. E ngineering Econom y.
TCFP - Transformed CFP N.J.: Prentice Hall.
TRR - True Rate o f Return White, J.A. et al. 1976. Rate o f Return: an Explicit
Reinvestment Rate Approach. Proc. o f the 27th
Annual Conf. o f the AIIE: 47-53. St.Louis,
6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Missouri: AIIE.
Wright, C.A. 1936. A note on 'Time and investment'.
The author gratefully acknowledges the support o f Econom ica. 3 (Nov): 436-440.
the Natural Science and Engineering Research
Council (NSERC) o f Canada. He also wishes to
acknowledge the contribution o f Mr. Troy Williams,
B.Eng., who coded the TRR-optimization algorithm
in Visual Basic.

7 REFERENCES

Gentry, D.W. & T.J. O'Neil 1984. M ine Investm ent

A nalysis. N ew York, N.Y.: SME.

430
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The prospects for the developm ent o f the Georgian coal m ining industry:
Com parison w ith alternative energy resources

C.VKavourides, I.RNikolaides & A.J.Logothetis

Lignite Center o f P tolem ais Amyndeon, Public P ow er Corporation, Ptolem ais, G reece

ABSTRACT: Georgia energy crisis started with the collapse o f the Soviet era. Today, the country is fully
depended on imported natural gas. The energy policy has to be reconsidered. This study explores the
possibilities for the coal market in Georgia and presents a model for moderate coal exploitation based on coal
demand and coal cost for a 15 year period. The hard competition with natural gas from nearby Azerbaijan
shows that coal cost should remain below 30 $/tons. Potential users o f local coal are the cement industries
(70,000 t/a), manganese metallurgy (20,000 t/a) household heating (50,000 t/a) and brick manufacturing
0 0 ,0 0 0 t/a). Therefore, coal exploitation can only be justified if power generation is incorporated. The
existing underground mines in Tkibuli area can support a 200 MW power plant along with all other non­
electrical demand at a minimum coal cost o f $28/ton.

1. INTRODUCTION o f technology is needed if it is for Georgia to rely on

Georgia is facing severe difficulties in providing
adequate and reliable electricity supply since the
breakdown o f the Soviet Union. The situation is
deteriorating fast as the country is unable to meet
energy fuel import bills and the condition o f
generating assets is very poor (1) (2).
In essence, the goal o f this study is the answer to
the question o f investing on Georgian coal
exploitation, if coal demand can be secured, as well
as the economics involved. Most o f this research
work has been carried out as an assignment o f a
European program targeted to the rational utilization
o f the energy resources o f this former Soviet
Republic.
Coal exploitation has a 150 years history in
Georgia. However, the radical changes in the
country’s economy during the last decade influenced
coal exploitation because the free market economy
imposes economic restrictions in every separate coal
exploitation. Obviously, this was not the case during
the Soviet era since the total economic balance o f the
Soviet Union was the only one considered. The coal
production during the last decades used to be
exported to other Republics and only limited
amounts were to be used in Georgia for non electric
uses.
In the sixties, natural gas had substituted coal in
most industrial uses. Therefore the conversion to
coal burning technologies is not any more
established and major investment as well as transfer
its coal.
The options for Georgian Coal Exploitation can
be summarized as follows:
• total abandonment o f coal (if economics or
demand are unfavorable)
• continuation o f the existing exploitation in the
Tkibuli area with minor investment to achieve
prior to 1988 production level and
• restructuring o f the coal industry sector with
opening o f new mines so as to achieve full
independence o f energy resources.
2. COAL DEPOSITS
2.1 C oal R eserves
The total fossil fuel reserves (total potential) o f
Georgia are estimated at approximately 450 million
tons o f coal and 735 million tons o f lignite and peat.
Up to now exploitation has occurred in only four
coal deposits (Mindeli, Imereti, Tsulukidze and
Dasavleti mine 1,2) (3). The Tkibuli-Shaori deposits
are the most promising ones for future exploitation.
According to the Georgian Mining Company
(Saknashiri), the coal reserves o f Tkibuli area are
estimated at 90 million tons and the Shaori area 186
million tons. The exploitable industrial reserves are
ranging between 50 to 75 million tones. The
exploration research is not yet completed in the
Shaori region and this fact creates serious doubts
about the total industrial reserves.

431
 Coal layers are self inflammable, have extra high operating cost. The run o f mine coal has the
methane emission (15 m^/t) and a considerable follo>ving particle size distribution:
amount o f coal dust.
Table 2. Tkibuli ROM coal particle size distribution.
2.2 C oal Q uality
Size ( m m ) Percentage %
Tkibuli coal can be characterized as sub-bituminous + 50 23,19
coal based on its carbon and volatile matter on dry -50 +25 14,32
ash free basis. Samples analyzed from several mines -25 +13 15,60
showed that there are no extreme variation in the -1 2 + 6 21,84
coal and ash quality. -6 +3 7,76
-3 +1 8,11
Table 1. Typical Tkibuli coal quality analysis. -1 8,68

Parameters (^ ) Therefore screening o f the run o f mine coal can

Moisture: 8 produce coal lumps at a size + 50mm, which w ill be
Lower Heat Value (Kcal/Kg) 4200 enough for households. Even hand-picking o f coal
Ash water free 30 lumps will be cheaper than briquetting. Coal for
CO2 water free 1,2 household will hardly exceed 50,000 tons in the area
Volatile matter (wf) 29 o f Tkibuli, since there are no stoves available and
population is not eager to be supplied with. When
Fixed Carbon (wf) 41
production increase and prices are further drop, the
Total Sulphur (wf) 1,5
demand may reach 100,000 ton/year.
Combustible sulphur (wf) 1,2
Carbon (wf) 53 3.3 Tea Industry
Hydrogen (wf) 4,1
Nitrogen (wf) 1,0 Tea industry is another potential user o f coal. The
Oxygen (wf)____________________H_____________ size o f coal that is needed has to be rather small
(< 13 mm) so that the combustion process can be
The ash chemical analysis shows that the ash automated.
composition is similar to a regular hard coal quality. Currently the operation is trouble free (diesel oil)
but coal seems to be competitive as far as operating
3. COAL D E M A N D -N O N ELECTRICAL USES costs are concerned. In case o f converting the boilers
to coal, major investments are needed. Also the
3.1 P oten tial c o a l m arkets environmental issues that will be raised concern not
only pollution from the flue gases but also the coal
The investigation o f the coal market for potential handling and storing, outside a food industry.
Georgian coal users is necessary for the evaluation Therefore coal consumption for tea industry is very
o f the extent o f coal mining in Georgia. The questionable and has not been considered in coal
competition in Georgia for coal is rather tough due demand although it is welcome in case boiler
to the availability o f natural gas (at prices lower than designs by Georgian engineers turn to be
the ones known in Europe) and the familiarity o f the successfully.
population with natural gas not only in household
but also in industry. Heavy oil and diesel are rather 3.4 C em ent Industry
low priced. Wood, the alternative source o f solid
fuels for household are also very cheap and easily In Georgia there are two factories, (RUSTAVI and
available. KASPI) each producing 800.000 ton/year. Initially,
the plants had been designed for operation using coal
3.2 H ouseholds as a primary fuel. That is, a mixture o f Ukrainian
coal and Tkibuli Coal. Later on, the fiiel was
Coal for households needs to be o f rather large size switched from coal to natural gas. Today the primary
to be easily transported and handled without coal- fuel is natural gas. Coal used in cement industry has
dust and complicated burning equipment. Therefore, to have low sulfur and calcium concentration, also it
briquetting is necessary for small sized coal to be is o f vital importance to have high calorific value.
properly handled for household use. Georgian coal To achieve a high temperature for the preparation o f
can not be briquetted binderlessly, due to its low clinker we need to have a flame temperature o f
moisture and plasticity. Binders, in generally around 2000° C. Such a temperature can be achieved
increase the value o f coal more than the briquetting

432
only by a coal having very high calorific value (over matter is also another advantage for power
6,200 Kcal/kg). generation. Table 4 presents the Kwh cost and cost
The clinker curing technology that is utilized in breakdown for several power plant technologies
Georgia is very old fashioned and the thermal energy based on an algorithm developed by Public Power
required is 1350 Kcal/kg o f cement. In Europe and Corporation. Assumptions for the calculations are
US the energy is only 850 Kcal/kg The heat loss is presented in Table 4.
approximately 60%. Georgian Coal can be used in
Cement Industry with the following methods; in Table 3. Electric energy cost for several power plant
mixing (30 - 35%) with other fuels with higher technology.
calorific value (75,000 tons/year). If new technology
is to be used (with separate lime kilns) the amoimt o f Power Plant Technology Cost Cost Breakdown %
coal to be used can be even higher (150,000 $/Kwh Interest Fuel L ab or Maintenance
tons/year). The existing cement plants can not be Bearin Cost C o st Cost
retrofitted, therefore new plants are needed to be g
r'nnitnl
built. • Conventional
Coal Price $30/ton 0.0352 49,00 44,2 2,20 4,70
3.5 Brick manufacturing • Fluidized Bed
Coal Price $30/ton 0.0297 43,20 51,0 1,70 4,10
The fuel used today is imported natural gas. The
• Natural Gas 0.0378 34,20 61,9 0,70 3,30
price is $100/1000Nm^. Since the whole country o f 0
Conventional
Georgia is literally under construction, it is evident
• Natural Gas Combined 0.0293 27,10 67,2 0,90 4,90
that bricks are o f very high command in Georgia and 0
will be in great need for several yeas to come. • Natural Gas Combined 0.0467 25,00 68,5 2,50 4,00
As far as using coal instead o f natural gas, there 0
seem to be several issues to be tackled. Costing o f with European Gas price
the effort o f employing coal burner rather than $0.145/Ncbm
natural gas burners is a key factor. Increased labor
are needed for coal feeding, monitoring o f the As it turns out, the fluidized bed technology is
combustion process and the ash removal system to competitive with electricity produced by natural gas.
be designed. Increased labor and the elimination o f Although the natural gas prices are very low and
the automation used in natural gas burners will may stay this way, the small difference in price
further increase the price o f the product. Scrap justifies the development o f mines and therefore
mainly comes from natural gas stoppages and it is power generation from coal, especially if the coal
the major problem o f the factory (12 % instead o f a price is kept below $30/tonne. The size o f the power
normal 3 %). unit/s is estimated at around 150 - 200 MW.
The most promising application o f Georgian coal Currently there are only natural gas plants in
in the brick industry has to do with its mixing with operation in Georgia.
clay. One brick factory using gas, does mix coal with The price o f natural gas will continue to fall and
clay in brick manufacturing. Utilization o f coal in the market is in deep need for natural gas consumers.
this case can be immediate. The advantages come Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan have excess o f natural
from improved brick quality (heat and sound gas. The current prices for natural gas are as follows:
insulation), reduced scrap due to better stress release,
temperature uniformity during curing, reduced Major consumers (power generation) 66- 71 $ /1 0 0 0
natural gas cost and better heat transfer. The project cbm
concerning the mixing o f coal with clay as raw Medium range industry (construction materials
material seems to be going very well. A 10% mixing industry etc) 87 S/IOOO Nm^.
o f coal in clay represents a 30 % energy input in the Households 135 $ /1 0 0 0 N m l
bricks instead o f natural gas thermal energy. The
trials made in laboratory indicate that this mixing is It is considered that natural gas prices will drop to
the optimum. However, the coal quantities to be 100 $/1000 cbm and power generation will be able
absorbed can not exceed 10,000 tons/a to buy gas a lot cheaper (60 $ / lOOOcbm). Therefore
extensive mine development is out o f the question
4. COAL UTILIZATION FOR POWER since natural gas competition will be very hard and
GENERATION existing power plans can be maintained for
immediate results. On the other hand the existing
Georgian coal is most suitable for power generation. mines can support up to 200 MW power generation
Due to its high ash content, power generation seems and the cost o f coal can be easily be predicted. A
to be the only major coal consumer. High volatile

433
small percentage o f the energy needed is also wise to Table 5. Coal Demand.
be produced by local resources for national security
purposes. ton X 10
150 MW 200 MW 250 MW
Table 4. Parameters for the electric energy cost
Power generation 570 760 950
calculations.
Cement and brick 80 80 80
Paremeters For the Coal For natural gas industry
fired cases Tea 0 0 0
Lower Heat value 4300Kcal/Kg] 8700 Kcal/Ncbm Household
Energy consumption consumption/district 50 50 50
Full load 10% 4% heating
66%load 3% Total 700 890 1080
8 %
Operation Program
Full load 16hrs same
66%load 8hrs same 5. MINING CONSIDERATIONS
Service life 40 years 40 years
Erection period 4 years 3 years 5.1 Brief description o f the existing underground
Interest during erection 10% same mines.
C^hflows 1**, 2^, 3^** 10, 30,40 and 20% 20, 35 and 45%
and 4 th year Georgia has considerable coal deposits, most o f
Fuel cost increase rate 1% 2% which are located in the Western part o f the country.
(at constant value) The largest deposit is Tkibuli - Shaori deposit, where
Personel salary increase rate 3% same there are 30% o f all the reserves, i.e. 320 million
Operation time conventional 320 days/year 325 days/year tons o f proved and more than 500 million tons o f
Operation time fluidized 330 days/year 315 days/year potential deposits (geological).
bed/conbined
Personel salary at 1^ year 1568000 drs/year same Development o f Tkibuli - Shaori deposit has been
same
carried out for more 150 years. The underground
Interest reduction at current value 8 %
mines which had been developed during the 20**
Expected interest cost of 0,8 % 1,5 %
materials century are: Dasavleti, Tsulukidze, Agmosavleti
Expected net specific Conventional (Mindeli) and Imereti.
consumption conv. Imereti mine has balance deposits o f 40.0 million
100%load 2320 Kcal/Kwh 2050 Kcal/Kwh
tons, o f which 2.5 million tons are prepared deposits.
66%load 2360 Kcal/Kwh 2100 Kcal/Kwh
Mindeli mine has balance deposits o f 48.3 million
Expected net spec, consumption Combined
fluid, bed tons, o f which 7.4 million tons are prepared deposits.
100% load 2265 Kcal/Kwh 1720 Kcal/Kwh Production capacity o f both mines is about 1.1
million tons per year, but the investment needed for
66%load 2295 Kcal/Kwh 1760 Kcal/Kwh
production equals $ 15 - 18 million US dollars
Capital Cost
during three years.
Conventional 1300 $/KW 1000 $/KW
The geological condition o f Tkibuli deposits can
Fluidized/Combined 1000 $/KW 600 $/KW
be summarized as follows :
The total thickness o f coal seam is 30-50 m
Based on the above investigation results the coal (bands included) while the thickness o f the
demand for non electrical uses and also for power exploitable layers is o f three groups 2-3,5 m, 3,5-6,5
generation purposes as a function o f the power plant m and > 6,5 m. The coal seams are gently inclined
capacity is summarized in Table 5. (25°-45°) and also flatly inclined ( < 25° ). The coal
Considering the time needed for the power plant seams occur at a depth between 700 and 1500 m.
construction, the rehabilitation o f existing mines and The depth and the angle o f the coal layer is shown
also the realazition o f the required retrofits for the schematically in Pictures 1 and 2, which correspond
industrial plant (cement, brick manufacturing e.t.c.) to the deposits o f Imereti and Mindeli (Agmosavleti)
it turns out that: mines respectively.
The seams are gassy (methane containing 20
• The coal demand for power generation is NM^/ton o f coal produced). As a result coal layers
estimated to be realised in 4-5 years. are self-inflammable, have extra high methane
emission and a considerable amount o f coal dust.
• The coal demand for non-electrical uses can be At present coal is produced in two mines (Imereti
realised in 2-3 years from now. and Mindeli) N.P. The Tkibuli - Shaori deposit area

434
has complex tectonics. There are large and small and productivity data o f Georgian coal mining
faults and fracture faults. according to the above calculation and also the same
The method o f exploitation is the room and pillar data for similar exploitations in selected countries.
and longwall retreating method with caving o f room Deviations in productivity data are related to the
or with stowing (relatively seldom ; today it does not variations o f the mining method used.
exist). Endeavouring to make comparison between new
and long-established underground mines is o f
5.2 Prospects for rehabilitation o f existing mines. questionable significance ; Table 8 presents
investment indexes comparison. The index for
For the rehabilitation o f the existing mines several Georgia is lower since most o f the capital investment
senarios have been investigated. (3), (4). The has been already established (6).
favorable alternative is the reconstruction o f the
Imereti and Mindeli mines. Given today's economic Table 7. Comparative labour Cost and productivity of
conditions in Georgia and current coal demand the Georgian Coal Mining and other Selected Countries (6).
possibility developing new mines is out o f question.
Based on the predicted evolution o f the mines (5) Country Labour cost Productivity
(that is year after year development o f the production $/ton ton/man-vear
faces and all other necessary works), the expenses G eorgia (Tkibuli m ine) 1 2 .2 4 3 7 .5
have been categorized as labor, material, electricity Poland 1 6 .2 4 0 7 -6 3 0

and fuels, depreciation and overheads in Table 6. Spain - 547

C hina - 600
Table 6. Coal cost analysis for various production rates. Z im babwe - 700
India - 300
South A frica 3 .1 3 0 0 0 -5 9 0 0
COAL P R O D U C T I O N H O ^ o n s / v e a r ì __________________
Ukraine - 291
700 650 600 300 100 50
UK 1 8 .6 0 2 2 0 0 -2 4 0 0
Exoenses n o ^ dol l ars ' !
U SA 4 .7 4 9 3 0 -8 5 0 0
1. T im ber 1 ,6 6 0 1 ,5 4 0 1 ,4 3 0 530 180 120

280 45 20
2. E x p lo siv e s 310 290 1 ,1 7 0
Table 8. Investment Indexes.
3. D e to n a to rs 190 180 1 60 1 00 30 10

4. Spare P arts 950 890 830 270 140 90 Other countries Capital Production Index
$/10^ ton X lOVy $ x 10^ ton/ton x
5. Industrial W ater 50 50 50 15 7 3
10^
6. C o n su m a b le 390 290 270 90 30 10 1 270 5.0 54.0
7. S a fety eq u ip m en t and 240 230 210 120 70 45
2 216 4.0 54.0
p erso n n el uniform s

8. O ther parts 320 300 280 100 110 60 3 90 1.5 60.0

9, F u els 140 1 40 1 40 130 170 140 4 165 3.0 55.0
10. E lectricity 660 630 580 530 440 350
5 108 1.8 60.0
11. S u p porting a ctiv ities 350 330 300 140 60 30
6 1076 19.2 56.0
12. S alaries 6 ,5 3 0 6 ,3 7 0 5 ,9 8 0 4 ,1 3 0 1 ,5 2 0 1 ,0 4 0
Georgia 31 0.7 44
13. S o c ia l Secu rity 2 ,0 3 0 1 ,9 7 0 1 ,8 6 0 1 ,2 8 0 460 320

14. P erso n n el b en efits 390 370 340 1 80 50 30

15. O ther b en e fits 480 450 410 250 70 40

6. CONCLUSIONS
16. C en tra lized E x p en d itu res 1 ,2 2 0 1 ,1 7 0 1 ,0 5 0 790 340 190

17. Sta te tax a tio n 940 880 820 580 140 70

• Tkibuli coal is suitable for power generation.
18. D e p recia tio n 1 ,8 4 0 1 ,7 1 0 1 ,5 9 0 640 320 210
• Based on possible coal demand (1,000,000 tons
T otal 18510 17780 16590 1 1 0 45 4182 2778
per year). Imereti and Mindeli mines must
Coal cost ($/ton) 26 27 28 37 42 56
continue the mining operation with minimum
investments o f 15 million dollars.
Thus the operating and the total production cost
• The non-electrical uses o f coal can only be
o f the coal can be calculated. The percentage o f the
labor cost seems to be a critical factor for the supplementary (100,000-120,000 tons).
estimation o f the total cost, since it is a large • Taking into consideration technical, economical
percentage o f the cost, especially for the mining and environmental factors as well as the
method under consideration. Table 7 presents labour international obligations o f Georgia the total

435
 consumption in excess o f 700-1000 x 10^ t/a,
will be unfeasible in the future.
The final coal cost is estimated to be 28 $/ton
(considering also the capital o f the existing
infrastructure).
The above coal cost justifies the development o f
exploitation o f Tkibuli coal deposits for power
generation (700,000-1,080,000).
The cost o f KWh produced from coal can
compete with natural gas.
7. REFERENCES
1. EC-TACIS PROGRAMME, "Development o f
energy policy in Georgia", Final report TA-
CIS/92/EG001, March 1995, Georgia, P. 1-32.
2. EC-TACIS PROGRAMME, "Development o f an
3. energy policy Electricity sector final report, TA-
CIS/92/EGE001, February 1995, Georgia, P. 1-56
4. Gochitachvili T. "Development o f an energy
policy in Georgia", Coal Sector Development,
436
Interim business plant. May 1996, Georgia, P. 1-
33.
5. Mikeladje A. "Perspectives o f Tkibuli-Shaori
deposit mines restoration, development and
construction o f new mines" Interim report, EC-
TACIS PROGRAMME, EGE/95/02 Georgia,
April 1998, Georgia, P. 1-15.
6. Gordeziani A. "Restoration and Development o f
Agmosavleti and Imereti mines analysis and
calculation o f coal cost". Interim report EC-
TACIS, EGE/95/02 Georgia, July 1998, Georgia
P . 1-25.
7. lEA Coal research, "Comparative underground
coal mining methods", 1996, London, P. 65-72.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Owner versus contract m ining

L.J.Kirk
G lobal M ining Services, Perth, W.A, Australia

ABSTRACT: Where direct mining costs are a significant proportion of total operating costs, a mine has a life
of more than five years, there is the ability to maintain a reasonably constant mining rate and there are exist­
ing or available experienced mining personnel then owner mining should be considered along with the option
of contract mining. Contract mining in Australian mines has become a significant, established and efficient
practice over the last decade. Contractors offer mine owners a number o f advantages for projects that have
short mine lives, widely varying mining rates, limited company borrowing or credit capacity, complicated
joint venture arrangements, a lack o f mining experience, a policy of out-sourcing or a rigid labour market.
This paper is based on the recent evaluation of owner versus contract mining for two large Australian open pit
mines. The two options are compared by discussing the main corporate, operational, cost and risk issues.

1 IN TRO DU CTIO N 2 DEFINITIONS OF OWNER M IN IN G AND

Most mines use out-sourced services in some way
for mining ore and waste. The main distinction be­
tween Owner mining and Contract mining is there­
fore normally based on whom has the most control
over the mining process. This is most clearly dem­
onstrated by which party owns (or leases) the mining
equipment and operates that equipment.
In Australia over the last 15 to 20 years there has
been a significant increase in the number o f mining
operations, both open pit and underground, that use
independent contractors to carry out mining activi­
ties.
There have been a number of conferences, plus
individual papers written, on the subject of contract
mining, mostly from the contractor’s perspective.
This paper w ill cover some o f the better known ar­
guments about contract versus owner mining and
some different approaches for both mining options
to help the mine owner evaluate them. Two recent
and relevant Australian open pit case studies w ill be
used to illustrate the main strategies and issues, Kal-
goorlie Consolidated Gold Mines (KCGM) Fimiston
or “Superpit” operation in Western Australia and the
Ernest Henry copper-gold mine in Queensland.
CONTRACT M IN IN G
The mining process consists of a number or inter­
related functions, including:
• Mine design;
• Scheduling & budgeting;
• Drilling & blasting;
• Loading and hauling of ore and waste; and
• Equipment Maintenance.
A ll of these functions can have a supply and/or
service component, which is typically defined by a
formal contract. Supply contracts are normally based
on a specific material or product where the focus is
on quality, product specification, delivery and price.
Service contracts are typically more complex and
which party is responsible for what function is im­
portant. How risk is shared and the duration of the
service may also be significant issues.
There are often a number of choices as to who has
the prime responsibility for each function or part of a
function, ranging from most functions being under
the direct control of one contracting company (Con­
tract Mining) to the other extreme of the mine owner
controlling the majority of functions (Owner M in­
ing). This is illustrated in Table 1 where “Contrac­
tor” means the main contracting company is respon­
sible and “Owner” means the mine owner.

437
Table 1. One-stop-shop Contract Mining and traditional Owner in 1985 and to over 200t by the end o f the decade.
Mining by function.______________________________________ Current production is around 300t per year.
Function______________________Contractor Owner Miner Many o f the new gold producers were small com­
Mine equipment ownership Contractor Owner
panies, with limited capital and mining expertise and
Equipment maintenance Contractor Owner
with relatively short mine lives. It therefore made
Drilling & blasting Contractor Owner
sense to contract out major work and, under these
Loading & hauling Contractor Owner
conditions, it still does.
De-watering Contractor Owner
Contract mining in Australia has expanded to all
Ground support Contractor Owner
minerals, including coal, and there has been a sig­
Dumps & stockpile maintenance Contractor Owner
nificant growth in contract mining in underground
Rehabilitation Contractor Owner
operations in the 1990’s. There have been a number
Feed crusher Contractor Owner
of innovations that have resulted from a diverse,
competitive contracting mining industry and this
w ill likely continue to keep Australia up with the
best and most cost effective mining techniques in the
In most mines the actual situation is somewhere in
world. Australian contractors have also moved into
between, as shown by the two case study mines in­
several other countries, with one o f the largest con­
cluded in Table 2 and designated as “Owner Man­
tractors currently also working in New Zealand, A f­
aged”. In this table “Service” is a specialist contrac­
rica, Indonesia and South America.
tor providing a particular service and “Supply”
There have also been significant changes with
denotes a formal supply arrangement between the
how mining contracts have been structured and
mine owner and a specific supplier.
managed. Contracts have become more detailed, due
to additional experience on both sides, and in some
Table 2. Owner managed mining by function.
cases the traditional Schedule of Rates form o f con­
Function KCGM Ernest Henry tract has moved towards a cost plus profit margin
Mine equipment ownership Service Service type of contract. However there has also been an in­
Equipment maintenance Service Service crease in litigation between some contractors and
Drilling consumables Contractor Supply mine owners, which highlights the need to have
Drilling Contractor Owner contracts carefully drawn up and then well managed
Explosives Supply Supply by both parties thereafter.
Charge & blast Contractor Service The other change in contracting in Australia is a
Load & haul Owner Owner consolidation of the contracting companies. There
Tyres Supply Supply are now three main contractors, one medium sized
Tyre management Service Service contractor and a number of smaller companies,
Ground engaging tools Supply Supply down from a total of about twenty contract miners
Fuel & lubricants Supply Supply only five years ago. The move to increasing econo­
De-watering Owner Service mies of scale and reducing overhead costs by merg­
Ground support Contractor Service ing reflects the mining industry as a whole.
Dumps & stockpiles maint. Owner Owner
Rehabilitation Owner/service Owner/service
Feed crusher Contractor Owner 4 KEY ISSUES IN EVA LUA TIN G M IN IN G
Sample analysis & laboratory Service Service OPTIONS

There is more than one way of comparing and

For the purposes o f this paper the distinction be­ evaluating contract and owner mining but the main
tween Contract or Owner mining is based on which issues can be classified as:
party has direct control over the mining equipment • Corporate;
and the people who operate that equipment. • Project specific;
• Operational;
• Cost; and
3 CONTRACT M IN IN G IN AUSTRALIA • Risks assessment.

Mining Contractors were slowly introduced onto 4.1 C orporate Issues

Australian mines in the late 1970’s however the gold
boom o f the 1980’s is what led to a very rapid in­
crease in contract mining, especially in small to me­
dium sized open cut gold mines. Australian gold
production rapidly increased from 18t in 1981 to 57t
Corporate issues are those that are normally consid­
ered by company directors and group executives,
rather than mine-based management. There are
many issues that relate to corporate strategies, cor­
porate “culture” or policies, the experience of influ­

438
ential individuals, the outlook for the product being
mined and share market perceptions.
Corporate policy on out-sourcing in the mining
industry w ill depend on the strategic focus of the
mine owner, which can change over time (Dunn
1998). I f it is believed the company’s competitive
advantage is in exploration, mine design and mar­
keting then the actual mining, although necessary,
may not be a strategic function. On the other hand in
tough times the focus changes to minimising the cost
o f production from existing resources.
A major corporate issue is the availability and use
o f capital. The key issue is the return on capital,
whether sourced as equity or debt, and what is the
best use o f available capital. For smaller mine own­
ers, companies with a poor credit rating, or for short­
life projects, the contractor is expected to have sev­
eral advantages in providing capital items, such as
mobile equipment, or be able to obtain better com­
mercial terms for purchasing new equipment.
Mining companies evaluating owner mining need
to consider:
• Is capital for mining equipment needed or is
leasing preferred? An operating or leveraged
lease normally would only result in a relatively
small contingent liability being included on the
company balance sheet.
• Would leasing o f mining equipment or another
form o f external capital raising significantly af­
fect the company’s future borrowing capacity?
• What capital is needed for infrastructure, such as
the processing facility? Is the provision of min­
ing infrastructure, such as equipment workshops,
significant and who should fimd this?
• W ill the treatment o f capital have a significant
effect on operating costs or unit cost of produc­
tion? A ll o f a contractor’s capital costs are in­
cluded in the mine owners operating or “cash”
cost but for the owner to purchase equipment, or
use finance leases, the resultant depreciation
charge is usually treated as a corporate rather
than operating cost.
The above requires careful financial modelling
and can be a key component o f estimating reliability.
Another corporate issue that may be important is
the company structure o f the operating entity. For
example both case studies involve joint ventures
between major mining companies, and it is reason­
able to expect that each joint venture partner w ill
have some different views or priorities on mining
options. Where there is one owner, or an owner with
a clear majority, decision making may be clearer and
easier to implement. Where there is a joint venture
arrangement it is recommended that an independent
party assist the joint venture parties find common
ground and carefully evaluate the differing or con­
flicting corporate views.
An interesting development in Australia has been
contractors taking equity in a mining company or
439
project to help secure work. The biggest risk here for
the mine owner’s shareholders is the possible reduc­
tion in competition due to a preferred contractor,
which may lead to increased costs compared to
competitive tendering.
4.2 P ro je ct Specific Issues
Although every mining project is unique, when
evaluating mining options the main considerations
usually include:
• Mine life;
• Is it an existing mine or a “greenfields” project;
• The planned initial mining rate and the variabil­
ity o f the mining rate over the life o f the project;
• The availability of trained and experienced per­
sonnel;
• The commencement o f mining as part of the
project schedule. Is mining or pre-stripping of
waste material on the project development criti­
cal path or is there a commercial advantage in
bringing the project on stream as soon as possi­
ble;
• Does the project financing require greater confi­
dence in mining costs? Is the feasibility study
conservative;
• Is there any government incentives that may af­
fect the evaluation? For example at the begin­
ning of one of the case study projects a govern­
ment development allowance was available to
the mine owner but not to a contractor.
4.3 O perational Issues
The key issues revolve around people, equipment
and grade or ore mining control.
A ll mining operations are dependent on the people
who run them. Identifying the particular skills
needed, then locating and retaining the best people
for the job is common to contract or owner mining.
I f the people with the required skills and experience
are not already in that organisation the first step is to
evaluate how difficult it w ill be to find, attract and
retain these people. Contractors should have an ob­
vious advantage in already having a pool of trained
and experienced personnel but the mine owner may
also have existing experienced personnel or be con­
fident of recruiting them.
One cost advantage that contractors may have is
the ability to work their personnel on a longer roster
than the mine owner. The mine owner’s personnel,
such as in the process plant, are seen as long term
employees and may be on a 2 weeks on 1 week o ff
roster at a fly-in fly-out operation, for example. The
mining contractor’s employees are more likely to be
interested in longer hours for more money and not
be as concerned about the long term and be prepared
to work a 4 weeks on:l week o ff roster, say. This
could result in reduced employment costs, on-costs
and accommodation costs and subsequently lower
mining costs, but only if the labour turnover rate
does not become excessive or productivity and effi­
ciency suffers.
Industrial relations or union issues have previ­
ously been a significant consideration in Australia to
use mining contractors. In the 1980’s much o f Aus­
tralian industry had rigid, inflexible labour agree­
ments. Coupled with significant wage increases in
the mid 1980’s, and the consequent decrease in in­
ternational competitiveness, Australian mining com­
panies were forced to look at alternatives. The em­
ployment o f contractors with more flexible labour
conditions was part o f the solution.
This may still be significant in other countries but
in Australia there is now less difference in general
employment terms and conditions between contrac­
tors and mine owners. Contractors would still be ex­
pected to have better training programs and more
experienced trainers although this important item
can be addressed by mine owners by utilising the
equipment suppliers trainers and independent spe­
cialist training companies, at least in the short term.
Equipment selection and flexibility is a strong
point o f contractors, especially in the most com­
monly sized equipment. Contractors have the expe­
rience and a current cost and productivity data base
on a large range o f different mining equipment
whereas an owner miner would normally have a
much more limited fleet and less direct operating
experience. Contractors are also often able to mobi­
lise additional or replacement equipment at short
notice, for short periods, or to meet peak demands.
An owner miner can still use hired equipment from
contractors in the same way but it may require a lot
more time and effort to organise and may cost more.
A possible counter to the above contractor advan­
tages is that the owner miner may be able to change
the mine plan to suit the situation and the available
fleet, compared to the risk o f having to change the
contract scope o f work that could lead to increases in
contract costs. Also for the largest or more special­
ised equipment, such as draglines, contractors may
not have this equipment available or be able to pro­
vide suitable replacements.
Ore control during mining, that is the careful sepa­
ration o f the valuable minerals fi*om the surrounding
waste, is normally more important in selective, high
value mines, such as shear-zone hosted gold depos­
its, than in bulk mining operations such as coal or
large, low grade metal deposits. The mine owner
usually determines the ore mining method although
the experienced contractors can often provide practi­
cal solutions. The use o f backhoes or excavators,
compared to face shovels, for selective mining was
primarily developed by an Australian contractor, for
example (Roche 1996).
The issue here is not so much the mining method
but the required quality control and quality assur­
440
ance over ore mining. The contractor has a profit-
based focus, which depends on maximising loading
productivity, and hence maximising the volume
mined. The mine owner may be more concerned
about the quality o f the ore that is mined, which may
reduce loading productivity due to the extra care re­
quired in selective mining o f ore and adjacent waste.
In either case the focus should be on what is best
overall in terms o f cost and net benefit.
4.4 C ost Issues
How significant the cost o f mining is compared to
the total mine costs, and how sensitive the project’s
viability is to mining costs, are often the main con­
siderations in evaluating who should do the mining.
Should the mine owner concentrate on other more
value-adding issues such as exploration, processing
and marketing the final product, or is the mining
cost critical in determining if the project is viable or
a significant factor in determining mine life?
For both case studies mining costs are significant
as a percentage of total operating costs and therefore
in determining profitability. Both mines also have
relatively low grade deposits and the final pit depth
and hence mine life is based oh economic criteria,
not a physical bottom lim it of known mineralisation.
The issue may then become what cost premium or
margin, if any, is justified in employing a contract
miner rather than undertaking the mining directly, if
there aren’t other more important issues such as the
corporate and operational issues discussed above or
the risk assessment issues discussed below. There is
always an inter-relationship between cost, benefit
and risk.
It should not be assumed that a contractor would
cost more than owner mining would. In the current
depressed times for much of the resources industry
competition between contractors is high. The con­
tractors may also have an existing mining fleet
available at a significantly lower ownership cost
than a new, replacement fleet, particularly if there
has been a significant change in exchange rates that
affect new equipment supply prices, for example.
However it is reasonable to expect that the contrac­
tor w ill include at least some replacement equipment
costs in calculating the contract prices, as well as in­
cluding a profit margin no lower than the current
cost of capital.
Apart from the contractor requiring a profit there
is also the cost of duplication of some functions.
This includes site-based costs such as some duplica­
tion in management and administration and o ff site
costs such as company related overheads that are
common to both the mine owner and the contractor.
Depending on the economies o f scale and the rela­
tive efficiencies and competencies o f management
and administration between the two organisations
this cost may not be significant and could even fa­
vour the contractor.
Related to costs is who would benefit from any
future savings. W ith changes in mining methods or
processes, improvement in technology or continuous
improvement o f the whole mining operation it is
reasonable to expect there would be some savings,
or a slowing o f cost increases in real terms. For con­
tract mining the majority o f any savings would nor­
mally go to the contractor and at best the owner
would get 50% o f any savings. For owner mining
the majority o f any savings would go to the owner,
although suppliers or specialist service providers
may earn a share.
I f costs increased rather than decreased the con­
tractor may have to absorb this but only if the con­
tracts scope o f work and contract terms and condi­
tions were very clear on the specific issue. It is more
likely that the owner w ill incur the majority o f in­
creased costs in any event. However there is a
greater risk that an owner miner would be less fo­
cussed on reducing unit costs than the contractor,
who has no other way to improve profitability.
The above discussion on cost issues is not new but
what is often not considered is the value or propor­
tion o f the total mining cost by individual major cost
items and what are the risks and difficulties in man­
aging each o f these items.
Using the case study examples the major contracts
listed below in Table 3 comprise almost 80% o f the
total mining costs at each site.
Cost Item KCGM Ernest Henry
% %
Equipment ownership/lease 20
16
Equipment maintenance 17 19
Drill & blast 24 19
Fuel & lubricants 12
13
Tyres 9 9
TOTAL 79
79
Each o f these cost items requires Varying amounts
of effort to manage and control them but with a
mining contractor they are grouped together, plus
the contractors direct cost inputs, and a margin ap­
plied to them all, as far as the mine owner is con­
cerned. An owner miner could accept a reasonable
margin on the service contracts, such as equipment
maintenance and blast hole drilling, but there should
be no additional margin on supply contracts such as
leasing, fuel, explosives and tyres. The end result is
a much lower overall margin but without accepting a
major increase in risks, if these contracts are as well
written and as well managed as a mining contract
would need to be. Managing very specific individual
441
contracts may also be easier than managing one
large general contract.
4.5 R isk A ssessm ent
There are significant risks in mining, regardless of
who does the actual mining. The mine owner already
carries the risk o f geological modelling, grade con­
trol, mine design, geotechnical stability, environ­
mental and community issues, overall responsibility
for health and safety and of course the vagaries of
the market for the end product.
In the evaluation o f contract or owner mining the
main comparative risk areas are:
• Equipment selection;
• Equipment performance (productivity, availabil­
ity and utilisation);
• Quality control o f ore mining;
• Health and safety;
• Human resources management;
• Implementation (new mine) or transition (change
from one mining option to the other) risks;
• Contractual and litigation issues; and
• Production or operating costs.
It is often difficult to quantify all the above risks
although sensitivity analysis of equipment perform­
ance and operating costs can quantify the likely
range for both options. There are more subjective
judgements required for risk issues than for the other
key issues.
5 CASE STUDIES
KCGM and Ernest Henry are both established, large
open pit mines with a mine life of well over 5 years,
mining costs o f more than 50% of the total operating
cost, and increasing mining costs due to the pits be­
coming deeper and waste dumps getting higher or
further away. Both companies have site-based and
other experienced personnel and their product prices
(gold and copper) remain under pressure.
Both mines had employed mining contractors
since start up o f the mines, and both o f the then cur­
rent contracts were soon due to expire. Both opera­
tions are joint ventures (JV), KCGM a 50:50 JV
between Normandy Mining and Homestake Gold of
Australia, Ernest Henry a 51:49 JV between
M.I.M.Holdings and Pasminco. In each case the JV
partners had different views on contract mining but
all agreed on the need to fully investigate owner
mining at the same time as formally tendering con­
tract mining for a five year period.
Another important similarity was a high rate of
mining for at least the next 5 years, between 70 -8 0
M t per annum, which predicated the use o f large
mining equipment.
KCGM had investigated owner mining in 1992
and called for contract mining tenders in 1993. The
tendered rates were significantly lower than the then
current rates and similar to the estimated owner
mining costs, and a contract was awarded to Roche
Bros.
Ernest Henry had also previously considered
owner mining, in 1996 as part o f the project feasi­
bility studies. Due to the differing views o f the JV
partners and because o f the risk o f achieving the re­
quired equipment productivity a mining contract was
awarded to Thiess Contractors. To minimise contract
costs and to keep future mining options open Ernest
Henry purchased (leased) the major mining equip­
ment, which Thiess then operated and maintained in
addition to the equipment provided directly by Thi­
ess.
In late 1998 and after a very detailed evaluation of
competitive contract mining tenders and a first-
principles owner mining estimate KCGM concluded
that owner mining:
• Was significantly cheaper;
• Had marginally lower risk overall;
• Had greater benefits; and
• Was better value for money.
It was concluded that the increased technical and
human resource risk was more than offset by the re­
duced commercial risk. Contracting out blast hole
drilling, mining equipment maintenance and other
less significant activities, as shown in Table 2 above,
mitigated technical risk.
In 1999 at Ernest Henry a competitive tender for
contract mining was evaluated in parallel to a de­
tailed owner mining estimate, the main difference to
KCGM being that Ernest Henry already “owned” a
large part o f the mining fleet.
Ernest Henry also concluded that the cost and
other benefits outweighed the transition and techni­
cal risks, including for blast hole drilling which is
now also being done in-house.
that of contractors is a key risk and the need for de­
tailed transition or implementation planning should
not be underestimated.
Changing from contract mining to owner managed
mining is more often considered where mining costs
are a significant portion o f the total operating costs.
In analysing what makes up the mining costs there
may be an opportunity to reduce margins or fees,
without significantly increasing risk. For example
the mine owner could directly manage some or all of
the major supply contracts, such as equipment
leases, fuel supply and explosives supply, while still
employing a mining contractor to manage the other
mining functions and employ the operating person­
nel.
7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank the owners and man­
agement of KCGM and Ernest Henry for permission
to use information about their operations in this pa­
per.
Thanks are also extended to relevant colleagues at
Global Mining Services and other mining consult­
ants who were also part of the mining options
evaluation teams at both mines.
8 REFERENCES
Dunn, S. 1998. Evaluating the Use of Contractors as a Cost­
cutting Measure. Shine 1998.
Roche, K.J. 1966. Contract Mining - A Catalyst for Change.
Surface Mining 1996. Johannesburg: South African Insti­
tute of Mining and Metallurgy; pp. 169-173

6 CONCLUSIONS

There continues to be a major role for contract min­

ing where contractors have demonstrated that they
have the necessary skills and expertise, can provide
flexibility in the use o f differing mining equipment
and variable mining rates, are prepared to accept a
reasonable amount o f technical and operational risk
and are competitive in pricing.
Owner mining should be compared to contract
mining for larger, longer-life mining operations and
a detailed analysis o f the corporate, operational, cost
and risk issues should be carried out.
Corporate issues include the best use of and return
on capital, the company structure o f the operating
entity and project specific factors. The key opera­
tional issues involve people, equipment and ore
mining quality control. Confidence in achieving
similar production performance and efficiencies to

442
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The case study o f Greek-EU relations and their effect on Greek m ining

S.Kyriakou
B oart L ongyear GmbH, Germ any

L.Pretorius
D epartm ent o f M echanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Rand Afrikaans University (RAU), Johannesburg,
South Africa

ABSTRACT: This paper concentrates specifically on the smaller or ”middle-of-the-bell-curve” economy, as

opposed to the poorer economy, and highlights the consequences o f cross-border agreements on such a par­
ticipating party. The Greek / EU scenario, in conjunction with the phenomenological study o f the Greek econ­
omy forms the crux o f the study. In particular, the Greek mining sector o f commerce is considered over a
twenty year time frame, from the transitional years of Greece’s incorporation into the then EEC through to
her imminent inclusion into the EM U. The investigation is further expanded to encompass a techno-economic
evaluation that underlines the potential emerging challenges that are presented to a
smaller economy’s industries, management and engineering fraternity.

1 IN TRO DU CTIO N 1.2 B r ie f description o f the G reek m ining se c to r o f

com m erce
1.1 P ro lo g u e
The Greek mining industry played a pivotal role in
The blue flag o f the European Union (EU), with its
the industrial development of post W W II Greece.
characteristic gold stars, representative of
Certain private and state-owned companies were es­
the European member states, has become synony­
tablished in order to exploit the great variety o f min­
mous with the phenomenon o f globalisation and
erals and mineral reserves discovered. Concurrently,
continent sized trading blocs. It represents a bold
many previously isolated areas, particularly those of
statement and way o f thinking that started many
northern and mountainous Greece, were industrially
years ago, and has started to successfully materialise
developed. As a direct consequence, many employ­
only recently.
ment opportunities surfaced within the mining sector
The flag o f the European Union is imprecise,
for workers, technicians, scientists and engineers
however. These ’’stars” or member states are by no
alike. An increase in the numbers o f graduate mining
means equal in size or stature, and the impact felt by
engineers was also perceived in order to satisfy the
member states, as a result o f the new EU rules and
industrial demand for graduates.
regulations, affects different members in varying de­
During the past 25 years, contrary to the experi­
grees and ways.
ences o f many EU countries, the Greek mining and
For instance, SAMSUNG Electronics, South A f­
metallurgical activities showed an essential upward
rica presents the argument that, in reality, the term
tendency with a rapid rate o f development perceived
’’Global Marketplace” is a misnomer. In fact, the
in export, thus awarding the Mining Sector one of
world is composed o f hundreds o f local and regional
the most favorable positions amongst the other sig­
markets, each o f which is defined by its own distinct
nificant sectors o f the Greek economy. Nevertheless,
demographics, infi*astmcture, culture, politics and
the Greek mining industry o f today faces several lo­
customs. What this suggests is that for success to be
cal and international threats and problems due to the
achieved globally in the business environment, a
dramatic developments o f the past decade.
company needs to localise the way in which it ap­
Economopoulos indicates that Greece can be con­
proaches and does business. This, in conjunction
sidered to be a rich country in mineral and coal de­
with the visible discrepancies between national
posits. Adding to this statement, the country pos­
economies, makes the impact felt by members of
sesses deposits of several industrial minerals that are
international trading blocs considerable. It is this
o f a suitably high quality to be utilised both locally,
conflict among states and organisations within the
and beyond Greek borders.
techno-economic arena, that contributes to a large
part o f the subject matter presented in this paper.

443
 Notably, Greece is actively involved in the ex­
traction and processing o f world class minerals such
as marbles, magnesite, bentonite, perlite, pumice and
huntite amongst others. W ith regard to magnesite,
Greece holds the second spot in world magnesite
production second only to the USA, and is the
world’s third largest producer and exporter o f per­
lite.
Bauxite deposits are to be found in Central
Greece, whereas significant deposits o f nickel,
mixed sulfides, chromium and manganese are pres­
ently under exploitation. Quartz, feldspars, kaolin
and other minerals are also mined on a secondary
scale. Coal and lignite mining is widespread in
Greece, and as at 1996 held the 6* place in lignite-
brown coal production. As far as Greek mineral re­
serves are concerned, it is significant to note that
Greece:
- Contains 2.75 percent o f world bauxite reserves
and is the only bauxite producer within the EU
- Provides 2 percent o f the western nations’ nickel
and is the major EU producer
- Provides 8.5 percent o f the world production of
magnesite and is the dominant EU producer
- Is the leading European producer of perlite and
the second largest producer worldwide
Due to the vast deposits of limestone, clays,
schists and slates, the Greek cement industry is a
flourishing one. Coupling up with this are the large
quantities o f construction raw materials such as
sand, gravel and dimensional stone that are also pro­
duced. Greece’s modem marble industry also plays a
significant role in the world marble market and of­
fers a wide range o f marble types, and a surplus of
colors.
2 CASE & PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY OF
THE GREEK M IN IN G INDUSTRY
2.1 Survey research: a b r ie f observation o f the
con tem porary G reek m ining industry
In order that a clearer indication o f the relationship
between Greece as an economic entity and certain
critical questions could be obtained, a limited survey
was conducted in which the contempo­
rary environment and related issues of the Greek
mining sector o f commerce could be observed. It
must be stressed though, that the mini-survey pre­
sented in this section is not a statistically based sur­
vey, in the sense that non-probability sampling, spe­
cifically accidental sampling’, was utilised to
identify potential respondents to take part in the sur-
Accidental Sampling: Sampling method that makes no pretence o f being rep­
resentative o f a population. Units are taken as they are presented by mere
chance events.
444
vey. This avenue was viewed to be most appropriate
since only the thoughts o f the chosen candidates
were o f particular interest. As far as the profile o f the
respondents is concerned, half were actively in­
volved in the Greek mining industry and occupied
middle management to higher management posi­
tions, whilst the remaining half were academics from
European institutions. Consequently, the latest issues
affecting the Greek mining sector o f commerce
could be identified, whereby it could be established
if the critical issues that were addressed in past lit­
erature and records still exist today.
2.1.1 The question o f a com mon European p o lic y in
the f ie ld o f m ining a ctivity an d the E U con sti­
tution
The respondents answered unanimously in favour
of a common EU mining policy. The reasoning ad­
vocating this philosophy varied from respondent to
respondent. However, the main concerns were cen­
tred upon the topic of the European Union’s rela­
tionship with respect to the LOME conventions and
its perceived negative impact on the European coun­
tries that have vested mining interests within the EU.
A common opinion expressed was that in spite of
many efforts by the EU mining countries, the EU
still declines to establish a common mining policy
for the protection of the European mining products,
that should also take into account the particularities
of each member state as far as production capacity,
and site-specific minerals are concerned. The EU
was perceived to be favouring the AGP (Africa,
Caribbean, Pacific) countries with the well known
LOME conventions, thus developing these coun­
tries’ mining industries, whilst simultaneously se­
curing low cost mining products for the developed
countries of the EU.
A further general impression was that a common
EU mining policy was crucial in order for the EU
mining concerns to successfully confront the stem
competition of non-EU mining regions such as those
of Asia, South America, and Australia. Furthermore,
it is worth noting that these regions have the inherent
economic ’’advantages” associated with very low la­
bour costs, mineral abundance and the lack o f envi­
ronmental cost. The viewpoint was expressed that a
common EU mining code w ill help neighbouring
countries maintain the desired, unspoiled, condition
of their natural resources. In the absence o f such a
code, a country, due to negligence, might pollute
water (both underground and surface) which, in turn,
might travel across state boundaries. This applies to
any kind of resource and is especially important if
one considers the relatively small size o f Europe.
The survey highlighted the view that a common
European mining policy is essential because a single
united EU economy, cannot function effectively un­
less basic economic policies are renewed to repre­
sent the new European existence.
2.1 .2 The ^present ” stan dpoin t o f the E U in the
f ie l d o f m ining a n d the a sso c ia te d im pact on
the G reek m ining industry
The respondents agreed in unison that the ’’present”
standing o f the EU in the field o f mining has indeed
impacted on the Greek mining industry. Generally,
though, the respondents found the EU ’s position
with respect to the mining industry to be positive,
even though commentary, once again, revolved
around the question o f the support for the LOME
convention. It was thought that with the absence o f a
common mining policy within the EU, the Greek
mining industry, amongst other European mining
states, has come to struggle alone in a number o f ar­
eas thus making the need for a strategic plan more
crucial. The downward trend o f the Greek bauxite
and industrial minerals trade, respectively, are typi­
cal examples to support this argument.
References were also made to the detrimental ef­
fects on the Greek mining sector stemming from the
changes that occurred in the former USSR or present
day CIS. The former USSR was a significant cus­
tomer for many Greek mining firms. With the prob­
lems that arose due to the transformation o f the
USSR into the CIS, and the associated transitional
economic problems that surfaced, many previous
customers o f Greek firms were not in as favourable a
position as they once were to purchase Greek mining
products. This in turn impacted negatively on the
Greek mining industry’s performance.
2.1.2 The changes ex p ected after the induction o f
G reece into the com m on European m onetary
a n d econom ic p o lic ie s
The respondents were once again united in their
opinions concerning the changes after the induction
o f Greece into the common European monetary and
economic policies. Although the overall gist of the
answers received reverberated a cautious optimism
pertaining to the Euro, a certain doubt was empha­
sised regarding the volatility and the dependence of
an EU member’s economy on the world markets and
precious metal prices.
Specifically, there was a clear concern that ad­
mittance into the EM U , might hinder each country’s
mining and metallurgical sector’s potential to profit,
especially as far as companies are concerned that
produce intermediate products for the metallurgical
environment. For instance, aluminium and gold pro­
ducers whose prices are set by the stock exchange
would be susceptible.
The reason for this is that the profit margin on
metals directed to the international markets w ill de­
pend to a greater extent on the fluctuations o f the
metal prices (usually in US$) and the Euro - US$
exchange rate. Conversely, though, it was expected
that the EU common monetary system would
strengthen the positions o f the Greek export compa­
nies and markets.
445
2.1.4 The E uropean E nvironm ental L aw s: Em ­
bodim ent into G reece 5 m ining activity, Effect
on the G reek p u b lic 5 p ercep tio n o f m ining
activity an d o f the m ining concern. Im pact on
the G reek m ining firm s 'p e rce p tio n s tow ards
environm ental issues
Within the Greek legal framework, the topic o f envi­
ronmental preservation, is dictated by the General
Parliamentary Decision (K Y A ) 69269/90, (K Y A )
75308/90, N 1650/86, N 998/76 which is almost
harmonised with that o f the EU ’s guidelines. A ll law
changes from EU directives are applied in all EU
countries resulting in a ”Law-harmonisation”. Nev­
ertheless, in several cases this has not yet been ap­
plied due to the slow pacing beurocracy that is usu­
ally met in the public sector in Greece. A number of
respondents mentioned that due to the lack o f a
strategic information planning on behalf o f either the
Greek mining industry or the government, poor envi­
ronmental protection had been achieved.
In contrast, specific measures or projects, such as
quarry rehabilitation projects and lignite land recla­
mation, usually near or within urban centres, are
evident and therefore easily perceived by the public.
Today, the mining concerns are left with no option
but to consider not only new technologies but also
new approaches from an environmentally sensitive
point o f view. Related to this point, are the severe
penalties awarded to offenders for intentional envi­
ronmental spoliation. Companies based within the
EU zone are presently required to pay eco-taxes in­
tended for the preservation o f the environment. To­
day, during the design and planning phase o f a min­
ing operation, environmental protection and land
reclamation are taken into consideration. In Greece,
environmental problems that do exist are more
common in older mining operations.
The research subjects were all o f the opinion that
the European environmental Laws were presently
being incorporated into Greece’s mining activities,
and that the Greek public’s perception o f mining ac­
tivity as well as the mining concern in Greece today
was not positive and especially problematic. Hence,
much work has to be done to amend this situation,
especially by adopting an environmentally fnendly
and socially acceptable approach. The survey also
pointed to the fact that the topic o f ’’the environ­
ment” has evolved into a particularly important
component of the day-to-day operations of mining
companies in Europe.
2.1.5 The im pact o f the form ation o f the E U on
G reek engineers r e g a r d in g : qualifications
an d stan dards o f higher education, career op­
portu n ities an d w orking conditions
The Greek National Labour Institute re­
cently performed a survey in order to ascertain
which qualifications and additional attributes are
sought after by potential engineering employees in
the EU marketplace. It was found that the demands
placed on the engineer, on the quality o f engineering
education, and the quality o f engineering graduates
delivered by institutions, are far greater today than in
the past.
According to the initial survey results, the quali­
fications and additional attributes sought by poten­
tial engineering employees in the EU marketplace
include:
- Engineering degree, preferably with a Masters
degree, especially M B A
- The ability to adapt to a firms’ culture as well as
the ability to operate in an international business
environment
- The ability to communicate effectively in more
than one language. A good knowledge o f the
English language is often stipulated, as well as
the ’’working” knowledge o f another foreign lan­
guage such as German, French or Italian
- The availability o f the individual to travel within
and beyond Greek borders at short notice
- The commitment o f the individual to the firm and
their work
- The capability to fimction effectively and effi­
ciently
- The ability to work as part o f a team
- The readiness to promote the EU ideal within and
beyond Greek borders
- Readiness for continuous training
The EU impact on the Greek engineer’s qualifi­
cation and educational standards was perceived to be
low, since the qualification level in Greece is con­
sidered to be high anyway, however other major pa­
rameters apart from the EU, such as information
technology and its relationship to globalisation
(internet, tele-education), were considered to more
greatly influence the engineer. This means that
Greece’s, and indeed Europe’s engineers are pre­
sented with the challenge o f dealing with not only
rapidly changing but also new technologies which
are mainly based on information and communication
technologies such as software packages, data ex­
change and internet utilisation. It would appear that
the question o f the attainment o f language skills is
not a particularly problematic subject for Greek en­
gineers since there are already a plethora o f foreign
language educational units situated in all major cities
o f Greece. Indeed the learning o f foreign languages
in Greece is not a new phenomenon and was viewed
as a necessity even prior to the onset o f globalisa­
tion. Unfortunately, this is not the case even in some
industrialised European states where, perhaps, the
incentive to learn even an internationally prevalent
language, such as English, is still lacking.
Engineers o f Greek origin moving to other EU
countries for better career prospects is already a fact,
especially when post-graduate studies abroad are
concerned. W ith respect to European engineers who
come to work in Greece, present indications would
446
suggest that this is not very likely to happen on a
mass scale, except in the cases where big infrastruc­
ture projects have been undertaken by EU firms in
Greece. This point is undoubtedly linked to degree
recognition that is considered at a later stage.
As for the working conditions, studies indicate
that they have been deteriorating during the last dec­
ade. For example the permanent off-the-record ex­
tension o f the 8 hour day, and underpayment were
highlighted by the respondents. Intensification o f the
work terms is obvious, especially in the private sec­
tor. This may correlate to the EU formation, in the
sense that firm competition today is more intense
than ever before, and no national, trade, or any other
borders exist anymore.
2.2 The C oncept o f ”M orals by A greem en t ” a n d the
E uropean reality
The principle o f ’’morals by agreement” suggested
by Gauthier, is also incorporated into this paper,
since it is believed that such an idea would be bene­
ficial to all parties concerned who are about to enter
into a cross-border agreement, by aiding them in the
decision-making process, and thereby fostering an
environment that could only present the maximum
utility for everyone concerned.
Hume, for instance, argues that the need for co­
operation arises from the conjunction o f scarcity,
characterising our ’’outward circumstances” and a
bias in favour of the self, characterising our ’’natural
temper”.
This definition describes a situation where as per
the business-like decision making process, each
business unit, selects a particular option from a
number of available options according to greatest
possible individual utility. Gauthier’s theory sug­
gests that a path be chosen that w ill give the most
favourable expectation o f value. This could present
itself in the form of choosing a more cost effective
supplier for a particular raw material, as was the
scenario that unfolded concerning the crisis that af­
fected certain circles within the European mining in­
dustry, or whether or not to invest in a particular en­
deavour. Gauthier suggests an alternative principle
whereby choice is made on an agreed basis o f co­
operation, rather than according to what could give
the individual the greatest expectation o f value.
Furthermore, such an idea not only ensures mutual
benefit and fairness, or justice, but that each party
can expect greater individual utility by adhering to
morality, even though this preference did not ini­
tially have the principle o f morality in mind. Gauth­
ier demonstrates this principle empirically and goes
on to prove that for two or more contract parties, the
optimal outcome in personal utility can only be ob­
tained by an agreed state of co-operation between
the ’’negotiators” as opposed to the customary
’’maximum personal utility” method.
 For example, returning to the illustration o f the
European mining industry, it is significant to point
out that if the potential European customers were to
have formulated their plans regarding product acqui­
sition based on the concept o f ’’morals by agree­
ment”, then they could have expected better long­
term end results as far as cost savings are concerned.
Although purchasing from cheaper suppliers would
bring an initial, short-term cost saving, this cost
saving would actually be misleading and not indica­
tive o f the situation at hand.
It would thus appear that the decision based on
the grounds o f the above analogy, and the decision
process made in accordance to what Hume called
’’the bias in favour o f the self’ and the choice of
cheaper suppliers, does not produce the most benefi­
cial outcome for those concerned, even though, on
the onset, the judgement seemed reasonable.
3 V IE W OF ENG INEERING AND M IN IN G
ENG INEERING HIG HER EDUCATION
W IT H IN THE EU
3.1 G en eral
Throughout the fifteen o f the European Union, there
are 25 academic institutions, that provide mining en­
gineering higher education, leading to the degree of
mining or metallurgical engineering after successful
completion o f a required curriculum o f at least four
or five years at the university level, respectively.
From studies that have been undertaken in Europe, it
is evident that the geographical distribution o f min­
ing engineering education among the EU Member
States is not uniform. Depending on the regional op­
portunities that exist or present themselves coupled
to globalisation amongst other factors, different
policies have been formulated by the mining engi­
neering higher educational institutions with respect
to the curricula contents. Each EU higher educa­
tional institution offers a very wide selection o f pro­
grams, from highly specialised to more general ones.
The number o f students who follow the mining and
metallurgical field o f study, varies widely, and not
only according to each country but also to each in­
stitution as well. This point is reaffirmed when the
European institutions are considered individually.
For instance:
- The United Kingdom’s Imperial College, has for
the past decade, had an annual number o f first
time successful applicants o f approximately 35 to
40 students for Mining, Petroleum and Environ­
mental Engineering put together. Dwindling
numbers o f students is a world-wide phenome­
non, and therefore since 1997 the conventional
Mining Degree is not offered at this institution.
- Delft University in the Netherlands, has imple­
mented an international course for mineral proc­
essing called EMEC or European Minerals Engi­
447
neering Course. In conjunction to this, the
university’s mining students are taking part in an
international course called EMC or European
Mining Course.
- TU Bergakademie Freiberg, in Germany, has no
limitation on the number of new students. In the
last five years, however, the number o f students
had decreased to the lowest level in the univer­
sity’s history. This problem was aggravated re­
cently, when the German industry requested more
graduates, but not enough graduates were avail­
able to fill new positions.
Only a small proportion, that does not exceed 20
percent o f the mining engineering graduates go on to
further their education to the PhD level. The reason
for this is that the additional years o f studies re­
quired are indeed not specially rewarded by the in­
dustry. Expanding further, the 1 to 2 year postgradu­
ate studies which ultimately lead to the Master’s
degree, is generally preferred and is particularly well
followed by not only mining engineering graduates,
but also graduates of other engineering disciplines as
well.
At this point, it is necessary to deviate slightly
from the subject at hand for the moment to highlight
the especially important topic o f the recognition o f
qualifications. With the increasing rate of, and ne­
cessity for, the free exchange o f knowledge and the
movement o f skilled people within and across EU
borders, it has become necessary to ascertain, com­
pare and measure credentials.
From the survey performed, there still appears to
be a lack o f synergy or understanding o f the varying
levels of study amongst countries. A typical example
is that o f the disparity, between the 5 year engineer­
ing degree courses as per those followed at German
and Greek institutions, and the 4 year engineering
degree course of Great Britain and other English
speaking countries such as that o f the major mining
nation o f South Afnca.
In Great Britain and South Afnca, a bachelor’s
degree in engineering is awarded after 4 years of
successful study while a Master’s degree in engi­
neering can be obtained after 1 to 2 years o f full­
time study depending on the course followed. A
postgraduate student may then enrol for doctoral
studies upon the successful completion o f a Master’s
degree. Besides the study leading to the master’s de­
gree, a four year degree course is usually followed
by a two to three year branch specific training pro­
gram leading to registration through a national engi­
neering council or association.
As far as the mining fraternity in South Africa are
concerned, the mechanical and manufacturing engi­
neering graduates of the Rand Afiikaans University
situated in Johannesburg are highly sought after in
the South African market place. The reason for this
is that according to the Washington Accord, the en­
gineering degrees at RAU are also accredited by
Great Britain, USA, Canada, Australia and the for­
mer Hong Kong colony amongst others. Another
motivating factor for the preference shown to RAU
engineering graduates is the currently approved pro­
gram at RAU that correlates with the new associated
credit weighting, where one credit is equivalent to
ten notional hours, approximately 1800 hrs o f study
per year. This is 30% more than that required by the
South African Qualifications Authority (NQF). An
emphasis is also placed on materials, and metallurgi­
cal subjects, in addition to the scope o f the conven­
tional mechanical and manufacturing engineering
aspects, o f the degree curricula followed. Expanding
further, the Baccalaureus Ingeneriae (B. Ing. or B.
Eng.) degrees o f the RAU are accredited by the En­
gineering Council o f South Africa and allows gradu­
ates to register as ’’engineers in training” or E IT ’s.
What this means is that the E IT is eligible to apply
for the standard o f’’professional engineer” (Pr. Eng.)
having fulfilled certain prerequisites.
Returning to Europe, one notes that Greece fa­
cilitates the recognition o f degrees via DIKATSA.
D IK ATSA is Greece’s national institution for the
recognition o f foreign degrees. DIKATSA is a very
effective screening process whereby foreign gradu­
ates or postgraduates submit degree particulars for
scrutiny by a board o f DIK ATSA delegates. The
Washington Accord and DIK ATSA act as catalysts
as far as the availability o f modem skills in a modem
world are concerned. This means that a particular
firm can immediately employ the skills o f a foreign
employee knowing that that employee does indeed
possess the required level o f competence sought af­
ter. Thus bureaucracy is minimised or even elimi­
nated and the companies that operate from within the
regions committed to, for example, the Washington
Accord are more flexible in tapping into required
skills in a very short space o f time. This flexibility
relates into an increased competitiveness for the
company concerned.
The need for a flexible European industry, de­
mands the establishment o f an unambiguous EU de­
gree recognition programme that is cost effective to
everybody concerned, swift, universal, and binding
in all EU states.
4 CONCLUSION
The evidence presented in this study serves to sug­
gest that, as far as EU industrial mineral products are
concerned, the majority o f the EU countries follow a
philosophy which is more sensitive towards price
levels as opposed to product quality, thus explaining
the shift towards third-world suppliers. It would ap­
pear that these firms are neglecting the development
of, or even the support for the European Union’s
mining industry and economy. Economopoulos sup­
ports this view by mentioning that:
448
”In order to overcome this phenomenon, which
has as a direct result the reduction o f production o f
certain minerals which also endangers the very ex­
istence of the Greek mining industry, the Greek
Government as well as the mining enterprises must
examine several ways to improve the scheme o f the
Greek mining sector in general”
From a survey performed and further evidence,
one can conclude that globalization had the effect
that several mining and manufacturing related cur­
ricula for engineering degrees in the EU and some
non-EU countries have had to be revised. There is
however still a lack of synergy or understanding of
the varying levels o f study between countries. This
situation may seem to be in conflict with the need
for a flexible European industry where pan-
European and non-European degree recognition
should be cost effective and binding in all EU states.
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gradu ates in engineering in the m etallu rgical an d
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sity o f Athens (N TUA).
Bogolomov, A. 1974. C om parability o f engineering
courses an d degrees. A m eth odological study.
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nom ic an d m onetary union in Europe. Longman
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Economopoulos, E. 1996. Data on the activities of
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 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3
Selected aspects o f restructuring hard coal m ining sector
R. Magda
University o f M ining and Metallurgy, Krakow, P oland
ABSTRACT: The paper presents a number of major activities, which were undertaken to restructure the Polish
coal mining sector in the 1990s. Special attention is given to technical and technological aspects. A mathe­
matical modeling example is presented which involves optimizing the production at a colliery, taking into ac­
count the quality requirements o f end users.
1. IN TR O D U C TIO N
Transformations o f the Polish mining sector towards
the free market economy started in the early 1990s.
The mining sector, due to the effects of centralized
planning, was unable to operate in the free market
system and therefore required deep restructuring.
Collieries, which became independent companies in
early 1990 started the restructuring process, on their
own accord. The restructuring o f the mining sector
as a whole began in early 1993 when the Economic
Committee o f the Council o f Ministers approved the
first coal mining restructuring program and created
mine holdings.
Because o f a number o f events, which took place
during the period o f transformations the economical
and financial situation o f many holdings became ex­
tremely difficult. Management was faced with the dif­
ficult task o f deep and multi-directional restructuring.
The basic reasons o f such adverse conditions were
the excessive production capacity, which could not
be maintained on that level, and too high production
costs (high labor costs and too many employees). At
the same time coal prices on the world market ceased
to be advantageous to Polish coal exporters.
During the next few years attempts were made to
lower both the production capacity and costs, reduce
the number o f employees and the mines’ debt which
was increasing all the time. Recently a government
restructuring program aimed at the coal mining sec­
tor, approved by the Council o f Ministers on
30.06.1998 (Reforming 1998) and modified on
21.12.1999 (Modification 1999), was put in place.
The main objectives o f the program are as fol­
lows:
449
1) Adapting the coal companies to free market con­
ditions so that Polish coal should be competitive
on the domestic market;
2) Meeting the demand for coal in Poland until 2010
and exporting coal at a profit, while strictly ob­
serving environmental protection requirements
and European Union competition standards.
2 M A IN DIRECTIONS OF THE RESTRU­
CTURING PROCESSES
The strategic aims of the Polish coal mining sector
restructuring can be grouped into the following ar­
eas:
- Operational issues;
Technology and engineering;
- Organization and ownership structure;
- Employment;
- Finance.
Operational issues involve:
- closure of collieries that do not have the potential
to become viable;
- joining o f several collieries, while at the same
time implementing new mining practices to in­
crease productivity;
- closure of ineffective panels or those nearing ex­
haustion to simplify the collieries’ structure;
- changing of the organizational structure so that
the collieries being closed should cease to con­
tribute to the financial results o f collieries still
operating.
Major activities of technological restructuring are:
- verifying the coal reserve base in terms of viabil­
ity and selective mining;
- simplifying o f mine models (reducing the number
o f shafts and horizons, and the total length of
workings and gate roads);
- concentrating production via increasing the effi­
ciency o f technological facilities, enhancing their
reliability, improving the productivity and reliabil­
ity o f coal supplies;
- improving coal quality;
- improving the environmental conditions and lim­
iting mining subsidence;
- reducing the capacity o f other plants (such as
washery or transport facilities) in response to lim­
ited longwall productivity;
- modernising mining equipment to increase pro­
ductivity;
- taking the necessary measures to limit the nega­
tive impact on the environment;
- limiting the mining production to achieve opti­
mal levels in terms o f quality and quantity (neces­
sary in a free market system).
Restructuring in terms o f organization and owner­
ship involves the following major steps:
- putting in order all the matters relating to owner­
ship o f buildings and grounds;
- distinguishing those surface divisions (services
and ancillary units) which can be transformed
into independent companies, the capital being
provided from internal and external sources;
creating new companies on the basis of non­
productive assets, the mine company being one of
the shareholders;
- utilising the non-productive assets through sales
or proper management;
- privatizing surface facilities (for example: motor
transport, workshops, security and waste dis­
posal);
- privatizing surface units and buildings (sports and
cultural facilities, employees housing, catering fa­
cilities, sports clubs and community centres).
The restructuring o f employment involves:
- limiting the recruitment o f new employees;
relocating employees from collieries being closed
or partially closed;
- granting employees who have not reached re­
tirement age all the benefits within the Social
Benefit Fund for Mining, including special leave,
activation schemes (social benefits, free-of-
charge retraining courses, conditional or uncondi­
tional voluntary redundancy payments, access to
preferential loans);
- adhering to the rule that employees who reach
retirement age should retire and offering no part-
time employment;
- avoiding the dismissals o f large groups of em­
ployees;
With regard to finance, restructuring may involve:
- writing o ff a part or the whole of the debts;
- postponing the payment o f liabilities for a definite
period;
450
- dividing the due sum to be paid in instalments;the
conversion of company debt into equities or
shares;
- releasing the mines from the obligation to pay
current charges and fines.
Financial restructuring may be done with respect
to liabilities (plus the interest), which are due to:
- the state budget excluding certain liabilities speci­
fied by the law;
- Social Insurance Institutions and Labour Funds
and Guaranteed Labour Benefit Funds (insurance
premiums);
- State Fund for Rehabilitation o f the Disabled
(obligatory contribution);
- Environment protection funds (environmental
fees and fines);
- Local communities (taxes, fees and fines).
The reforming of the mining sector may also in­
volve privatizing mining companies. Collieries, which
have reasonable potential to be viable may be privat­
ized. In the more distant future mining holdings can
be privatized, too. The first colliery ready for privati­
zation is “Bogdanka’ in Lublin Coal Basin. Smaller
plants, formerly the part o f surface facilities, may be
privatized too.
3. CONTRIBUTION OF ACADEMICS AND
SCHOLARS
Major achievements were observed in management
and technological restructuring. According to Kar-
bownik (Karbownik et al. 2000), the achievements
from 1998 to 31.10.1999 were as follows:
- the number of operating collieries was reduced
from 70 to 49;
- the number of longwalls was reduced from 861
to 191;
- longwall productivity increased from 863 to 2332
tons per day;
- the number of levels was reduced from 177 to
108;
- the length of gate roads was reduced from
1795.5 to 945 km.
The structure of mining companies was changed,
preparation and development works were limited, the
length of gate roads and ventilation shafts were re­
duced, numerous shafts and structures were re­
moved, more effective management of resources,
machines and equipment was enforced. Management
system restructuring and the concentration o f pro­
duction were accompanied by reducing employment
levels, which had a direct bearing on productivity.
During that period the number o f employees was re­
duced from 415740 to 182586.
Mining science has greatly contributed to the re­
structuring program, especially operational research
and mathematical modeling based on computer tech­
niques. State of the artificial computer techniques al­
low for the development o f quite precise simulation
models, which can be analyzed to facilitate decision­
making processes by managers o f collieries and mine
holdings.
Mine operations in a free market economy present
a new challenge for researchers in the field of mining.
Mines were making the production plans in response
to the situation on the fUel market stimulated by the
users’ needs. Production requirements determined
the extent o f development and preparatory works.
This problem is o f primary importance when the
mined deposit has a variable quality or when the geo­
logical and mining conditions vary (Stachowicz,
1997).
Preparatory and development work may be done
in various spatial configurations, the longwall face
may be entered from several directions, the geomet­
rical and mining parameters o f panels and longwall
faces and development fronts may vary too. Gener­
ally speaking, it is possible to establish a set of vari­
ants and select those, which meet the specified re­
quirements as to the quality o f thus mined coal.
Hence it is possible to find variants that meet the re­
quirement o f maximal efficiency of the mining proc­
ess.
Application o f new computer techniques allows
for the development o f a mathematical model map­
ping the form o f the deposit and its quality parame­
ters and to specify the parameters of coal for each
variant. After the necessary mathematical opera­
tions, it is possible to finally choose the variant or the
group o f variants that meet the specified quality cri­
teria, at the same time ensuring maximal efficiency of
mining.
The starting point (initial phase) is the analysis of
demand and defining the quality parameters requires
by the users. Market conditions changed dramatically
after 1989, and unconstrained demand gave way to
difficulties o f coal sales. Strong competition for lim­
ited demand enforced the introduction and develop­
ment o f marketing instruments. This process was
gradual and a producer-oriented system was changed
into a distribution-centred one. It was decided that
marketing activities should focus on ensuring distri­
bution and the sale o f coal. Accordingly, collieries
focused their attention on coal distribution and sales.
During that stage the sales plan is prepared, taking
into account the quality parameters and the time lim­
its. The next stage involves the analysis of coal
preparation efficiency and defining the qualitative and
quantitative relations between saleable and raw coal.
In that way one can determine the quality parameters
of raw coal such that the parameters of coal after
preparation met the customer requirements. To de­
fine the raw coal parameters it is necessary to analyse
the preparation processes and define the functional
relationship between the parameters of marketable
coal and those o f raw coal. For that purpose one may
use the data from previous years summarizing the pa­
451
rameters of marketable coal and raw coal in corre­
sponding streams. For example, calorific value, ash
content and sulfur content are quality parameters of
steam coal. Using correlation and regression and
basing on the data from previous years one can find
the functional relations between the calorific value of
marketable and raw coal, ash content and sulfur con­
tent in marketable and raw coal. On the basis of thus
obtained regression dependencies, at that stage one
can find the desired parameters of raw coal.
The next stage involves the development o f a data
bank about the deposit, in the form of numerical
maps of seams being mined. For that purpose one
may utilize the available information about the de­
posit based on the data from boreholes and mine ex­
cavations (dog headings and shafts). On that basis a
data bank of parameters can be created (seam thick­
ness, calorific value, ash content and sulfur content)
presented against the co-ordinate system 0(x,y,z).
Available computer programs allow for calculation of
the values o f analyzed parameters for the nodes of a
regular grid, then using interpolation one draws the
maps of these parameters’ distribution within the
mining area of the colliery. Processed data relating
to qualitative parameters o f the deposit for the nodes
of the regular grid are stored in computer memory
and can be read by other applications. Thus created
data banks can be used for forther modeling.
During the subsequent stage the variants of devel­
opment and mining processes are investigated. These
include practicable combinations o f location and
geometrical parameters of longwall panels, the min­
ing practice, technological facilities and work organi­
zation parameters. Such set of variants can be cre­
ated while focusing on the following parameters:
- locality o f the longwall panels;
- geometry of the longwall panels;
- direction of panel entry within the seam;
direction of longwall entry within the panel;
- technology and work organization;
- the rate of longwall mining within panels, ranging
from the minimum to maximum.
The next stage involves developing numerical
preparatory and development work schedules, which
parameterise the mining activities using computer
programs. Such work schedules should include:
- the co-ordinates of longwall start and end posi­
tions;
- co-ordinates of heading start and end positions;
- the time when mining of a given longwall began;
- the time when mining began in given headings;
- the sequence of longwall mining;
- the sequence of heading mining;
- the rate of drifting or the date a given heading
will be complete;
- relationships between geometrical parameters of
longwalls and development time.
All the data included in the preparatory and de­
velopment work schedule should be fed in a corn-
puter program to create a data base relating to long-
wall and heading mining. Alternatively, two separate
data bases may be created, one relating to longwall
mining, the other to mine headings.
On that basis the computer program yields the
quality and quantity o f the run-of-mine produced
during development. This program may operate
jointly with another data, base relating to longwall
mining parameters. Using the base o f geological data
and longwall mining data the program calculates the
quality and quantity o f the run-of-mine during the
mining phase.
When both programs are used, it is possible to
treat coal produced during the development and min­
ing phases jointly and we get the set of production
variants taking into account the qualitative and quan­
titative criteria.
The main function o f the computer program is to
find the quality and quantity o f coal for various
working face localities, various number of entries and
monthly mining rates. The starting point is creating a
sequence (stream) o f longwalls, which are mined in
series (following the given time sequence) within the
given mining division. The number o f such streams is
the number o f longwalls mined at the same time, i.e.
the total output less the output produced during de­
velopment. The monthly rates being different, the
output may differ in size and in quality. Variants,
which meet the desired criteria (output size or the
expected quality) are stored in computer memory and
used in calculations for further months. The engi­
neering criteria and boundary conditions (relating to
quantity) provide the required output in the given
time period at the same time allowing for minor dis­
crepancies while the longwall mining rate may range
from minimum to maximum. Engineering criteria and
boundary conditions relating to quality mean that the
quality parameters should be below or above the ex­
pected boundary levels while the averaged value -
the quality factor falls within the specified interval
(with allowable deviations). Variants, which do not
meet the desired criteria are thus eliminated. As a re­
sult we get a set o f positive solutions or it may hap­
pen that no option should meet the requirements. In
the first case one proceeds to the next stage, while in
the latter it would be necessary to change the criteria
or extend the range o f allowable deviations.
During the last stage for each element of the set of
positive solutions (that is for each variant of devel­
opment and mining schedule) one calculates cash
flows and basing on the economical criteria the opti­
mal variant can be selected. In this case the integra­
tion method can be applied (Magda 1994, 1999) to
determine the cash outflows, nominal or discounted
financial results and net cash flows. The main crite­
rion in decision-making could be finding the mini­
mum or maximum o f the given constraint function
(expressed in economic categories), such as unit ac­
cumulation or the net profit.
452
4. CONCLUSIONS
The paper presents the main actions undertaken to
restructure the Polish mining sector, special attention
was given to structural changes and mining practices.
The results in that field are most spectacular and do
not differ from European or world standards ob­
tained in comparable geological and mining condi­
tions. Mining science is faced with a great challenge.
New research methods and mathematical models fa­
cilitating decision-making were developed. The col­
lieries and mine holdings were forced therefore to re­
vise and modify their production plans and to tailor
their output to meet the quality and quantity re­
quirements of their customers. That process is re­
flected in development and mining plans prepared by
the collieries, which had to be more flexible and re­
spond to the situation on the market. In this case ap­
plication of more advanced mathematical models and
techniques well adapted to specificity o f geological
and mining conditions was becoming more and more
important. The decision-making bodies were thus en­
abled to analyze and evaluate potential variants of
mining activities taking into account the desired cri­
teria and numerous variants involving engineering,
technological and organizational aspects considered
in time and space. The paper presents an example of
multi-stage modeling of mining process in a colliery
where the quality parameters o f the deposit may
vary. The model takes into account customers’ re­
quirements relating to quality and quantity of pur­
chased coal.
REFERENCES
Karbownik at al. 2000. Present-day conditions and new direc­
tions for collieries restructuring. Proceedings of the Under­
ground Exploitation School: 47-63. Krakow
Magda, R. 1994. Application of integrational theory of mine
production process modeling to optimization of selected
parameters of coal panels. Proceedings of the Third Inter­
national Symposium of Mine Plarming & Equipment Se­
lection: 105-110. Balkema. Rotterdam. Brookfield
Magda, R. 1999. Modeling and optimization of mine ele­
ments: 63-101. Krakow
Modification of the Government program: Reforming the Pol­
ish mining sector in 1998-2002. 1999
Reforming the Polish mining sector in 1998-2002. Govern­
ment program approved by the Council of Ministers. 1998
Stachowicz, S. 1997. Preparatory and development works for
coal deposits of variable quality. Wiadomosci Gomicze,
no.4:140-148
This study is supported by the State Committee for Scien­
tific Research - contract no 11.11.100.472.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Innovative tools for perform ance im provem ent in CVRD m ines

I. M. Menezes & E A.G. Magalhaes

Com panhia Vale do R io D oce, Itabira, B razil

ABSTRACT: Companhia Vale do Rio Doce (CVRD), Brazil’s largest iron ore producer, has carried out, in
the last decade, several management initiatives aiming to achieve a higher level of performance. One of these
initiatives is called “Programa Produ^ao Nota 10”, which can be translated as Grade 10 Production Program.
The main elements of the program are: the organization of personnel into teams that work to accomplish ob­
jectives set for groups and departments that are joined together; education and training in technical and social
fields; and, systems for monitoring progress towards the goals. The teams that perform best are given awards
in special ceremonies that are scheduled periodically. Most of the indices used to measure operational per­
formance during the last three years indicated improved performance when compared to the previous year.
The purpose of this paper is to present in detail this innovative management program which is producing deep
effects at CVRD.

1 IN TRO DUCTIO N
Quality programs and participative management
have generated much interest since the late 80’s in
Brazilian mining companies. CVRD has made sig­
nificant changes in its organizational structure and
management processes since then, trying to prepare
itself for the new challenges that the mining indus­
try faces in the future. Participative management is
seen as a potentially powerful tool leading to a
higher level of employee commitment to the com­
pany’s objectives.
Considering that mining activities are still very
dependent on manpower, mining companies are
recognizing that focusing on the evolution in social
relations is just as important as the evolution in
technology to achieve success. This is a very im­
portant change from the traditional way of thinking.
In the past, mining has achieved many more devel­
opments in terms of technology, than in human re­
source areas (Boeira apud G A VIN , 1999). Now
competitive weapons are being adopted in organiza­
tional fields, in association with technological inno­
vations, in order to fu lfill the necessity of increasing
production while maintaining the lowest costs possi­
ble, and keeping pace with the market leaders.
The new approaches for the coming decades in­
clude the cultivation of an environment centered on
a continuous learning process and the quest for an
equilibrium in relations with the workforce. Success
shall depend on the organization’s capacity to ob­
serve changes and adapt itself quickly; timely deci­
sions are fundamental to be competitive.
To proceed in this direction, a high-involvement
strategy was adopted by CVRD, and several initia­
tives have been carried out in its different opera­
tions. A project that has established itself as a
proven success is entitled “Programa Produ^ao Nota
10” (Grade 10 Production Program), also known
simply as PNIO. It was created by CVRD’s opera­
tional personnel in early 1997 and is based upon ex­
perience gained during the preceding years with
other quality programs developed by the company,
which had worked with important principles, al­
though not all of the techniques found fertile soil in
which to grow.
Its purpose is to improve production by continu­
ally encouraging employees to engage in new and
creative work methods.
The outstanding features of the PNIO program
are the integration of the successful elements of the
previous experiences, combined with a high empha­
sis on a participative environment, and also an in­
novative way of controlling the data and presenting
the results.
2 THE MODEL
This section outlines how the program was con­
ceived, the concepts and principles, as well as the
changing processes involved.

453
2.1 The Com pany
Founded in 1942, Companhia Vale do Rio Doce has
grown to become the world’s largest exporter of iron
ore and pellets to customers in more than thirty
countries. It operates several mines in Brazil, in two
main areas: 1) the Southern System comprises all the
activities for mining, rail transport and port opera­
tions located in the states of Minas Gerais, Espirito
Santo and Mato Grosso do Sul; 2) the Northern
System includes the Carajas iron ore and manga­
nese mines, the railroad which crosses the states of
Para and Maranhao, and the port operations in Sao
Luis. Their annual output is about 102 million tons
of iron ore and 1.5 million tons of manganese ore.
The pelletization plants are located at Tubarao,
Espirito Santo, and produce 25 million tons of pel­
lets annually.
The PNIO program was launched first at mining
processes in Itabira and Carajas, later it was adapted
also to the beneficiation plants, the pelletization
plants and the railroad operations.
2.2 D efinition
2.2.1 M ain con cepts
The project was conceived to involve and motivate
employees’ participation in the production process,
aiming at a higher level of commitment through:
1. Setting up work teams and encouraging partici­
pative enterprises.
2. Encouraging knowledge contribution in technical
fields, as well as in interpersonal and group rela­
tions.
3. Creating unity of purpose.
4. Defining common goals among the departments;
establishing and communicating the specific
goals clearly to the operational level and main­
taining effective control of them.
5. Developing a strong sense of common ownership
and responsibility concerning the equipment.
2.2.2 O bjectives
The primary objective of the program was deter­
mined by the two main goals established: 1) to ac­
complish the given production program and 2) to
succeed within the operational cost expected. We are
seeking to accomplish these targets year after year.
However, these were not the only goals; we also
intend to achieve a higher overall performance in the
operations, higher reliability and better utilization of
equipment.
Other objectives were: 1) to change the decision
making process so that decisions could be made by
people close to the action, promptly and accurately;
2) to zeal for personnel integrity and work life
quality; and finally, 3) to endeavor for excellence in
the activities developed.
454
2.3 Conflicts often p re sen t in mining com panies
The general organization of mining companies is
usually very similar, and so are the inherent conflicts
faced. The most common concerns are:
1. Conflict of interests among the different depart­
ments, e.g. production vs. maintenance; quality
vs. production.
2. Conflicts in relations with the workforce.
3. Poor communication and competitiveness among
shifts.
4. Safety and environmental issues (mining is an in­
dustry that involves significant risks to personnel
and environment).
5. Traditional hierarchy and participative styles are
seen as an “either/or” scenario.
6. Supervisors and managers not prepared for dele-
gating/empowering.
7. Unmet expectations and diminished morale of
operational people can cause serious setbacks on
assets.
8. Reluctance to take on additional responsibilities.
A ll these problems, on different scales, were pre­
sent in the CVRD mines at the time the program got
started, and all of them were successfully eliminated,
or at least noticeably diminished.
2.4 H ow it w orks
Firstly, the teams were organized. To make it possi­
ble, individual operators had to be assigned to indi­
vidual pieces of equipment, avoiding the situation of
too many people operating the same machine, so a
strong commitment between every operator and
every piece of equipment could develop. A ll the op­
erators and maintenance professionals were organ­
ized in teams, and an intense training program took
place. The operators were motivated to take care of
the machines as if the machines belonged to them.
At the same time common goals were established
for all departments involved: operating, maintenance
and quality control areas. This step consisted of
many discussions to assure that each individual
would have a view of the whole and a commitment
to it, while dealing with the intrinsic problems of the
area. The goals had to be assigned and explained to
all the fleets and all the teams, and each employee
had to know his fleet’s targets and his required con­
tribution to achieve them. Operational and mainte­
nance people had to understand that they formed a
unique team, and they were responsible together for
achieving the objects.
Secondly, all the teams began meeting in order to
discuss the goals, the guidelines to be adopted by
each team, the equipment’s most critical problems,
and the proposing and implementing of solutions.
The PNIO teams are self-managed groups, each one
has a facilitator who is responsible for supporting
the activities. The groups usually meet once a
month, however, each one has its own schedule of 2.5.1 S ocial changes
meetings. Interpersonal and behavioral dimensions are very
Finally, a ranking system was established to often neglected when dealing with a new manage­
compare the teams’ performances, and a recognition ment model or a quality program, but, as a matter of
and award system was instituted. Table 1 below is fact, they are among the most important considera­
an example of an Evaluation Sheet for trucks and tions for the organization to have its objectives ful­
wheel loaders, outlining the items taken into account filled. It’s not only an economic question but also a
and the respective weight that w ill determine the fi­ human and social commitment.
nal score. Changing the group’s mindset and coaching peo­
ple to openly discuss the problems while looking for
practical solutions was the first challenge to be won.
Table 1. Evaluation Sheet for off-highway trucks and Training sessions were given to all participants, pre­
wheel loaders paring them to work in groups and making them re­
Fleet’s targets Weight ceptive to changes.
Operational cost 16 In the PNIO program, the main social changes
Total amount moved 15 were:
Team’s targets Weight - Each employee has to think, feel and act as if
Utilization (worked hrs/calendar hrs) 10 he/she were the business owner. The central idea
Productivity (t/hkm) 10 behind a participative management process is that
MTBF (Mean time between failures) 5 empowered employees w ill feel more responsible
MTBS (Mean time between stops) 5 and productive about their jobs.
MTTR (Mean time to repair) 2 - Strengthen team work; broaden participation of
Accidents 5 employees in decisions.
Housekeeping 2 - Information must reach all the people involved;
Re-work 10 every one should be concerned with the individ­
Components' lifetime 12 ual and collective goals.
Top ten problems identification 2 - Operation and maintenance personnel should
Improvement initiatives 6 share responsibilities and look for solutions, not
Total 100 try to blame. A premature breakdown is object of
analyses, operators, mechanics, and technicians
are present.
Table 2 shows lifetime targets for trucks’ compo­ - Change the attitudes towards employees, giving
nents. Each piece of equipment has its main compo­ them confidence.
nents monitored in terms of lifetime and repair cost. - Generate a positive attitude in direction of recog­
The sheets are updated monthly and made available nition, praise, approval of initiatives. Attitudes
to the corresponding teams regarding the actual life­ that prevent failures or a machine breakdown are
time, number of hours to accomplish the target and stressed.
items replaced during the month. - Reinforcement in practices of cleaning and
checking the machine.
- Emphasis in raising morale, reducing absenteeism
Table 2. Lifetime targets for trucks’ components and reducing personal or non-personal accidents.
Description Goal (hours)
Engine 16,000 2.5.2 Technical changes
Transmission 10,000 In technical fields, the most prominent changes
Final drive 10,000 were:
Torque converter 10,000 - Standardize and optimize resources; systematic
Differential 10,000 utilization of statistical tools.
Drive axle 20,000 - The fixed scale assures that all equipment has its
Suspension cylinder 10,000
own operating team, which is committed to the
Tires 10,000
operational performance of its respective equip­
ment.
2.5 Changing P ro cess - Work teams know exactly what is happening with
their equipment and they are constantly discuss­
Changing is the key word in all the implementation ing and treating the problems.
processes of the PNIO program. This is done in two - Housekeeping activities are focused. Check lists
distinct fields: social (behavioral) and technical. are used to evaluate the general condition of
The changing process itself has to be managed in a equipment cleanliness and safety.
proper way so that it’s not seen as something im­ - Observation to the Operational Procedures seek­
posed that meets resistance. ing minimum errors.

455
- Operators are trained in how to recognize vital
equipment’s indications, basic working principles
and simple maintenance activities. This training
was administered by experienced mechanics and
technicians. A ll mechanics were trained, also, in
subjects concerning operation of the equipment.
- Emphasis on maintenance engineering function
aiming at better reliability and availability of
equipment.
- Improve workers productivity by better organiza­
tion and planning.
- Ensure effective preventive maintenance and re­
duce to a minimum the unscheduled repairs.
More planned and scheduled work.
2.6 S upporting com m ittee
A supporting interdepartmental committee was cre­
ated. This group is responsible for generating and
analyzing the data, as well as for discussing and di­
vulging the results. The meetings occur every
month starting, with the attendance of the areas’
managers.
One of the group’s tasks was to prepare an action
plan to address specifically designated problems
which was fully implemented, providing all the con­
ditions necessary for a successful starting point.
The role of this group, along with the managers’
support is fundamental in implementing and main­
taining the program.
2.7 R ecognition a n d a w a rd system
The teams receive a certain score according to the
goals accomplished each month. Thus, the teams are
ranked and the ranking is printed on large sheets to
be posted in the transit areas. Blue stars are given to
all those teams which achieved the minimum score
required, and a specially designed star is given to the
best team of each fleet. These stars are drawn on
the sheet and also put on the equipment as long as
they maintain the same performance. A healthy
competition is expected as all the same equipment
forms the fleet, and the fleet’s results consolidated
are important in the final evaluation of the teams.
A reward system was established consisting of
two steps: recognition and awarding.
The recognition system consists of a periodic
ceremony (every four months), where the teams that
had been given a star meet the general manager and
all the staff during a social event, and where the
supporting committee has the chance to present re­
sults, and point out necessary improvements. A spe­
cial ceremony takes place at the end of the year
giving prominence to the best year’s teams.
The teams that present the best results in each
fleet are awarded. The awards are usually simple,
the objective is to give the participants acknowl­
edgment, not something that could be turned into an
456
“end” in itself. In Carajas the teams are given bonus
coupons that can be changed for goods in the local
market.
3 RESULTS
The supporting committee had taken the precaution,
in the program’s first stages, of considering as many
contributions as possible, so that the program could
be constructed step by step, instead of being “sold”
to employees. The reaction in the first months after
implementation was enthusiastic, and this state has
endured as the results have grown better and better.
Many operators got praise because of actions taken
in order to prevent breakdowns, and many of them
made old equipment look brand new. The number of
teams that have been given stars increased with
time.
In terms of costs, both Itabira and Carajas mines
have demonstrated significant reductions. The strip­
ping cost of Itabira mines has dropped by 15 % in
two years, and ten of thirteen fleets have had their
operational cost reduced after the first year. About
80% of the equipment experienced a direct increase
in overall performance. The number of lost days due
to sick licenses has dropped by half. One of the most
expensive parts of trucks and wheel loaders, the
tires, had an increase in average lifetime of about
8% in less than 6 months.
We verified that having truly participating work
teams committed to common and specific goals in
the processes is the most effective way to achieve a
high level of performance.
Some of the monitored items are shown below:
Utilization index, expressed by the worked time over
the calendar time, for 190 t and 240 t capacity trucks
(F ig .l); Mean Time Between Failures for cable and
hydraulic loading shovels (Fig.2); finally, non
scheduled stops for trucks’ maintenance (Fig.3).
- Caue Mine - Concei9ao Mine
Figure 1. Utilization index for trucks. (Only the last trimester
was considered in 1999 due to the decrease verified in sales up
to September that year).
 REFERENCES

Anonymous, 1998. Regulamento do Projeto Produçào Nota 10.

Figure 2. Excavation fleet MTBF, in hours.
Companhia Vale do Rio Doce, Brazil.
Boeira, J.L.F. 1999. Gestào da qualidade total e a industria bra-
sileira de minério de ferro: Limites e possibilidades. MSc
thesis, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Brazil.
El Aouar, A.S. et al. 1997. Projeto Produçào Nota 10. Work­
shop: Mining Best Performance. Belo Horizonte: IBRAM.
Falconi, V. 1989. Gerência da Qualidade Total. Rio de Ja­
neiro: Block Editores.
Katzenbach, J.R. & D.K. Smith 1994. A Força e o Poder das
Equipes. Sào Paulo: Makron Books
Nakazato, K. 1997. TPM - Total Productive Maintenance. In­
ternational Seminar on Advanced Technology. Sâo Paulo:
IM&C.
Nepomuceno, W.J. 1999. Profissional do Futuro. Companhia
Vale do Rio Doce, Brazil.
Schuyler, J. 1997. Best Practices in Project Evaluation and In­
fluence on Company Performance. Journal of Petroleum
Technology, USA.
Tomlingson, P.D. 1993. Effective maintenance - The key to
profitability. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Figure 3. Non scheduled stops for maintenance of transporta­

tion fleet. (The year 1999 was not considered because a new
fleet was purchased).

4 CONCLUSION

The project “Produ^ao Nota 10” is now a mature

program, present in several departments of CVRD
from mine to port, including beneficiation and pel­
letization plants. It fills its role helping to bridge
gaps in the organization, that have, for so long
blocked necessary initiatives for performance im­
provement. It’s an “in-house” developed project,
that makes a significant difference in the program’s
implementation. “Participative Management” and
“Total Quality” principles are turned into reality.
What is next for the mining industry in the third
millennium is difficult to predict, but we can say that
the way requires a new relationship pattern between
workers and shareholders, where the dynamism w ill
demand a posture of endeavor, respect, participation
and team work. New management models w ill be
fundamental for an organization’s success.

ACKNOW LEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to express sincere thanks to all

those who formed the first committee for the Itabira
mines, which was responsible for developing and
implementing the program. We also would like to
direct special thanks to Eng. Joao Antunes and Prof.
Michael T. O’Brien for revising this paper.

457
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

System parameters m odeling w hile planning the m ining developm ent

program

I.T. Morozov
State H olding Com pany 'SelidovugoV ,N ovogrodovka, Ukraine

PL Ponomarenko
N ational M ining U niversity o f Ukraine, D nepropetrovsk, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: Economic-mathematical model and engineering system optimal parameters computer modeling
program is represented by the authors. Calculation method allows to fulfil all necessary calculations and to
analyze them on the mine directly without involving the projective organization services.

In the conditions of coal industry transition to the
market relations under planning o f mine works de­
velopment program, not only technical but also eco­
nomic indices are of great importance. I f in the con­
ditions of centralized state-planned (command-
administrative) economy the parameters of supposed
development system were chosen starting from
maximum volume o f coal production, regardless of
its prime cost, the optimum parameters under market
relations should be economically substantiated.
The authors had developed the economic-and-
mathematical model permitting to determine specific
costs by means of mining conditions imitation mod­
eling under mine field section working-out.
The present procedure differs from the themes
developed earlier by the fact that optimization proc­
ess is performed not only in conformity with four
main parameters (wall length, speed of mining face
advance, length of production horizon, seam thick­
ness), but it covers wider range of the costs consid­
ered. It had permitted to develop methods of optimi­
zation of all the main parameters in second working
process flow sheet, realized with the help of personal
computer. It includes the following costs: wages of
the workers, coal production complex cost paying-
off, complex mounting and dismantling, conveyor
transportation o f the coal along the wall, develop­
ment working, production process maintenance, coal
transportation by transport roadways, development
workings amount, ventilation o f production horizon.
The program developed can take into account
different variants o f long-wall system. In particular,
both classic variant o f this system with haulage and
ventilation roadways (two development workings)
and the variant with haulage, intermediate haulage
and ventilation roadways (three development work­
ings) are considered. The program permits to make
similar calculations in case of four development
workings too.
Prime cost of I t o f coal is assumed as the value
criterion of the given economic-and-mathematical
model optimum character.
In conformity with the program developed, 1 t of
coal prime cost calculations were made using Pen-
tium-2-300 personal computer for the wall of 1 =
100, 150, 200, 250, 300 m length, working out the
seam of thickness m = 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, for produc­
tion horizon length L = 800, 1000, 1200, 1600 m
with the speed V = 0.6, 1.0, 1.4, 2.6, 1.8, 2.2, 3.0,
3.4, 3.6 m/day. These parameters are determinative
for any mine working system and are selected on
base of research activities performed by many au­
thors, as well as practical evidence.
Analysis of calculation results permits to draw a
conclusion that speed of mining face advance exerts
the most considerable influence on the prime cost
change. Varying thickness and constant lengths of
the wall and extraction pillar, this relation is ex­
pressed by time dependence. For the seam of 0.8 m
thickness it is described by the following expression:
y = 2 9 M \x under 0.99 (1)
Under any seam thickness (within that parameter
variation range) prime cost is reduced with the in­
crease of mining face advance speed. The most no­
ticeable prime cost reduction is observed under in­
crease of the face advance speed fi*om 0.6 till 1.4
m/day (2.3 times). Thus, on the seam o f 0.8 m thick­
ness it is reduced from 39.36 till 18.66 U AH /t (2.1
times). The registered regularity is typical also for
the seams of other thickness. For example, under the

459
same speed of face advance the prime cost of coal is
reduced also 2.1 times (see Table 1) on the seams of
1.0, 1.2 and 1.4 m thickness.
Increase of the mining face advance speed from
0.6 till 1.8 m/day (3 times) leads to 2.6 times reduc­
tion of coal prime cost (from 39.36 till 15.27 UAH/t
under m=0.8 m; from 31.57 till 12.24 U AH /t under
m=1.0 m; from 26.39 till 10.27 U AH /t under m=1.2
m and from 22.68 till 8.87 U A H /t under m=1.4 m).
Further increase of mining face advance speed
from 1.8 till 3.6 m/day (2 times) results in 1.6 times
prime cost reduction (from 15.2 till 9.13 U AH /t un­
der m=0.8 m, from 12.24 till 7.38 U AH /t under
m=1.0 m, from 10.27 till 6.22 U AH /t under m=1.2
m and from 8.87 till 5.38 U A H /t under m=1.4 m).
Consequently, n times relative increase of min­
ing face advance speed leads to m times relative
prime cost reduction regardless o f seam thickness.
And quite the contrary, absolute prime cost under
the same speed of mining face advance is reduced
with the increase of seam thickness.
Table 1. Variation of It of coal prime cost under in­
crease of mining face advance speed on seams of
various thickness (1=200 m, L=1200 m).
Relative prime cost reduction under in­
Sea crease of mining face advance speed
m objective function (L, 1, V, m) depending on mining
thick from 0.6 till from 0.6 till from 1.8 till
1.4 1.8 3.6
ness
m m/day m/day m/day
0.8 '^■ '^ = 2.6 li:i = 1.6
18.66 15.2 9.13
Influences of each factor separately (seam thick­
ness, wall length, extraction pillar length) under
constant values of the other factors were studied too
(see Figure). To simplify the choice o f parameters,
the mine engineers and technicians have presented
the calculations in the form of nomographic charts.
The analysis of design data proved that:
- the prime cost is reduced under increase of
mining face advance speed, seam thickness, wall
length and extraction pillar length, but influence of
these factors on prime cost reduction is in­
equivalent; the most considerable influence is ex­
erted by mining face advance speed and the most
insignificant is the influence of extraction pillar
length;
- prime cost is linearly dependant on mining
face advance speed and wall length, and non-linearly
dependant on the seam thickness and extraction pil­
lar length;
- under the same speed of mining face advance
the increase of seam thickness, extraction pillar
length and wall length leads to the coal prime cost
reduction by absolute value, but prime cost reduc­
tion by relative value under increase of mining face
advance speed doesn’t depend on seam thickness,
extraction pillar length and wall length.
The developed model and software package on
its base made in Borland Pascal programming envi­
ronment permit to define operatively the values of
and geological data for specific mining enterprise.
Facilitated initial data input permits to the mine en­
gineers and technicians to perform required calcula­
tions and their analysis directly at the enterprise
without attraction of design and planning organiza­
tions.

12.24
I.O —1.U
15.01 12.24 7.38

26.39 _ 10.27 _
1.2 --- Z#. 1 —1.0
12.58 10.27 6.22

22.68 , 8 87
22.68 ^ 2 1 --------= 2.6 — = 1.6
1.4 10.84 18.87 5.38

The similar dependence existing between prime cost

and speed o f mining face advance is confirmed also
when varying length o f the wall and extraction pil­
lar.

460
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A lbanian m ineral industry and its trends in the future

Iljaz Nako, Vasil Jorgji & Arben Bakiu

Faculty o f Geology and Mining, Polytechnic University of Tirana, Albania

ABSTRACT: In this paper it is given a general geological view related with Albanian mineral resources and
mining activity. The data are focused on the main minerals such as chromium, copper, iron - nickel, coal,
bauxite, salt, etc, their shapes, thickness, deepness and the main contents. Especially it is treated the mining
activity in open pits and underground mines, the characteristics of different mining openings according to
their space position, shape and cross section sizes as well as mining methods and their technical and economi­
cal features. In this paper have taken place also the development trends of main branches in Albanian mining
industry for 2 century.

1 INTRODUCTION countries, which have podiform chromate deposits.

Albania, for a long time unknown even by its neigh­
bours, with more than 3200000 habitants, with a
history of great turns, the land of natural, human and
cultural resources, but the land of economic poverty
- this could be the best actual definition for these
28,748 square kilometers in South-West of Balkan.
Small in area, Albania is however a rich country in
mineral resources. Situated between Dinarides in
North and Elenides in South, Albanides form a geo­
logical region with various conditions, which have
determined a large number of explored and extracted
minerals. The main minerals of Albania are: chrome,
copper, iron-nickel, coal, oil and gas etc. Albania
has also bitumen, bauxite, phosphorite, salt,
asbestos, talc, magnetite, placers, dimension stones,
marble, limestone, clays etc. The geological
premises of the principal concentration of metallic
deposits are evaluated to be around hundreds of
millions tons for each deposit such as chrome, iron-
nickel, nickel-silicates, coal, copper, etc. After 1990
the production of mining industry suffered a
considerable fall, but in the last period there are
some indicators of a better perspective.
2 GEOLOGY AND MINING
2.1 Chromium industry
Albania is distinguished for high chromium - bear­
ing potential, evidenced among the Mediterranean
It ranks among the main producers and exporters of
chromium ore, occupying until 1990 the third place
in the world as a global producer.
The main deposits and largest concentrations are
located in the ophiolites eastern belt, being devel­
oped according to a Tropoja - Kukes - Bulqiza -
Shebenik meridional direction. The chromates are
linked with ultrabasic rocks, placed in various levels
of geological sequences.
From the geographical point of view, three are the
chromium - bearing regions in Albania:
a. The north-eastern region, which includes the
Tropoja and Kukesi ultrabasic massif.
b. The central region, which includes the
Bulqiza ultrabasic massif
c. The south-eastern region, which includes the
Shebenik-Pogradec ultabasic massif
About 27.3 million tons, out of total geological
reserves, are located in the deposits which are actu­
ally under exploitation. The main contents of chro­
mium ore bodies are: 20-45% Cr203, 12-13% Fe,
6.8-8.2% Si02, up to 11.2% AI2O3 and up to 14%
MgO, etc.
Generally the chromate ore bodies have vein
shape with changes in thickness from 0.5 to 15m,
such as in Bulqiza, Batra, Thekna (Bulqiza massif),
Ragam (Tropoja massif), etc. The Kalimash deposit
(Kukes massif) has pseudo-stratified shape and in
Krasta (Bulqiza massif) lent shape.
The predominant mining method used in chro­
mium mines is that of sublevel galleries. Following
this method the average miner productivity is about
2.5 - 3 tons per day. When the thickness of the body

461
is more than 3m, some additional working are per­
formed. Under such conditions the miner productiv­
ity is something about 3.2 - 4.6 tons. The mineral
dilution and losses are about 8 - 11%. Recently in
the deepest levels of Bulqiza mine it is discussed to
follow the sublevel cut and fill method to face the
supporting problems.
From the geographical aspect the copper-bearing re­
gions occur mainly in the districts of Has-Kukes,
Puke, Miredita and less in Shkoder and Kor9a. In
general the copper ore bodies have a strike of 400-
500m, a dipping of 50-300m, a thickness varying
from 0.5-40m (average 5-20m) and a dipping angle
from 15 to 80 degrees. The ore bodies have lent
shapes to stratified ones.

Table 1. The reserves o f chromium ore evaluated in January

1998 (000/tons) Table 2. The reserves of copper ore evaluated in January 1998
(000/tons).
A+B+C1+C2 > 42% CrjO^ 38-42% Cr203
Basin Quan- % Quant % Quant % Basin Reserves
tity Cr203 Cr203 Cr203 Quantity %
Tro- 6024 27.58 88 45.05 119 39.99 Kukesi 4810 1.42
Poja Puka 15898 1.40
Kukes 6236 23.74 Shkodra 1419 1.93
Lura 361 24.C 61 45.73 Miredita 19365 1.35
APut! Korça 2708 1.99
Others 724 1.3
Bulqiz 10290 33.70 3927 45.02 62 38.00 Total 44924 1.40
a
Shebe- 743 39.29 479 43.27 20 41.1
nik
The main mining methods followed in copper
Vosko- 37 36.00
poja mines are sub-level caving, sub-level opening and
top slice method. There are several enrichment
Vrithi 54 35.47 plants near the main copper mines as well as some
Total 23745 29.40 4555 44.85 201 39.49 melting plants in Kukes, La9 and Rubik. With the
construction of copper wires and cables plant in
Shkoder becomes possible the full processing of the
There are some dressing plants near the big mines copper ore at home, producing various wires and ca­
such as in Bulqiza, Krasta, Klos and Kalimash bles such as bare copper wires, copper ropes, wires
where the poor mineral (below 30% Cr203), as well covered with PVC, etc.
powders -10mm of chromium over 20% after siev­
ing, produced by the mines, is enriched. There are
also two ferrochrome plants in Burrel and Elbasan, 2.3 Iron - nickel & nickel silicate industry
each with 3 furnaces of 9 MVA which give an in­ Iron-nickel is one of the main branches of Albanian
stalled transformer capacity of 54 MVA. Design ca­ mining industry. Iron-nickel deposits are of the type
pacity of both plants is about 75000 tons of high of weathering crust of the ultrabasic rocks. These
carbon ferrochrome per annum. This capacity has deposits are located in three main zones: in the
never been reached due to numerous problems re­ North (Kukes), in central part (Librazhd & Pogra-
lated to the situation in the country, a shortage of dec) and in the South (Bitincke-Kor9e). Iron-nickel
electrical power and a shortage of capital invest­ reserves are calculated at 266.6 million tons, out of
ments. which 235 million tons are of an average contents
43.8% Fe, 1.01% Ni and 0.063% Co.
2.2 Copper industry The ore bodies are layered, have a stable strike,
an average thickness of 8-10m and a dipping angle
Copper industry includes mining, processing, of 10-20 degrees with a maximum of 35 degrees.
smelting, refining and production of copper wires The contact of the ore body with the top rocks, rep­
and cables, as well as copper by-products as sulfates, resented by limestones, is in general clear and cut,
sulfuric acid, gold, silver, etc. This industry is ex­ while the contact with bottom rocks, presented by
tended mainly in the East-North of Albania. Ac­ altered ultrabasics, is usually gradual.
cording to the geological data are calculated to be The nickel-silicate occurs in two main regions, in
some fifty million tons reserves of copper mineral of the North (Trull, Surroj, Kukes) and in the South
1.1-1.5% Cu. (Bitincke-Kor9e). This ore is localized in the lower
The copper deposits are localized in the ophiolites parts of iron-nickel deposits. The geological se­
of Albanides, mainly in the upper and middle parts quence of the Bitincka deposit, from bottom to top
of their sequence. From the regional aspect the most is: ultrabasics (serpentines), nickel-silicate ore body,
important region of their occurrence is that of central iron-nickel ore body. Eocene carbonate deposits.
Miredita, where widespread are the volcanic rocks. The ore body of nickel-silicate is distinguished from

462
that of iron-nickel in a clear-cut contact, while the 2.4 Coal industry
lower part of silicate-nickel with serpentines is dis­ Coal is one of the main minerals of Albania being
tinguished by means of chemical analyses. The dip­ fully used by internal users. This industry is ex­
ping angle is about 20-25 degrees, the thickness tended mainly in Central South regions of the coun­
about 4-5m. Reserves are calculated about 104 mil­ try. In Albania there are discovered about 700 mil­
lion tons with an average contents of 1.13% Ni, lion tons of coal, as geological reserves. The coal
17.5% Fe, 0.042% Co and 34% Si02. reserves have been localized in 121 layers, of which:
1% consist in thick layers over 2.5m; 0.3% in layers
Table 3. The reserves o f iron-nickel & nickel-silicate ores
with 1.3-2.5m thickness; 22% in thin layers 0.7-
evaluated in January 1998 (000/tons). 1.3m; 76.7% in very thin layers of 0.4-0.7m.
The geological - mining conditions vary from
Basin Quan- Content % one deposit to the other, so inclination varies from 5-
tity Fe Ni SÌO2 Co 85 degrees. The resistance of the surrounding rocks
Iron - Nickel ore
Prrenjas 35839 46.76 1.03 9.66 0.059
of the layers (bottom and top) is different from one
Bushtrice 41857 48.02 1.02 5.3 0.071 basin to the other, but even within the same basin
Katjel 602 32.9 1.22 28.65 0.065 they are not the same. These reserves are distributed
Rodokal 122 50.8 1.02 0.65 in four main basins:
Guri Pishkashit 70 48.61 0.99 5.74 0.06
Gradishte 264 46.6 0.73 3.94 0.054
Guri Pergjegjur 204 48.05 1.02 0.06 Table 4. Reserves of coal
Guri Kuq 60872 42.14 0.97 17.22 0.063
Çervenake 16534 44.18 0.93 14.11 0.065 Quantity, Calorific
Bitincke 52277 41.87 1.12 9.61 0.076 Nr Basin 000/tons power
Xhumage 30279 35.38 0.67 16.1 0.947 (kcal/kg)
Trull Surroj 24654 34.5 1.01 21.3 0.052 1 Tirana - Dürres 613000 3130
Nome 420 33 20.3 0.05 2 Memaliai 30000 4900
Hudenisht 2583 49.71 0.82 4.94 0.069 3 Pogradeci 33400 3100
Berzhite 200 42.3 0,84 7.3 0.055 4 Korçe - Erseke 32400 2770
Total 266577 42.33 0.98 12.78 0.063 5 In other deposits 3500 2500
Nickel - Silicate ore 6 Total 712300 3184
Bitincke 50224 16.38 1.28 24.1 0.038
Trull Suroj 48880 20 0.98 39.61 0.048
Nome 3224 21.75 1.22 40.03 0.049
Total 102328 18.28 1.13 36.92 0.043
Opening of mines has been made through hori­
zontal, steep, vertical and combined works. In gen­
eral the exploitation depth is small and goes up to
Due to terrain conditions the iron-nickel and 500m. The main mining methods used in coal mines
nickel silicate mines have been mainly opened are rising bells method, with caving of exploitation
through horizontal works. An exception is the spaces etc.
Prrenjas mine, opened through combined way (hori­ There are two dressing plants for treatment of
zontal works and vertical wells). In these mines coal in Memaliaj and Valias (which is closed). The
there are used mainly two mining methods: rooms annual capacity of each there was around 500000
and pillars method (in the most of mines) and the tons. The way of treatment was by classical gra­
system with funnels on the layer’s floor, which pre­ vimetric separation. The mineral was crushed and
supposes caving of the surrounding rocks (mainly in washed by water
Prrenjas and Guri i Kuq). The second mining
method is forced by unstability of the top rocks, with 2.5 Industrial minerals
the same thickness as mineral ore body (known as
“Prrenjas series”). This large group of minerals is widespread. For a
At the Guri i Kuq mine has been set up an en­ part of them exist ready - made reserves (with truth­
richment plant which increases the mineral quality fulness scale 90-100%), but we must stress that fa­
with 4%. Smelting of iron-nickel ore is carried out in vorable premises exist to discover new objects and
the metallurgical plant of Elbasan. The infrastructure raw materials. It is necessary to emphasize that con­
of iron-nickel mines is a solved problem. The two cerning industrial materials, only partial technologi­
main mines, Prrenjas and Guri i Kuq are linked by cal studies have been carried out and their field of
railway, from where the mineral is transported to the use and economic profit has not been defined prop­
Elbasani Metallurgical Complex, or to Dürres port, erly yet. Based on the present knowledge, these
for export. The Bitincka deposit is linked by road minerals can be used as raw refractory materials for
about 1 km far from the national road. The nearest siderurgy (olivin, magnetite, kaolin, dolomite, as­
railway station is Pogradec, at a distance of 60 km bestos, bauxite, etc.), as raw materials for ceramics
from the mine. and glass (clays, dolomites, quartzes sands, trepel,

463
etc.), for fertilizers and chemical industry (phos­
phorites, tuffs, limestones, barite, salt stone, etc.), as
anti - acid, electric - insulating, abrasive raw mate­
rial, for the plastic industry, construction, agricul­
ture, etc.
Olivinites: Actually there is known the olivinite
deposit of Kalimash (Kukes) with 60 million tons of
reserves which have a content of about 48% MgO.
Dolomite: In Albania there are known significant
dolomite deposits in Dukat, Letaj, Tervoll, Kraste,
Lin, etc. with over than 58 million tons reserves by
18-21% MgO content.
Gypsum and Alabaster: Huge reserves of gypsum
have been provided in severe deposits (Mengaj-
Kavaje, Bistrice-Sarande, Vlore,
Peshkopi, etc.) There are calculated about 10 million
tons gypsum and 11.6 million tons alabaster, with a
content respectively 80-95% and 95-98% CaS04.
2H2O.
Rock Salt: Two main deposits known are
Dhrovjan (Sarande) and Mengaj (Kavaje) with gen­
eral reserves about 298 million tons. In the first de­
posit NaCl content is about 70%, while in the second
reaches up to 75-80%.
Marbles, decorative stones & construction mate­
rials
Decorative stones are widespread in all Albanian
territory. Here are included several metamorphosed
and partially metamorphosed sedimentary rocks and
magmatic ones, among which are distinguished es­
pecially calcite marbles, dolomitic marbles, marbled
limestones, marbled dolomitic limestones, marbled
conglomerate and brecciated limestones, garnets,
quartz diorites, gabbros and troctolites, olivinites,
dunites, etc. So far have been evaluated 22 deposits
of marbled limestones at reserves of about 120 mil­
lion tons, as well as a great number of interest ob­
jects concerning decorative stones. Decorative
stones vary in color from white to light grey up to
dark red, rose, with different hues. The ultrabasic
magmatic rocks are of an olive, green color, etc. Re­
sistance in pressure at natural state, in the majority
of deposits is over 100 MPa, compactness 96-98%,
volume weight 26.5-27 kN W . Until now exist some
open pit mines for the exploitation of marble, but
with a unsuitable technology. Despite of the carried
out studies it is necessary to conduct higher special­
ized studies for splitting and entity of the physical-
mechanical features. These raw materials are of a
great interest for a further evaluation and setting to
economic circulation. In Albania are known also
manifestations of decorative stones such as opal, ag­
ate, chalcedony, datolite, etc. which can be used
widely in artistic and technical works.
The carried out geological works have revealed a
considerable quantity of construction materials as
limestones, quartzes sands, clays for bricks and ce­
ment, inert materials etc. In about 180 million tons at
5 deposits the purity of limestones is very high.
464
reaching over 97% CaCOa. Through the carried out
workings have been studied about 420 million tons
limestones, 160 million tons clays for bricks, 560
million tons clays for cement, 230 million tons of
quartzes sands for bricks, 200 million tons of inert
materials in the river beds, etc.
3 ACTUAL SITUATION
Chromium mines: The problems at the chromium
mines and at this branch as a whole are a conse­
quence of the fact that the state for years in succes­
sion failed to allocate the necessary funds to the
mines for spare parts, reconstruction and purchases,
for new machinery and equipment. The exploitation
systems, underground transport, ventilation, energy
installations and their infrastructure in general, be­
long to an old technology, already outdated. The
mechanization scale is low and manual work pre­
vails. The machinery and equipment of enrichment
plants in use are very old and consumed to a high
extent. The recuperation index is very low and min­
eral losses to about 40%. As a result of the treatment
of minerals with fresh olivine, the change of the en­
richment technology is indispensable in the Kali­
mash plant. After July 1992, by decision of the
Council of Ministers, was created the chromium
company, named ALBKROM. It is a state company
which has in its administration all chromium mines,
dressing plants, Ferro-chromium plants and from
January 1993, the export too. Chromium production
remain a priority of Albanian’s economy. Since
1948, when chromium production commenced,
about 22 million tons have been extracted. The to­
talitarian communist state has secured large reve­
nues from chromium, but did not made the necessary
investments in the mines for the renewal of the ex­
ploitation technology.
Copper mines: Copper industry is actually or­
ganized in an independent economic community
named ALBAKER (The Economic Community of
Copper Industry), which presumes an independent
administration in planning, manpower, wages, ex­
port-import relations, etc. Meanwhile the actual
mining technology is outdated. Over 90% of the
mineral it is loaded manually. The supporting of
galleries is not mechanized. The work parameters
are below the contemporary ones and miners’ living
and working conditions are very hard.
Iron-Nickel & Nickel silicate mines: The changes
which have taken place in our country in resent
years, with the transition from a centralized to a free
market economy brought almost the closing down of
the Elbasan Metallurgical Complex, the main user of
iron-nickel. The export market, which began in 1959
and continued up to the end of 1990, is closed too.
The main importer was Sered plant in Czechoslova­
kia, which was supplied with about 300000 tons of
iron-nickel a year). In the above mentioned condi­ The approval of Mining Law of Albania (1994)
tions the iron-nickel mining industry is closed down. and relevant Regulations and other Juridical Acts
Coal mines: The coal branch faces actually major which support the privatization of the mining indus­
problems, linked with the lack of the market, lack of try. Based on the Mining Law of Albania any local
financial means to renew the already outdated tech­ or foreign subject could possess a permit of pros­
nologies, low salaries, etc. The existence of these pecting, exploration and exploitation. There are
problems has led actually to a blocking of produc­ foreseen also different liabilities and incentives to
tion diminishing it to the lowest levels. The coal foreign and local investors to promote activities in
market tends to be diminished due to the consider­ mining industry. On the other hand the privatization
able rise of its price, which will lead to its replace­ of particular strategic sectors law (1998), including
ment with cheaper energies. On the other hand sev­ mining sector, makes clear the strategy of privatiza­
eral non-effective customers are closing down their tion of mining industry. It facilitate the procedures
activity. The coal production at home may be com­ during the privatization and supports the idea that
peted by imported coal due to its calorific power and this process is indispensable. According to this law it
price. This puts a question mark to the existence of is foresees the privatization with priority by strategic
the coal mines of the Kor9a basin, those of Pogra- investors of the medium and small units, fast privati­
deci and partially in Tirana basin. zation of small production units, the development of
the mining industry based on the European standards
for the Environmental Protection.
4 FUTURE TRENDS The above mentioned legislation has drawn the
attention and interest of many investors during last
The only way to stop the recession of mineral pro­ years. Many private companies are operating actu­
duction, to stabilize the situation and to develop the ally in different fields of mining activity, such as the
mining industry is the cooperation with foreign in­ exploitation of construction materials, dimension
vestors and analogous companies. In the conditions stones, marbles, clays, material for cement, bitumen,
of market economy, in order to transform it gradu­ bituminous sand, gyps, alabaster, etc.
ally to a profitable branch of Albanian economy, the
mining industry ought to enhance its competitive
power by adapting the demands of internal and ex­ Table 5. Foreign companies interested for Albanian mining in­
ternal market. The first aim is to restart the work, dustry
with their maximum capacity in competitive mines. COMPANY COUNTRY YEAR
Priority will be given to the enhancement of the Union Carbite U.S.A. 1992
processing scale of traditional minerals, especially Ilva-S.p.A./TECHINT Italy 1992
chromium, copper, iron-nickel and nickel-silicate I.T.S. Group Italy 1992
which constitute Albania’s principal mineral wealth. Considar Europe Belgium 1992
A.W.T. Austria 1992
The improvement of production structure and raw
Marc Rich + Co A.G. UK 1992
materials consumption will gradually regulate the Sumitomo Corporation Japan 1992
economic aspects and profitability of raw materials B.S.E. - Essen G.m.b.H Germany 1992
exploitation. The creation of new branches of min­ Macalloy Corporation UK 1993
ing industry by installing advanced technologies will Fucinati S.P.A. Italy 1993
create new income sources. Development in infra­ Preussag Germany 1995-1996
structure needs a great quantity of construction ma­ Acciaierie Venete Italy 1995-1996
terials which, in the last five years, have been ex­ Kinglor s.r.I. Italy 1997-1998
Robinco s.a. UK 1997-1998
ploited in a big scale, throughout in Albania.
Nebex Canada 1995-1998
Providing drinking, industrial and irrigation wa­ Karma Ltd. Canada 1996-1998
ters, solving environmental problems and those of Royal Roads Canada 1996-1998
public service economy constitute a special contri­ Aquater & Descat Italy 1996-1998
bution of the mining industry to the Albanian econ­ Triakom Germany 1997
omy. Providing also qualitative raw materials for
construction nearby the main cities, seashore and
motorways, etc., is another main target of the geo­ Actually it is foreseen the privatization of chro­
logical-mining activity of our country. The first way mium company (ALBKROM) according to a spe­
to achieve these goals is the implementation of a cific law (1999). Meanwhile there are proposals to
new legislation, which will be the base and the secu­ take this company in concession from Italian
rity of all investments in this sector. The government TESARO Company and American “The Metals Re­
for mining sector expresses the tendencies required search Group Corp.” one. On the other hand, for re­
by the free market economy. The most important habilitation of chromium industry and renew the ex­
steps which are carried out toward restoration and traction and smelting technology it is signed an
privatization of mining industry, in legal aspects are: agreement Italian Darfo s.p.a. Company to take in

465
concession the Ferro-chrome smelting plant of Elba-
san as well as the Katjel and Pojska chromium mines
(Librazhd-Pogradec region).
In copper industry it is signed a concession
agreement with American “The Metals Research
Group Corp.” Company (July 1999).
In iron-nickel industry it is signed an agreement
with an Australian Company to reactivate of Prren-
jas mine, also for nickel-silicate mineral it is signed
an agreement with Greek LARCO Company.
In the framework of coal industry privatization
there are given four exploitation licenses two in
Memaliaj mine, one in Gora mine and one in Alarup
one.
Grazhdani, A. (199\) Albanian minerals. University of Tirana,
Faculty of Geology and Mining, Tirana, Albania.
Mining & Processing Technology Institute (1999). Mining
Industry of Albania. Tirana, Albania.
Ministry of Mineral Resources and Industry (1994) Report of
Economic Activities of Coal Mines. Tirana, Albania.
Short, P.J.H. et al. (1991) The Albanian chromium industry
The Mineral Law of the Republic of Albanian (1994), Tirana,
Albania.

5 CONCLUSIONS

Albania, relatively, is a rich country with mineral re­

sources. Especially, it is distinguished for chromium,
iron-nickel and nickel-silicate, copper, coal, etc. Be­
fore 1990 it held the third place for the total chro­
mium production in the world. In this period the
mining industry it was the main branch of Albanian
economy which provided about 40% of export. This
is expressed also by a World Bank report (1979)
where Albania held the 24*^ place for total mineral
production per square kilometer and the 48^*^ place
per habitant. On the other hand, during this period,
mining technology remained the same and didn’t
renovate step by step, so it is already outdated. At
the same time a little attention it was shown in the
field of protection and rehabilitation of the environ­
ment.
Recently, in the free market economic conditions,
a number of mines are closed, while in the others the
activity and production are in very low levels. There
are two main reasons of such a situation. The first is
that these mines were no competitive and the cost of
production very high due to an outdated technology,
or in some cases, as in coal industry, the problem is
related with the quality of mineral and the exploita­
tion conditions. The second one is the inability of
Albanian economy to support with financial sources
the development of mining industry. The only way
to stop the recession of mineral production, to stabi­
lize the situation and to develop the mining industry
is its privatization by foreign and local investors.
The most proper way of privatization may be to give
this industry by concession to strategic and non
strategic investors, especially to foreign ones.

REFERENCES
ALB AKER (1994) Report of Economic Activity. Tirana,
Albania.
ALBKROM (1994) Report of Economic Activity. Tirana,
Albania.

466
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds)
Ways of electric power saving at the coal mines of Ukraine
G.G. Pivnyak & S. I. Vypanasenko
National Mining University of Ukraine, Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Characteristic properties and problems of coal industry in Ukraine are stated. The analysis of
measures for the rising of the power efficiency of mines is made.
Coal and accessory methane are the main power raw
materials in the depths of Ukraine. Coal reserves are
significant and can provide coal extraction for 400
years. General geological reserves of bituminous
coal make up 94,5% and those of brown coal -
5,5%. The average depth of coal mines in Ukraine is
700 meters, about 15 % of mines have the depth
over 1000 meters. About 80% of mines have the
seam thickness up to 1,2 meters; 70% of mines have
flat or inclined seams; 30% of mines have steeply
deeping seams.
It’s necessary to use the effect of market
mechanisms and economic methods of management
to create the competitive branch. International ex­
perience of the coal industry reforming is taken as a
basis for structural transformations in coal branch in
Ukraine. The restructuring supposes the closing of
the unprofitable mines, the significant rising of the
effective operations of the rest mines, and construc­
tion of the new industrial works. Obsolete equip­
ment and poor organization of production are the
main reasons of high power consumption during
coal extraction. Therefore, it’s necessary to systema­
tize all known decisions and pay attention to the new
decisions in the sphere of the power consumption
cutting.
Coal mines are the large-scale consumers of
electric power. The power of the electric loads in
mines is tens of thousands kWs under the annual
consumption of electric power in tens and even hun­
dreds of millions kW/hours, and the single-unit
power of a machine reaches thousands kWs.
The structure of energy consumption in mine
depends upon many factors. The main are the fol­
lowing: the depth of mine, water abundance and the
main type of used power. The standard foresees the
following structure of energy consumption: extrac­
tion plots - 5,26%, development plots - 1,29%, un­
derground transport - 5,6%, air conditioning -
10,88%, water drainage - 14,28%, hoisting -
467
© 2000 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3
13.32%, ventilation - 17,13%, technological com­
plex - of mine surface- 3,75%, generation of com­
pressed air - 2,46%, lighting - 0,69%, other electric
loads - 20,58%, losses of electric power - 4,76%.
The main measures for the electric power saving
and specific consumption cutting of electric power
can be divided into three groups:
- Measures in the productivity rising of mines
by the technology improvement of industrial
processes and by the reliability rising of techno­
logical schemes;
- organization and technical measures directed
towards the active power consumption cutting,
and the equipment efficiency rising;
- measures directed towards the electric power
losses cutting in the power supply system.
Let’s dwell on the characteristic properties of
the realization of such measures.
Th improvement of technological schemes de­
velopment and mining in coal mines supposes the
choice of effective methods of cleaning and devel­
opment work; and also the use of more perfect
transport technological schemes. It’s necessary to
rise concentration of mining operations. This will
allow to cut the extent of the workings. It’s neces­
sary to abandon a simultaneous exploitation of sev­
eral seams in a mine and to urge towards the in­
crease in the number of walls in a seam. Under the
increase in the speed of the combine supply by 1%
during the cleaning work, the specific consumption
of electric power is reduced by 0,44-0,67, and the
potential reserves of the electric power saving of a
wall with complex mechanization reach 13-19% (1).
The consumption level of mechanisms during the
fulfillment of the development work is 65-85% of
the total electric power consumption . The replace­
ment of flight conveyers by belt conveyers is expe­
dient. It’s necessary to increase the speed of the
sinking of the development workings.
 The electric power consumption can be reduced
significantly in the result of the pneumatic equip­
ment replacement by the electric one, especially
85% of the total power consumption. The decision
of theses tasks during the exploitation of steeply
deeping outburst dangerous seams is urgent.
It’s important to coordinate the conditions of fan
operation with the description of fan network in fan
units correctly. It can be reached, for example, by
the change of an angle during the assembly of the
impeller blading of the axial fan, by the removal of
the blading from one impeller of two gradation fan,
and by the load rising of fan drive. The efficiency
rising of the fan network is provided through the
way of the air-outflow cutting through the building
located over the mine and through the fan channels
and by the way of resistance cutting of the fan net­
work. It’s important to improve the aerodynamic
properties of the workings, to cut the local resistance
by the way of the vacation of the workings from the
industrial cars and other equipment.
Under the work of the hoisting plants it’s neces­
sary to provide the optimum conditions of their op­
eration. The diagram of the movement speed, opti­
mum from the point of view of electric power con­
sumption, are realized for that purpose. The move­
ment speeds, which differ a little from the average
value, are expedient. That can be reached by the
control automation and, in the result, the installation
productivity s increased, and the operation with the
minimum electric power consumption is provided.
The operation of the hoisting plant at no-load run­
ning is dealt with the increase in the cycles of mo­
tion and additional electric power consumption. For
the elimination it is necessary to have the schedule
of the installation operation and to follow it strictly.
It is also necessary to provide the regulated norm of
the loading of the hoisting vessels.
The decrease of the loading of water drainage
installations is provided by the prevention of water
penetration into the mine from the surface and also
by the elimination of water leakage in the injection
pipe-line. It’s necessary to increase the efficiency of
the pipe-line and pumps. For pumps it’s important to
provide the operating point in the zone of maximum
values of the efficiency. The efficiency increase is
reached at the expense of the increase in the pipe
section, the decrease in the length of the pipe line,
elimination of the unnecessary bends and smoothing
out at of the acute angles. Switching on the pump
installation under the minimum load of the under­
ground mine network gives the possibility to de­
crease the power losses in the shaft cable. It’s de­
termined that the conveyers of the single faces work
empty for about four hours, in average, during these
production shifts, therefore, about 15% of electric
power is spent for coal transportation. The investiga­
tions proved that the useful loading of main convey­
468
ers doesn’t exceed 10-25% even under the normal
operation (1). Steady component of consumption,
which doesn’t depend upon the quantity of coal, is
significant. Therefore, it’s necessary to provide the
nominal value of the conveyer loading during its op­
eration. Special collecting bins can be used for that
purpose. It’s necessary to maintain conveyers in
proper time, that is also important for the decrease in
power consumption.
When controlling the condition of mine-trolley
wire locomotives, it’s necessary to follow the main­
tenance manuals for the bearings and to control care­
fully the brake system after the replacement of
shoes. It’s necessary to pay attention to the contact
connections of the rails.
It’s expedient to use face electric welding and to
weld together the connective strips for that purpose.
The use of two-way power supply of traction system
will give the opportunity to decrease power con­
sumption significantly. It’s also important to organ­
ize the train schedule and schedule for the shunting
operations.
The decrease in electric power losses in the sys­
tem of electric power supply of mine can be reached
at the expense of the networks reconstruction.
Change-over of the networks for higher voltage is
expedient. The positive effect provides the approach
of the power supply sources for the consumer. The
replacement of material and the section of wires is
fiilfilled, the length of power lines is shortened.
It’s necessary to pay attention to the extent of
the transformers’ loading. Change-over of the load
of the transformers, loaded less than 30%, for other
transformers and disconnection of those empty
working are expedient. Transformers, systematically
loaded less that 30 %, are subject to replacement for
less powerful ones. Voltage deviation from standard
values causes the increase in power losses in the
elements of thew power supply system, therefore, it
is important to sustain the registered voltage levels
on the secondary winding of the transformer. It is
provided manually with the help of the switching of
the taps of the winding of higher voltage or auto­
matically.
The significant effect of power saving can be
reached under the optimization of the operation
modes of electric motors.
It is important to provide a right choice of the
electric motor in type and power. The increase in the
loading of the operating working machinery up to
the specified value, limitation of the mode of opera­
tion of the electric motors without loading, and the
decrease in losses under the rheostat start are the
main measures providing the power saving. It’s nec­
essary to use the compensation potentialities of the
synchronous engines in full measure. The choice of
type, place of installation, power and mode of opera­
tion of the compensation device must provide the
obtaining of the best technical and economical indi­
ces from the usage of electric power supply system
of the mine, under the keeping to all technical limi­
tations.
It’s expedient to use the light sources with high
efficiency in the lighting installations. Gaseous dis­
charge lamps (luminescent, metal-halogen, sodium)
are used for the purpose. Introduction of the rational
systems for the lighting control, timely cleaning of
lamps, maintenance of the nominal voltage levels in
the lighting network, and the decrease in the time of
the switching of the artificial lighting promote the
reliability of the equipment and significant electrical
power saving.
The analysis, that was made, will enable to sys­
tematize measures for the power saving and to de­
velop further elaboration of the first and foremost
measures in the electric power saving. It’s expedient
to proceed from the common conditions of the
mine’s functioning in Ukraine and from the peculi­
arities of the specific coal enterprises.

469
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds)
Perspectives of mining stock improvement under crisis economics
VV. Radchenko
Ministry o f Fuel and Energy of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: This work contains characteristics of modem mining stock of Ukraine. Mightiness input and
output before, after war and nowadays is analyzed. Prognosis estimation of mining stock stabilization while
designing the fuel and energy program of the country is grounded.
In these latter days the coal industry of Ukraine is in
deep crisis. In 1999 the volume of coal production
made 81,05 min. t. only. In comparison with 1976,
when the coal industry of Ukraine reached maxi­
mum production volume for all the period of its
existence (218,2 min. t.) this index had decreased
2,7 times and amounted to 37,1% in all of maximum
result.
Low production volumes for these years re­
sulted in sharp worsening of the economic indices in
the branch. Quantity of mining faces was reduced.
Mine working procedures volume was cut down. For
the last 20 years new mines had not been built, and
the old ones had not been reconstmcted.
Low labor productivity and high prime cost of
coal (these indices are comparable with pre-war
ones) have made the Ukrainian coal noncompetitive
not only abroad but also within this country.
All this resulted in growing social tension in
miners’ collectives, which was demonstrated mainly
by miners strikes, even more aggravating the sad
state of the branch.
At the same time, coal is the main energy carrier
in Ukraine. Besides, it is the integral raw material
for metallurgy and chemistry. By these and other
reasons, including social-and-economic ones, the
Ukraine should maintain its own coal industry for
the long-run period in the required volumes.
For the recovery of the branch and increase of
coal products competitiveness, the “Program of Pro­
ductive Activity Intensification and Development of
Coal Industry Mines for the years 1999-2005” had
been developed.
This Program became synthesis of analytic data
concerning technical-and-economic condition of 22
holding companies and production associations in
471
© 2000 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3
ten coal-production regions. All the mines’ engi­
neers and technicians participated in its develop­
ment.
Wide spectrum of the branch work analytic data
had permitted to substantiate the decision for the fur­
ther development of mines, holding companies and
branch as a whole. On base of this data, the variants
of mine stock restructuring and programs of the
branch technical-and-economic activity till the year
2005 were formed.
Mine stock restructuring is the first and one of
the principal stages of the branch productive activity
intensification.
The planned technical and economic indices can
be achieved only under provision with the amounts
of capital investments and subsidies specified in the
Program. On this assumption, the branch work will
be stabilized within three-year period. Otherwise, in
5-6 years the branch will be in the state when its re­
construction requires allocations exceeding current
estimates several times, or the branch will be com­
pletely destroyed which process is accompanied by
social outbreaks.
Technical and economic indices indicated in the
Program correspond to the levels of machinery,
technology, organization of labor, production and
management existing nowadays. They can be im­
proved as a result of innovation activity, wide usage
of foreign up-to-date experience, management and
marketing. These measures will be undertaken to­
gether with stabilization of the branch enterprises’
work.
The main task at the given stage is the determi­
nation of the coal production base of Ukraine. The
following stage of the branch work efficiency in­
crease is the intensification of production, organiza­
tion of labor and management.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds)
Problem s o f resource m anagem ent at unprofitable m ines
V. I. Sally & R. I.Yurovsky
National Mining University o f Ukraine, Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: The article presents the managerial models, which describe mechanism of regulation of irre­
trievably unprofitable mines' resources in order to approach those mines to the breakeven threshold on the non-
subsidized basis, and to partially relocate their resources in favor of perspective mines.
Despite the prolonged crisis in the mining industry of
Ukraine, its potential today is judged to be 1000 mil­
lion tones, which is quite realistic. But the most im­
portant in this case is economic situation in the in­
dustry and in the country. Due to the fact that coal
extraction in Ukraine is subsidized, the production
volumes must be determined by the budgetary possi­
bilities of the state. That’s why the first priority of the
industry is raising the effectiveness of the mines’
work, which, undoubtedly, can refresh the investment
climate for further gradual increase of production
volumes.
Having economically profitable resources of coal
in the amount of just 5-7 billion tones, we can claim
that Ukraine can solve its energy problem via devel­
oping its own coal industry, thus avoiding the de­
pendence from the energy exporting countries.
Solving of the problem of industry stabilization is
currently lying in the socio-managerial sphere. First
of all, it means creation of the holistic economic
mechanism to provide profitable functioning of the
mines. Such mechanisms will work under market
concepts only in case of restructuring of mining fund,
meaning closing and transforming the form of prop­
erty at the deeply unprofitable mines.
The resources needed to maintain the capacity of
badly unprofitable mines are necessary for explora­
tion and modernization of perspective mines, which
have a chance to remain competitive.
Under other equal conditions, the main reason for
low technical and economical indicators is décon­
centration of mining works, which encourages irra­
tional utilization of waste resources. Each non-
effective coalface in different parts of mine field re­
quires technical equipment, transportation, conduc­
tion of preparatory excavations for conditioning, etc.
473
© 2000 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3
And this doesn’t include elevating systems, pumping,
surface managerial apparatus. From the position of
effectiveness, each mine with output of 200 thousand
tones and less should have no more than two coal­
faces.
The problem of reservation of carrying capacity of
the technological units at the mines with low output
level also deserves some attention. The costs associ­
ated with reservation are so significant, that cannot be
covered by the growth of output in the nearest future.
The degree of reservation is expedient to be estimated
by the criterion of economic reliability of investment
of technological units. Below are presented some
ways of resolving above-mentioned problems, asso­
ciated with resource management at the mines with
limited resources.
The problem examined in the current work con­
sists in the quantitative monitoring of resource utili­
zation at the deeply unprofitable mines.
Raising the effectiveness of coal extraction first of
all means setting the balance between economically
expedient extraction volumes and costs associated
with its production, which supposes most complete
utilization of available resources for the production
purposes.
To resolve the problem of current work we sug­
gest using the system of economical and mathemati­
cal models, which consists of two interdependent
components:
■ the direct problem of extraction volume optimi­
zation, taking into account limit of resources, as
well as stochastic character of the parameters de­
fining the level of production costs;
■ dual problem, whose main objective, except de­
fining the “shadow price” of the resources, is to
 find true correlation between the utilized re­
sources in terms of influencing the functional.
The peculiarity of such a task is unstable system of
input and output parameters. And the problem is not
only in the fluctuation of the materials and equipment
prices, but also in the constant change in the character
of mining and geological parameters, which define
the level of extraction volumes. And a mine reacts on
all these external factors by the fluctuations in the
output and by its unstable main indicators.
Assessment of the activities of a system with sto­
chastic nature can be conducted only taking into ac­
count the probability categories of initial parameters.
On one hand, we have the quantitatively defined re­
source expenditure quotes per 1 tone of produced
coal; but, on the other hand, there is unequal change
in the level of spending, which depends on the eco­
nomical value of extracted resources. In other words,
one tone of resources in the mine field priced by the
common cost criteria, is opposed to the set of pro­
duction resources necessary for the extraction of that
tone.
The results of solving the stochastio model with
variable resource limits for the non-perspective group
of mines in Torezsko-Snyezhnyansky region of Don­
bass are presented on the Figure 1. The variable val­
ues of extraction costs are presented there as well.
Algorithm of management of production re­
sources consists of the following. The limit of re­
source, which has the lowest “shadow price”, must be
Km 1 1
Points o f regulation
Figure 1. Change in the extraction costs
474
decreased; the magnitude of decrease is chosen ad
arbitrium but according to the changes in mining
conditions as well as predicted fluctuations of the
qualitative parameters of commodity output (Fig. 2).
Having the solving data of both direct and dual
problems, we can estimate the effectiveness of sys­
tem work. Highly ineffective work of coal mines (and
especially unprofitable ones) can be in many cases
explained by abstention of part of the production re­
sources in the technological processes. Formally, the
cost of these resources is somehow or other trans­
ferred to the prime cost of extraction, although in re­
ality they don’t take part in production. The para­
doxical situation can be observed. On one hand, the
reason of ineffective mine operation in the conditions
of shrinking extraction volumes is explained by the
lack of primary production resources. While on the
other hand, the degree of isolation of these resources
is so low (judging their “shadow prices”), that it
would be rightful to reconsider their reduction with
further relocation in favor of effectively working en­
terprises. Successive solving of direct and dual prob­
lems, taking into consideration the stochastic nature
of input data, is adequate to the day-to-day manage­
ment, whose effectiveness is obvious even in the
conditions of known inertia of mining industry.
The method suggested above allows to clearly
follow the dependence between the degree of re­
sources utilization and effectiveness of the mining
production. In this case the consequences of manage-
0,9 0,9 0,9 0,8 0,8 0,8 0,7 0,7 0,7
 Points o f R egulation

Figure 2. D yn am ics o f extraction volum es change under regulatiom

rial influence on the resource limits can be seen,

which allows forecasting of the economical figures of
mines’ work. The results of solving the problem with
reference to Torezsko-Snyezhnyansky region show
that increase of output and raising of effectiveness are
possible due to increased level of resource utilization.
According to the Figure 2, even in case of decrease of
resource limits, the grov^h of extraction in the region
is quite possible. As the resource limits are growing,
starting from the point 7 (Fig. 2), the extraction vol­
ume is gradually declining by 700 thousand tones
(point 15, Fig.2). Due to decrease of coefficients K^,
Kg and K^, the make over threshold can be achieved
(point 15, Fig. 1), despite significant reduction of
output volumes.
Thus, the distinctive feature of the suggested
method of resource utilization is gradual decrease of
their limit and regulation of the magnitude of the
functional to the value, which approaches the results
of a mine’s work to the make out threshold. We be­
lieve, that creation of such a regulatory mechanism
allows to commensurate the capabilities of the mines
in prime resources with the technical aspects of min­
ing works planning, whose condition is assessed
quantitatively by the level of concentration.

475
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

H ow historical costing causes m ine inefficiency

A. Savva
Runge Pty Limited, Brisbane, Qld, Australia

ABSTRACT: The question that should be continually asked is how long does your current mine’s costing
information remain current? Should the historical data be able to be used for forecasting your future mine
schedules or is it out of date before the economic parameters are even derived? A case study has been under­
taken that involves the use of equipment whose rated capacity far exceeds the requirements of the activity
where smaller equipment is presently in use and the larger equipment has not been used in the operation be­
fore. Can this larger equipment, which offers operating cost advantages, improve the NPV of the mine?
From the case study, it is easily apparent that there is enormous value in separating the mining operation into
cost centres and building up costs from first principles. XERAS is a financial modelling package developed
by Runge Pty. Ltd. The financial model built in XERAS inputs a number of mine schedules and is specifi­
cally designed for economic and financial modelling of projects, strategies, or production budgets.

1 INTRODUCTION tion of existing cost information plus comparison

The underlying premise of this paper is that every
technical decision must consider and be guided by
the economic consequences. Almost all decision
making in a mine involves a trade off between cur­
rent costs and benefits and expected future costs and
benefits. Most mine and/or equipment evaluations
must therefore entail comparisons based on the time
value of money.
Runge’s financial modelling package XERAS
provides a methodology for this form of evaluation,
using discounted cash flow analyses for decisions.
One of the most useful applications of time value of
money concepts is to translate a series of cashflows
discounted to the present value in a discounted cash­
flow tabulation. The sum total of these discounted
amounts is the Net Present Value ( NPV ). This en­
ables the translation of capital costs of equipment
plus alternatives that have different mixes of capital
and operating costs into comparable terms.
All mines that have been operating for some time
have records of the costs of operating their equip­
ment, an important input for any economic evalua­
tion. Nevertheless, this information is only reliable
for the equipment in use and for the conditions ap­
plying up to that time. The Resource Structure in
XERAS sets out further procedures for estimating
the operating costs of mining equipment. These es­
timating techniques are derived from economic first
principles and apply to equipment working in any
mine environment, allowing auditing and extrapola­
with potential new equipment.
A comprehensive case study for a typical decision
in an operating mine is documented in this Paper.
The study involves the possible use of untried
equipment whose rated capacity far exceeds the re­
quirements of the activity that is currently performed
by smaller equipment. The decision must consider
the effect of the equipment on the long term strategy
of the mine and the most economic fleet size for a
particular loading unit. The key economic decision
is to maximise the NPV.
2 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
An economic analysis for most minesite decisions is
mandatory. No major mining company approves the
funding for new capital without a thorough under­
standing of the expected costs and return on invest­
ment. XERAS is used to produce a business model
of the mining operation.
In many ways, economic analysis for operating
mines (as compared to new projects) is more diffi­
cult and less useful. Additionally, the rigour that ap­
plies to new projects is often missing. If your main
product loading equipment facility has just experi­
enced a major failure, you don’t need a major study
to tell you that replacement is economically justified.
Many site personnel avoid detailed economic analy­
ses for fear that such analyses may not be supportive

477
of their objective, probably a major procedural error.
Studies using XERAS modelling suggest that many
site problems are more urgent, more economically
based and much more under-designed than their
supporters acknowledge. By neglecting a thorough
economic analysis, site personnel are more likely
committing to performance targets that they cannot
achieve when an alternative that yields a higher re­
turn is available and easier to achieve.
The following case study details a set of interre­
lated decisions for an operating mine. Each decision
is based on a different mining schedule and is sup­
ported by an economic analysis, considering one or
more aspects covered in the various functional areas
of the XERAS model.
The mine is considering expansion, requiring re­
moval of additional waste of approximately eight
million bcm/year in the foreseeable future. Man­
agement to date has always preferred to use their
own equipment for regular long-term earthmoving.
A business model of a technical study of the
earthmoving using hydraulic excavators coupled
with rear dump trucks has been undertaken. The
model calculates the Net Present Value of the busi­
ness.
3 XERAS MODEL STRUCTURES
The XERAS Structure views (Figure 1) represent
collections of individual spreadsheets grouped into
structures based on the role the spreadsheets are per­
XERAS Modelling Process
Production
Scheduio
QfMntitha,
PrimaryEquipment
mUsation(OpMra)
Otherdatathatmay
chan^bylocation
Figure 1 XERAS Modelling Process
478
forming. The Structures are: Schedule, Resource,
Pool, Activity and Report.
The XERAS Schedule spreadsheet is used to pro­
vide a single location for data that controls a model­
ling scenario. This data includes production volume,
equipment operating hours, staff numbers, miscella­
neous costs and so on.
The Resource Structure is used to provide a
multi-level structure for building up costs and base
level data which can then be linked to the spread­
sheets in the Pool and Activity Structures. This
Structure could be built with levels of spreadsheet
types allowing the building of equipment costs from
economic first principals. At the lowest branch
level, fuel and electricity prices may be as­
signed, while at higher levels there may be labour
rosters, possibly linked to labour costs, which may in
turn be linked to equipment costs. The equipment
cost spreadsheets provide data (eg supplies and re­
pair unit costs) to the Pool and Activity spreadsheets.
The Pool Structure is used where model elements
such as fleets of equipment are shared over a number
of activities ( eg. purchases and replacement of haul­
age trucks). The capital data associated with the
fleet can then be allocated over a number of mining
activities so that any capital expenditure and depre­
ciation costing is allocated by equipment utilisation
to the respective activities (ie. ABC). Another use of
the Pool Structure could be to hold a pool of labour
for allocation to activities by eg. production volume.
Financial
indicators
NetPresentValue
DiscountedAverage
Cost
tnlemalNateof
NetumKey
Performance
Indicators
Financial
Forecasts
operatingCasts
CapitalExpenditure
ttepmciadonand
AssetValuation
Profit&Loss
BalanceSheet
Resource
Forecasts
EquipmentUnits,
LabourNumbersand
OperatingSupplies
Volumes
The Activity Structure enables spreadsheets repre­
senting specific activities to be grouped in a hierar­
chy. The lowest level branches represent the level of
detail desired within the model. Each branch can
represent a process that involves equipment, labour,
operating expenses etc.. These lowest level branches
are then grouped into higher level branches that may
represent cost centres or management responsibility.
The function of the Activity Structure is to allow fo­
cus on specific processes, with the results then ag­
gregated in higher levels for reporting. This Struc­
ture allows calculation of manning numbers, capital
expenditure, operating costs, unit costs and Net Pre­
sent Value (NPV) by both process and task.
The Report Structure allows customised spread­
sheet reports to be developed for providing specific
information. Report examples include discounted
cash flows, profit and loss forecasts, return on capi­
tal invested and financing options.
4 XERAS MODEL SPREADSHEETS
A XERAS model is a database of linked spread­
sheets. XERAS utilises an innovative method of
linking spreadsheets which facilitates easy relinking
to other spreadsheets. Spreadsheets are grouped by
type where each type represents a data s e t, linked by
a mouse click within a list box ( eg linking a differ­
ent labour roster to an equipment cost spreadsheet).
Each spreadsheet type is controlled by a template
that allows data rows to be added and removed. The
template also allows global formula to be assigned
and the spreadsheet display to be formatted. Re­
gardless of the number of spreadsheets within a
model, a single formula or format change made in
the template view will be applied to all spreadsheets
of the corresponding type. The spreadsheet rows are
given logical, meaningful names for ease of use in
formulae whilst columns are time periods, controlled
by a Calendar.
5 XERAS MODELLING LOGIC AND FEA­
TURES
Whilst modelling logic can be applied as cell based
formula (as in traditional spreadsheet packages),
XERAS models also feature default formula that are
assigned in the spreadsheet templates. This allows a
formula to be entered in a single location and then be
applied over all periods (columns) in a row for doz­
ens of spreadsheets. This feature enhances model
audibility and simplifies logic modification.
XERAS contains a number of built in facilities
that enable the modelling of capital equipment to be
performed with ease. These include a capital asset
table, a depreciation table and functions which per­
form depreciation and written down value calcula­
479
tions. There are also functions specifically designed
for costing purchase and replacement of equipment.
The Discounted Cash Flow functions allow easy cal­
culation of net present value, internal rate of return,
discounted average cost and discount factors.
6 ESTIMATING CAPITAL COSTS
Before any economic analysis or decision making
can be undertaken, the operating and capital costs of
equipment must be estimated.
With large mining equipment, the capital compo­
nent of the hourly cost is commonly more than the
operating component. Estimation techniques that
ignore capital run the risk of decisions made being
completely in error.
The Net Present Value method, which utilises the
time value of money concepts, has the following ad­
vantages that are difficult to apply using other aver­
aging methods.
The timing of capital payments can be accounted
for. For example, equipment and plant erection,
purchase costs, commissioning costs.
Taxation is accounted for.
Adjustments can be made for salvage value, al­
lowing equivalent capital costs of longer life equip­
ment to be accounted for.
Irregular annual usage rates can be accounted for.
7 ESTIMATING OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs vary between mine sites and there is
no costing which can be applied universally.
Equipment operating costs can be developed from
first principles. This recommended method system­
atically considers each component of the operation
of the equipment that impacts on operating cost.
From a combination of manufacturer’s data and
minesite historical data, operating costs can be esti­
mated with a high degree of confidence, especially if
the modifying factors have been calibrated from a
known operation. This method is not subject to the
inefficiencies resulting from using historical data
alone, resulting in improved accuracy of the business
model.
To determine operating labour costs it is neces­
sary to place "operators in seats" whereby the cost
equals the number of operator per unit times the
number of shifts, times the annual cost of an opera­
tor, divided by the annual equipment operating
hours.
One method to calculate maintenance labour
cost is to use a ratio of repair man-hours per machine
operating hour.
Fuel costs are calculated as the cost of fuel times
the engine’s fuel consumption rate, a figure depend­
ant on engine power, the duty cycle and working
conditions. The consumption rate increases as the
machine ages and can be estimated from a curve ta­
ble in XERAS.
Curve tables contain a set of factors which can be
applied to equipment base factors which varies the
factors as the equipment ages.
Lubrication costs are usually calculated as a per­
centage of the hourly fuel costs.
Tyre costs are simply the total cost of the tyre
times the number of tyres, divided by the hourly life.
The method of calculating wear parts cost is to
take the cost of all of the wear items and divide each
of them by their estimated life.
The cost of repair parts is one of the most diffi­
cult to calculate. There are two commonly used
methods of estimation:
The first general formula, appropriate for large
equipment such as shovels, draglines and crush-
ing/conveying systems, is to multiply the capital cost
by a percentage from the XERAS curve table, di­
vided by the number of operating hours per year.
A second method, used by equipment manufac­
turers for smaller equipment, is based on the as­
sumption that any piece of equipment can be consid­
ered a collection of spare parts. The hourly cost of
these parts is calculated by dividing the cost of parts
by a "benchmark" life.
Major overhauls cover the cost of major compo­
nent exchange or rebuild. This can be estimated us­
ing the Overhaul Table in XERAS. An overhaul
schedule allows assignment of a set of overhaul fre­
quencies in hours and an associated cost of each
overhaul. The function can then be used to assign the
forecasted actual costs of the overhaul based on the
aged of equipment and its utilisation.
7.1 Case Study 1
The first case study considers the economic match­
ing of 177t trucks with a hydraulic excavator.
Whilst no one fixed number of trucks exactly
matches the mines requirement, the mine schedules
do not necessarily demand an exact match. If an op­
timum fleet turns out to have a production slightly
more or less than the nominal eight Mbcm/yr, other
equipment can be scheduled to make up the differ­
ences. For the typical haul cycles proposed, the es­
timated annual production from various sized fleets
is set out in Table 1.
Table 1 Loader/Truck Production Estimates
Number of Trucks Annual Production
(Mbcm)
3 4.571
4 5.940
5 7.213
6 7.984
7 8.298
8 8.402
480
Since the total expenditure in this example will ex­
ceed $10 million, a thorough discounted cash flow
analysis of the proposition using XERAS is neces­
sary. Equipment life varies depending on type and
schedule of use. This sort of evaluation is best un­
dertaken by assuming a certain project life and ad­
justing end-of-project values. For the purposes of
unbiased economic evaluation, equipment that is still
worth something at the end of the project life is as­
sumed to be sold at the written-down value at project
end.
Guidelines for this analysis are set out in Table 2.
Table 2 - Discounted Cash Flow Guidelines
Required Return
on Investment 12%
"Project" life 6 years
Depreciation Straight line over technical
life of equipment
Salvage Values assume recovered at written-
down value of equipment
Corporate Tax Rate 30%
From Table 1, the excavator matched with just five
trucks does not produce an annual quantity consis­
tent with mine requirements, but the 6, 7, and 8 truck
match / combinations are all viable options. Figure 2
graphically illustrates the production from these
various fleet sizes.
Figure 2 Production with various truck fleets
The net present value has been calculated for each of
the options. Table 3 presents the results of this cal­
culation. Figure 3 plots NPV against truck fleet size.
Figure 3 shows that the highest NPV is achieved
with a fleet of six trucks matched with the excavator
removing 7.984 Mbcm. The sub-optimum seven-
truck match is also competitive, with an 9 % percent
lower NPV than the optimum sized fleet.
Table 3 - Fleet NPV
Number of trucks Annual production NPV
($millions)
3 $75
4 $97
5 $117
6 $126
7 $115
8 $100

Figure 4 Production with various truck fleets

A fleet size of six trucks or less, is clearly competi­

tive with the smaller equipment, even though aver­
age costs are higher than “optimum” costs.
Figure 5 shows the NPV at the various production
levels for the larger fleet.

Figure 3 Net Present Values of the operation

An initial assessment could conclude that a fleet of

six trucks should be purchased. This would provide
the expected output of approximately eight million
bcm per year. The six-truck fleet maximises the
NPV.
The alternative under study in this paper involves
use of equipment whose technical capacity far ex­
ceeds the requirements of the job at hand. The
question is, whether this larger equipment—which
offers operating cost advantages—can be used at
lower production rates and still move material com­ Figure 5 Fleet NPV at various production levels
petitively with the (technically more appropriate)
equipment analysed previously. Table 4 details the
production estimates and resulting NPV for the If there is no probability that production will exceed
larger excavator with 218t trucks. eight million bcm per year, then purchase an exca­
vator and six-truck fleet. If production has the po­
tential to expand beyond eight million bcm per year,
Table 4 - Larger Excavator/ Truck Production Estimates purchase a larger hydraulic excavator and just suffi­
No. of Trucks in Equiv. Annual NPV cient trucks to achieve production targets up to a
Fleet Production(Mbcm) maximum of 13 million bcm per year.
2 5.075 $72
3 7.395 $108
4 9.647 $143 8 CONCLUSIONS
5 11.738 $136
6 13.092 $122 Runge has developed the XERAS business model­
ling software to evaluate the economics of proposed
mining schedules and equipment purchases. A data­
Figure 4 displays the estimated production from the base of forecasted equipment operating costs can be
various sized truck fleets. developed from first principles and used in the
evaluation of many options that relate to the mining
schedule

481
 The financial model has been used to help the un­ REFERENCES
derstanding of the business and the mine schedule
from which it is derived, by considering what is Runge Ian C. 1998. “Mining Economics and Strat­
happening to the economic factors of the mine egy”. SME.
through time, and how much these factors are
changing. A major modelling focus is on how much Runge Mining (Australia) Pty Ltd. 1997. “Mining
and how easily the economic factors change when Economics Course Notes”, (unpbl).
some of the historical assumptions upon which the
project evaluation was based are subsequently shown
to be different.
Over the last decade engineers, accountants and
managers have realised the need to implement
strategies that introduce a comprehensive costing
system or refine their current costing system, thereby
providing more relevant costing and cost forecasting.
Inefficiencies in forecasting models based on histori­
cal cost data have contributed to the trend for many
organisations moving to Activity Based Costing
(ABC) which has the potential to provide much
more effective information.
The main feature of the financial model devel­
oped is its focus on activities as the essential cost
centres and the subsequent build up of costs from
first principles. The financial model developed us­
ing XERAS is ideal for performing activity based
costing as the model can contain sub models in a tree
structure, which mimics the reporting and hierarchy
of an operation. The level of detail is controlled by
the user and is reflected in the model structure. The
model dynamically links the mining schedules and
base level costs such as fuel and electricity. This
allows fast model re-evaluation when underlying
conditions change and facilitates reviews of alterna­
tives, to produce the optimum economic schedule for
the mine.
Any budget, plan or feasibility study of a mining
project requires equipment costs, working hours and
productivity inputs in order to take the geological
data through a time-based cash flow format to pro­
duce a workable model. Most engineers have a
“black book” containing cost and production infor­
mation gathered over a number of years. Other
sources of data are typically suppliers of equipment,
historical records from operating mines and previous
studies. Text books and handbooks have some gen­
eralised formula but these are often too general, and
are geared to the international market. Additionally,
there are often inconsistencies in these costs, which
results in the need for a systematic set of procedures
to be formulated for modelling.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The information presented in this paper has been de­

rived from unpublished and published work by Ian
Runge, and original work undertaken by various
staff members of Runge Pty Ltd. The author there­
fore gratefully acknowledges the assistance provided
by all colleagues.

482
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3
The system o f com plex appreciate o f antìiracite m ines
A. I. Sharov & VA.Chmihun
Department of Economics, National Mining University, Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine
ABSTRACT; The article presents the system of complex appreciate of anthracite mines with taking into con­
sideration of reliable factor. The opportunity of keeping the capacity of mines on the basis same reserves us­
ing.
Under conditions of long-term crisis and consider­
able decrease of production Ukraine cannot follow
the examples of western countries where power en­
gineering was reoriented for a short time toward the
usage of ecologically less harmful natural gas and
oil products. Moreover, national economy of
Ukraine has rather powerful mining potential and its
destruction is not expedient at all.
Coal industry of Ukraine is a complex with
many branches. It consists of more than 20 mines,
60 dressing factories, coal mining machinery build­
ing plants, a well developed network of scientific,
research, construction and design bureaus and estab­
lishments. Nearly 600,000 workers are engaged in
this branch of industry, including 276,000 in under­
ground works.
However, mining equipment has become obso­
lete and doesn’t meet the present-day requirements.
Va of mines have been working without reconstruc­
tion for 20 or even more years and have a poor level
of its machinery and coal mining technology.
Sean thickness of about 70% of the seams being
mined is not over 1 meter. The average depth of
mining is approximately 700 meters. 2/3 of mines
work on deep floors and they make up more than
60% of the whole coal mining. Every third mine is
dangerous because of its gas ejection. Gas content
of coal seams mounts to 40 m^ methane per 1 ton of
dry non-ashed mass. About 6 m^ of water is pumped
out of mines with each ton of coal. In 2000 the aver­
age depth of mining will be 800 m., and in some
mines it will be 1600 m. The production capacity of
Va of mines is not over 300,000 tons per year; in
other words it is lower than the productivity of one
modem complex.
Present-day situation in energy sector is danger­
ous because of its ability to influence the process of
reforms directly. Energy import is to be blamed for
the shortage in the items of the payment balance.
483
Diminishing of the imported power resources vol­
ume only by 20 % would allow gaining constant
positive balance in the current operations.
Though coal is considered to be one of the
popular goods, its transportation cost on long dis­
tances is rather significant. That is why as for as the
provision of an inner demand in coal, Donetsk re­
gion mines have certain advantages in comparison
with imported coal.
Future of Ukraine’s coal industry depends upon
the evolution of an inner demand in coal.
From 1990 till 1998 an inner consumption of
coal has decreased by 57%, from 132 to 76 million
tons. The major part of such decrease can be ex­
plained by general recession in economic activity,
but a portion of coal in general consumption of pri­
mary power has decreased from 27.6% to 21%. It
shows that a part of coal market was occupied with
other kinds of fuels (natural gas and nuclear power
stations).
Now we have a rather complicated situation in
Donetsk basin mines where anthracites are mined,
deposits of which are nearly exhausted. Due to the
economic situation in the country it is impossible to
close such mines at once, because of the financial
shortage. Other reasons are social tension and a
great value of anthracites for power engineering.
In this connection it is necessary to analyze the
state of non-perspective mines taking into considera­
tion the study of quantitative relations between pro­
ductive components; streams of coal, rock and mine
gas. The most acceptable parameters, which define
interdependence of these streams, may be an eco­
logical component and reliability of technological
schemes.
Complex indices of economic (Ce) and func­
tional (Cf) efficiency may serve as a criterion for the
effectiveness. For all this Ce parameter takes into
account conditions of maximizing the output pa­
rameters of productive streams of mines and Cf pa­ mines are connected to a certain degree with the
rameter reflects the characteristic of working capaci­ problem of simultaneous methane production. The
ties of the system [1]. efficient system of complex nature usage can be set
The mentioned above model can be successfully without incentives how to stop the decrease of gen­
implemented by means of many-sided statistic eral production. On the other hand, the combined
analysis only if indices of technological elements’ usage of deposits is one of the aspects of production
reliability and parameters of economic evaluation of diversification, a rather efficient way of saving the
deposits are added. resources. In our opinion, nowadays the economic
Besides, it is necessary to take into account a and juridical aspects of this problem are the primary
great decrease of rock mass quality in mines of this ones because the methane capping and its utilization
group. In practice, mining of additional rock vol­ method has been developed in general, and the in­
umes compensates the reduction of losses of re­ crease of methane output at the time of wall advance
serves. rise and the economic effect are functionally inter­
As far as raising of the productivity efficiency is dependent in practice.
concerned this way can’t be considered as a perspec­
tive one even if there are own concentration plants.
Labor expenditures, wear of the machinery, in­ REFERENCES
creased expenditures of electric power - that is only
obvious detriment for mining coals with ash content Sally V. I. & Boytchenko V. N. 1996. The p roblem
of more than 50%. o f keepin g the ca p a c ity o f m ines w ith ecologi­
Ratio [1+mn /m]'^ is proposed to be used as a c a l fa cto r. Proc. 5“ International Symposium on
controlling parameter which defines how many Mines Planning and Equipment Selection. San
times should the reliability of powered mining ma­ Paulo, Brazil, pp. 677 - 678.
chinery be increased in order to ensure a set level of Kuharev V. N. & Sally V. I. & Komissarov V. F.
mining. Here mn and m - represent the thickness of R e lia b ility o f tech n ological schem es o f d isclo­
rock interlayer and the mined output. It means that sure a n d p re p a ra tio n o f the m ine fie ld s with
for each element of technological scheme of a mine steep stratum s. - M.: Nedra 1985.
the quantitative indices of reliability are being set to
show the probability of unfailing work during a cer­
tain period of time. Optimal values of reliability in­
dices, which ensure minimal losses during the period
of mining, are defined in accordance with the system
“reliability-expenditures” [2].
So, the proposed approach while planning the
development of mining works has two purposes.
Firstly, it is necessary to use the powered mining
machinery under conditions when a “seam” element
(the most important one when there is a limit of re­
serves) affects to the slightest degree the deteriora­
tion of machinery reliability. Secondly, a well-
placed powered mining machinery under conditions
of concentration of mining works can ensure the in­
crease in excavation volume (mining output) and
release some (maybe at first not very significant)
material resources to maintain technological ele­
ments in efficient state. To ensure long efficient
work.
The necessity to include sub-standard reserves
in the development must be evaluated fi*om the point
of view of the quality of products being sold, ability
to increase volumes of rock being left in mines as
well as a filling by fractionated coal tailings. It is
necessary to consider other possibilities to use un­
derground area of non-perspective mines.
Except mentioned above aspects of complex
evaluation of the ways helping to maintain the ca­
pacity of mines with limited reserves, a component
connected with mine gas should be spoken about. It
is necessary to underline that main problems of coal

484
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Planning for m ine safety and the m anagem ent o f risk

N.Terezopoulos
National Technical University of Athens, Greece

ABSTRACT: The consideration of health and safety aspects at the design and planning stages of new mining
or any other project is vitally important in order to ensure that health and safety are built in the master plan.
All projects should have detailed safety plans of studies and activities from the earliest concept stage. The
elements of the safety plan must be interactive with the development of the design, and safety must not be
considered as a “bolt on extra” at the end of the design. It is therefore essential that all those involved with the
design or preferably those carrying out the feasibility study of the project posses satisfactory knowledge and
training in such matters, so as to ensure that relevant legislative and technical factors appertaining to health
and safety are taken into account. The paper refers to these matters and presents a recent case study from the
UK where British Coal as an ongoing concern successfully managed to integrate safety and risk management
issues with any other activities such as production, financial matters, etc. New Risk Management techniques
have been introduced, which involve risk identification, evaluation and control. The improvement has been
brought about not only by safe engineering design but also due to the changing of the management of safety.

1 INTRODUCTION quently gave good return which other mining com­

The traditional approach to safety management has
been one of safety through engineering design. In the
past this technique has been particularly successful
in the British mining industry, leading the rest of the
mining world in the development of mining machin­
ery, roof support systems, transport systems and en­
vironmental control.
The objective of safety through engineering de­
sign is the actual removal, or dilution, of a hazard.
The hazard must be identified and thereafter a tech­
nical (engineering) solution must be sought and used
(Collinson 1980).
The main reason that the early “reactive” safety
philosophies dominated the safety scene and concen­
trated on the engineering of safety were two fold:
- reactive prevention was a good deal easier
than proactive,
- reactive philosophies are based on a very
simplistic accident causation model.
Within file early developing mining industry there
was broad scope, some may say a desperate need, for
engineering a safer work environment. The larger
and wealthier organisations such as the British coal
mining industry, invested massive sums of money in
research and development into engineering safety.
Often the investment was poorly placed but fre­
munities around the world benefited from.
Mining companies today in this restricting eco­
nomic climate do not generally have excess re­
sources to spend on safety. Sound investment is the
order of the day and any thought of investing in
safety engineering solutions has to be well founded
and well thought through, not only to address the
safety problem but also to show some visible return,
hopefully on the balance sheets.
Safe design and operation requires an ability to
predict hazard consequences reliably, and it is
clearly essential to have a set of hazard identification
techniques matched to the relevant stages of the de­
sign project. Moreover the message from accident
analysis studies is that effective health and safety
plarming must cover all situations, which have the
potential to cause injury, ill health and loss.
Should the discovery of fundamental design er­
rors occur frequently within the context of such haz­
ard identification studies, then clearly there is some­
thing wrong with the design team capability, and
indeed the management controls being applied
(Brandie 1991).
In many industries it is a normal practice to carry
out systematic hazard studies during the design of
processes and material handling systems. A signifi­
cant part of such a study is a detailed, critical exami­
nation based on posing such questions as “what if ?”,

485
in order to identify what might go wrong (Kjellen
1990).
2 SAFETY MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING
It is appropriate to define Safety Management at the
outset to better understand the concept. Although it
is something of an imprecise discipline, it can per­
haps best be described in these terms (Durrant 1991)
“An effective safety management system is
designed to reduce or eliminate all aspects
o f accidental loss in order to maximise the
resources o f an organisation. This is
achieved through goal setting, planning,
organisation, staffing and controlling. As
such, safety is managed like any other
company function. ”
The results of successful health and safety man­
agement are often expressed as a series of negative
outcomes, such as an absence of injuries, ill health,
incidents or losses. However, since it is often a mat­
ter of chance whether dangerous events cause injury
or loss, effective planning is concern with prevention
through identification, elimination and control of
hazards and risks.
Further effective health and safety planning
should take into consideration the results and find­
ings from accident investigation and analysis and
must cover all operations and activities in which in­
jury or failure may occur. (HSE 1991).
The aim of planning for health and safety is to
identify the inputs necessary to achieve effective risk
control and the removal of foreseeable failure
modes. The process includes:
- identifying objectives which support the aim,
and setting targets for their achievement;
- establishing performance standards by which
to measure and assess the inputs needed to:
develop, maintain and improve an organ­
isational culture which supports the con­
trol of risks; and
maintain direct control over the risks
generated by the activities of the organi­
sation.
Participation of all parties (design, development,
production) in the planning for health and safety is a
prerequisite and the level of success or safety per­
formance will reflect the degree of such participa­
tion. The interdependence of the design and
exploitation and their appropriateness to the ground
and environmental conditions is more safety -
critical in underground works than in any other
construction activity (Anderson 2000).
A safety plan for each phase throughout the life of
the mine should be prepared which should be the
fundamental document which ensures safe working
throughout the completion of the project. This plan
486
will be brought to the knowledge and become a
working tool to all those who will carry out all the
tasks, and is the responsibility of the planning super­
visor.
Once the health and safety plan is in place and
development work commenced, it is essential that
the health and safety plan is reviewed regularly. It
may need to be added to, modified, or updated in the
light of experience or to take account of changing
circumstances of one kind or another. The health and
safety plan should also define a clear chain of re­
sponsibility and channels of communication on en­
gineering safety matters. This may be particularly
important, for example for the choice of ground sup­
port systems and decisions concerning safety at the
tunnel face.
The most vital contribution to health and safety in
mining operation is through competent engineering
and management staff and a competent workforce.
Competence is gained through a combination of
training and experience, and all persons underground
should be competent for the environment in which
they are working and for the work tasks and activi­
ties they are required to carry out. Engineers, manag­
ers and supervisors should be competent both in re­
spect of the work carried out and under supervision,
and in the techniques of management, communica­
tions and supervision. Evidence of competence as
indicated by the achievement of recognised qualifi­
cations should be sought where appropriate.
3 RISKMANAGEMENT
The statutory requirement in the Management of
Health & Safety at Work regulations, 1992, is that
risks are acceptable when the “risks have been
evaluated and measures have been taken, or will be
taken, to reduce the risk to persons affected by those
hazards to as low as is reasonable practicable. ”
The 'reasonably practicable' proviso has been car­
ried through the Health & Safety at Work Act, 1974
and is by intention, open to interpretation. Generally
this means that measures necessary to avert risk
must be taken until or unless the cost of these meas­
ures, whether in money, time or trouble is dispropor­
tionate to the benefits those steps may secure
(Nussey 1995).
Risk control is sometimes referred to as risk man­
agement. Although there are several views about the
scope of risk management, the term normally refers
to the decision making process concerned with the
objective of reducing the overall risk. It is some­
times applied to the whole process of risk identifica­
tion, estimation, evaluation, reduction and control
(Cox & Tait 1991). This is shown in Figure 1. In es­
sence risk management is risk control through risk
assessment and safety management to meet these
regulatory requirements (Nussey 1995).
 Figure 1. Risk Management System (after Foster 1997).
The control of risk takes the form of implement­
ing managerial/ procedural and engineering controls
that will effectively reduce or eliminate the risk. The
process does not end here because these controls
have to be monitored to determine both their initial
and continuing effectiveness (Glendon & McKenna,
1995).
3.1 Types o f control measures
In industry today, safety is controlled through a
combination of engineered measures such as the
provision of safety protection i.e. guarding and
warning systems, and operational measures in train­
ing, safe work practices, operating procedures and
method statements, along with management supervi­
MAJOR HAZARD
(e.g. High technology
process accidents)
MINOR HAZARD
(e.g. Typical Industrial
work accident)
Figure 2. Control Measures (after Foster 1997).
487
sion. In essence there are three different types of
control measures; technical controls, procedural con­
trols and behavioural controls.
• Technical controls are engineering controls
designed to eliminate or control the hazard
through design.
• Procedural controls are those safe systems of
work or written procedures that if adhered to,
reduce the risk.
• Behavioural controls, such as training and
management supervision, are those that gov­
ern the attitude of the operators, and are a re­
sult of good safety management system.
Figure 2 show where the range of these control
measures are used in controlling risk in industry.
(Foster 1997)
CONTROL MEASURES
TO REDUCE RISK
Technical Controls
Procedural Controls
Behavioural
Controls
 1990 1991 1992 1993
Figure 3. Safety Management Project Schedule
4 BRITISH COAL SAFETY MANAGEMENT
PLANNING
British Coal had contracted Du Pont Safety Man­
agement Services to evaluate the safety management
practices at t>vo collieries in the Midlands Group
(Feb. 1991). Du Pont helped the Midlands Group
begin to achieve excellence in safety performance by
developing the principles of safety and health man­
agement and the procedures to integrate them into
their operational objectives (Staley 1996).
After an examination of the Midlands Group's
performance through tours and examinations of col­
lieries and existing safety procedures, Du Pont came
up with a number of conclusions and recommenda­
tions. Du Pont believe that to sustain continued
overall improvement in injury performance and to
achieve the goal of zero lost time injuries desired by
the Midlands Group, management must (Du Pont
Safety Management Services 1991):
• Eliminate the unsafe work practices being
committed by employees.
• Support the premise that safety and health
can and will improve at the collieries.
• Prevent injuries that may have been accepted
as inevitable by attacking their root causes
and eliminating them.
• Ensure that employees understand clearly
that working safety is a condition of em­
ployment.
• Require all levels of senior and colliery man­
agement to commit time and resources in the
collieries for observing and talking with em­
ployees.
• Require accountability by all levels of man­
agement in the line organisation
Du Pont proposed a five-year injury reduction
plan, and initiated a program of management train­
ing on safety and on auditing, risk assessment and
accident analysis, in particular as shown in Figure 3.
488
1994 1995
the results on safety was impressive and the accident
rate has fallen drastically (Staley 1996).
The main lesson British Coal learnt from chang­
ing it’s approach to safety and adopting safety man­
agement principles is that safety -like production-
needs a management structure approach and that
production and safety are complementary (Longden
1993, Terezopoulos 1995)
5 CONCLUSIONS
The paper describes the new concepts in the plan­
ning of safety and the management of risk in the
mining industry. Specific mention is made to the
process of change in safety culture undertaken by
British Coal - Midlands Group during the early 90’s,
when a concerted effort was applied to reactivating
the impetus in safety performance. Commitment to
the initiative was surprisingly easy to generate but
it’s continued development could not have been sus­
tained without some form of consolidation. The con­
solidation came in the form of Management Safety
Training and appears to have cemented the new
safety culture in such a way that it has become a way
of life, rather than another tedious management re­
sponsibility. The success of the initiative is without
question, as is the validity of the advice and guid­
ance used in the application of safety management
principles and safety management training in the
mining industry.
6 REFERENCES
Collinson, J.L. 1980. Safety: The cost of accidents
and their prevention. The Mining Engineer.
Jan:561-571.
Brandie, E.F. 1991. Design for safety. Proc. First In­
ternational Conference on Health Safety and the
Environment. 681-692. The Hague.
Kjellen, U. 1990. Safety control in design: Experi­
ences from an offshore project, Journal o f Occu­
pation Accidents. 12:49-61. Elsevier.
Durrant, J.H. 1991. Safety management in drilling
operations. Proc. Society o f Petroleum Engineers,
Asia-Pacific Conference. 577-583. Perth, Austra­
lia.
Health and Safety Executive (HSE) 1991. Successful
health and safety management. HSE.
Anderson, J. & N. Terezopoulos 2000. Tunnelling
safety is far too important to be left to safety offi­
cers. Paper accepted for the Tunnelling and Un­
dergrounds Structures Conference. Singapore.
Health and Safety Commission 1992. Management
o f health and safety at work regulations. Ap­
proved codes o f practice. London:HMSO.
Nussey, C. 1995. Accidents happen - How can they
be avoided and the risks assessed? Proc. Confer­
ence on Preventing and Managing Emergencies.
London: IBC Technical Services Ltd.
Gledon, A.I. & E.F. McKenna 1995. Human safety
and risk management. Chapman and Hall.
Foster, J.P. 1997. Applications o f risk assessment in
the mining industry. Ph.D. Thesis. University of
Nottingham, Department of M.R.E.
Staley, G.B. 1996. Enhanced techniques for im­
proved safety in mines. Ph.D. Thesis. University
of London, Imperial College, Royal School of
Mines, Department of E.R.E.
Longden, J.C.H. 1993. The management of health
and safety at the workplace. Proc. MineSafe Con­
ference. 87-96. Perth, Australia.
Terezopoulos, N.G. 1995. Mine safety and produc­
tivity go hand in hand. Mining Technology, il l )
883:75-81.
Du Pont Safety Management Services 1991. Safety
management evaluation. Report Number 1 for
British Coal Corporation. Midlands Group:
Mansfield, Notts.

489
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Productivity m easurem ent at the sectoral level: The case o f Greek lignite
m ining

I.E.Tsolas
Department of Geotechnology and Environmental Engineering, Technological Educational Institution of Western
Macedonia, Kozani, Greece

ABSTRACT: This paper presents some evidence regarding total factor productivity (TFP) growth variations
in the Greek lignite mining through a Cobb-Douglas production model. The model is developed and estimated
in order to examine the extent to which the variations of productivity growth can be attributed to changes in
output and the two major production factors: labor and capital. TFP productivity change is also compared
with other partial productivity indices (e.g. labor productivity, capital productivity). The construction of par­
tial and multifactor (i.e. TFP) productivity indices at the sectoral level provides the necessary elements for
performance (productivity) evaluation and productivity planning at the mine level.

1 INTRODUCTION can be also used for performance (productivity)

1.1 Productivity measurement
Productivity in mining is measured as the ratio of
output to aggregate input. The aggregate input refers
to the available tangible resources such as labor,
capital, energy and intermediary inputs and the out­
put refers to any one or more of the tangible prod­
ucts yielded (Tsolas 1995a; Zabetakis 1981).
Besides that the term ‘total factor productivity
(TFP)’ refers to the ratio of output to all inputs (ag­
gregate input), it is often cited in the related litera­
ture as the productivity of labor and capital (multi­
factor productivity).
Partial productivity in mining is measured as the
ratio of output to input, where the input refers to any
one or more of the available tangible resources such
as labor, capital, energy and intermediary inputs and
the output refers to any one or more of the tangible
products yielded (Tsolas 1995a).
It is worth noting that productivity measurement
is always part of a productivity program in the midst
of which is an organization. A productivity program
is a continuous on-going process, named productiv­
ity cycle (Sumanth 1984) which contains the fol­
lowing four phases: productivity measurement, pro­
ductivity evaluation, productivity planning and
productivity improvement.
In the present paper total factor productivity
growth measurement in the Greek lignite mining
obtained through a Cobb-Douglas production model
which takes into account labor and capital. Moreo­
ver, the derived Cobb-Douglas production model
evaluation and productivity planning at the sectoral
and mine level.
1.2 Greek lignite mining
The state - controlled Public Power Corporation
(PPC) is the exclusive producer of lignite, the pre­
dominant fuel used in electricity generation in
Greece. PPC, Greece's state-owned electricity
monopoly, controlling production, transmission, and
distribution, produces 99.1% of Greece's total
electricity, with lignite-fired generation accounting
for 68% of total output, oil-fired generation 20%,
hydroelectric 9%, and solar power the rest (EIA
1999a).
PPC has increased its annual lignite production
to about 60 million metric tons (Mmt). However,
Greece's lignite reserves can be mined only at
higher cost because of the lignite reserves qualita­
tive depletion (Tsolas 1996b).
The largest deposits are at Ptolemais and
Amyntaio sites, in northern Greece, where
production is at about 40 Mmt per year and
Megalopolis site in southern Greece which has an
annual output of about 10 Mmt (lEA 1999a) and at
Drama in northern Greece. PPC has reserves esti­
mated to be 6.8 billion tons (in total of 10.5 billion
tons according to estimations of Institute of Geol­
ogy and Mineral Exploration) from which 4 billion
tons (2.7 billion tons at Ptolemais and Amyntaio
site, 0.37 billion tons at Megalopolis site and the
rest at Drama site) were estimated to be economi-

491
cally recoverable by open pit mines (Newman
1997; Tsolas 2000). The availability of Greek lig­
nite deposits is about 67 years if the annual output
of 60 million tons in 1996 remains constant (Tsolas
2000 ).
On a Btu basis, according to estimates of Interna­
tional Energy Agency (lEA) for the coal produced
in 1996 by OECD countries, the average heat con­
tent of Greek lignite was the lowest; 4.3 million Btu
per ton, compared with the maximum of 12.3 mil­
lion Btu per ton in Canada (lEA 1999b).
The largest lignite deposits, named lignite fields, are
exploitated by PPC mainly with the use of the ‘Ger­
man equipment method’. This method was devel­
oped for German lignite extraction and is character­
ized by the continuously operation of bucket wheel
excavators, belt conveyors and stackers. The method
is also applied in the Greek lignite fields, but in
cases where the operation of bucket wheel excava­
tors is restricted due to overburden of higher hard­
ness, shovel - truck systems are used (e.g. North
field mine at Ptolemais in northern Greece). The use
of shovel - truck systems modifies the ‘German
equipment method’ to ‘American equipment
method’ which is applied in the US mines.
2 METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Productivity growth measurement
Given a set of two inputs, labor (L) and capital (K),
firms are considered to be able to produce market­
able output (Q) using various combinations of in­
puts.
When the production fimction has a Cobb-
Douglas form:
Q = A L ‘‘K ‘’ ( 1)
where A = constant; and a, b = factor shares of labor
and capital respectively
the productivity growth (i.e. TFP growth) is:
{M / ayA^dQ! ayo -a {d L / ayL -b{dti / a y K (2 )
Assuming that the Cobb-Douglas production
function (1) is homogenous of the first degree and
therefore exhibits constant returns to scale (i.e.
(2 + ¿7 = 1), it takes the following form:
Q= AUK'- (3)
Changes in economies of scale can arise fi*om the
entry and exit of firms into the industry, if these
firms differ in efficiency fi*om incumbent firms.
Moreover, decreasing returns to scale can also occur
at the firm level because extraction cost tend to rise
as a deposit is depleted (Parry 1997).
492
In Greece, PPC, the exclusive producer of
electrical energy, employs a vertically integrated
production process which involves the extraction of
the most endogenous lignite deposits and the
production, transmission and distribution of
electricity. Despite that, the derivation of a Cobb-
Douglas model of the form: Q = A V , provides
that a + b = \.0 5 .
2.2 Productivity cycle
A productivity program is a continuous on-going
process, named productivity cycle (Sumanth 1984)
which contains the following four phases: produc­
tivity measurement, productivity evaluation, pro­
ductivity planning and productivity improvement.
Despite the fact that this paper deals with produc­
tivity measurement, it also provides the necessary
elements for productivity evaluation and productiv­
ity planning at the mine level.
Productivity or performance evaluation at the
mine level can be achieved through the comparison
of productivity levels or indices at the mine and
sectoral level.
As far as productivity planning is concerned,
formal productivity planning includes two types de­
pending on the planning horizon: short - term pro­
ductivity planning (SPP) when the planning horizon
is less than one year and long - term productivity
planning (LPP), with typical planning horizons of 5,
10, 15 or 20 years.
SPP is relevant to setting the target levels of pro­
ductivity and monitoring productivity changes (i.e.
recording total and partial productivities profiles)
when the stage of measurement has been completed
(i.e. total and partial productivities have been estab­
lished). It can be appropriately used as an opera­
tional management tool in controlling the productiv­
ity levels, though resource allocation and planning
may be by - products of SPP and adjustments to
production schedules can be made as a result of the
SPP.
LPP is more suitable as a strategic planning tool
than as an operational management tool. It can be
integrated with market share planning, capacity and
facilities planning.
3 DATASET
The data set is presented in table 1. Data have been
taken fi*om the National Statistical Service of Greece
and the Ministry for Development, Directorate of
policy for the mineral resources.
3.1 Real output
Real output is measured in terms of excavated lignite
tons. An unadjusted measure of physical output is
more accurate for a homogenous product (Darm- 3.3 C apital input
stadter 1997). In the case o f Greek lignite a decrease
To keep track o f changes in capital equipment a per­
in the heating content o f excavated lignite implies a
petual inventory method is used. Thus whenever
downward adjustment in the level and rate o f change
there is a new investment o f equipment, it is added
in productivity and vice versa, but limitation o f data
restricts the analysis to that direction. into the capital stock and remains there until it is de­
clared ‘retired’ from assets. The average useful
service life is taken equal to 20 years and used as the
3.2 L a b o r input basis for this ‘retirement’.
Capital input is the physical use of machinery and
Labor input is measured in terms o f aggregate (white
equipment, with depreciation taken as an approxi­
and blue collars) total man-shift hours paid (includ­
mation of the capital consumed in the production
ing those for illnesses, accidents and days - off).
process.
The model applied here for the estimation of
Table 1. Greek lignite sub-sector (1970-1996). Input-output
fixed capital is a ‘service flow model’ because
data set. physical inputs are converted into drachmas that are
payments for services provided by capital inputs. For
the conversion in constant 1970 drachmas a deflator
Years Real output Total man- Fixed capital (K) constructed by the Ministry of National Economy's
(Q) shift hours services (Ministry of National Economy 1998) was
paid (L) used. This model views productivity as the measure
lignite tons man-shift 10^ constant 1970 of the efficiency of the conversion process (Green &
hours drs Green 1985).
1970 7857623 748328 1888897
1971 10957399 987412 2003431
1972 11565198 1036208 2287993 4 RESULTS
1973 13230152 1110357 2973019
1974 14262947 1171049 3604237 For the estimation of TFP growth the factor shares
of labor and capital are required. Their values are
1975 18058624 1214361 4214652
obtained through a derived regression model of the
1976 22313632 1372661 4938141 form:
1977 23535282 1369519 5486051
1978 21698152 1418816 6141198 Q = AL“ K '-“ (4)
1979 23647398 1432979 7095795
1980 23505700 1583488 8071614 or
1981 27303699 1712893 9012704
1982 27326248 1647600 10226082 Q IL = A {K IL y -^ (5)
1983 30705520 1335449 11983697
1984 32467048 1154908 13993661 where A= constant; Q = real output in lignite tons; L
1985 35875088 1175032 16093931 = total man- shift hours paid; and K = fixed capital
1986 39014076 1209247 17325882 in 1970 constant drachmas.
The derived model in linear form was:
1987 40944576 1279021 17546577
1988 48507092 1260164 17809218
ln(e/I)=1.793+0.6821n(i^/Z) ( 6)
1989 51942495 1292823 18169234
1990 51500678 1268458 18361822
Tstat =17.34,i?^ =0.92,7) - W = 0 3 1 ,F - sta t = 300.68
1991 52082570 1286577 18309221
1992 54658236 1619758 18177590
and
1993 54427836 1680330 17762236
1994 57275104 1733835 17214735 a = 0 3 lS ,b = l- a = 0 .6 S 2
1995 57778606 1567261 16658902
1996 59411173 1596155 16140697 In order to have a clear picture o f the evolution of
Sources: Greek National Statistical Service; Ministry for De­ partial productivity and TFP measurements, the in­
velopment, Directorate o f policy for the mineral resources dices o f them (base year 1970=100) have been
formed.
The index o f a partial productivity is defined as
the ratio o f output index to input index (or the ratio

493
o f the partial productivity o f a year to the partial Table 2. Average growth rates (AGR) o f real output (Q), labor
productivity of the base year): (L), capital (K), labor productivity (LP), capital productivity
(CP), labor-capital ratio (K/L) and TFP.
O utput index
P a rtia l p ro d u c tiv ity index = (7)
Input index 1970-80 1981-90 1991-96 1970-96
% % % %
The labor productivity is measured in terms of OQ/ayq 11.58 7.31 2.67 8.09
lignite tons per man - shift hours and capital produc­ (aivatyL 7.78 -3.28 4.41 2.96
tivity in terms o f lignite tons per thousands constant (am)/K 15.63 8.23 -2.49 8.60
1970 drachmas. (aLP/at)/LP 3.53 10.95 -1.66 4.99
The index o f TFP is calculated as TFP growth ac­ (acp/atycp -3.50 -0.85 5.29 -0.47
cording to relation (2) using the growth rates o f la­ [a(KA)/at]/ 7.28 11.90 -6.61 5.48
bor and capital plus 100: (KA)
(aA/at)/A -1.56 2.74 3.00 1.28
Source: Table 1
TFP index = + iQO ( 8)

The index of capital - labor ratio is defined as the
ratio o f capital index to labor index:
C a p ita l input index
C apital - la b o r index - (9)
L a b o r input index
From figure 1 it is evident that labor productivity
and capital-labor ratio recorded higher levels than
TFP and capital productivity.
Table 2 depicts the average growth rates o f real
output, labor, capital, labor productivity, capital pro­
ductivity, labor-capital ratio and TFP.
During the whole period (1970-96) output growth
rate was rapid; 8.09 per cent. Capital expanded by
8.60 per cent, though labor increased only by 2.96
per cent in average. Labor productivity increased by
4.99 per cent, capital productivity declined by 0.47
per cent and TFP increased by 1.28 per cent in aver­
age.
In the ‘70’s output growth rate was quite rapid;
11.58 per cent. Labor increased by 7.78 per cent and
capital expanded by 15.63 per cent in average re­
spectively. Labor productivity increased by 3.53 per
cent, capital productivity declined by 3.50 per cent
and TFP declined by 1.56 per cent in average.
Figure 1. Indices (1970=100) o f labor productivity (LP), capi­
tal productivity (CP), capital - labor ratio (K/L) and TFP.
In the ‘80’s output growth rate was much slower;
7.31 per cent, capital expanded by a greater growth
rate 8.23 per cent, though labor declined by 3.28 per
cent in average. Labor productivity increased by
10.95 per cent, capital productivity declined by 0.85
per cent and TFP increased by 2.74 per cent in aver­
age.
During the 1991-96 period output growth rate
was much slower; 2.67 per cent, labor increased by a
greater growth rate 4.41 per cent, though capital de­
creased by 2.49 per cent in average. Labor produc­
tivity decreased by 1.66 per cent, capital productiv­
ity increased by 5.29 per cent and TFP increased by
3 per cent in average.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The measurement of TFP through the derivation of a
Cobb-Douglas model captures the efficiency with
which the production factors (i.e. labor and capital)
are deployed in the production process.
In the lighting o f the results of this paper, the
evolution o f the Greek lignite mining in 1970-96 pe­
riod is characterized by a growth period (1970-80)
with high investment levels and a restructuring pe­
riod (1981-90) with high labor productivity levels,
though in the 1991-96 period the indices of organ­
izational and technological modernization have been
reversed (i.e. low labor productivity levels are re­
corded and capital growth is declined).
The technological change was faster in the ‘80s
compared with the ‘70s and the 1991-96 period,
since technological change is associated with the rise
o f capital-labor ratio.
The whole period studied in this paper is charac­
terized by a gap between capital-labor ratio and la­
bor productivity which has negative effects on the
capital productivity and TFP (see Figure 1).
The growth o f capital - labor ratio has a positive
effect on labor productivity growth and a negative

494
effect on capital productivity growth in the 1970-90
period. During the 1991-96 period the capital - labor
ratio decline is associated with labor productivity
decrease and capital productivity increase.
In the 1970-90 period a faster rate o f increase in
labor productivity than in TFP is expected, since
capital is growing faster than labor. But in years of
labor productivity decline (1991-96) the relative in­
crease o f TFP arise from the fact that labor was in­
creased and fixed capital was reduced.
Moreover, the calculation o f TFP index through
the derived Cobb-Douglas model in conjunction
with the calculation o f partial productivity indices
can be used for productivity evaluation and produc­
tivity planning at the mine level.
Productivity or performance evaluation at the
mine level as has already mentioned can be achieved
though the comparison o f productivity levels or in­
dices at the mine and sectoral level.
As far as productivity planning is concerned, it is
deemed that the derived model (6) can be used for
long - term labor productivity assuming that the re­
quirements of resources are known, though TFP in­
dex planning can also be made if the production rate
and the requirements o f resources are known.
But, it is worth noting that the approach applied
here, named econometric approach, has some lim i­
tations. First, the form o f the production fimction
was a p r io r i defined and it includes only two inputs,
capital and labor due to lack o f appropriate data.
Second, it is assumed that the factor shares remain
constant over the whole period. Third, there are also
other factors such as the stripping ratio which are not
incorporated into the model due to lack o f appropri­
ate data (i.e. waste volume processed), one o f the
major factors associated with productivity - effi­
ciency measurements in cases o f stripping mining
operations (Tsolas & Panagopoulos 1995). For the
possibility o f incorporation o f the waste volume into
the model see Maddala (1965).
If more detailed and comprehensive data is made
available the formulated Cobb- Douglas model w ill
be more reliable. Moreover, the formulation o f other
models (e.g. non-parametric models with the aid of
Data Envelopment Analysis, DEA) w ill be useful for
checking the consistency o f results and having a
measurement o f technical efficiency (Tsolas 1995b;
Tsolas & Panagopoulos 1996; Tsolas 1996b). An­
other alternative could also be the maximization to­
tal productivity model proposed by Sumanth (1984)
which is based on the total production cost meas­
urement.
6 REFERENCES
Darmastadter, J. (with the assistance o f Kropp, B.).
1997. P ro d u ctivity change in US co a l mining.
495
RFF Discussion Paper 97-40, Resources for the
Future.
Energy Information Association (EIA ). 1999a.
Greece.
Energy Information Association (EIA ). 1996b. In­
ternational E nergy O utlook - Coal.
Green, A. G. & Green, M . A. 1985. P rodu ctivity and
la b o r costs in the O ntario M etal M ining Industry,
Mineral Policy Background, Paper no 19, 3271,
Canada.
Maddala, G. S. 1965. Productivity and technological
change in the bituminous coal industry, 1919-54.
The jo u rn a l o f P o litica l Econom y 73(4): 352-365
Ministry for Development, Directorate of policy for
the mineral resources. 1975-1996. Official data
on man-shift hours in mining activities, unpubl.
(in Greek).
Ministry o f Industry, General Directorate of Mines.
Various years 1970-1974. Bulletin on the mining
activities o f G reece (in Greek).
Ministry of National Economy, General Directorate
for Economic Policy, Directorate for Macroeco­
nomic Analysis. 1998. The G reek econom y 1960-
1997. S tatistical long-term m acroeconom ic series
(in Greek).
National Statistical Service o f Greece. Various years
1970-1996. Annual sta tistic a l su rvey on mines,
quarries an d saltern s (in Greek).
Newman, H. 1997. The mineral industry of Greece.
US G eological Survey - M in erals Information.
Parry, I. 1997. P rodu ctivity trends in the natural re­
sou rces industries. RFF Discussion Paper 97-39,
Resources for the Future.
Sumanth, D. J. 1984. P rodu ctivity engineering and
management. New YorkiMcGraw H ill.
Tsolas, I. E. 1995a. A n alysis o f la b o r p ro d u ctivity in
the G reek m ining industry, Ph.D. thesis, Athens,
National Technical University, Department of
Mining and Metallurgical Engineering (in Greek).
Tsolas, I. E. 1996a. Depletion of Greek lignite re­
serves - Environmental effects and energy policy.
Thesis, 55: 105-119 (in Greek).
Tsolas, I. E. 1996b. Environmental effects on the ef­
ficiency of thermal electrical power production
sector. In E. Diamantopoulos & G. Korfiatis
(eds). P rotection an d R estoration o f the Environ­
m ent III, Proc. intern, sym p., Chania, 28-30
A ugust 1996:444-451. Chania:Technical Univer­
sity of Crete
Tsolas, I. E. 1995b. Productive efficiency in Greek
lignite mining: an application of the DEA model.
In B. Papathanassiou and K. Paparrizos (eds),
3 rd Balkan Conference on O perational R e­
search, Proc. sym p., Vol. II, Thessaloniki, 16-19
O ctober 1995:1239-1252. Thessaloniki:Hellenic
Operational Research Society.
Tsolas, I. E. 2000. The subsector of lignite mining.
Evolution and prospects. Proceedings of the
Conference o f the Committee of Engineering Ge-
 ology, Mineralogy and Geochemistry o f Greek
Geological Society (in press): ‘M in eral w ealth
a n d environm ent in W estern M acedon ia \ Kozani,
12-13 February 2000 (in Greek).
Tsolas, I. E. & Panagopoulos, C. I. 1995. Study of
labor productivity at the mine level - The cases
o f Kardia-Field and South-Field strip lignite
mines o f Ptolemais-Amydaio Lignite Centre in
western Macedonia. M in era l Wealth 95: 39-54
(in Greek).
Tsolas I. E. & Panagopoulos C. I. 1996. Measure­
ment o f technical efficiency at the mine level -
The cases o f Kardia- Field and South-Field strip
lignite mines o f Ptolemais - Amydaio Lignite
Center in western Macedonia, M in eral Wealth
100: 23-36 (in Greek).
Zabetakis, M .G. 1981. Productivity and safety in US
bituminous coal mines. M in in g C ongress Jou r­
nal: 19-21.

496
5 M ine equipm ent selection
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A com puter program for open pit m ine equipm ent selection: TruckMac

Murat Aksoy & Ercument Yalgin

M ining Engineering Departm ent, Engineering Faculty, Dokuz EylUl University, Izmir, Turkey

ABSTRACT: Open pit mining by its very nature normally involves the haulage of moderate to large amounts
of waste and ore to out of the pit for relatively long distances at steep grades. These requirements affect the
layout of the pit, selection of equipment, and production rate. That’s why, the detailed technical calculations
must be applied to technical formulas and machines technical characteristics must be profit to the working
conditions. In this paper, the software TruckMac that was written for an open pit mine equipment selection is
presented in detail. The structure of database is explained. The equipment selection for an open pit coal mine
that feeds the thermal power plant, was done with the aid of the software TruckMac. Four different shovel +
dump truck combination alternatives for the overburden excavation were analyzed and, as a result, the
optimum equipment selection for the open pit was decided.

1.IN TRO DUCTIO N
The proper selection of equipment is one of the most
critical decisions required in surface mining.
Technological feasibility, economic suitability, and
safety are the principal criteria that must be satisfied.
Because it is central to all mine operation, the
selection of equipment for material handling and its
two unit operations, excavation and haulage, is
generally the first and foremost task undertaken.
Equipment for other operations logically follows and
complements materials handling. Since open pit
mining always requires both loading and haulage in
the production cycle for tripping as well as mining.
The size and capacity of the equipment used in
surface mining has continued to increase in the past
decade. However, some mine operations feel there is
an upper lim it to the size of the equipment, with
many reasons given for that opinion. One fear is that
if one machine does all of the production work, and
it breaks down or is out of service for any reason, all
production w ill cease.
As machines get larger, they generally become
more cumbersome. They are more difficult and
slower to move, losing desired flexibility. Although
the machine has tremendous capacity when it is
operating, it loses much of this advantage when it is
out of service while being moved and repositioned.
A project designer should consider many alter­
natives and many calculations for lower the price of
system cost with optimum conditions. In this stage a
software is a necessity that another alternative not to
have been noticed.
Software used for mining application is as varied
as the requirements of individual mines. A ll mines
have some generally similar needs for data
management, mapping and reserve calculations.
Each mine, though, has a unique set of deposits.
These unique characteristics present a challenge for
software developers. As flexible as most computer
programs are, no program has yet been developed
that can satisfy all mining conditions. Some mining
companies need several software packages to meet
their needs. Others are able to manage with a single
package (Gibbs 1990).
In this article, open pit equipment selection
program, TruckMac, is presented and the equipment
selection for an open pit coal mine is given as a case
study.
2. DESCRIBTION OF THE SOFTWARE:
TRUCKMAC
The interactive PC based software “TruckMac” has
been written for the selection of the open pit mining
equipment. The software requires 5 megabytes of
hard disk space, 16 MB physical memory (RAM ),
an IB M compatible PC with an Intel 486 or better
processor and software TruckMac supports the

499
operating systems Windows 3.01, Windows 95- 98 TruckMac is developed by Visual Basic 4.0 and
and Windows N T 4.0. its calculations are interactively and real time. When
the parameters are exchanged, then the calculations
The software TruckMac is developed for the starts automatically and the variations are displayed
calculation of equipment selection and general on the screen. In Figure 1, the calculation scheme of
equations to calculate production capacity of the the software is given.
equipment are used. The database contains the
2.1. W heel lo a d er an d h ydraulic shovel selection
model types and specifications of dump trucks,
wheel loaders, hydraulic and electrical shovels and
The necessary constant data should be entered from
draglines. The natural ground conditions, loading
the window shown in Figure 2 as an input to the
shapes, the lengths, the slopes and maintenance of
software in order to perform wheel loader or
the haul roads are given as an input data, necessary
hydraulic shovel calculation. (Aksoy, 1999)
loading units and truck number required for the
On the window shown in Figure 3, hauling
production are calculated by the software TruckMac.
distance, bucket fill factor, job efficiency and
Also, the operation cost analysis of wheel loader and
conversion factor are entered and V-shape loading

E le c tr ic S h o v e l S e le c tio n Dragline Selection

" 1.
D u m p T ru c k
S o m e F ix e d P a r a m a t e r s I C a lc u la te d w ith c o m p u t e r
C y c le t im e
[ O v e r b u r d e n q u a n t it y
D u m p T r u c k P ro d u c tio n
B u c k e t c a p . a n d m o d e l o f D r a g lin e
C o s t E s tim a t io n s
R e a c h a n d R e h a n d lin g p e r c e n t

..........^..1_ ___ ________ I ______ .

S o m e F ix e d P a r a m e t e r s C a lc u ia te d w ith c o m p u t e r T h e c a lc u la t e d P it w id th
O v e r b u r d e n to b e r e m o v e d C u t a rea
N um ber of shovel S p o il a r e a
C o s t E s tim a tio n s

D r a g lin e C o s t E s tim a tio n s

H y d r a u lic S h o v e l S e le c t io n

D u m p T ru c k
C y c ie tim e
D u m p T r u c k P r o d u c tio n
C o s t E s tim a t io n s

S w in g a n g le ,B u c k e t f a c t o r C a lc u la te d w it h c o m p u t e r ; H y d .S h o v e l C o s t E s tim a tio n s
J o b E f f ic i e n c y ,C o n v e r s i o n C y c le t im e
L o a d in g S h a p e P r o d u c tio n

Cl "V'"
GT S G lG C tiO n
'

D u m p T ru c k
C y c le tim e
D u m p T r u c k P r o d u c tio n f
C o s t E s tim a tio n s

H a u lin g d is t a n c e ,B u c k e t f a c t o r C a l c u l a t e d w ith c o m p u t e r j W h e e l L o a d e r C o s t E s tim a tio n s

i
! J o b E f f ic ie n c y ,C o n v e r s io n w h e e l lo a d e r c y c le tim e
L o a d in g S h a p e w h e e l lo a d e i r p r o d u c tio n
i

Figure 1. Calculation schema of equipment selection

shovels with the combination of dump truck can be option is preferred, then the production and cycle
done. time are calculated automatically by the software
TuruckMac.
The software package is engaged for: Trucks can be chosen from the list box on the
1. Wheel Loader Selection window. The number of segments of haulage road
2. Hydraulic and Electrical Shovel Selection which each has different slope and length are given
3. Dump Truck Calculation and Selection as an input to the software. Also, the length of
4. Dragline Selection loaded and empty dump truck road, grade and
rolling resistance are entered from the grid screen

500
and the cycle time and then, production of a truck select button to choose a shovel from the list box,
are calculated. the computer can find out how many shovel
necessary in this project and then all calculations
SDZ!£S3i should be carried out for this shovel. Besides,
E*« go< H«b properties of selected shovel can be followed on this
8E23ZZ3SI window.
|H» I D<y»««r
-j l i l t w w 'l n g » w i Tructc AnrMMitfM;
After this process, if the user would like to
Truck CMy M m ] Hour««»
.. I o*yy«>w TrudtPriee
connect the truck to the system, then truck picture
fm tw
LoAdarlMIlrUM |«t ' ' | Hourittty
Truck Tlr»l>rtc« button should be pushed and the menu opens on the
ttMd«r P»k» ~] *
Truck u r « fkW it }H screen as seen in Figure 4.
i.M N l« r T h * F ^ k* I$
Lm Om - Ur« j Hour
For cost estimation, the user should push the “$”
button and the new window appears on the screen.
On this window, the necessary shovel and truck
numbers are displayed. By entering the shovel and
truck parameters, loading and hauling costs are
calculated by the software.

2.3. D raglin e selection

Figure 2. The screen of data entry
Calculations and selection of dragline can be
iSSaHHMMBi
iiiw »
achieved by using ‘File-New Project-Dragline’
submenu or the Navigator. The fixed parameters are
entered from the “Data-Dragline-Fixed Parameters”
submenu. Figure 5. The pit width is calculated and
the suitable model of Dragline in optimum condition
can be chosen from the database by the software
TruckMac, Figure 6. The cost estimation is done
and the results are displayed on the new screen.

Figure 3. Wheel loader and dump truck system.

Cost estimation of the dump truck and wheel

loader is calculated by using the “Cost Estimation”
submenu of Main menu or Navigator. On this
window, the details of cost estimation for wheel
loader and dump truck can be seen. In addition, the
number of loader and truck necessary for the project
are displayed. Figure 4. Electrical shovel + dump truck operation
system

2.2. E lectrical S hovel Selection

3. CASE STUDY APPLICATION
When the ‘Shovel Selection’ submenu is selected The equipment selection for excavation of 14 319
from Navigator, the window shown in Figure 4 781 ya overburden is carried out for an open pit
appears on the screen. Here, the user enters fixed lignite mine with the aid of the software TruckMac.
parameters and the suitable shovel is chosen by the Three different shovel + truck combinations are
computer. analyzed in overburden excavation by using the
OK message appears on the screen if one shovel fixed parameters and haul road conditions given in
w ill be enough in this project. If one shovel is not Table 1. Two of them are electrical shovel + truck
enough, ‘Use 2 or More Excavator’ message appears combinations and the other is hydraulic shovel +
instead of OK. In this case, the user should push the truck combination.

501
Table 1. The fixed parameters and haul road conditions

Fixed Parameters Haul road conditions

Distance Grade Resistance Rolling Resistance
(meter) (%) (%)
Overburden height 15 m 100 0 -h3
Coal thickness 1.5 m 500 +3 +3
Operation factor 0.75 800 0 +3
Bucket fill factor 0.8 100 0 -h3
Yearly working
5400 100 0 +3
hour
1.37
Coal density 800 0 -i-3
t/m^
Conversion factor 0.7 500 -3 +3
Dragline cycle
59 sec 100 0 -i-3
time
Electrical shovel
39 sec
cycle time

hydraulic shovel, Komatsu HD 200-2 dump trucks

are selected and the cost analysis results are given in
Table 2 with the dragline selection alternative cost
analysis results. In the case of shovel -i- truck
combinations, the electrical shovel + Cat 111 dump
truck combination has the lowest overburden
production cost, $ 0.743. The cost of dragline
excavation is $ 0.403 which is 45.76 % less than
shovel + truck excavation cost.
In Dragline selection, the calculated pit width and
selected dragline reach are 88.68 m and 52.95 m,
respectively. Therefore, the pit width is taken as a
Figure 5. Necessary parameters for dragline selection dragline reach. For the selected dragline, the other
calculation results are given below.
Rehandling Percent 20.14
Overburden Quantity 14319781yd^
(Unexcavated)
Bucket Capacity 72.43 yd^
Selected Dragline P 7 6 2 -7 4 y d ^
Dumping Height 50.64 m
Bank cut area 794.57
Spoil area 2153.57

4. CONCLUSION

The excavation and haulage equipment selection to

For the combinations, the shovel models selected by
TruckMac, number of shovel required and their
production capacities are given below. The user can
select any kind of dump truck from a database for a
shovel + truck combination. For electrical shovel,
Cat 111 and Cat 769C dump trucks, and for
remove the overburden in an opencast mine is an
essential and complex decision that requires
numerical calculations and extensive data collection
about the equipment, their specifications and costs.
The trend in the mining industry is the use of larger
equipment in the shape of shovel + truck
combination. The equipment selection process
involves the application of engineering and
mathematical principles to make decisions using
certain data to arrive at the most economic solution
to the problem (Koehler 1980).

502
 Electrical Shovel Hvdraulic shovel
Selected Shovel : M 251M Komatsu PC 650
Capacity : 25 yd^ 5 yd^
Number of Shovel : 2.73 = 3 7
Overburden to be removed : 15 641 292 mVyear 15 641 292 m^/ye;
Shovel Production : 741.07 m^/h 450.98 m^/h

Table 2,Comparison of alternatives in overburden excavation.

Shovel / Truck Systems

Elect, shovel Elect, shovel Hy dr. shovel + Dragline
+ Cat777 4- Cat769C Komat.HD200
Truck cycle time (min) 8.84 6.35 8.94
Truck hourly production 233.53 108.36 76.51
(m^/h)________________
Number of truck 12 24 48
System depreciation cost ($) 0.118 0.131 0.188 0.026
Interest cost ($) 0,033 0.034 0.030 0.023
Electric cost ($) 0,042 0.042 0.042
Rope cost ($) 0.092 0.092 0.24
Fuel cost ($) 0.290 0.307 0.388
Tire cost ($) 0.015 0.024 0.034
Spare part cost ($) 0.066 0.067 0.061 0.031
Lubricant cost ($) 0.007 0.007 0.010 0.0008
Repair cost ($) 0.051 0.052 0.047 0.027
Labor cost ($) 0.028 0.040 0.046 0.010
Insurance cost ($) 0.0005 0.0005 0.0004 0.0004
Total cost ($) 0.743 0.797 0.804 0.403

Computer simulations are well suited to analyze

the equipment selection alternatives .Several
alternatives can be analyzed in a relatively short
time by the modification of input variables. The
computer software, “TruckMac” has been developed
to examine and analyze different shovel + truck
combinations.

REFERENCES

Aksoy, M . 1999. Computer aided comparison of

open pit operating systems, Ph. D Thesis, DEU
Graduate School of Natural and Applied
Sciences, Izm ir
Gibbs, L. B. 1990. Mining Software trends and
applications. M ining Engineering, August.
Koehler, S. S. 1980. Mining Methods and
Equipment, Montana College of Mineral Science
and Technology, Montana.

503
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Experim ental research o f a soft start-up process o f armoured face conveyor

equipped w ith a water flow -controlled hydrodynamic coupling

J.Antoniak
Silesian Technical University, G liwice, Poland

ABSTRACT: Performance characteristic of modern drive of 400 kW power equipped with hydrodynamic
coupling and planetary gearbox has been described in this paper. This coupling is hydrodynamic one with
controlled water flow of the 562 DTPPWL type produced by Voith-Turbo Company. Planetary gearbox is of
the new construction with four satellite wheels. Head and tail drives of this type secure soft start-up of AFC of
the Longwall-800 type. In order to evaluate cooperation correctness of both drives and a soft start-up process
this AFC has been subjected to an examination on the face number 522 at the Piast coal mine. Measurement
method applied in real objects in exploitation conditions has been presented. Results of research and conclu­
sions have been also contained in this article.

1 LABORATORY INVESTIG ATIO NS DTPPWL symbol according to the size of coupling

OF A W ATER FLOW -CONTROLLED
H YD R O D YN A M IC COUPLING
In AFC’s o f relatively small motor power hydrody­
namic couplings with constant filling are applied.
However in drives of motor power up to 1000 kW
water flow-controlled hydrodynamic couplings are
used. Construction of such coupling built in in the
modem AFC drive is presented on Fig. 1. This type
of drive has been subjected to an examination at
Piast coal mine.
This type of coupling manufactured by Voith-
Turbo in Crailsheim is described by 487 or 562
working cells.
These couplings were subjected to laboratory
investigations at special research stand (Fig. 2) in
Crailsheim, before their application in AFC’s at
polish coal mines: Bogdanka, Piast, Silesia.
During these investigations proper mechanical
characteristics of this couplings were obtained
(Fig. 3).
New type of electric motor of 400 kW power
has been constructed in order to cooperate with the
water flow-controlled hydrodynamic coupling.
Technical characteristic of this motor is shown in
Table 1.

Fig. 1 Main drive o f AFC; 1 - electric motor, 400 kW, 2 - 562 DTPPWL hydrodynamic coupling with controlled
water flow, 3 - elastic coupling, 4 - hydraulic chain tensioner, 5 - planetary gearbox

505
Fig. 2 Stand for hydrodynamic coupling investigation Fig. 3 Obtained from examination rated slip

On the Fig. 2 the following descriptions have been
introduced: 1 - investigated coupling, 2 - electric
motor, lOOOkW, 1500 1/min, 3 - valve block,
4 - measuring shaft, 5 - Prony break, 800x540,
6 - bearing block, Q - water jet 1/min, n?, n j - pump
and turbine r.p.m., M - torque, N*m, 6 - water tem­
perature, °C, p - input and output water pressure. Pa
2 PURPOSE OF ID E N TIFIC A TIO N OF A SOFT
START-UP PROCESS OF ARMOURED FACE
CONVEYORS
The purpose o f the performed measurements and
investigations o f modem armoured face conveyors
and stage loaders was to get familiar with their static
and dynamic characteristics when furnishing the
drives of these conveyors with different facilities for
soft start-up and with various types o f electric
motors. These investigations allowed the operation
of the conveyors and o f their drives to be assessed,
both general and detailed conclusions as regards the
application o f soft start-up facilities in armoured
conveyors drives to be formulated.
The obtained results served for:
- assessment o f technical and operating parameters
of conveyors used in the coal mine,
- working out o f prerequisites for the application
of soft start-up facilities in AFC,
- detailed diagnostics o f AFC.
On the basis o f the measurements made it was
possible to carry out a detailed analysis and
assessment of:
rate o f load in particular electric motors of a head
drive and of a tail drive of AFC, rate of load in
particular strands o f the chain during start-up and
during steady run o f conveyors, technical state of
chains and drive sprockets, starting factors
characterizing the facilities of soft start-up of
different design, chain braking process, resistances
to motion of conveyors, synchronization of start-up
of drives in two-drive conveyors, drive motors
characteristics, speed of a flexible wave of tensions
in the chain, mechanics of a kinematics pair: drive
sprocket-chain and other properties of AFC.
A Longwall-800 AFC with modem head drive
and tail drive, was one of the objects of the
investigations. A driving unit incorporated a 400 kW
induction motor with a special mechanical
characteristic adapted for the cooperation with
avoidable fluid coupling type 562 DTPPWL, a 4-
satellite planetary gear of the class 32 and 6-teeth
drive sprocket for scraper chain 2x34x126 mm.
The investigations were carried out with the
conveyor being empty and with the conveyor being
loaded with mn-of-mine material in a definite por­
tion. AFC cooperated with double ranging dmm
shearer of the KGS 750/RW /2D type with a Dyna-
trac haulage system. The power of a gearhead motor
amounted to 300 kW and that of a motor of the hy­
draulic system was of 150 kW. The total power of
the shearer amounted to 835 kW. Cutting drums
were of 2000 mm in diameter and of 750 mm in
width.
The shearer was equipped with an automatic
control system including a radio control, with a di­
agnostic unit and a double breaking system. The
shearer can be operated on faces the longitudinal in­
clination of which is of up to 35° and the transverse
one of up to 10°. An infinitely variable control of
cutting height makes it possible to extract undulated
seams with varying height o f deposition.
The Longwall-800 armoured conveyor, made by
the Joy Company, was 220 m. long and incorporated

Table 1: Technical characteristic o f the SG3 450 S-4 motor

Rated power Pn, kW 400 Rated torque Mn, N m 2574
Supply voltage U n, V 1000 Multiplication factor o f starting current R/In 8,0
Rated current U, A 260 Multiplication factor o f starting torque Mk/Mn 1,2
Power factor cos q>N 0,92 Multiplication factor of breakdown torque Mk/M n 3,2
Efficiency tin, % 96,5 Moment o f inertia Jm, kg m^ 9,0
Rotational speed n, 1/min 1484 Motor weight, kg 2200

506
two drives: a head drive (W ) and a tail drive (Z).
The drives were furnished with electric motors spe­
cially adapted for cooperation with a fluid coupling
of the 487 or 562 DTPPW type, made by the Voith
Company.
The principle o f operation of a water flow-
controlled hydrodynamic coupling consists in that
the mechanical characteristic of the coupling auto­
matically limits the maximum torque to a value of
breakdown torque o f the motor. A loadless start-up
o f the motor takes place with a working chamber of
the coupling being empty. When a working chamber
is fully filled with water the motor can be loaded to
its breakdown torque.
Starting o f an AFC under application o f this type of
fluid coupling has the following course:
- motors start running without load, in tandem;
- high starting currents quickly drop below the
rated current;
- the auxiliary drive is supplied with water of high
flow rate at first, in advance of the main drive; it
begins to be loaded and pulls the chain out of the
bottom part o f the conveyor;
- delayed supplying o f the main drive takes place;
the conveyor is started and begins to speed up
softly till reaching its rated speed; only such a
torque that is indispensable for starting the
conveyor is introduced into the chain;
- as soon as rotors o f the coupling are filled up, the
system becomes switched over for low flow rate
of the supply stream i.e. 20 dm^ /min.
Steady running o f an armoured face conveyor is
characterized in that:
- after completion o f the start-up, the couplings
automatically effect compensation o f power
between particular drives.
507
- the objective of control done during steady run­
ning is to maintain complete filling of rotors of
the coupling with water.
The DTPPW couplings realize the compensa­
tion of power between particular drives making use
of their natural characteristic.
The principle of such functioning corresponds
to a hydraulic balance:
the coupling becoming loaded produces slip
which makes that rotations of a high- speed shaft are
slightly reduced, the more loaded is the given cou­
pling in relation to the other couplings the greater
slip is produced, the more slowly the high-speed
shaft rotates in relation to less loaded couplings;
therefore, the drives the load of which is lower have
to ’’pull with greater might”.
This effect occurs automatically so that no ad­
ditional control procedure is required.
3 MEASURING TECHNIQUE APPLIED IN THE
INVESTIGATIONS OF THE AFC D RIVE
The assessment of operation of the Longwall-800
AFC involved measurements of the following quan­
tities: active power of drives, rotational speed of
driving drums and tension forces in particular
strands of a scraper chain. Totally, there were six
physical quantities measured in time function. Fig. 4
shows a general diagram of the measuring system.
The measuring equipment along with units
designed to control the operation of the armoured
face conveyor being investigated constituted
measuring positions. The kind of a parameter under
measuring is determinative of location of the
measuring positions.
 According to the measurement being taken
corresponding sensors were arranged on the
conveyor and pertinent signals were logged. The
arrangement of sensors of forces, of rotational speed
of driving drums as well as the arrangement of
transformers o f electric quantities (power, voltage
and current) on the armoured face conveyor being
investigated is shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 Arrangement of measuring sensor on AFC - Longwall-800
A stand for logging and processing of measurement
data was situated in the longwall maingate near the
head drive.
The measurements brought about several tens of
coloured oscillograms, which were subjected to
statistical and process analysis.
4 ANALYSIS OF SOFT START-UP PROCESS
OF AN ARMOURED FACE CONVEYOR
Three basic phases can be distinguished during start­
ups of the system drive - armoured face conveyor.
Fig. 6. The first phase embraces sequential switching
on of motors and their loadless starting as well as
filling of couplings with water. In this space o f time,
drive sprockets o f the chain are, practically,
motionless.
The first phase ends the moment the movement
of the scraper chain is actuated. The duration of this
phase is 6.1 to 10.8 s and the diversification results
from the rate o f switching on of valves and from
operation of a system presetting the proper pressure
of water.
This phase is involved in elimination of plays in
the drive due to the fact that the coupling transmits
the minimum torque connected with residual filling
o f the coupling with water.
The second phase o f starting consists in the pro­
cess of growing o f a torque being transferred by the
508
fluid coupling and of gradual increasing of a scraper
chain speed with a little acceleration, which in case
of an empty conveyor ranges from 0.1 up to 0.12 m/s.
A course of this phase of starting is slightly different
when the conveyor is loaded with run-of-mine mate­
rial. Then, the both drive sprockets are not set in
motion at the same time. A drive sprocket of the tail
drive starts at first and a drive sprocket of the head
drive is put in motion afterwards. A speed of the
latter sprocket is in the beginning higher than the
rotational speed of the tail drive sprocket. Therefore,
a point lying on a pitch circle of this sprocket covers
a distance by about 8 cm longer than that covered at
the same time by an analogous point lying on a pitch
circle of the tail drive sprocket.
After a moment the tail drive sprocket speeds up
and the point in question covers a distance by about
16 cm longer than that covered by the analogous
point on a pitch circle of the head drive sprocket.
Next, another acceleration of the head drive sprocket
takes place (just before completion of the chain
start-up) and once more the point lying on a pitch
circle of this sprocket covers a distance by about
8 cm longer.
The second phase of starting of a conveyor
loaded with run-of-mine material consists in soft in­
creasing of a chain speed with acceleration ranging
from 0.03 to 0.14 m /P . The duration of this phase of
starting takes about 2/3 of the time of complete start­
up of the chain beginning from zero speed till
reaching the nominal speed of 1.13 m/s.
The third phase of starting the system drive -
armoured face conveyor consists in growing of a
scraper chain speed with considerable acceleration,
being more than three times higher than that in the
second phase.
The acceleration differs depending on the state
of the conveyor: it amounts from 0.33 to 0.46 m/s^
for an empty conveyor and from 0.19 to 0.35 m/s^
for a conveyor loaded with run-of-mine material.
This acceleration is advantageous for a loaded con­
veyor because during start-up lover forces are pro­
duced in the chain.
Fig. 6 Overlapping o f simplified oscillograms of empty and loaded AFC start-up
From diagrams shown in Fig. 6 it appears that a
softer start-up is obtained for a loaded conveyor. The
investigations have clearly indicated that water flow-
controlled hydrodynamic couplings have an advan­
tageous effect leading to attenuation of load in
drives and tension members when being started.
Power distribution to individual motor drives at
the start-up time described by relationship Nmax w,z /
O^maxw + Nmaxz) for empty conveyor amounted to
Nw « 61% and Nz » 39%, and for loaded conveyor:
Nw « 59% i Nz « 41%.
Analyzing stationery work states of AFC it
should be stated that in the recording time active
power consumed by the conveyor drives was stabi­
lizing after tens o f seconds (from 20 to 35 sec) since
the start-up. After that period of time power distri­
bution was as follows - empty conveyor: « 51%
and Nz « 49%; and loaded conveyor: Nw from 48 up
to 51,3%, and Nz from 52 up to 48,7%, but the head
drive motor was overloaded most often (Nw).
509
Obtained in the investigation resistance to motion
coefficient of twin inboard chains in the line pans
amounted to 0,424. This value of coefficient evalu­
ated from consumption of drive active power con­
forms to results of examination obtained by other re-
searchers for scraper chain string moving in AFC
pans polluted by sandstone. This same kind of con­
tamination was present in the face, where the inves­
tigation was carried out. The value of resistance to
motion coefficient of chain evaluated from times of
conveyor free coasting is lower and amounts to 0,41.
Thus it results from the investigation, that those
chain resistances to motion do not have constant
value and this fact should be taken into considera­
tion in methods of drive selection for AFC’s. Ob­
tained in the investigation run-of-mine resistance to
shifting coefficient totals from 0,45 up to 0,5. Value
of this coefficient was evaluated from active power
consumption and known shift work of individual
part of run-of-mine. Considerable value o f the coef­
ficient resulted from excessive static run-of-mine V -
block in proportion to run-of-mine V-block moving
with a speed of chain. Decreasing of the coefficient
value from 0,5 to 0,45 resulted from friction de­
creasing and catching the cobs of run-of-mine from
the top layer o f V-block on the conveyor on cobs
from static bank V-block originated as a result of
shearer mining. This static bank V-block had been
earlier transformed into a V-block shifted by chain
on the AFC.
Analyze o f 2 x (|) 34 x 126 mm twin inboard
scraper chains loads is more complex. Still, as it re­
sults from the investigation, chain loads during the
empty conveyor start-up are relatively higher than
the ones existing during the start-up o f loaded con­
veyor. Chain load dynamic coefficient X is described
by the ratio o f sum of maximum tensions occurring
in chains during the start-up to sum of average ten­
sions occurring in stationery movement. This coeffi­
cient totals for a loaded conveyor from 1,07 up to
1,24 and is lower than the same coefficient for
empty conveyor, which totals from 1,18 up to 1,61.
Value of this coefficient decreases with an increase
of chain tension before the start-up (Fig. 7). Values
of chain tension forces on X-axis and Y-axis were
obtained from measurements.
E - empty conveyor
L - loaded conveyor
I— I- chain tension
at start-up
chain tension
at normal work, AFC empty
i n i - chain tension
at normal work, AFC loaded
20 30 40
Average chain tension at start time of AFC , x2, kN
Fig. 7 Measured tensions o f twin inboard chains
Low values of dynamic coefficient X, especially
for loaded conveyor, testify to extremely soft start­
up of conveyor equipped with drives with water
flow-controlled hydrodynamic couplings. Soft start­
up and low values of dynamic loads favourably in­
fluence chain and drive mechanical system life.
5 FIN A L REMARKS
The modem and original measuring technique
applied during investigations of AFC has proved to
be efficient and effective under difficult conditions
of industrial measurements. A vast research material
in form of colored oscillograms along with records
of courses of active power o f driving motors, speeds
of chain sprockets and tension forces in chains taken
in time ftmction, position of an armoured conveyor
in the face and the state of its load have been ob­
tained.
A comprehensive theoretical analysis of the re­
search material made it possible to draw a number of
detailed conclusions of essential importance as re­
gards mechanical characteristics o f electrical driving
motors, characteristics and operational features of
water flow-controlled hydrodynamic couplings, dy­
namics of start-ups of an armoured conveyor when
empty and loaded with run-of-mine material, kine­
matics of meshing of the chain with a drive sprocket,
resistances to motion of a scraper chain and dis­
placement of the transported material, rate of load of
chains during operation of the conveyor when empty
and when loaded with run-of-mine material.
Conclusions of cognitive character w ill be
utilized in further research work on armoured face
conveyors.
6 REFERENCES
Antoniak J.: Modem power transmission for Longwall Scraper
Conveyors. Mechanizacja i Automatyzacja Gomictwa, Ka­
towice 4/1997.
Antoniak J., Lutynski A.: Evaluation of application propriety
of AFC soft start-up. Research work, unpublicised, Silesian
Technical University, Gliwice 1999.
Antoniak J., Spintzyk E.: Hydrodynamic couplings with con­
trolled working liquid flow used in power transmission of
high duty scraper conveyors. Mechanizacja i Automa-
tyzacja Gömictwa, Katowice 4/1998.
Finzel R., Höher H., Weber W.: Eine wasserdurchströmte Tur­
bokupplung neuer Generation für den Strebkettenförderer­
antrieb. Internationales Kolloquium Hochleistungs - Streb­
betriebe. RWTH Aachen, 21-22 Mai 1997.
45
510
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Determination of economic life of heavy earth moving machinery in mines

Rajesh Arora & Sunil Nakra

G ujarat Industries P ow er Com pany Limited, Gujarat, India

ABSTRACT: The economic life o f the machinery’s is conceptually defined as the period after which the
machinery should be replaced, which in turn is influenced by operating and maintenance costs on the one
hand and capital cost on the other hand. These costs are converted into the uniform annual equivalent (UAE).
The UAE is a function o f the present value o f costs, the life o f the machinery's and the discount rate. The
UAE is simply. PV cost / PVIFA
The economic life is the period when UAE o f total cost during the period is minimum. Elence a decision
has to be taken to select the most appropriate equipment, the economic life ol' which has been calculated &
verified, from the various equipment available in the market. To illustrate the technique typical Lignite Mines
in western India has been used as a backdrop.

INTRODUCTION o f UAE has been applied. The UAE is function of

the present value o f costs, life o f the machine and
A distinction needs to be made between the the discount rate. It is defined as:
physical life and the economic life o f machinery.
The physical life o f machinery represents the UAE = PV (Cost)
period for which it can be used to produce at a PV IFA, „
certain rate with regular maintenance and repair. Where,
The economic life o f machinery represents the PV = Present value o f cost.
period for which it should be used to produce at a P V IF A ,,, = Present value interest factor for
certain rate economically. annuity,
This analysis is aimed at determining economic k = Discount rate,
life o f various heavy earth-moving machinery n = Economic life o f machinery
which are designed to serve the same purpose but
supposedly have different life (as claimed by The economic life is the life when UAE o f total cost
their manufacturers). In this analysis the concept during the period is minimum.

Exhibit 1.0
Specification and Status o f machines under consideration:

Equipment Type Total Basic Price (Rs. Mill.) Landed prices at site (Rs. Mill.)
A 44.62 69.634
B 45.70 70.628

Exhibit 2.0:
Performance and operating cost o f Heavy Earth Moving Machinery in the First Year o f Operation
Machine Performance Consumption Operating Wages Total O&M Cost Rs/Hr)
Diesel Lub. Spares
A 1109 TPH 1320 330 580 25 2255
B 959 TPH 1320 330 441 25 2116

511
The expected operating and maintenance costs and salvage value for the next 't' years are drawn from Exhibit
2.0 and are shown in the Exhibit 3.0.

Exhibit 3.0
Operating & Maintenance Costs and Salvage Value for the Eleavy Earth Moving Machinery under
Consideration

For Machine A:

Years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
O&M Cost (Rs./Hr.) 2255 2480 2728 3000 3300 3630 3993 4392 4831 5314
Salvage Value (Rs.Mill) 61.7 53.7 45.8 37.8 29.9 21.9 14.0 6.11 0.0 0.0

For Machine B:

Years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
O&M Cost (Rs./Hr.) 2116 2327 2559 2815 3096 3405 3745 4119 4530 4983
Salvage Value (Rs.Mill) 62.57 54.52 46.47 38.42 30.37 27.32 14.28 6.23 0.0 0.0

Exhibit 4.0
Calculation o f UAE (OM) for various Replacement Period. (Rs. Mill.)

1 t=l 1 t=2 1 t=3 1 t=4 1 t=5 1 t=6 1 t=7 1 t=8 | t=9 | t=10
O&M Cost
A 9.5 10.4 11.5 12.6 13.9 15.3 16.8 18.4 20.3 22.3
B 8.9 9.8 10.7 11.8 13.0 14.3 15.7 17.3 19.0 20.9
Post Tax O&M Cost (Tax rate-3 0%)
A 6.65 7.28 8.05 8.82 9.73 10.71 11.71 12.88 14.21 15.61
B 6.23 6.86 7.49 8.26 9.1 10.01 10.99 12.11 13.3 14.63
PVIF (t,k-13%) 0.885 0.783 0.693 0.613 0.543 0.480 0.425 0.376 0.333 0.295
Present value o f post tax. O&M Costs
A 5.88 5.70 5.57 5.40 5.28 5.14 4.99 4.84 4.73 4.60
B 5.51 5.37 5.19 5.06 4.94 4.80 4.67 4.55 4.42 4.31
Cumulative Present Value
A 5.88 11.58 17.15 22.55 27.83 32.97 37.96 42.8 47.5.3 52.13
B 5.51 10.88 16.07 21.13 26.07 30.88 35.55 40.10 44.53 48.84
PVIFA (t,k-13%) 0.885 1.668 2.361 2.974 3.517 3.998 4.423 4.799 5.132 5.426
UAE (OM)
A 6.64 6.94 7.26 7.58 7.91 8.24 8.582 8.91 9.26 9.60
B 6.22 6.52 6.80 7.10 7.41 7.72 8.03 8.35 8.67 9.00

Exhibit 5.0

__________________ 1Lt=i____iL iz?____It=3___ |j z 4 ___ [tz 5 ___ 1 t=6 1 t=7 |t= 8 1 t=9 1 t=10
Investment outlay
A 69.63 69.63 69.63 69.63 69.63 69.63 69.63 69.63 69.63 69.63
B 70.63 70.63 70.63 70.63 70.63 70.63 70.63 70.63 70.63 70.63
PVIFA (t,k=13%) 0.895 1.668 2.361 2.974 3.517 3.998 4.423 4.799 5.132 5.426
UAE(IO)
A 78.68 41.74 29.49 23.41 19.80 17.42 15.74 14.51 13.56 12.83
B 79.80 42.34 29.91 23.75 20.08 17.66 15.96 14.72 13.76 13.01

512
Exhibit 6.0

t-1 t=2 t-3 1 t=4 1 t-5 1 t=6 1 t=7 1 t=8 1 t=9 1 t-1 0
Depreciation Charge
A 7.94 7.94 7.94 7.94 7.94 7.94 7.94 0.0 0.0 0.0
B 8.05 8.05 8.05 8.05 8.05 8.05 8.05 8.05 8.05 0.0
Depreciation Tax Shield
A 2.38 2.38 2.38 2.38 2.38 2.38 2.38 0.0 0.0 0.0
B 2.41 2.41 2.41 2.41 2.41 2.41 2.41 2.41 2.41 0.0
PVIF (t,k=13%) 0.885 0.783 0.693 0.613 0.543 0.48 0.425 0.367 0.333 0.295
Present Value o f Depreciation
A 2.10 1.86 1.65 1.46 1.29 1.14 1.01 0.0 0.0 0.0
B 2.13 1.88 1.67 1.47 1.30 1.15 1.02 0.90 0.80 0.0
Cumulative Present value
A 2.1 3.96 5.61 7.07 8.36 9.5 10.51 0.0 0.0 0.0
B 2.13 4.01 5.68 7.14 8.44 9.58 10.59 11.49 12.29 0.0
PVIFA (t,k=13%) 0.885 1.668 2.361 2.974 3.517 3.998 4.423 4.799 5.132 5.426
UAE (DTS)
A 2.37 2.37 2.37 2.37 2.37 2.37 2.37 0.0 0.0 0.0
B 2.13 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 0.0

Exhibit 7.0

1 t=l 1 t=2 1 t-3 1 t-4 1 t=5 1 t=6 1 t-7 1 t=8 | t=9 | t=10
Salvage Value
A 61.69 53.15 45.81 37.87 29.93 21.99 14.05 6.11 0.0 0.0
B 62.57 54.52 46.47 38.42 30.37 22.32 14.28 6.23 0.0 0.0
PVIF (t,k=13%) 0.885 0.783 0.693 0.613 0.543 0.480 0.425 0.376 0.333 0.295
Present value o f salvage value
A 54.6 42.08 31.75 23.21 16.25 10.55 5.97 2.29 0.0 0.0
B 55.37 42.69 32.20 23.55 16.49 10.71 6.06 2.34 0.0 0.0
PVIFA (t,k=I3%) 0.885 1.668 2.361 2.974 3.517 3.998 4.423 4.799 5.132 5.426
UAE(SV)
A 61.69 25.22 13.47 7.80 4.62 2.61 1.35 0.47 0.0 0.0
B 62.56 25.59 13.63 7.92 4.68 2.68 1.37 0.48 0.0 0.0

Exhibit 8.0

1 t=l 1 t=2 1 t=3 1 t=4 1 t=5 1 t=6 1 t=7 1 t=8 1 t=9 1 t=10
UAE(IO)
A 78.68 41.74 29.49 23.41 19.8 17.42 15.74 14.51 13.56 12.83
B 79.80 42.34 29.91 23.75 20.08 17.66 15.96 14.72 13.76 13.01
UAE(DTS)
A 2.37 2.37 2.37 2.37 2.37 2.37 2.37 0.0 0.0 0.0
B 2.13 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 0.0
UAE(SV)
A 61.69 25.22 13.44 7.80 4.62 2.64 1.35 0.47 0.0 0.0
B 62.56 25.59 13.63 7.92 4.68 2.68 1.37 0.48 0.0 0.0
UAE(CC)
A 14.62 14.16 13.68 13.24 12.81 12.41 12.02 14.51 13.56 12.83
B 15.11 14.35 13.88 13.43 13.00 12.58 12.19 11.84 11.36 13.01

513
Exhibit 9.0
Calculation o f UAE (TC) for HEMM under consideration: (Rs. Mill.)
Years U A E(O M ) UAE(CC) UAE(TC)
B B B
6.64 6.22 14.62 15.11 21.26 21.33
6.94 6.52 14.16 14.35 21.10 20.87
7.26 6.80 13.68 13.88 20.94 20.68
7.58 7.10 13.24 13.43 20.82 20.53
7.91 7.41 12.81 13.00 20.72 20.41
8.24 7.72 12.41 12.58 20.65 20.30
8.58 8.03 12.02 12.19 20.22
8.91 8.35 14.51 11.84 23.42 20.19
9.26 8.67 13.56 11.36 22.82
10 9.62 9.00 12.83 13.01 23.18 22.01

Moving Machinery under Consideration LIMITATION

• These machines will be depreciated at the
rate o f 11.4% as per the straight-line method.
• The costs o f capital for these machines are
13%.
• The tax rate for Mining Project is 30%.
• Every consecutive year the O&M cost
increase by 10% o f the previous year.
Calculation o f UAE
The uniform annual equivalent o f total cost, UAE
(TC)) is defined as follows:
UAE (TC) = UAE (OM) + UAE (CC)-----------(i)
Where, UAE (OM) relates to Operating &
Maintenance costs, and UAE (CC) relates to
Capital costs, and
Tonne per annum per machine, machine A
and machine B will run for 4212
Hours/Annum.
The performance o f machinery and the operating
cost, considering first year o f operation, is shown
in Exhibit 2.0.
UAE (CC) = UAE (IO)-[UAE (DTS)+UAE
(SV )]------- (ii)
Where, UAE (10) relates to Initial outlay o f the
machine, UAE (DTS) relates to Depreciation Tax
shield, and UAE (SV) relate to Salvage value.
UAE (OM), UAE (10), UAE (DTS), UAE (SV)
and UAE (CC) are shown in Exhibit 4.0, 5.0, 6.0,
7.0 and 8.0 respectively whereas UAE (TC) is
shown in Exhibit 9.0.
CONCLUSION
It can be seen from Exhibit 9.0, that UAE (TC) o f
machine A is minimum at 07 years and UAE (TC)
of machine B is minimum at 09 years. Hence
economic life o f machine A and machine B is 07
years and 09 years respectively.
The study involves determination o f economic life
o f heavy earth moving machinery under
consideration and verification o f manufactures
claimed. To illustrate the technique typical Lignite
Mines in western India has been used as a
performance and assumption so that it should be
practicable.
REFERENCES
Arora, R., 1997 “Decision Situation for
Replacement o f H.E.M. Machinery in Mines:
A case study o f captive Limestone Mines o f
Binani Cement”, National Conference on
Mining, IIT, Kharagpur.
Arora, R., Nakra, S., 1999 “Decision Situation for
selection o f HEMM-a tool for decision
maker”, MGMI International Conference on
Management o f Mining machinery, Calcutta.
Arora, R., 1997 “Mining Investment Appraisal: A
case study o f captive Limestone Mines o f
Binani Cement”, MBF Project, Indian
Institute o f Finance, Delhi.
Chandra, P., 1996 “Projects: Planning, Analysis,
Selection, Implementation, and Review”,
Tata Me Graw Hill Publishing Company
Limited, N. Delhi.
Daniel, T. O’ Brain, 1969 “Financial Analysis: A
Tool for the Progressive Mining Man,”
Mining Engineering.
Operating Manuals, Machine A.
Operating Manuals, Machine B.

514
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Rippability assessment studies at Tun9bilek Coal Mine: A case study

H.Basarir, C.Karpuz & TBozdag

Mining Engineering D epartm ent, M iddle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the results o f research on rock rippabilities at Tuncbilek Coal Mine. First,
direct ripping runs were carried out at four different panels o f Turkish Coal Enterprise’s (TKI) Tuncbilek
Coal Mine by using Komatsu D155 and Caterpillar D8N type dozers. During direct ripping runs, the length o f
each run, depth o f tyne, the change o f ripping depth during run, average width between runs, ripping time,
and maneuvering time were all measured and recorded to calculate the hourly production. Then, based on the
conducted field and laboratory works by using indirect rippability methods, four panels are classified with
respect to their rippabilities and ripper productions o f those panels are calculated. The direct and indirect
rippability assessment methods are compared and discussed with each other and the results are utilized on the
rippability assessments o f TKI Tuncbilek panels.

1 INTRODUCTION
2 RIPPABILITY ASSESMENT METHODS
Ripping, direct digging and drilling-blasting are
Many researchers have worked to improve a system
three main methods for breaking and loosening
used for determining rippability. These systems can
ground. In drilling-blasting method, energy is
be grouped into two parts. These are direct and
utilized by explosives, whereas in ripping and direct
indirect methods.
digging, energy is utilized by mechanical excavation
In cases where a conclusive determination o f
equipment. In ripping, the energy can be defined as
rippability is difficult by using available rock mass
the power, generated by dozer and transmitted to
data or where equipment for trial test is readily
tyne, required to penetrate and loose the ground by
available a trial demonstration may more
means o f ripper tyne.
appropriately decide the issue: such trial
Rippers have been used since 1930’s. As tractor
demonstration can be used to obtain good estimates
size, weight and horsepower have been improved;
o f ripping production for given equipment. One o f
the utilization o f rippers becomes popular. In recent
the ripper manufacturing companies. Caterpillar
years rock units, which had been classified as non-
Tractor Co. (Anon, 1990) reported three methods o f
rippable, become rippable with today’s dozers.
estimating ripper production according to
Nowadays ripping is competing more and more with
availability and practicality o f dozers. If field trial or
drilling-blasting method.
direct ripping runs can’t be conducted then indirect
In this paper, direct ripping runs were carried out
methods become useful and in most cases it is the
and compared with existing available indirect
only way o f estimating rippability o f rocks.
rippability assessment methods. Geotechnical
descriptions and laboratory experiments are
conducted on four panels o f Tuncbilek Coal Mines. 2.1 D ire ct M ethods
Direct ripping runs were conducted on that panels
These methods are based on the field trials by actual
and actual ripping productions were calculated.
rippers. In fact accurate method o f determine
Finally rippability assessment o f those panels was
rippability is to carry out a field trial in the area to
made together with discussions o f existing indirect
be ripped. Cost o f rippability and drilling and
rippability assessment methods.
blasting are compared to each other. To determine
unit cost an accurate estimation o f ripper production
is required.

515
2 .2 I n d ir e c t A s s e s s m e n t S y ste m s
2.2.1 Seism ic ve lo c ity b a se d system s
These systems are purely based on seismic velocity
measurement. Since it is well known that lots o f
intrinsic properties, which affect rock material
strength (porosity, density, grain size and shape,
anisotropy, mineralogy, degree o f cementation and
moisture) also effect seismic velocity (Bradybrooke,
1988). These systems are;
• Atkinson (1971)
• Bailey (1975)
• Church (1981)
• Komatsu (Anon, 1987)
• Caterpillar (Anon, 1994)
Although seismic velocity based methods are
widely used, these systems has some certain
drawbacks. Existence o f boulders or columnar
formations in a weathered surround can’t be sensed
by seismic velocity. Moreover velocity inversion
and mask layers are serious problems faced when
seismic velocity measurement conducted in field.
2.2.2 G raphical m ethods
These methods are simple and quick methods. If
there is no logging data and detailed laboratory test
results are not available, then these methods become
useful and practical. Only two parameters are
required, discontinuity spacing and point load index
value, to predict rippability.
The pioneer o f these methods is Franklin et al.
(1971). Graphical methods can be outlined as
follows;
• Franklin et al. (1971)
• B ozdag(1990)
• Pettifer & Fookes (1994)
Because o f their simplicity, these systems are
used especially when quick estimation is required.
For example, in Franklin et al. (1971) method the
ground classified as non-rippable, become rippable
with today’s dozers.
2.2.3 G radin g m ethods
In these systems rock mass and rock material
properties are graded with respect to their
importance. According to the total grade that is
obtained by summing up all parameters or by
correlating this total grade with seismic velocity,
rippability class o f rock can be determined.
Especially for these systems it should be noted that
the importance o f the same parameter changes from
one researcher to another.
Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) and seismic
velocity are two common parameters used in nearly
all systems. In general UCS is usually used for
massive and weak rocks, whereas seismic velocity is
516
used for highly fractured and high strength rocks
(Smith, 1986). These systems are;
• Weaver (1975)
• Muftuoglu (1984)
• Smith (1986)
• Singh et al. (1987)
• Karpuz(1990)
3 FIELD & LABORATORY STUDIES
The field investigations were carried out at
Tuncbilek Coal Basin of Turkish Coal Enterprises.
Both underground and surface mining operations
were used for coal production. Main surface mining
operations are drilling-blasting and shovel-truck
combination. In some parts dragline were used to
strip overburden. In this study, rippability
assessments were carried out at four panels of
Tuncbilek open pit mine namely, 34 Makina,
Omerler, 18 PH and Kuspinar.
Field studies start with geotechnical description
of rock mass and continue with taking sample for
laboratory studies at each panel according to ISRM
suggestions (Brown, 1981). Then, seismic velocities
of formations at each panel were measured along
with predefined ripper profiles. Finally direct
ripping runs were performed on at least five profiles
at each panel.
During the geotechnical description of panels the
following items were measured; seismic velocity
and rock mass descriptions including type of
formation, weathering, bed separation, joint spacing,
number of joint, joint filling, joint continuity. The
laboratory tests conducted on specimens taken from
panels are; unit weight, uniaxial compressive
strength tests, point load index, young modulus and
poisson’s ratios, Brazilian tensile strength, shore
hardness test. Results of geotechnical descriptions,
field and laboratory tests of panels are given in
Table 1. Laboratory tests and geotechnical
descriptions are made according to ISRM
suggestions (Brown, 1981).
4 RESULTS OF DIRECT RIPPING RUNS
Direct ripping runs were carried out at four different
panels of Tuncbilek Coal Mine. During direct
ripping runs ripping time, T^, and maneuvering time,
T^, were recorded and ripping distance, L, rip
spacing, W, and ripper depth, D, was measured for
each profile.
Ripper depth was measured by continuously
observing ripper shank during advancement of dozer
to take the average ripper depth, which is going to
be used in ripper production calculation.
Table 1. Geotechnical descriptions, field and laboratory test results o f panels.

Uniaxial Point
Shore
Unit Compressive Tensile Load Young Poissons Seismic
Panel Hardness Rock Mass Description
Weight Strength Strength Index Modulus Ratio Velocity
Value
gr/cm^ MPa MPa MPa GPa m/s
Slightly weathered Marl
34 formation, bed separation >
2.02 24.93 3.56 49 0.47 5.19 0.22 2330 1.50 m, 2 cont. discontinuity set
Makina
1 to bedding, spacing > 2.0 m
Fresh Marl formation, bed
separation 1.0 m, 2 cont.
Omerler 2.01 23.40 2.85 46 0.44 3.30 0.20 2440 discontinuity set ± to bedding,
spacing 1.0 m
Slightly weathered Marl
formation, bed separation > 0 .7
18 PH 2.09 49.03 7.07 45 1.11 9.09 0.11 1961 m, 2 cont. discontinuity set X to
bedding, spacing > 0.7 m
Slightly weathered Marl
formation, bed separation >1. 0
Kuspinar 2.27 24.80 2.29 46 0.72 8.37 0.14 2430 m, 2 cont. discontinuity set X to
bedding, spacing > 1.5 m

For easy measurement of ripper depth, shank was Omerler panel was ripped by Caterpillar D8N type
painted in every 10 cm with different colors. Thus dozer.
just observing the painted color, ripper depth was Dozers specifications and recorded parameters
recorded. In the same time the observation of are tabulated in Table 3 and 4, respectively.
changes of ripper depth w ill reflect the ease and
efficiency of ripping in that panel.
The notations of measured and recorded Table 3. Dozer specifications.
parameters that are going to be used for production Flywheel Operating Max. Digging
calculation are shown at Figure 1 and Table 2, Power Weight Depth
respectively. HP kg cm
CAT D8N 285 36842 113
D155A 320 33460 124

Table 4. Recorded ripping parameters.

_ Ripping Man. Ripping Rip Ripping
Panel
time depth spacing length
type g s m m m
34 Makina D155A 89 17 0.75 0.70 50
Omerler D8N 90 15 0.65 0.50 50
18 PH D155A 88 12 0.90 1.30 50
Figure 1. The sketch showing ripping parameters Kuspinar D155A 79 5 1.05 0.80 50

Table 2. The notation of ripping parameters

To calculate the ripper production first of all
Parameter Notation production in a cycle should be determined. In this
Ripping time, s Tr study, ripping length was kept constant at 50 m and
Maneuvering time, s T. at least five profiles were performed at each panel.
Total time, s Tt The ripping time, maneuvering time, rip spacing and
Ripping length, m L ripping depth values were averaged with the number
Rip spacing, m W of profiles that was conducted. Production in a cycle
Ripping depth, m D can be calculated as follow;
Crossectional area, m^ __________
(4.1)
Komatsu D155 type dozer was used in ripping
study at 34 Makina, 18 PH and Kuspinar panels and Where = Bank production in a cycle, m^; C^r =
Crossectional area, m^; and L = ripping length, m.

517
 Crossectional area is the area of triangle shown in
Figure 1 and can be calculated from the following
equation.
D W
C =-
2 and Omerler panels are 356 mVhr and 250 mVhr,
Hourly production of ripper can be found from
the following equation;
Where Q, = hourly bank production, m^/h; q, =
production in a cycle, m^; C, = cycle time, min; and
Ef= efficiency of ripping.
By using Equations 4.1-4.3 the following
parameters and productions are calculated and given
in Table 5. Cycle time is the summation of ripping
and maneuvering times. Efficiencies of panels were
taken according to operator’s experience and ripping
conditions. The efficiencies of 34 Makina, Omerler,
18 PH and Kuspinar were 0.80, 0.90, 0.95 and 0.95,
respectively.
Table 5. Calculated parameters and productions.
Panel A v g . C y c le C rossectio nal P ro d u c tio n H o u rly
V e lo c ity tim e A re a in c y c le P ro d u c tio n
k m /h m in m^ m^
34 M a kin a 1.4 2 2 .4 5 0 .2 6 1 3 .1 3
O m e rle r 2 .0 0 1.75 0 .1 6 8 .1 3
18 P H 2 .0 5 1 .6 6 0 .5 8 2 9 .2 5
K u s p in a r 2 .2 8 1 .4 0 0 .4 1 2 0 .0 0
5 R IPPA B ILITY ASSESSMENTS
Indirect rippability assessment of Tuncbilek Coal
Mine panels are made according to Atkinson (1971),
Bailey (1975), Church (1981), Caterpillar 0^94),
Komatsu (1987), Franklin et al. (1971), Bozdag,
(1988), Pettifer & Fookes (1994), Weaver (1975),
Muftuoglu (1983), Smith (1986), Singh et al.
(1987), Karpuz (1990) and the results are tabulated
in Table 6. Also, graphical rippability assessment of
Franklin et al. (1971) and the modified chart of
Franklin et al. (1971) by Bozdag (1988) are given at
Figure 2 with Tuncbilek Mine panels data.
Kuspinar and 18 PH panels are evaluated as the
easiest rippable panels when ripper penetration and
production were considered as criteria for the ease of
ripping. Hourly productions and ripping depths of
Kuspinar and 18 PH panels are 855 mVhr & 1000
mVhr and 1.05 m & 0.90 m, respectively. Which
could be considered as the highest production and
ripping depth values. Thus, ripper penetration
percents for Kuspinar and 18 PH panels were 73 and
85 of maximum digging depth of ripper tyne,
respectively.
As for 34 Makina and Omerler panels, ripper
penetration and rip spacing were lower than the
(4.2) other two panels. Hourly productions for 34 Makina
respectively. These are the lowest production values
among all panels. Ripper penetration is 56-58% of
maximum digging depth of ripper tyne. Rip spacing
is the minimum of all panels due to relatively high
(4.3) bedding and discontinuity spacing. The reason for
lower productions of 34 Makina and Omerler can be
sourced from those reasons.
Finally, the author’s classify 18 PH and Kuspinar
panels as rippable with D8R or Komatsu D155A
type dozers. However, 34 Makina and Omerler
panels can be classified as moderately rippable with
D8R or Komatsu D155A type dozers but in author’s
opinion those panels can be rippable with D9R or
Komatsu D355A type dozers.
m ^ /h
356
250
1000
855
Figure 2. Graphical assessment of Tuncbilek panels.
6 DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION
Seismic velocity based systems are not applicable to
assess rippability alone. However, the charts
prepared by dozer manufacturers, Komatsu and
Caterpillar, give consistent but over optimistic
recommendations in order to be in the safe side.
Atkinson (1971), Bailey (1975) and Church (1981)
systems strongly need to be updated because they
recommend impossible ripping or blasting to all
panels.
518
Table 6. Indirect rippability assessm ent o f Tuncbilek panels.

Seismic Velocity Based Systems Graphical Methods Grading Methods

I I P ettifer &
Panel A tk in so n B a ile y C h urch C aterp illar K o m a tsu Franklin B ozd ag W ea v e r M u ftu o g lu S m ith S in g h K arp uz

M o d era te E xt. hard E x tre m ely M argin al G ood , N on

34 Im p o ssib le B la s tin g
B la s t to . . . . D iffic u lt
np nppm g hard n p p m g W ith o u t R ock c<r R ip p ab le
Makina d iffic u lt D IO R D 355A fracture
CATD8 CAT D9 C A T D 9G b la stin g D 9L ' ^ D ll

M o d era te H ard E x tre m ely

B la st to V e ry M arginal
Omerler Im p o ssib le E "' B la s tin g ’^ P P ““ « ’^ P P ‘“‘"® rip R ip p in g hard rip p in g R ock ^ D iffic u lt
d iffic u lt D IO R D 355A fracture d iffic u lt
CAT D8 CAT D8 C A T D 9G D IO L ^ ^ D9

M o d era te H ard E x tre m ely Fair N on

V ery R ip p a b le R ip p a b le B la st to
Im p o ssib le D iff ic u lt
18 PH d iffic u lt D 9R D 355A fracture
rip R ip p in g hard r ip p in g R ock ^ R ip p a b le
CAT D8 CAT D8 C A T D 9G D 9L D ll

M o d era te H ard E x tre m ely F air . N on

B la st to V e ry D iffic u lt
Kuspinar Im p o ssib le B la s tin g ’^¡PP^'’'® '^‘PP“'>'^ rip R ip p in g hard rip p in g R ock R ip p a b le
d iffic u lt D IO R D 355A fracture d iffic u lt 3 5 -5 5 1
CAT D8 CAT D8 C A T D 9G D 9L

As for the graphical methods, as it can be seen ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

from Figure 2 obtained by using Franklin et al.
(1971) graph, all panels drops in blast to fracture The authors wish to acknowledge the cooperation
zone. Bozdag (1988) and Pettifer & Fookes (1994) provided by T K I Tuncbilek Coal Mine engineers
systems give consistent results for Tuncbilek panels. and dozer operators.
However, when productions are taken into account
both researchers suggest same mode of ripping and
type of dozer for all panels. Ripping assessment REFERENCES
graphs should be updated continuously with the
developing dozer technology and design. On the Anon, 1987, Specifications and application handbook.
other hand, graphical methods are good at quick and Komatsu Ltd., 10 th edition, Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo,
Japan.
initial estimation of rippability. Anon, 1990, Handbook o f ripping, Caterpillar Tractor Co., 7 th
Although, grading systems were developed to edition, Peoria, Ilinois, USA.
overcome the limitations of both graphical methods Anon, 1994, Caterpillar performance handbook. Caterpillar
and seismic velocity based methods, they are not Inc., 25 th edition, Peoria, Illinois, USA.
giving adequate results. For grading systems, Atkinson, T., 1971. Selection o f open pit excavating and
loading equipment. Trans. Ins. o f Mining and Metallurgy,
optimum grading has not been reached yet. This is
vol:80, pp A.101-129.
due to similar parameters are graded separately and Bailey, A. D., 1975, Rock types and seismic velocity versus
the determination of the importance (weighing) of rippability. Highway Geology Symposium Prooceding, No:
parameters is still a trial and error process than 26, pp. 135-142.
science. Moreover, these systems were all developed Bozdag, T., 1988. Indirect rippability assessment of coal
for a particular region. Weaver (1975), Smith (1986) measure rocks, Ms. Thesis, METU, Ankara, Turkey, 86 p.
Braybrooke, J. C., 1988. The state of the art of rock cuttability
and Singh et al. (1987) give sound results within and rippability prediction. Fifth Australia-New Zeeland
their system but their results are considered as over Conference on Geomechanics, Sydney, 22-23 August.
assessed for Tuncbilek panels. Whereas in Karpuz Brown, E. T., 1987. Rock characterization testing &
(1990) system UCS and shore hardness values are monitoring, ISRM Suggested Methods, Pergamon Press,
related and dependent parameters but they are NewYork, pp.211.
Church, H. K., 1981. Excavation handbook, McGraw-Hill,
graded separately. This leads to over estimation for NY, USA.
Tuncbilek panels. Franklin, J. A., Broch, E. and Walton, G., 1971. Logging the
Future research consisting of systematical mechanical character of rock, Trans. Inst, of Mining and
collection and analysis of field and laboratory data Metallurgy, Voi. 80, pp A 1-9.
supported by the actual performance data derived Karpuz, C., 1990. A classification system for excavation of
surface coal measures. Min. Sci. Technol., 11: 157-163.
from the different field applications are strongly
Muftuoglu, Y. V., 1983. A study o f factors affecting diggability
stressed. in British surface coal mines, Ph D Thesis, University of
Nottingham, England.

519
Pettifer, G. S. And Fookes, P. G., 1994. A revision o f the
graphical method for assessing the excavatability of rock.
Quarterly Journal o f Engineering Geology, 27, 145-164.
Singh, R. N., Denby, B., Egretli, I., 1987. Development of new
rippability index for coal measures excavations, Proc. 28 th
US Symp. on Rock Mech., Tuscon, pp. 935-943.
Smith, H.J., 1986, Estimating rippability of rock mass
classification, , Proc. 27 th US Symp. on Rock Mech.,
University of Alabama, pp. 443-448.
Weaver, J.M., 1975, Geological factors significant in the
assessment o f rippability. Civil Eng. in South Africa, Vol :
17, pp 131-136.

520
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 178 3

Safety in quarrying ornamental stones by using diam ond wire

R Berry, G. A. Blengini & S. Fabbri

D epartm en t o f Chem ical, Mining Engineering and Environm ental Technology (DICMA ), U niversity o f Bologna,
Italy

V.A.Tafaro
C P M C om itato P aritetico M arm o, Pietrasanta, Italy

ABSTRACT: Diamond wire (D W ) cutting technique, extensively utilised in Carrara marble quarries (Alpi
Apuane, Tuscany, Italy), led to a sensitive drop in terms of production costs, as well as final product volume
was increased and waste volume significantly decreased. On the other hand, serious environmental problems
were recorded due to an increase in production of fine particle waste, as well as accidents and injuries to the
personnel caused by wire breakage. The present research program is particularly concerned on the characteri­
sation of the parameters involved in the mechanism of beads throw caused by wire breakage. The paper refers
to the experimental results obtained from laboratory tests carried out on several kinds of commercial DW by
using a test apparatus developed by D IC M A of Bologna University. Finally, most recent technologies applied
in Versilia and Carrara quarries, developed in cooperation between D IC M A and DW constructors, in order to
improve DW automation and enhance safety conditions, are presented.

1 INTRO DUCTIO N EU standards, being cutting rates achieved ranging

Diamond Wire (D W ) cutting technique was intro­
duced in Italian marble quarries since the early ‘70’s
and, due to technical and economical advantages,
traditional helicoidal wire cutting system was pro­
gressively abandoned.
Some important benefits gained by introducing
DW technique are the improved soundness, smooth­
ness and surface regularity o f the cut surface, that
imply an important reduction in costs for commer­
cial blocks quarrying and squaring operations.
DW as a primary and secondary cutting technol­
ogy can be utilized either alone or in combination
with other methods. In the field of dimension stones
indicated with the commercial term of “marbles”
DW is often associated to Chain Rock Cutter sys­
tems or Slot Drilling technique. In the field of hard
rocks commonly indicated with the term “granites”
DW is often combined with Flame Jet technique, or
Splitting by use of Detonating Cord, or Slot Drilling.
The cutting system basically is comprised of three
distinct parts: the control unit, the driving section
and the wire itself, consisting of a steel rope strung
with 3 0 - 4 0 cylindrical diamond beads per meter of
wire length. The beads are spaced by springs or by
plastic segments according to the kind of rock
(Berry et al. 1989).
DW working in crystalline Carrara marble com­
monly uses wire speed up to 40 m/s, according to the
from 8 to 14 m^/h, and DW life from 20 to 30 m^m.
In the Alpi Apuane Marble District two DW
standards are widespread: traditional and plastic
coated (Fig. 1). While for traditional (or spring) DW
beads, springs and spacers mounted on the steel wire
are idle, in the plastic coated (or protected) DW all
the elements are embedded in a polymeric mixture.
Plastic coated DW , introduced in granite quarries
since 1985 (Biasco 1993), has been progressively
spreading in marble quarries.
At present, according to an assessment run over a
set of quarries in Alpi Apuane District, around
15^20 % of DW market is covered by plastic coated
typology, being its percentage trend increasing at the
expense of the spring wire. Such a trend can be in
part ascribed to the action of Regional Health and
Safety Authorities (U.S.L.) that consider plastic
coated DW as a safety - improved cutting technol­
ogy that enhances safety working conditions. In fact,
since the introduction of DW , an increase of acci­
dents and injuries to the miners, because of wire
breakage and consequent lash o f the wire and throw
of diamond beads, have been recorded.
Factors causing DW breakage are quite numer­
ous, and the goal of the present research program is
to investigate on:
- Causes leading to steel wire rupture;
- Effects consequent the breakage;
- Wire trajectory;

521

Figure 1. Diamond Wires: A & B traditional or spring DW; C
& D plastic coated DW.
-Bond resistance between wire and diamond
beads;
- Beads trajectory.
Some of these aspects are connected to the geo­
technical features o f the rock mass, others can be
correlated to the quarrying method and operational
approach, others depend on the characteristics of the
wire itself and on its accessories.
2 RISK ANALYSIS
The introduction o f plastic coated DW in substitu­
tion of spring DW led to an increase of safety level
conditions in quarrying activities.
On the other hand, new operational problems, that
were uncommon during rock cutting by traditional
DW , were encountered. Among such new opera­
tional problems it is important to remark that, when
using plastic coated DW , starting a new cut is more
difficult because o f bond resistance between plastic
and marble. Moreover, the wire itself is more sensi­
tive to an increase of temperature, due to lack of
water cooling, erroneous operations or adverse geo­
logical features, that could quickly spoil DW per­
formances. Finally, it has to be considered that ma­
jor investment costs as well as extra costs for DW
services are required.
The survey run over a set o f elemental production
cycles in different quarries pointed out that it is pos­
sible to enhance safety working conditions only if
the approach considers all hazard sources and their
interactions. In particular, the following items have
to be taken into account: the wire itself, operating
equipment, operational sequence, work organisation.
At present, DW is a handicraft product whose
characteristics and performances are extremely vari­
able. In other terms, so far DW have not been pro­
duced according to industrial standards, and the con­
522
cepts of Quality and Standardisation are still quite
uncommon.
2.1 F actors causing w ire breakage
During cutting operations by using DW , the princi­
pal source of hazard is the wire breakage: hence the
need of minimising this event.
Nevertheless wire breakage occurrence must be
considered (Castelli & Cai 1989): hence the need of
controlling the effects of the event.
Wire breakage can generally be ascribed to
bending fatigue phenomenon of the steel rope either
to anomalous stress concentration due to rock
wedges sliding either to the failure of joints that get
unstrung.
The system constituted by steel rope - joints -
beads - springs - spacers is subject to bending fa­
tigue during cutting, with stress levels that depend
on the cut geometry.
While for cutting of granites the diamond bead
life is more or less equal to the one of the support
(steel rope, joints and accessories), in the case of
marble the support gets worn when bead cutting
properties are still high. Hence the need of servicing
the DW that means replacing steel rope, springs,
spacers.
Consequently, DW whose support is worn can
still provide good cutting rates but the risks related
to wire breakage are higher.
2.2 Effects o f w ire breakage
DW breakage leads to a lash of the wire and, in the
case of spring typology, causes throwing of all the
beads, spacers, springs included between the break­
age point and the first clamp.
On the contrary, in the case of plastic coated DW ,
the probability of throwing metallic parts is quite
low, although the occurrence of wire lash must be
considered. Nevertheless the occurrence of bead
throw cannot be excluded; hence the plastic coated
DW can be considered as a safety - improved tool
rather than an absolute safety tool.
According to Castelli and Cai (1989) flying me­
tallic parts own remarkable energy and speed and
can travel across trajectories of some hundreds me­
ters.
The probability of throwing metallic parts is
given by the combination o f wire breakage and bead
throw itself
In case of plastic coated typology, wire breakage
probability is higher than the traditional one, but
usually bond resistance given by polymeric mixture
prevents throwing.
However the bead throw, in case of plastic coated
DW , depends on the position respect to the breakage
point, or could be induced by the impact of the wire
on a rock or metallic surface.
 The analysis o f wire trajectory (lash o f the wire) 3.1 Logarithm ic sp ira l trajectory
after breakage allows to identify dangerousness ar­
Figure 2 shows the wire trajectory consequent on the
eas where the personnel must not stay inside or must
wire breakage according to Castelli & Cai (1989).
not pass in while DW is operating (Patrucco & Pin-
The model that considers a logarithmic spiral path
zari 1997). On the contrary, the dangerousness area
was gathered by means of a field survey. Parameters
affected by metallic parts throwing is much more
adopted are: wire speed 40 m/s, length of cut wire 10
extended and not well defined.
m, flywheel diameter 1 m.
According to the values of speed and trajectory
2 3 A cciden t sta tistic s radius supplied by the Authors, the maximum cen­
trifugal force acting on a bead of 5 g weight is 60 N.
According to statistic data supplied by U.S.L. of
Massa Carrara, during the period 1994 - 1997, acci­
dents occurred to the personnel during quarrying op­ 3.2 C ircu lar trajectory
erations by use of DW were 200 in number. In 65
Figure 3 shows the wire trajectory consequent on the
cases DW equipment was the direct cause o f acci­
wire breakage according to the second model (Li-
dents, in 11 cases injures were caused by flying me­
guori 1996).
tallic parts and one of these had fatal consequences.
The model considers a circular wire path, being
In order to prevent further accidents in quarries,
parameters adopted the same as the ones adopted in
Health Authorities issued local regulations. Ac­
the first model.
cording to these regulations, in two sub Districts,
According to the values of speed and trajectory
operations by use of D W can be carried out only if a
radius, the maximum centrifugal force acting on a
protective rubber tape is set up, in order to cover the
bead of 5 g weight is 320 N that w ill be considered
whole wire path, so that wire lash and flying objects
as a safety threshold of tearing strength for the tests
could be stopped. In the third sub District, opera­
presented in the next.
tions with DW are allowed by using plastic coated
typology only.
In order to emphasise the importance of the safety
4 EXPERIM ENTAL
problems here discussed, it is important to remark
that only in the sub District of Carrara, at present, 4.1 Tearing test apparatu s a n d testin g m ethodology
more than 90 quarries are in operation, being total
The tearing test apparatus shown in Figure 4 was
production, in 1997, around 100 kt/month (shaped
conceived and developed at D IC M A in order to
and irregular blocks).
characterise plastic coated wires according to the
beads attitude to be pulled o ff from the steel wire, by
measuring bond resistance, and other important pa­
3 BREAKAGE AND THROW MODEL
rameters.
Tearing tests were run over different conditions
In order to estimate the tearing stress acting on a
so that it was possible to evaluate the influence of:
diamond bead after wire breakage two models were
static stress at different loading rates, dynamic
considered.
stress, influence of wire temperature.

Figure 2. Model of Diamond Wire breakage: Logarithmic spi­ Figure 3. Model of Diamond Wire breakage: Circular trajec­
ral trajectory (Castelli & Cai, 1989). tory (Liguori, 1996).

523
F ig u r e 4 . T e a r in g t e s t a p p a r a tu s d e v e lo p e d at D I C M A o f B o lo g n a U n iv e r s ity .

The mechanical section o f the testing equipment Mean values were obtained each from 5 tearing
is made of a steel clamp connected by means of a tests run over 6 new DW at the three temperature
rod to a pneumatic piston. The diamond bead is levels.
pulled o ff the steel wire by means o f a tearing load. A comparison of tearing strength of two DW at
Values of influential parameters such as tearing different wearing conditions (new and wear index of
load, bead displacement and temperature are con­ 20 m^/m) is given in Figure 7.
tinuously recorded by means of a PC. According to the results achieved it appears that
The testing apparatus is supplied with a warming values of tearing strength are quite inhomogeneous.
system that allows to set and control testing tem­ This fact could be ascribed to the extreme heteroge­
perature. neity of DW and materials present in the market, as
At present, both static and dynamic tests were stated above.
performed. Static load tests allow constant and step Nevertheless, even at the most severe test condi­
loads so that it is possible to investigate on rheologi­ tions (90°C) no strengths lower than the safety
cal properties of bead - wire - polymer system. threshold (320 N ) were recorded.
During dynamic tests bead tear o ff is obtained in The temperature increase drastically reduces
a short time (less than 1 s). tearing strength. Some field measurements put in
In this paper are presented and discussed results evidence that during primary DW cutting of
gathered by means o f dynamic tests that are more “Arabescato Marble” working temperature of beads
representative for the bead throw phenomenon. was around 10 °C more than ambient temperature.
Static tests results are not presented in this paper; However stopping water cooling for 12 s led to a
however it would be interesting to remark that an further increase of temperature of 20 °C.
analysis o f the results achieved shows that the bead -
wire system behaves as a visco-elasto-plastic mate­
rial that follows, with good approximation. Burger’s T a b le 1. D ia m o n d W ir e s c h a r a c te r is tic s ( B e a d o u te r D ia m e te r
law. 11 m m , S te e l w ir e D ia m e te r 5 m m , S in te r iz e d B e a d s ).

D (U 5 5
4.2 D yn am ic tests results ^/} -41->3 >-
Manufacturer O C W)
In this research 120 dynamic tearing tests were per­ c« G
<u c
PQ a
ÙO 0
formed over a set of 6 DW at different wearing con­
ditions. Table 1 shows the main DW characteristics.
Tests were run over three temperature levels A C O .F I .P L A S T M 300 34 N N

(20°C, 60°C, 90°C) in order to investigate on the in­

fluence of temperature increase due to temporary B D ia m a n t B o a r t M P la st 30 Y Y
lack of cooling water or DW misuse.
Figure 5 shows an example o f results achieved by C B e n e tti - 30 Y N
tearing o ff one by one 5 diamond beads from wire B
at 20°C. The graph gives load - displacement curves D W in te r P6004061 30 Y N
that were fitted by a polynomial interpolating curve
(dashed line) calculated according to minimum E B oart L on gyear v u lc S 7 6 30 Y N
squares method.
Figure 6 shows mean values o f tearing strength F F a b rim a r - 28 Y N
vs. corrispondent displacement.

524
 The decrease of tear strength and relative bead The goal of these tests was to select joint materi­
displacement between new and old wires can be ex­ als, joint shapes and operative procedures in order to
plained as a decay of polymer mixture bond proper­ minimise wire breakage events.
ties consequent to severe fatigue stresses. According to field survey observations, it has
Data scattering, evident for new DW, is even been remarked that DW joints are weak elements
more important for worn wires. that induce severe fatigue stresses into the steel rope.
Figure 8 shows, as load vs. displacement curves, In fact, most of steel rope breakages occur in posi­
the influence of temperature and wear conditions for tions close to the joints. An explanation to this phe­
wire B. nomenon could be given considering that joints rep­
resent a rigid element, at least 25 mm long, that is
subject to severe bending fatigue stresses.
4.3 DW Joint tearing tests
Results from joint tearing tests and other relevant
In this research several tearing tests were performed data about materials and geometries adopted are
over different DW joint typologies. summarised in Table 2.

3000 - j
SYMBOL
LEG END
♦ A new I
■ A worn I
♦ B new I
B worn i
2000 -
COLOR
LEG END

♦ 20*C
■©§ O 60*C
♦ 90‘C I

1000 - ..

"1 --------- --------- r

3 4 5
Displacement [mm]

Figure 7. B ea d s tearing strength vs. relative displacem ent:

com parison b etw een n ew and w orn w ires (2 0 m^/m).

3000 -1
SYMBOL
LEG EN D
♦ A
♦ B
A C
♦ D
2000- ■ E
♦ F
COLOR
LEGEND

?s ♦ 20X
o 0 60‘C
^ 90‘C O
1000 -

--------------^---------------- 1------------------^-----------------1
2 3 4 5 6
Displacement [mm]

Figure 6. B ead s tearing strength vs. relative disp lacem en t for 6 Figure 8. Influ en ce o f tem perature and w earin g conditions on
n ew D W . tearing strength and relative d isplacem ent for w ire B .

525
Table 2. D iam on d W ires Joint characteristics and strength. - plastic coated DW suppliers must assure high
bead tearing strength of worn wires.
- new safety improved DW typologies must be
fii) £
£ S o I—I tested and introduced.
Material S, B •S C ^^
- §r*. CO B
c« c<U
»-H
d »(u3 CL
S B2 H
.2
6 CONCLUSIONS
C opper 9x2 5 50 5 .38
The introduction of plastic coated DW in marble
C opper 9x2 5 50 8.81 quarries is an important achievement in terms of
S teel 3 9 N C D 3 9x2 5 130 10.66 safety. However, in order to assure acceptable safety
S teel ST 37 K 9x2 5 50 8 .6 9
standards in quarrying operations some further ac­
tions have to be taken.
S teel ST 37 K 9x25 50 9 .2 7 Since quarrying operations run by plastic coated
Steel ST 37 K 9x2 5 130 10.29 DW require more care than operations performed by
Steel M annesm an 9x2 5 50 8 .2 9
spring DW, operators skills must be enhanced by
means of appropriate trainings.
Steel M annesm an 9x25 50 8 .47
At the same time, DW constructors must stan­
Steel M annesm an 9x2 5 130 10.86 dardise their productions, test all DW parts and sup­
ply operators with test certificates and equipment
manuals.
5 ACTIONS TO ENHANCE SAFETY Testing procedures and results presented in this
paper could represent a significative effort in stan­
According to the results achieved during this study, dardising DW cutting method.
a set of suggestions and rules can be outlined so that
the number of accidents and injuries could be mini­
mised. REFERENCES
Suggestions can be divided into two groups: a
first group of actions aimed at reducing the inci­ Berry, P. et al. 1989. O ptim um use o f D iam on d W ire E quip­
dence of wire breakage, and a second one to avoid m ent in stone quarrying - P roc. 2 P ‘ A p p lic a tio n o f C o m ­
metallic part throwing. p u te r a n d O p e ra tio n s R e s e a r c h in th e M in e r a l In d u stry, L a s
Among the actions belonging to the first group V egas 1989: 3 5 1 -3 6 5 .
the most important can be summarised as follows: B ortolussi, A . et al. 1989. V alutazion e d elle prestazioni del filo
- substituting 20 - 30 cm diameter guide pulleys diam antato m ediante prove di laboratorio - Proc. Int. C o n f.
with 40 cm pulleys that would reduce bending o n S itu a z io n i e p r o s p e ttiv e d e l l ’in d u stria la p id ea , C a g lia ri
fatigue stresses on steel rope and joints; 1 9 8 9 :2 1 9 - 2 2 3 .
- using DW cutting equipment that utilises B ia sco , G. 1993. D ia m o n d W ire f o r q u a r r y in g h a r d ro ck s - In­
STEPLESS cut driving in substitution of STOP & dustrial D iam on d R ev iew , v o i. 53 (558): 2 5 2 -2 5 5 .
GO driving devices that would reduce steel rope B radley, F. 1999. M e to d i e te c n o lo g ie p e r la s ic u r e zz a n e lle
and joint mechanical stresses; c a ve d i C a rr a ra - M & m v o M acch in e 1999 (146): 1 5 4 -1 6 6 .
- using an Inverter speed controlled DW cutting B utler-Sm ith, P.W . et al. 1999. A sin g le b e a d te st f o r a s se ssin g
equipment, that allows continuous wire speed D ia m o n d W ire p e r fo r m a n c e — Industrial D iam on d R ev iew ,
control, considerably reduces steel rope and joints v oi. 59 (581): 9 3 -1 0 1 .
stresses, especially at the beginning and at the end C astelli, M . & O. Cai 1989. S a fe ty in th e u se o f D ia m o n d W ire
of the cut, when most severe stresses occur; in q u a r ry in g -M d ix m o M acch in e 1989 (85): 9 4 -1 0 3 .
“ using an asymmetrical guide pulley, that supply G alli, G. & M . P uccetti 1999. C a ve d i m a rm o d i C a rra ra e
continuous rotation of the wire around its longi­ M a ssa . O ss e rv a to rio d e g li in fo r tu n i s u l lavoro. A n a lis i d e ­
tudinal axis, assures an homogeneous wearing of g li in fo r tu n i a c c a d u ti n e l q u in q u e n n io 1 9 9 4 -1 9 9 8 - Report
diamond beads and reduces twisting and fatigue U S L 1, Carrara.
stresses on the steel wire and joints. L iguori, F. 1996. Im p ie g o d e l f i l o d ia m a n ta to e s ic u r e zz a n elle
Effective actions aimed at avoiding metallic part c a ve d i p ie tr e o r n a m e n ta li - M aster D egree T hesis, U niver­
throwing from cut wires can be: sity o f B o logn a.
- substituting spring DW with plastic coated DW; Patrucco, M . & M. Pinzar! 1997. T he use o f the functional
- in case spring DW are used, protective rubber space analisys techniq ue at d im en sio n stones exploitation:
tape barrier must cover all wire path; results in the evaluation o f the ach ievab le production lev el
- DW constructors must select, among polymeric and w ork safety im p rovem ent - P ro c. o f th e 1 7 ‘^ W o rld
mixtures available, the ones that assure high bead M in in g C o n g ress, A c a p u lc o M exico , 1 4 -1 8 O c to b er 1997:
tearing strengths; 2 0 5 -2 1 4 .

526
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The valuation o f power efficiency o f mining-transport system s work

o f open-pits

D.G.Bukeikhanov, S.Zh.Galiyev, D.Sh.Akhmedov & A.KhJaxybayev

The Scientific Center 'Mining Technology', Kazakhstan
T.G.Gabdullin
JSC 'Altynalmas', Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT: The most necessity of operative valuation of work efficiency of the open-pit mining-transport
complex arises during operative and current planning. It can be made on main technological and economical
parameters, but, as practice shows, the given approach gives not sharper representation about its potential op­
portunities. In this connection, now, in the given direction actually is the development of more objective
methods, enabling to see basic defects in organisation of mining-transport work. To one of such directions of­
fers use of power criteria for valuation of efficiency of mining-transport work on open-pits.

1 INTRODUCTION sis of the system approach with application of logi­

Now the increase of power consumption at a simul­
taneous rise in prices on power resources becomes
one of the main factors, which limiting development
of opened mining work. In the deep open-pits the
main charge of energy have on open-pit’s transport.
As criterion of power efficiency valuation of trans­
port systems of the deep open-pits the size of the
specific charge of energy on the rise 1 ton of rock
mass from the open-pit can be accepted. Then coef­
ficient of energy efficiency ( // ) is defined from ex­
pression
Tl = ^ - 1 0 0 %
Ep
where E t is theoretically necessary size of energy
charge on rise 1 ton of rock mass on height 1 m (Ef=
9,81 kJ/t-m); E f is actual charge of energy by the
given type of transport, kJ/t m (Lely 1996).
The calculation of coefficient of efficiency of en­
ergy use permits to define power efficiency of trans­
port systems of open-pits rather theoretically neces­
sary size of the energy charge. However in practical
conditions of mining-transport work planning there
is necessity finding of a real level of power effi­
ciency rather minimum possible significance of en­
ergy charge on the enterprise, or on planning vari­
ants, which can be achieved in present economic
conditions, at accepted technology of mining and
transport work and technical condition of the equip­
ment.
In the given article the main theoretical principles
of realisation, so-called "power" direction on the ba­
cal-statistical simulation modelling method are
stated.
2 THE CRITERIA OF POWER EFFICIENCY
The feature of an offered method is combined use of
analytical methods and results of logical-statistical
simulation modelling on computer at accounts of
specific energy charge on transport work, in view of
interaction of the mining and transport equipment, in
two stages. At the first stage with application of
analytical methods the minimum significance of a
(1) specific parameter of energy charge on help (design)
data is established. In comparison with similar set­
tlement normative and actual parameters a range of
possible decrease of energy charge as in a subsystem
"AUTO" and in a subsystem "RAILWAY" emerges.
The areas of possible decrease of energy charge
are schematically submitted on a figure 1. From a
figure it is clear, that the interesting us area AO is
within the range of significance «the fact» and «the
result of preliminary research». It is here supposed,
that AE rather a little and is described only by a de­
gree of model adequacy, which locating in range 5%.
The result of preliminary research is account of
minimum significance specific energy charge, basing
on definition of work on moving 1 ton from open-pit
to dump (or factory) on help (design) data.
Knowing the norm of specific energy charge, vol­
ume of transported rock mass Vr.m. and common ex­
tent of the technological transport communications
Lcomm, can be defined base criteria parameter of
power efficiency of a mining-transport system

527

A E = A E -j + A E 2 is area of significances including in self undiscounted sources of a current
consumption (fuel), but also divergence in frameworks of model adequacy
A O is area of optimization;
* is prospective new normative significance after fulfilment of all optimization
actions.
Figure 1. Areas of possible decrease of energy charge.
_ ^s.c. ^r.m.
(2)
which showing quantity of energy spent on rise of
rock mass volume which concern on 1 km of the
technological transport communications, i.e. de­
scribing their power consumption. The parameter (2)
takes into account a structure weight flows and their
sizes, average weighted height of rise and length of
transportation of rock mass, but also structure and
extent of the transport communications.
3 THE METHOD OF VALUATION OF POWER
EFFICIENCY
As follows fi*om the block diagram of algorithm
submitted on a figure 2, the method of power effi­
ciency valuation of mining-transport systems of
open-pits consists in following:
1. The calculation of criterion significance
(block 1). It is here supposed, that
AEi=0, where is significance of actual specific
energy charge at the enterprise.
528
The actual significance
The result of modeling before
optimization
The normative significance
The normative significance*
The result of modeling after
optimization
The result of preliminary research
2. The creation of logical-statistical simulation
model of a mining-transport system of open-pit
(block 2). is significance of specific energy
charge, received by results of simulation modelling,
which necessary for valuation of model reliability,
which made in the block 3.
3. The valuation of deviations of significance re­
ceived in result of simulation modelling fi-om actual
and normative, enabling to evaluate as model reli­
ability, and accuracy of fixing of the information at
the enterprise on specific energy charge, availability
of not established sources of energy consumption
(block 4).
4. The calculation of minimum possible specific
energy charge, basing on definition of work on
moving 1 ton from open-pit to dump (or factory).
For open-pit’s railway transport, as against from
surface transport, is the most rational account to
conduct in function from depth moving of rock mass
(H).
In a common kind the charge of the electric
power on draft of trains At can be expressed as fol­
lowing:
 Figure 2 . T he m ethod o f valuation p ow er e fficien cy o f m in­
ing-transport work.

B is set of areas of increase of power efficiency of

mining-transport system of open-pit.
is input significance appropriate to
action bi.

A t = Ap + A ta + A cc + App + A dp A dc + Agpc +
A ch + A pr + A mx (3 )

where Ap is useful charge of the electric power on

moving of a payload (rock mass) on average
weighted height H; Ata is charge of the electric
power on moving of weight of trains container on
height H, kgm; Acc is charge of the electric power
on overcoming of main forces of resistance (includ­
ing from curve); App is charge of the electric power
on movement of empty trains; A d p is charge of the
electric power on indemnification of losses on force
electric substations; A d c is charge of the electric
power on indemnification of losses in a contact net­
work; Aepc is charge of the electric power on in­
demnification of losses in pull aggregate; A c h is
charge of the electric power on own needs; A p r is
charge of the electric power on indemnification of
losses at idle times, including in places of loading
and unloading; A m x is charge of the electric power
by manufacture various manoeuvre and auxiliary
work (agree of a method of account of the specific
norms of the charge of fuel and energy resources, ac­
cepted for accounts in JSC «SSGPO»).
As follows from the formula (3), the account all
making total energy charge permits to consider a
specific parameter is rather close to actual. The truth,
only under condition of use actual, instead the help
data at the account making, fixing indications of
which is directly impossible. In a method described
by us is offered to use help (design) data. Thus the
main difference consists that the actual data already
comprise all negative moments of technology and
technical condition of the equipment and transport
communications, as against from help (design) data.

529
Figure 3. Areas of increase of power efficiency of mining-transport systems of open-pits.
The similar actions are made for open-pit’s auto
transport on a method of definition of the minimum
charge of energy on moving of rock mass (Dovzhe-
nok 1992).
5. The definition of area of optimisation of sig­
nificance specific energy charge AO.
The areas of significance AOj and AO2 describe
accordingly two stages of optimisation: preliminary
and detailed. The preliminary stage includes the
analysis of accounts of a normative parameter of en­
ergy charge and actual indications of counters of the
electric power on force electric substations (data on
the specific charge of fuel). At realisation of detailed
research the main attention is given to areas of in­
crease of power efficiency of mining-transport sys­
tems of open-pits, submitted on a figure 3.
6. Knowing a divergence simulated (actual, nor­
mative) significance of specific energy charge and
minimum possible is further offered to consider a
number actions (¿, eE) on its possible decrease (fig­
ure 3), the introduction of which will allow to in­
crease power efficiency of mining-transport systems
of open-pits.
As follows from a figure, there are two possible
directions of increase of power efficiency, condi­
tionally belonging to teclmologies of productions
and of mining work.
530
The most attractive with the economic point of
view is the area of technology of productions, be­
cause it permits, at least at an initial stage, to do
without the essential lumps costs and includes a
complex organisational and technical measures di­
rected on increase of efficiency of control, schedul­
ing and realisation of mining-transport work.
We shall consider detail each area of possible de­
crease of energy charge.
On the speed of movement of transport means the
main influence there are the following factors: a
technical condition of the transport communications
and mobile transport means, determining rigid re­
strictions movements imposed on the order under the
safety precautions; short routes on the railway trans­
port or autoroad with frequently change of a move­
ment direction, causing operation of transport means
in uneconomic mode of operations and in particular
of their engines (increased energy charge at accel­
eration); quantity of transport means in circulation,
rendering restrain influence.
The optimum organisation of movement of trans­
port means permits to reduce average weighted dis­
tance of transportation, but also idle times and slow
movement of the transport in «narrow» places of the
transport communications.
Table. The valuation o f power efficiency of excavator-railway systems o f open-pits.
O bjects
Parameters D A G O K JSC Kachar JSC Sarbai JSC Itauz JSC
«K ustanai- «SS G PO » «SS G PO » «Jeskazgan-
asbest» zvetm et»
In p u t d a ta
a) A verage w eigh ted h eigh t o f rise o f rock m ass, m 104 118 3 2 2 ,2 9 5 ,8
b) A verage w eigh ted distan ce o f transportation o f rock m ass, km 8,7 8,1 17,2 5,5
a) U sefiil w eigh t o f the train, t
1030* 855,58 948,54 990
1030 945 1035 990

d) C o efficien t o f container o f the train 0 ,7 4 8 0 ,8 4 2 0 ,7 5 9 0 ,8 0 0

O u tp u t d a ta
S p ecific energy charge
on norm ative, kW h/t 1,914 1,600 3 ,0 0 0 1,920
k W h /tk m 0 ,2 2 0 0 ,1 9 8 0 ,1 7 4 0 ,3 4 9
on the fact, kW h/t 2 ,1 3 2 1,610 2 ,9 0 0 -

k W h /tk m 0 ,2 4 5 0 ,1 9 9 0 ,1 6 9 -
on precom putation * * , kW h/t 1,305 1,480 2 ,7 4 0 1,089
k W h /tk m 0 ,1 5 0 0 ,1 8 0 0 ,1 5 9 0 ,2 0 0
b y results o f m o d ellin g b efore optim isation, kW h/t 2 ,0 8 8 1,590 2 ,8 8 0 1,920
k W h /tk m 0 ,2 4 0 0 ,1 9 6 0 ,1 6 7 0 ,3 4 9
b y results o f m o d ellin g after optim isation * * * , kW h/t 1,418 - 2 ,7 7 9 -

k W h /tk m 0 ,1 6 3 - 0 ,1 6 2 -

the le v e l o f p ow er e ffic ie n c y ****, %

6 5 ,0 3 / 9 2 ,5 9 /
/9 5 ,6 8
/4 9 , 6 9 ■

* In numerator average sign ifican ce o f u sefu l w eig h t o f the train for different kinds o f transported o f rock m ass in v ie w o f a d if­
feren ce in volu m es, in a denom inator - m axim um . For exam ple, for Sarbai open-pit JSC «SSG PO ». U sefu l w eig h t o f the train
m akes: on ore - 1035 ton, on rock - 9 2 0 ton; for K achar open-pit: on ore - 9 4 5 ton, on rock - 8 9 7 ton, on friable rock m ass 8 3 6 ,6 ton.
** T he m eth od o f accou nt o f the sp ecific norm s o f the charge o f fiiel and energy resources, a ccepted for accounts in JSC
«SS G P O ».
*** T he data on sign ifican ce o f the sp ecific charge o f the electric p ow er after optim isation are present on ly on th ose objects, on
w h ich sp ecial surveys b y the order o f th ese enterprises w ere conducted.
**** In numerator - con cern in g the norm, in a denom inator - concerning the fact.

The measures on research of interaction organi­
sation of the mining and transport equipment, but
also parity of their types is directed on decrease of
idle times of the high-duty equipment, that in turn
influences decrease specific energy charge.
The definition of useful weight of the transport
means should proceed from the following principles:
nominal carrying capacity, physical-technical prop­
erties of mining rock mass, technical condition of
the transport means, technical condition and struc­
ture of the transport communications.
The consecutive research on model of effects of
parameters from each of described area by a way
changes of their significance results in development
o f the particular proposals on opportunities of de­
crease of energy charge.
As a rule, at the present mining enterprises, whole
complex of optimisation measures for reception of
an acceptable level increase of power efficiency of
mining-transport systems of open-pits and in the end
of economic benefit is required. It is for this purpose
necessary to consider mining-transport systems as a
whole in interrelation of its subsystems, the change
of one parameter of which renders influence to set of
parameters of other subsystems.
The reserves of increase of power efficiency of
mining-transport systems at the expense of teclmol-
ogy of mining work consists of minimisation of en­
ergy charge on direct sites of the transport communi­
cations of open-pit, on dumps and distance between
open-pit and dumps.
7. In a cycle we research reaction of a system
(submitted in a kind of simulation model) on input
signals Xi=f(bf) appropriate to introduction of actions
bf. The cycle is described by blocks 8-15. The block
10 corresponds to a complex method of optimisation
of mining-transport systems of open-pits, developed
by prof. S.Galiyev (Galiyev 1997).
8. The calculation of criterion significance k ;' is
criterion significance appropriate minimum possible
significance specific energy charge, which can be
achieved in present economic conditions, at accepted
technology of mining and transport work and techni­
cal condition of the equipment (block 16). Thus al-

531
ways a parity
9. The valuation of power efficiency.
N, >1 (4)
k :'
The parameter (4) permits to make a conclusion
about efficiency of a open-pit’s transport system, and
having received numerical significance of a devia­
tion actual (normative) condition from minimum
possible significance specific energy charge tL '^^ ,
which can be achieved in present economic condi­
tions, at accepted technology of mining and transport
work and technical condition of the equipment:
REFERENCES
Lely, U.I. 1996. The power efficiency of transport systems of
deep open-pits. P r o c ee d in g s o f In tern a tio n a l C o n feren ce
« P ro b le m s o f D e e p Q u arries», J u n e 10-14, 1996: 91-92.
Chelyabinsk.
Dovzhenok, A.S. 1992. Increase of efficiency o f open-pit’s
autotransport by perfection o f parameters o f its subsystems
with use of power criterion: D iss...ca n d .tech n .scien ce.
Chelyabinsk.
Galiyev S.Zh. 1997. The optimisation of parameters o f mining-
transport systems of open-pits on a basis o f simulation
modelling. D iss. D r. S cien ces. Almaty.

(5)
8 is valuation, showing real potential of increase of
power efficiency in percentage.
The level of power efficiency is equal
L = { 1 0 0 - e),«A (6)
If the method is applied to valuation of scheduling
variants of a mining-transport system one open-pit,
can be accepted equal ii" = e ",.. , since planned
volumes p;. „ and the common extent of the techno­
logical transport communications remains
constant. Sense k " in deployed record acquires at
comparison of power efficiency of mining-transport
systems of various open-pits.
Knowing the significance , 8 ox L o n various
open-pits can be made the comparative analysis of
efficiency of their mining-transport systems without
risk to confront with problems of metrological in­
compatibility of data.
The described method can be used as independ­
ently, and in a complex as the gear of efficiency
valuation of plaimed variants. It is in the latter case
necessary to execute steps 1-6 prior to the beginning
planning, and steps 7-9 during comparative valuation
of planning variants.
The data by results of conducted power valuation
and search of ways increase of power efficiency of
mining-transport work on Kazakhstan’s open-pits by
rail transport submitted in table.

4 CONCLUSION

The method of power efficiency valuation of work of

mining-transport systems of open-pits permits on the
basis of offered criterion to make the comparative
analysis of planning variants, but also power effi­
ciency of various open-pits, the result of which is
numerical significance of a power efficiency level
rather minimum possible significance energy charge
on the enterprise, at accepted technology of mining
and transport work and technical condition of the
equipment.
532
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

O verview o f roadheader applications in Turkish m ining and civ il construction

industries

H.Copur
Mining Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey

ABSTRACT: Roadheaders are mobile and flexible partial-face machines, with selective mining ability, used
for excavation of soft to medium strength rock formations. These features make them very attractive for
application in underground mining and tunneling operations. The selection of these machines and prediction of
their performances are very important issues for scheduling and costing. Importance, advantages and
disadvantages, application/utilization areas, production rates and limitations of roadheaders, developments in
roadheader technology and machine characteristics will be firstly reviewed in this paper. Then, some
roadheader applications in Turkish mining and civil construction industries will be reviewed and the production
rates, machine utilization rates and problems encountered will be summarized.

1 INTRODUCTION relatively lower capital costs compared to the other

Mechanical excavation provides a promising
alternative to drill and blast methods of rock
excavation and its application is continually
increasing in all aspects of underground mining and
civil construction industries. The major benefits of
mechanical mining include significantly improved
safety, reduced ground support and ventilation
requirements, high production rates for convenient
conditions and fewer personnel. These advantages
coupled with recent enhancements in machine
performance and reliability have resulted in
mechanical miners taking a larger share of the rock
excavation market.
Roadheaders have a very important and unique
position in underground mining and tunneling
operations due to their advantages over the other
mechanical excavation machines. Mobility,
flexibility and selective mining ability are the most
important application advantages of roadheaders
leading to cost effective operations. These machines
can open every required face shapes such as
horseshoe, circular, rectangular and any other shape,
gradients up to 25°. They are adaptable to current
mine designs and can make sharp turns as much as
90°. Since roadheaders are partial-face machines,
the face is accessible. Therefore, cutters can easily
be inspected and changed. Roadheaders need
mechanical excavators.
Roadheaders are the most widely used
underground partial-face machines for excavation of
soft to medium strength rocks, particularly the
sedimentary rocks. They are usually used in
underground mining operations for production and
development operations particularly in coal and
evaporitic rock mining. They have also utilization in
metallic ore mining and industrial mineral mining.
They are sometimes used in surface mining
operations for particularly production of evaporitic
rocks. They recently appeared in the room and pillar
coal mining applications particularly for excavation
of seams with strong inclusions. In civil
construction industry, they are used for excavation
of tunnels (railway, roadway, sewer, diversion
tunnels, etc.), as well as enlargement and
rehabilitation of these tunnels, large shaft
excavations, foundation and channel excavations.
2 ROADHEADER APPLICATION LIMITS
The field performance data from both mining and
civil construction industries organized in a database
indicates the general application limits of transverse
and axial type roadheaders as shown in Figures 1
and 2, (Copur et al., 1997, 1998).

533
Figure 1. Plot of Instantaneous Cutting Rate vs.
Uniaxial Compressive Strength
The analysis of the field data, Figure 1, indicates
that the heavy-duty roadheaders can economically
cut most rock formations up to 100 MPa (-14,500
psi) uniaxial compressive strength and rocks up to
160 MPa (-23,000 psi) uniaxial compressive
strength if favorable jointing or bedding is present
with low RQD numbers. Increasing frequency of
joints or other rock weaknesses make the excavation
easier as the machine simply pulls or rips out the
blocks instead of cutting them. In addition, the
production rates of the transverse cutterhead
roadheaders can reach up to 200 to 250 m'^/h while
excavating soft rocks. If the rock is very abrasive,
or the bit consumption rate is very high. Figure 2,
roadheader excavation becomes uneconomical due
to frequent bit changes coupled with increased
machine vibrations and maintenance costs.
3 ROADHEADER TECHNOLOGY
The modern roadheaders were first developed for
mechanical excavation of coal in the early 50s.
Today, their application areas have expanded
beyond coal mining with continual performance
increases brought about by new technological
developments and design improvements. These
developments and improvements consist of steadily
increased machine weight, dimension and cutterhead
power, improved design of boom, muck pick up and
loading system, more efficient cutterhead design,
metallurgical developments on cutting bits, advances
in hydraulic and electric system, and increased
automation and remote control features. All these
have led to drastic improvements in machine cutting
capabilities, system availability and the service life.
534
Figure 2. Plot of Bit Consumption Rate vs.
Uniaxial Compressive Strength
Machine weights have reached up to 120 tons
providing more stable and stiffer (less vibration, less
maintenance) machines and higher thrust capacities
allowing attacking harder rock formations. The
cutterhead power has increased significantly,
approaching 500 kW (-650 Hp) to allow for higher
torque capacities. The cutting bits have changed
from simple chisel to robust conical bits. Modern
machines have the ability to cut cross-sections over
100 m^ (-1000 ft^) from a stationary position. They
can have a telescopic boom that allows them to
sump the face without moving the machine forward.
The muck collection and transport systems have also
undergone major improvements, increasing
attainable production rates. The loading apron can
be manufactured as an extendible piece providing
for more mobility and flexibility. The machines can
be equipped with rock bolting and automatic dust
suppression equipment to enhance the safety of
personnel working at the heading. They can also be
fitted with laser-guided alignment control systems,
computer profile controlling and remote control
systems allowing for reduced operator sensitivity
coupled with increased efficiency and productivity.
Roadheaders can be classified into two groups
based on cutterhead types: transverse (ripping,
drum) and axial (longitudinal, in-line, spiral,
milling). The pictures of roadheaders with
transverse and axial cutterhead are presented in
Figures 3 and 4, respectively.
Some companies manufactured transverse
roadheaders with articulated boom. The articulated
boom roadheaders are used for excavation of soft
rocks, usually with the New Austrian Tunneling
Method in large cross-sections. Their longer booms
make possible to excavate upper benches first, and
then, lower benches in one pass.
Figure 3. A Transverse Cutterhead Roadheader
(Courtesy of Sandvik, Voest-Alpine)
The axial cutterhead roadheaders can be either
single boom or twin boom. The twin boom
roadheaders are used for excavation of soft rocks.
The axial cutterhead roadheaders can be either
crawler-mounted or shielded. The shielded
roadheaders are used for excavation of soft
formations, blocky rocks or unstable conditions to
reduce collapsing and rock-falling problems.
The manufacturers have recently begun
manufacturing roadheader cutter booms that can be
attached to any excavator chassis and used
interchangeably with axial and transverse
cutterheads, impact breakers and backhoe loaders or
excavator loaders. This provides more flexibility in
some operations.
A significant amount of effort has been placed on
increasing the ability of roadheaders to cut hard
rock. Most of these efforts have been focused on
structural changes in the machines, such as increased
weight, stiffer frames and more cutterhead power.
Extensive field trials of these machines showed that
the drag bits are still the weakest point in hard rock
excavation. Unless a drastic improvement is
achieved in bit life, the true hard rock cutting is still
beyond the realm of possibility with roadheaders.
A new cutter technology, the Mini-Disc Cutter, is
under development to implement the hard rock
cutting ability of disc cutters on roadheaders, as well
as on other types of mechanical excavators (Ozdemir
et al, 1995). The full-scale laboratory tests with a
standard transverse cutterhead showed that Mini-
Disc Cutters could increase the ability of the
roadheaders for hard rock excavation while
providing for lesser cutter change and maintenance
stoppages.
535
Figure 4. An Axial Cutterhead Roadheader
(Courtesy of Dosco)
4 APPLICATIONS IN TURKEY
Turkey has a large potential for large tunneling
projects in both mining and civil construction
industries. More than 140 km/year of various
tunnels are being constructed, including mine
development, drifts, highway, metro, sewer,
irrigation tunnels etc. Although the most of the
underground excavations are performed with
conventional methods, the number of roadheader
applications is eventually increasing in Turkey. The
main reason for this is the increasing demand for
development of infrastructure in growing cities and
towns and profitability considerations of the
companies. Some of the roadheader applications are
summarized below.
4.1 Tunchilek Coal Mine
The first roadheader application in Turkey started in
1974 for development works in Tuncbilek
Underground Coal Mine of Turkish Coal Enterprise,
in Kutahya, (Karakoc, 1980). The mine needed fast
development drivages to keep up with the needs of
mechanized longwall panels. The machine used was
Dosco MK2A (21 ton machine) with axial
cutterhead of 48 kW power. This machine worked
usually in 11.1 m^ horseshoe cross-sections with 0.3
% inclination in marl formation with uniaxial
compressive strength of 63 to 77 MPa. The support
was steel sets with lagging. The performance
analysis carried out in 1974 to 1979 showed that the
average machine utilization was between 15 and 20
%. The stoppages due to support were 12 to 16 %.
The best instantaneous cutting rate achieved was 30
m^/h. The best weekly advance rate was 66 m. The
underground water and dust supression water caused
some ground problems resulting in maachine
stability problems. In addition, strong formation
layers slowed down the excavation speed and
drilling + blasting method was used sometimes to
overcome this problem. Problems on locomotive
haulage system slowed down the excavation speed,
too.
4.2 Middle Anatolia Coal Mine
The later application of roadheaders was started in
1976 in Middle Anatolia Underground Lignite Mine
of Turkish Coal Enterprises, in Ankara, (Aydin,
1986). This mine needs fast development drivages
to keep up with the needs of mechanized longwall
panels. The machines used were 2 of Dosco MK2A
(21 ton machines with 48 kW cutterhead power), 4
of Dosco MK2B (43.5 ton machines with 112 kW
cutterhead power) and 4 of PK9R (38 ton machines
with 93 kW cutterhead power). Some of these
machines are still in use. The support system
includes steel sets with lagging. These machines
works usually in 14 to 16 m^ horseshoe cross-
sections with 0.3 % inclination. The average
instantaneous cutting rate achieved with these
machines in marl + coal formation with uniaxial
compressive strength of 40 to 75 MPa was around
12 to 18 m^/h. The average machine utilization was
around 15 to 25 %. The stoppages due to support
were around 15 to 25 %.
4.3 Urfa Irrigation Tunnels
The next application came from the tunneling
industry with excavation of Urfa Irrigation Tunnel,
which is a twin tunnel in 2x26.4 km length. The
New Austrian Tunneling Method was applied in 3
passes over the 64 m^ horseshoe cross-section. The
first pass consisting of 35 m^ semi-circular profile
was excavated with roadheaders. The excavation
with roadheaders started in 1981 by using 4 of
Paurat E 134 roadheaders. The machine used in
Approach IE of the construction site achieved the
average instantaneous cutting rate of 40 to 50 m^/h
and machine utilization of 20 to 30 % in between 6
to 12 December 1990, (Demircin, 1992). The rock
was marl with 50 MPa of uniaxial compressive
strength. The temporary (primary) support included
mesh + rock bolt + shotcrete. Support stoppages
were around 44 %. In addition to the support
stoppages, non-continuous muck haulage with trucks
was an important stoppage reason for the excavation
operation.
536
4.4 Golden Horn Sewer Tunnels
The next roadheader application was for a combined
interceptor sewerage system for Halic (Golden
Horn) in Istanbul. The total of 11.5 km sewer was
excavated with four shield mounted Herrenknecht
SM-1 roadheaders in six tunnels where the sewer
was located beneath roads and buildings. These
roadheaders are built as an integral part of the shield
body and hydraulically driven cutterheads having
power of 95 hp and variable speed up to 90 rpm.
The tunnel diameters varied between 2.88 to 3.91 m.
The temporary support was pre-cast concrete. The
rock formation, locally named Trakya Formation,
was formed of fine grained, laminated, fractured and
interbedded siltstone, sandstone and mudstone.
Some very hard diabase or andezite dykes were also
encountered. The uniaxial compressive strength of
the rocks ranged between 35 and 160 MPa. The
overall average net cutting rate in these tunnels
varied generally between 3.5 and 5 mVh, (Bilgin et
al, 1990). The machine utilization averaged between
54 and 61 %. The weekly advance rate ranged
between 265 and 415 m^/h. The best daily advance
varied between 140 and 175 m^ in these tunnels.
The average bit (conical) consumption ranged
between 0.05 and 0.21 bits/m^. The excavation of
the dykes was the most interruptive problem
reducing the advance rates in these tunnels.
4.5 Istanbul Metro Tunnels
The construction of 16 km metro tunnel in Istanbul
started in 1992 and is still continuing in some
segments of the project. Impact hammers are in use
mainly in the major parts of the metro tunnels. Two
transverse cutterhead roadheaders were only used in
small part of the Taksim Tunnels (2 x 238 m long,
64 m^ in horseshoe cross-section). The temporary
support included wire mesh + bolt + steel sets +
shotcrete. Voest Alpine ATM-75 (52 ton machine
with 200 kW of cutterhead power) and Eickhoff ET-
250 (50 ton machine with 250 kW cutterhead power)
were used in these tunnels, (Bilgin et al, 1997).
ATM-75 achieved average instantaneous cutting rate
of 23.2 m^/h, average daily advance rate of 1.9 m,
average weekly advance of 9.1 m, average monthly
advance rate of 36.3 m and average machine
utilization of 22 %. ET-250 achieved average
instantaneous cutting rate of 21.3 m^/h, average
daily advance rate of 2.1 m, average weekly advance
rate of 9.7 m, average monthly advance rate of 36.3
m and average machine utilization of 22 %. In both
cases, the most time consuming job was support (60
to 65 % of the total working time).
4.6 Mevhibe Inonu Tunnel
Another roadheader was used for excavation of
Mevhibe Inonu Tunnel, which is a part of the light
rail transportation project, between Bakirkoy and
Incirli in Istanbul. Excavation started in May 1993
and finished in May 1994. The tunnel cross-section
was in horseshoe shape of 72 m^. The New Austrian
Tunneling Method was used for the construction.
The temporary support included steel sets + wire
mesh + shotcrete + rock bolt. A Westfalia Lunen
178/300 H model roadheader (80 ton transverse
machine with 300 kW cutterhead power) was used
for excavation of medium strength and fractured
limestone and marl, which were found in the west
part of the tunnel. The average daily advance rates
varied between 2.5 and 4.5 m, (Guner, 1999). The
machine utilization was around 25 %. The support
took around 66 % of the construction time.
Excessive water ingress caused some machine
stability problems from time to time. A backhoe
excavator was used in the east part of the tunnel for
the excavation of soft silt and clay formations.
4.7 Nuh Cimento Hereke Tunnel
Nuh Cimento Co (cement production company)
constructed a material transportation tunnel of 267 m
long between the nearby harbor and their cement
plant in Hereke in Kocaeli. The rock formation
included limestone, marlish limestone and clayish
marl with uniaxial compressive strength of 20 to 80
MPa. The temporary support was pre-cast concrete
lining. A refurbished Herrenknecht shielded
roadheader (SM-1) was used for excavation. The
machine utilization varied generally between 10 and
40 % depending on the geological zones, (Dincer,
1999). The average instantaneous cutting rate varied
generally between 20 and 40 m^/h. The basic
problem in the construction was water ingress,
which caused the clay formation to stick on the
cutterhead and stop the excavation.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The number of roadheader applications in Turkey
increases in an accelerated manner. Although the
first applications started in mining industry, the civil
construction industry has eventually been attracted
to the roadheaders. The main reason for that is the
increasing demand of infrastructure in growing cities
and towns. Using roadheaders improved the overall
performance of the projects and decreased the cost
in many cases compared to the conventional drill
and blast excavation methods. The successful
537
experiences gained from each project motivated both
mining and civil construction industries for more
utilization of roadheaders.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank to the Turkey
Republic Prime Ministry State Planning
Organization (DPT) for supporting the project
numbered 141 related to roadheader applications in
Turkey, and Prof. Dr. Nuh Bilgin, Principal
Investigator of the project and the Head of Mining
Engineering Department of Istanbul Technical
University, for his support. Also, the author would
like to thank to Prof. Dr. Naci Gorur, the Dean of
Mining Faculty of Istanbul Technical University, for
his support.
REFERENCES
A ydin, Y . 1986. B eypazari T ev si Projesi. M a d e n c ilik , June, pp.
5 -1 6 (in Turkish)
B ilg in , N ., Kuzu, C ., E skikaya, S. & L. O zdem ir 1997. Cutting
Perform ance o f Jack H am m ers and Roadheaders in
Istanbul M etro D rivages. P ro c. W o rld T u n n e l C o n g ress
’97, 12-17 Apr., pp. 4 5 5 -4 6 0
B ilgin , N ., Seyrek, T. & K. Shahriar 1990. R oadheaders glean
valuable tips for Istanbul M etro. T u n n e ls & T u n n ellin g ,
O ct., pp. 2 9 -3 2
Copur, H., R ostam i, J., O zdem ir, L. & N . B ilg in 1997. Studies
on Perform ance Prediction o f Roadheaders B ased on Field
D ata in M inin g and T unneling Projects. P ro c. Int. 4'^ M in e
M e c h a n iza tio n and A u to m a tio n Sym p ., B risbane,
Australia, pp. 4 A 1 -4 A 7
Copur, H., O zdem ir, L. & J. R ostam i 1998. R oadheader
A p plications in M inin g and T unneling. M in in g
E n g in e e r in g , M arch, pp. 3 8 -4 2
D em ircin, M . A . 1992. Farkh K esici M akinalarda K azi ve
Y uklem e Perform anslanm n Karsilastirilm asi. M a s te r o f
S c ie n ce D isse rta tio n , H acettepe U niversity (in Turkish)
D incer, T. 1999. B a zi K ayac O zelliklerinin K ollu Galeri A cm a
M akineleri ve H idrolik Kiricilarin K azi Perform ansindaki
Etkilerinin Incelenm esi. U n p u b lis h e d D o c to ra te
D isse rta tio n , Istanbul T echn ical U niversity (in Turkish)
Guner, B. 1999. M evh ib e Inonu T u n eli’nde Uygulanan Kazi
Y ontem inin D iger B ir Y on tem le (T am C epheli Túnel
A cm a M akinesi) K arsilastirilm asi. U n d erg ra d u a te
D ip lo m a S tu d ie s, Istanbul T echn ical U niversity (in
Turkish)
Karako 9, K. 1980. GLI T u n cb ilek B o lg esin d e Galeri A cm a
M akinasi ile T am M ek an ize Galeri A cm a Calism alari ve
E ide E dilen Sonuclarin D egerlendirilm esi. P ro c. T u rkey
2 ”^ C o a l C o n g ress, 12 -1 6 M ay, pp. 119-151 (in Turkish)
O zdem ir, L., R ostam i, J. & D .M . N e il 1995. Roadheader
D ev elo p m en t for Hard R ock M ining. S M E A n n u a l
M e e tin g , M arch 6-9 , D enver, C olorado, U S A
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

H igh-perform ance rock destroying tool from m odified solid alloy

R.RDidyk, Y.V Savchenko & M.V.Rogoza

National Mining University of Ukraine, Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: The scientists of the National Mining University of Ukraine were the first in the world to work
out new highly efficient industrial technology of drill bits and diamond tools production fi'om tungsten - and
- cobalt alloys by means of secondary raw material direct regeneration and material direct regeneration and
without any thermochemical methods application.

Wolfram is one of the most deficient metals. There
is no own raw material source for wolfram produc­
tion in Ukraine. The solid alloys production, whose
basis carbide wolfram is, completely depends on
import.
One of the important sources of a partial satis­
faction in wolfram is solid alloy wastes which get
concentrated at all enterprises which consume solid
alloy in Ukraine. That’s why the most important task
under the present conditions is a development of
new technologies on recycling wolfram containing
wastes.
At the National Mining University of Ukraine
(Dnipropetrovsk) for the first time in the world there
has been elaborated an industrial high effective
technology of destroying tool from wolfram cobalt
alloys by means of direct regeneration of secondary
raw materials without the usage of thermic chemical
ones for the first time in the world.
The reduction of wolfi-am containing mixture is
carried out under the conditions of high degree pres­
sures and speeds of loading with the purpose of cre­
ating high defective structure of metal ceramics solid
and heavy alloys for further thin-dispersed grinding
of the alloy and the production of ultra dispersed
powder of high chemical activity at their baking.
The technology developed is principally different
from the existing ones with high technical economi­
cal indices, production performance, low energy
consumption of the processes and ecological purity.
The technology of mechanical grinding which ex­
cludes hydrometallurgical (chemical) and zinc ways
has been laid as a basis of solid alloy recycling.
Wolfram-cobalt production wastes, wolfram-nickel
armor-piercing mandrels and also pure wolfram
539
items and carbide and bore ones are used as basic
raw materials.
Metal-ceramic solid alloys are among heteroge­
neous alloys in the medium of which there are sur­
faces where brakes of any microscope indices occur.
The results of theoretical and experimental re­
searches show that the presence of the components
with different compressibility, density of distributing
them over the volume in the medium causes a sig­
nificant difference in the nature of distributing per­
cussive waves from a given place in homogeneous
compact media [1]. It should be noted that unlike
classical ways of influence which have limited pos­
sibilities as for their both mechanical and physics-
chemical influence percussive waves treatment
brings changes into the structure on all scale levels.
In this respect the idea of stimulating processes of
wolfram containing alloys default formation under
the conditions of high gradients of pressures and
speeds of loading as the first stage of technological
processing chain of the material at ultra dispersed
powder of high chemical activity [2].
Figure 1. The time of BHIO alloy grinding:
1 - which underwent treatment in percussive waves
2 - without percussive treatment
 Conduction of the research of loading influence
on powders reactive ability showed that in powders
treated initial energy, density of different kind of
faults and also their chemical activity increase sig­
nificantly.
The peculiarities indicated allowed to execute
thin dispersed grinding of an alloy excluding chemi­
cal-thermic ways of regeneration.
In literature sources the basic existing methods
of waste treatment are described completely enough
[3], We can add that the most productive process is
vibrating grinding. The usage of grinding bodies
from alloy BK8 with 10mm diameter, length 11 mm,
weight 10,6 gram.
Figure 1 shows data which illustrate the results of
industrial tests of wet grinding of powder WC+Ni
which underwent the stage of percussive wave
treatment. The same figure shows the length of the
Table 1.
Alloy Type Ultimate stress limit
Existing alloy 1519
Alloy developed 1627
The alloy is two-phased, sponginess over the volume
is 0.8 %, pore size is up to 1lOmkm, phase of type r)i
is absent, the joint is spread evenly, the thickness of
the interlayer is 0,5-1,5 mkm, granularity is even 1-3
mkm, there occur grain up to 20 mkm.
High performance of new technology is confirmed
by industrial tests of the cutting tool of executive
conveyer organ of coal plough machine of IKIOIY
type of 3P4-80 radical type, which showed that re­
generated thin dispersed powder is in full accor­
dance as for the grinding extent with state standard
and as for the chemical composition it’s not different
from the composition of non-recycled wastes.
Cutting tools 3P4-80 were used in long walls of
seam h6, the extracted seam capacity m=lm at the
cutting of roofing rock m=0.43 (sandy shale) as
trimming ones, 12 cutting tools were installed simul­
taneously.
There has been extracted 3150 tons of coal with
the usage of experimental cutting tools 3P4-80.
Experimental cutting tools had the advantages
compared to traditional ones since there hasn’t been
noticed any painting or tearing off of hardalloyed
540
grinding of power up to the same content of grinding
which didn’t undergo percussive wave treatment.
From the given diagram (Figure 1) it’s seen that the
length of powder grinding process which got treated
with the explosion is 30 times less than compared to
the existing technology of grinding which causes the
decrease of energy consumption of the grinding
process.
The new technology combines technological
streams of utilizing scrap iron and alloys, the pro­
duction of reactive ampoules, the preparation of ex­
plosive mixture, regeneration, classification, thin
grinding and baking, system realization of which
provides the obtaining of the production. The tech­
nological scheme given is dramatically different
from all technologies of regenerating scratch iron of
super hard material and alloys known in practice.
Density, g/cm^ Hardness HRA
1 4 .0 2 85
1 3 .4 5 8 7 .5
cutting plate from the holder, the depreciation of ex­
perimental cutting tools was 50 % less than that of
traditional ones. This is explained by the absence of
painting cutting plates because cutting plates were
depreciated together with a holder.
Thus, a principal opportunity of using percus­
sive wave treatment as a factor which stimulates
processes of destroying powder items of any con­
figuration with the purpose of obtaining high quality
primary material for further shaping and baking the
tool from high quality scratch iron is shown and the
ecologically pure technology of super hard materials
is proposed.
REFERENCES
K.n. CxaHK DK OB HH. - H e y c T a H O B H B m e e c a n B u ^ e H u a
c n jio m H O H c p e n w .: M . , 1 9 7 8 - C . 4 2 1 . 4 3 0
JI^ruk P.H., CaB H eH K O K).B. x a i u . C n o c iG p e r e u e -
p a u i i B O J ib (j)p a M O B M im y K )m H x x B e p n u x c n jia a iB .
H a x e n x J S ro l5 3 2 2 A .-B iO J i.> r 2 3 -1 9 9 7
3 e jiH K M a H A.H. M e x a i u i y p r u a p e ^ K H x M e x a ju iO B . -
M o c K B a , M e x a j i j i y p r H a , 1 9 8 6 . - 8 3 c.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

D ynam ic m odel o f a shearer’s cutting system

M .Dolipski, M Jaszczuk, RCheluszka & RSobota

Institute o f Mining Machinery, Faculty of Mining and Geology, Silesian University of Technology, Giiwice, Poland
E. Kusak & M. Kurek
The Zabrze Mechanical Works Joint Stock Company, Poland

ABSTRACT: The paper describes a dynamic model of a shearer’s cutting system using the KSW-500 shearer
as an example. The dynamic model is composed of a physical model characterized by a discrete structure and
of a mathematical model, which constitutes a set of relations and a system of ordinary differential equations
of the second order. Vibrations are forced by resistances to cutting of rock by means of conical cutting tools.
The system of differential equations has been solved by the Runge-Kutta iterative method.

wheels 4, 5, 6 and 9 and of two intermediate

1 INTRODUCTION
The dynamic model of a shearer’s cutting system
consists of a physical model and a mathematical
model of this system. The KSW-500 shearer made
by the Zabrze Mechanical Works Joint Stock Com­
pany, serves as an example for presenting the model.
In respect of a design the cutting system of the
KSW-500 shearer (Figure 1) incorporates: a rotor of
an asynchronous motor W, a toothed gear (reduction
gear) and a cutting drum G. The reduction gear incor­
porated in the cutting system comprises:
- a three-way cylindrical gear composed of five
gear wheels 7, 2^^ and 3,
- a two-stage cylindrical gear composed of four gear
wheels 7 and 8,
- a planetary gear made from two solar wheels - a
movable wheel 10 and an immovable one 72 as
well as from three planet wheels and
77^^^ mounted in a yoke J.
The gear wheels 5 and 6 are connected one to an­
other via an involute gear clutch K allowing the cut­
ting drum to be disconnected from a driving motor in­
corporated in the cutting system.
When constructing the dynamic model of
a shearer’s cutting system the following groups of
factors being likely to influence the dynamic load in
the cutting system have been taken into account:
1) mechanical properties of rock being cut to which
compression strength Rc, tensile strength Rr,
breakability number x; angle of side breaking y/

Figure 1. Kinematic diagram of a driving system in the KSW-500 shearer’s cutting drum.

541
 are to be included, 4) geom etry o f cutting tools (shape o f a cutting
param eters relating to m ass, elasticity and dam ­ tool edge, tool edge angle ¡5 and portio n o f a
ping o f the cutting system , cutting tool extended from a to o lh o ld er Z^),
param eters relating to stereom etric features o f the
cutting drum w hich cover:
a) space coordinates o f tips o f cutting tools w hich
are determ inant o f a shape and o f overall di­
m ensions o f the cutting drum (Figure 2):
> distance o f the tip St o f a given cutting
tool from the point 0 (origin o f coordi­
nates XYZ) - li,
> distance o f the point Si from the axis o f ro­
tation o f the cutting drum , m easured in a
plane perpendicular to the axis o f rotation
o f the cutting drum running through a tip
o f the cutting tool - r/,
> angle included betw een a straight line
running through a tip o f the cutting tool Si
and through the point Ti and a straight line
parallel to the axis X - 3i,
I

Figure 3. D iagram show ing the spatial situation o f a

cutting to o l axis.

5) operational param eters o f a shearer (a w ide o f

Figure 2. S tereom etric param eters o f the cutting
drum .
b) param eters describing space position o f a
longitudinal axis o f each cutting tool (Fig. 3):
> setting angle o f a cutting tool axis {S) -
being an angle o f inclination o f the c u t­
ting tool in relation to a plane o f applica­
tio n {CFES), m easured in a sym m etry
p lane o f the cutting tool (AQFS),
> angle o f in clin atio n o f a cutting tool axis
(£•) - w h ich determ ines the d eflection o f
a sym m etry plane o f the cutting tool
(AQFS) from a plane o f rotation (ABCS),
> angle o f deflection o f a toolholder (0) -
defined as an angle o f rotation o f a
sym m etry plane o f the toolholder (dark
grey in colour) around a cutting tool axis
(SQ) m easured from a sym m etry plane
o f the cutting tool (light dark in colour).
w eb z, cutting height h, angular velocity o f a cut­
ting drum (Pg , shearer’s haulage speed v^,) - F i­
gure 4,
6) param eters relating to pow er features o f a shearer
(reduced driving torque as applied to a shaft the
cutting drum Mm, tractive effort o f the haulage
gear P) - Figure 4,
7) cutting param eters (cutting speed v^, cutting depth
g, cutting pitch t, relations betw een the cutting
depth and the cutting pitch) as w ell as a form o f
the cutting force course.
2 P H Y SIC A L M O D E L
A sh earer’s cutting system constitutes a com plex
system characterized by continuous distribution o f
the m ass w ith its distinct concentration in such ele­
m ents as a rotor o f the driving m otor, gear w heels o f
the reduction gear and a cutting drum . S uch a design
o f the cutting system conduces to the construction o f
a physical m odel o f a discrete structure.
T he physical m odel o f a cutting system o f the
K S W -500 shearer (Figure 5) consists o f 77 rotating
concentrated m asses w ith m om ents o f inertia / that
are connected one w ith another by m eans o f w eight­
less viscoelastic elem ents the specific torsional ri-

542
 7 ^ /7 î /7
Figure 4. Operational parameters and power features of a longwall shearer taken into account in a model.

gidity of which is k and damping coefficient is c. In physical model. It constitutes a set of relations (1^17)
Figure 5 the following items have been marked: a through which the selected space coordinates of the
rotor of the asynchronous motor (index W), gear physical model are interconnected (Table 1).
wheels of the reduction gear (index 7, 2, 77), a Functioning of a gear clutch K in the cutting sys­
yoke of the planetary gear (index J) and a cutting tem is described by a function (Pas follows:
drum (index G). Mm stands for the reduced driving
torque applied to a shaft of the cutting drum, whilst 1^ when the clutch is engaged
M ob - is a moment representing the forced excita­ 0=
tion of torsional vibrations. The forced excitation of 0, when the clutch is disengaged
vibrations in the cutting system results from resis­
tances to cutting of rock on a longwall face. This is a
A reducer driving torque applied to a shaft of the
non-linear function of corresponding components of
cutting drum Mm is determined by means of a rela­
the resistance to cutting of conical cutting tools be­
tionship:
ing in a zone of cutting.
M, , when 0 <
^Mi^Pwh (18)
3 MATHEMATICAL MODEL MS] 1-i, , when
^0
A mathematical model is constructed as a result of
formalization of dynamic phenomena occurring in the

ups
1011 ''lU

t VVI ^/ \e- ■ \ I '^56 I I I I ^ 1U11 I ^ 11J I| I■■

C a ^ ^ ^ " 4 7
- ^ 7 ^ 7
^ 7 ^ 7 ^ 7 ^ ^ 7 ^ ^ *)
/ \ *^W1 J j _ \ k 5 2 kf34 / J 3 4 *^345 _ l ^ *^56 kg^ k7g kgg l< 9 1 0 _ljo_ ^ 1o \l if ) k„j k jg ^

^1112

1.(3) 1,(3)
_g**\^1011
<P?

Figure 5. Physical model of a coal shearer’s cutting system.

543
Table 1. A set of relations in the physical model of the KSW-5Q0 shearer’s cutting system.
Iw -<Pw + c w r((^ ~9i) + kwr{(pw -(Pi) = M^ (1)
h-9i + cwr{<Pi -(¡^) + kwr{(Pi~(Pw) +

* 4 ,’ - 4 ”) =0 (2)

- f f i f e " - « - ) ^k<23^4-^['^ - V 34) =0 (3)

+ 434'U^'^-^34} =0 (4)

+ -<P34) =0 (5)

h4'i>34 -•44^) + 434-1^34-^2^ +

+ Cj^5 • {^34 - <Ps) + ^343 • (^34 ~^s) =0 (6)

lyipS ^^345'{^5~i>34) + ^345-{<P5-(p34) + 0.[cx{<P3-<Pg) + kx-((PS-(P6)] =0 (7)

h '^6 +0 \c fy { n -9 5 ) ^^k \(P6-(P5)] + C67-(<P6-<h) + ky{(p6-(p7) =0 (8)

Ij-cpj ^ C 6 7 '^ -^ 6 ) ^ky{(pj -(p^) + C78-{<P7-<Ps ) + kj^\(pj -(p^) =0 (9)

h'^8 + ^ 75‘ f e “ ^ 7 ) + hs ' i<P8 -(P?) + e89-{<P8-<P9) ^ksg\(P8~(Pg) -0 (10)

Ig-(f>9 + kgg • {(Pg -CPs) + ‘^9wi'P9-^w) ■^kgio-{(P9-(Pio) =0 (11)
ho'i^io -^^91o \^10-99) 3-kgio\(pio-(pg) +4 o u ho -<p 4/) +

^^?oii\^io-^?A ^^wii\^io-(P?A '^ 4o u '^ io ~4V') =0 (12)

h i ^11 ~^io) -^^^lou'^n^ -^lo) - ‘K i t e ' - » ) ^^1112 ^11 ^^1112 ^11 (13)
'^^wir^n^ ~^io) + ^ w ir^ n ^ ~^io) /^ ^ - 0 (14)
h i ^11 “ S - t e '- t e ^^1112 ^11 ^^1112
+k(^> -r^11

hi ^11 ~^4oir^n^ ~^io) + ^wir^n^ ~^w) - ‘K i t e ' - » ) ^^1112 ^11 ^^1112 ^11 (15)
h 'i> j - ‘Ki ■ ( » - < - ! ? ' ) +

-«>!?') -^CjG'i^J ~9 g ) =0 (16)

+ kjG'{(PG-<Pj) = - M qq (17)
+ <^JG-(<PG-i>j)
wherein: I ^
^Si=^J (^G ■'■/ ) +^P V p • <¿0 • n ■sin{(pG - ) (2 4 )

^KR=^c ■^ ■^K R (19) , , f7 cutting tool is in a zone of cutting

yU nj Wi{(pc)=\ ’
\0 , cutting tool is not in a zone of cutting

(20) where: M q b ~ forced excitation of torsional vibrations,

N - number of cutting tools with which the cutting
drum is equipped, Pd - instantaneous value of hol­
ding-down force, Ps - instantaneous value of cutting
<Pr =
M KR 9o (21) force, r,& - coordinates of a cutting tool tip in a polar
M„ yünj system, Vp - haulage speed of the shearer, - cutting
speed, (pG- rotational coordinate of the cutting drum.
where: Mm ~ reduced driving torque applied to a shaft
It is possible to determine a course of the moment
of the cutting drum, - angular velocity of a rotor
of load forces on a shaft of the cutting drum, the
of the motor, ic - overall gear ratio (reduction ratio),
moment the process of mining of a longwall face
Mkr - break-down driving torque of the motor, -
with a cutting drum of the shearer has been mo­
nominal driving torque of the motor, Sns ~ rated real
delled.
slip of the motor, U - real supply voltage of electrical
network, Un - nominal supply voltage of electrical
network, rj - efficiency of a driving system, <Po -
4 COMPUTER SIMULATIONS
synchronous speed of a rotor of the motor.
An overall moment of load forces of a cutting drum
On the basis of the developed physical model and
of the shearer is equal to a sum of moments of load
mathematical model of a cutting system of the
forces of cutting tools being in a zone of cutting at the
shearer computer simulations of a course of the
given moment. It is expressed by the following rela­
process of mining of the coal body as well as of dy­
tionship (Figure 6):
namic loads taking place in the cutting system as
N j. phenomena accompanying the cutting process have
^ 0 5 (<»G ) = Z iv>G ) • [P si i<PG ) • COi (C7, ) been carried out. A peak value and amplitude of a
i= l (22) torque on a shaft of the driving motor incorporated
-Pdi{VG)-sin{cT,)\r, in the cutting system is a measure of dynamic load
in the cutting system. The amplitude stands for a
range of variation of dynamic load within the time
wherein: interval under examination.
A moment of inertia the cutting drum 1q is what
% ■cos{(pG-9i) determines vitally a dynamic load in a cutting sys­
cr, = arc sin (23)
''S i
tem of the shearer (Figure 7). Within the exa-mined
interval of the dynamic load variation, i.e. within the
limits from 150 kgm^ to 1400 kgm^, a great diversifi-
cation of the peak value and first of all of the
amplitude of dynamic load of the clutch AMwi is no­
ticeable. Three intervals of variation of the moment
of inertia of the cutting drum are here distingui­
shable. Within the first interval, i.e. within the range
from 150 kgrn Xo 350 kgm^, values of parameters
being analyzed grow considerably at first, and after
reaching the maximum they deerease rapidly to the
local minimum. The maximum of a peak value cor­
responds to a value of moment of inertia of the cut­
ting drum amounting to 225 kgrn . The peak value
was equal to 4274 Nm. The greatest amplitude oc­
curs when I g is of 215 kgrn and amounts to 7114
Nm. The dynamic load is at a minimum in case of
moment of inertia of 350 kgm^. Then the values of
parameters being analyzed amount to 2429 Nm and
3244 Nm respectively.
A moment of inertia of the cutting drum sub­
jected to the analysis is of 870 kgm^ and, thus, lies at
the limit of the third interval. All cutting drums, the
diameter of which is greater than 1700 mm, are also
contained in the interval of moments of inertia being
advantageous in respect of dynamic loads. The dy­
namic load occurring in a cutting system may turn
out to be less advantageous when incorporates cut­
ting drums of diameters smaller than 1700 mm.
5 RECAPITULATION
The presented dynamie model of a shearer’s cutting
system has been verified experimentally and is ap­
plicable for:
> designing of the arrangement of cutting tools on
cutting drums and for optimization of parameters
of a driving system of cutting drums,
> computer simulation of a course of the process of
mining,
> aiding of eoming to conclusions as they ensue
from experimental tests.

Ig , kgrn

Figure 7. Dependence of dynamic load in a longwall

shearer’s cutting system on a moment of inertia of
the cutting drum.
Within the second interval of variation of moment
of inertia of the cutting drum, i.e. within the range
from 350 kgm^ to 950 kgm^, a slight increase of dy­
namic load in the shearer’s cutting system is fol­
lowed by its decreasing. However, the range of
variation of parameters under analysis is here
smaller by far. A peak value of dynamic load on a
shaft of the motor incorporated in the cutting system
is contained within the limits from 1681 Nm for
I g = 950 kgm^ to 2587 Nm for I g = 425 kgm\ The
amplitude of this load varies from 1980 Nm to
3438 Nm.
In case of moment of inertia of the cutting drum
being greater than 950 kgm^ the dynamic load in the
shearer’s cutting system becomes visibly stabilized.
A peak value of this load is here of about 1700 Nm,
whilst the amplitude amounts approximately to
1900 Nm.

546
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

R eview o f surface m ining equipm ent selection techniques

S.G.Er 9elebi & CKirmanli

Department o f Mining Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey

ABSTRACT: Surface mining equipment selection techniques which appeared on the literature are reviewed.
Techniques are classified as Classical, Operations Research and Artificial Intelligent techniques. Among
Operational Research techniques, most employed methods are Linear Programming and Integer Programming,
Simulation and Queuing theory. Artificial Intelligent methods have been recently becoming very popular and
Expert System-Knowledge Based Decision System and Genetic Algorithms techniques have been applied to
mining equipment selection frequently.

1 DiTRODUCTION Equipment selection possess a challenge to the

Equipment selection is a recurring and expensive
problem of mine planning. Proper equipment
selection can yield substantial savings in time and
cost. The successful operation of a mine will
demand the best methods for determining optimum
mine size and best equipment configuration. In the
selection of equipment, there is a considerable
flexibility. A large variety of mine equipment is
available in the international markets. The objective
of decision making is to select the best combination
from the entire set of available equipment.
In surface mining electric and hydraulic
excavators, draglines, front-end loaders, bucket
wheel excavators, surface miners are used for
excavating and loading the ore and various types of
trucks, conveyors, railroad and scrapers are used for
hauling the excavated material. Industry trends are
putting new demands on surface mining equipment.
New large units have been and will be introduced to
the market. The increasing scales of operation, the
bigger-the better concept of mega sized equipment
and the total integration of various processes and
unit operations have given a new dimension to the
problem of equipment selection. Continuously
operating mining machines in conjunction with
continuous conveyor transport are being used more
and more. While bucket wheel excavators are
primarily used for soft rock, those of a compact
design can be found in compact rock. Continuous
surface miners in particular can be used for selective
mining in compact rock.
surface mining industry. Partial parameter list should
to be considered when selecting equipment is;
1. Mine parameters: Life of mine, bench height,
floor condition, optimum depth of cut, haul distance,
and haul grade.
2. Characteristic of the overburden: Soil
characteristics, swell factor, material size, and
ground pressure.
3. Types of equipment: Scrapers, front-end
loaders, hydraulic excavators, backhoes, and electric
shovels, trucks, conveyors, etc.
4. Equipment characteristics: Bucket size,
operating life, depth of cut, work cycle, and speed.
5. Production rate: Yearly amount of material to
be excavated.
6. Operating costs: Including maintenance and
repairs, tires, fuel, lubrication, electricity, and wages.
2 SURFACE MINING EQUIPMENT SELECTION
TECHNIQUES
Numerous techniques and algorithms have been
devised to assist the mining engineer to select the
equipment among available sets. In this paper,
equipment selection techniques appeared on the
literature are surveyed and most commonly used
techniques are summarized. These techniques are the
following:
1. Classical Methods
2. Operations Research Techniques
2.1. Linear-Integer Programming
2.2. Simulation

547
 2.3. Queuing Theory
3. Artificial Intelligent Techniques
3.1. Expert System-Knowledge Based Decision
Systems
3.2. Genetic Algorithms
2.1 Classical Methods
The classical methods have, for a number of years,
been used by the mining industry to choose the best
equipment combination. Typical objective of this
type of methods is selecting equipment subject to
production constraints. A familiar example is the
selecting shovel sizes and assigning matched trucks
to shovels. The main assumption behind the classical
approach is such that the main operations in a
surface mine, excavation and loading and transport
are interdependent, and the optimum cost per ton
may not be obtained by attempting to minimize each
of the individual operational costs.
In one of the earliest studies, Rumfelt (1961)
developed deterministic equations based on pit
design and equipment characteristics for draglines
and shovels, and presented the concept of maximum
usefulness factor (MUF). MUF relates the weights of
the machine to its ability to do work.
Productivity with large stripping machines was
also studied by Learmont (1975) Information of
efficiency factors and their effect on cycle time are
presented. It is a useful reference in the operations of
large draglines.
Morgan (1975) developed the concept of ‘Match
Factor’ for sizing loading and hauling equipment.
Atkinson (1971, 1992) has reported on the
evaluation of different stripping equipment, both
cyclic and continuous machines based on
performance characteristics.
An analysis of equipment selection was done by
Stefanko (1973). Selection and sizing of excavating
equipment in a surface mine was provided by
Atkinson (1992). His work included shovels,
draglines, continuous excavators (bucket chain
excavator, bucket wheel excavator), front-end
loaders, scrapers and bulldozers.
Application of hydraulic excavator in open-pit
mines and basic parameters for the selection of
excavator and matching truck sizes was presented by
Maehlmann (1988).
Other examples of this category are: Singhal
(1986), Lizotte (1988), Qebi et al. (1994), Wiemer
(1994), Vogt (1996).
2.2 Linear-Integer Programming
Linear-integer programming application to surface
mining equipment selection mainly deals with
equipment assignment to the loading points. The
questions answered are selection of shovel locations
to operate, how trucks ought to be operated or
548
assigned to shovels for the system to be efficient and
how many trucks to be assigned to shovels in order
to best achieve the production objectives.
The objective of Linear Programming model is to
select that mix of operating equipment for the
various shovel locations which represents the low
cost schedule and at the same time conforms to the
several constraining conditions required by the
production goal and the mining conditions and
practices. A general model is (Lambert &
Mutmansky 1973):
Minimize XXC'..X..
I J
Subject to ^ '^ A ..X ..< o r > B
. . I ll 11 1
I J
XZA.. Z .. < or> B ^ (1)
. . ij2 11 2
I J
i = subscript denoting combination i = 1,2, ...,n
j = subscript denoting shovel location y = 1,2, ...,m
k = subscript denoting constrain number
Xij = utilization of combination i at shovel j
Cij =the cost per shift using combination i at shovel j
Aijk = coefficient associated with combination i at
shovel j in constraint k
Bic = limit of the k‘^ constraint
Xij value is zero or one. The zero and one restriction
leads to a constraint which precludes more than one
classification from any one location, that is, the sum
of all Xij's from any one location must be equal to or
less than one.
Another typical example of this category is by Li
(1989).
2.3 Simulation
Simulation models are widely used in the mining
industry for analyzing complex mining systems
under real life mine conditions. It is a process
through which a model can be built to represent a
proposed or real equipment configuration and then
used for experimentation in order to gain insight into
the possible behavior of the modeled system. It
allows the user to observe the system’s behavior
over time and thus analyze and evaluate the
performance of various equipment combinations.
Dynamic character of the equipment in operating
conditions can be modeled by simulation. The model
can be either deterministic or stochastic depending
on the system’s behavior over time. In the literature,
either simulation languages such as GPSS/H,
Simscript, SLAM, DYNAMO, etc. or in-house queuing theory is overcomed by applying more
written programs using Fortran, C, Pascal, etc. are generalized distributions recently.
used.
Simulation requires data to be determined
beforehand, such as cycle time for a unit, in terms of
a statistical distribution with its parameters. The
distributions are derived from field observations.
Computer programs generate random numbers that
are distributed according to predetermined
distributions. For example, generation of normally
distributed random numbers values:
X n —^iN + Rf^o (2 )
where X^= normally distributed variable with mean,
and variance, Gfl
= a uniform random number between 0
and 1.
These random numbers are then used for
generating times related equipment event times in
the system. The distributions permit the selection of
event times for the defined sequence of operations.
In surface mining, mostly discrete event simulation
models are employed. In discrete event simulation,
the model proceeds from event to event, creating an
event oriented simulation, meaning that the time
clock in the model will jump from each event to the
next, based on the times sampled for each sequential
event. Ramani (1990) gives a generalized flow
diagram for truck selection (Fig. 1) and a typical Figure 1. Generalized flow diagram for truck
load-haul-dump circuit in an open pit equipment selection (from Ramani (1990))
simulation (Fig. 2).
Literature on surface mining equipment selection
LO A D D A TA
can be found in Ramani et al. (1976), Hrebar &
Dagdelen (1979), Castillo & Cochran (1987), Maran
& Topuz (1988), Singhal & Fytas (1986a), Calder
(1993) , Sturgul, & Thurgood (1993), Panagiotou &
Michalakopoulos (1994, 1996), Smith et al. (1995).

2.4 Queuing Theory

Queuing models mostly deals with assigning trucks
to shovels. Figure 3 shows the network
representation of the truck-shovel system considered
in a cyclic queuing model. It shows the movement of
trucks between different service centers. Trucks are
considered as customers moving between service
centers; shovels, roads and waste dumps or ore
crushers. Models estimate waiting times at the
shovels and at dump sites and utilization of the
equipment. Results assist the mine operators to
select the proper shovels and trucks and determine
the optimum truck fleet.

Service times are assumed to be exponentially OTHER

distributed. Modeling service times with exponential DUMP AREAS

distribution results in underestimating the equipment DUMP POINT N O .l

utilization. This fact stated by Farid & Koning Figure 2. Typical load-haul-dump circuit in an open
(1994) and Er9elebi (1997). This handicap of pit (from Ramani (1990))

549
 Knowledge Base ^ 'w Working
Rules Facts Memory

Phase 4 Phase 2
I
Inference Engine
Empty Loaded Inference Control
Haul Road Haul Road ><

Phase 3
>f \
^ 'WExploration ^ 'W User
D um p Site Subsystem Interface

Figure 3. Shovel-truck system

After calculating equipment utilization and cycle

times by the help of queuing theory the number of
trucks which will minimize total unit production cost Figure 4. Block diagram of a typical expert system
can be found from (Carmichael, 1987):
C j^ C ,N When expert system are associated with
C =- (3)
unit production x CAP equipment selection in surface mining many factors
must be taken into account. Figure 4 shows a block
where CAP is the truck capacity, Cy is the cost of the
diagram of a typical expert system. Major
shovel per unit time, C2 is the average cost of truck
components:
per unit time. Once unit production cost is found for
1. Knowledge base: Stores the knowledge and
different number of trucks, the cost can be plotted vs
expertise that has been programmed into the system.
number of trucks, and optimum number of trucks to
2. Working memory: Stores the information
be assigned to shovels can easily be determined.
provided by the user during a consultation along
Other related literature to queuing theory
with the conclusions, sub-conclusions and reasoning
applications are: Koenigsberg (1958a,b, 1982),
that the system is using at any particular time.
Zhongzho & Qining (1988), Kappas & Yegulalp
3. Inference engine: Takes the information
(1991), Muduli & Yegulalp (1996).
defined by the user and examines the knowledge
stored in the knowledge base in order to reach
2.5 Expert Systems conclusions about a particular problem. Most
common techniques used are forward chaining or
An expert system or an Intelligent Knowledge Based
data-driven search and backward chaining or goal-
System (IKBS) is an intelligent computer program
driven search.
that uses knowledge and inference procedures to
4. User interface: Provides a mechanism for the
solve problems that are difficult enough to require
input concerning a problem and the output of
significant human expertise for their solution. Most
recommendations and reasoning by the system.
IKBS systems use a rule based approach. The
Knowledge is sorted into domain specific areas
general form of the rules is:
known as knowledge bases. The system consists of
different levels of knowledge bases all capable of
IF [(antecedent 1) ... (antecedent n)]
transferring data between each other. Expert system
THEN [(consequence 1) ... (consequence m)]
shells such as Xi-Plus, VP-Expert, EXSYS,
XpertRule, KAPPA-PC, etc. are used for all of the
The rules may be simple or complex, composed
knowledge based aspects of the software.
of single or multiple IF and THEN clauses. The
Figure 5 shows hydraulic excavator and truck
format may also be extended by the use of AND, OR
selection knowledge base path used by Clarke et al.
logical operators to provide alternative values and
(1990). Objective of this part of the software is to
express alternative clauses. select an optimum hydraulic excavator and
compatible truck configuration. Geology
knowledgebase contains all the rock information and

550
other rules that governs hydraulic excavator problem and achieve the minimum cost. The fittest
selection. The major factor to be considered is the chromosomes are more likely to be selected to pass
required production. Hydraulic excavator and their genes to the next generation. The generation
matching trucks selected, ensure that the system is undergoes a series of random processes on each
capable of handling a combination of geological and iteration of the genetic algorithms and forms a new
mining factors. generation. Figure 6 represents the genetic algorithm
mechanism.
In tellig en t
C ontrol S y ste m C o n tro l S y ste m .
----------------1 ^ ^ ^ O t h e r E q m p m cn t
K n o w le d g e b a se s G e n e r a tio n g
(e g D raglin e)

M o d e llin g ^
C System

Figure 5. Hydraulic Excavator and truck selection

knowledgebase path (from Clarke et al. (1990))
Figure 6. Genetic algorithms mechanism (from
Haidar et al. (1999))
Several expert systems are developed for surface
mining equipment selection. These are Scoble et al.
(1987), Bandopadhyay & Venkatasubramanian In Figure 6, A,B,....,N represents the
(1987), Nenonen et al. (1988), SCRAPER, Fytras et chromosomes of the initial generation being the
al. (1988), MINDER, Schofield & Denby (1990), model, the number of equipment and the constraints.
Denby & Schofield (1990, 1992); Earthmoving a,b,c,...,n represents the genes that form the
Equipment Selection Pro, Amirkhanian & Baker chromosomes, such as the equipment model names
(1992); Stripping Method and Dragline Selection and the binary numbers selected randomly within the
Expert System, Erdem et al. (1994). genetic algorithms engine. The A and C represents
the chromosomes of the next generation formed by
mixing of the genes of the fittest chromosomes in
2.6 Genetic Algorithms the initial generation. After the initial generation, the
Genetic algorithms is a recently developed Artificial random search for better solutions for the rest of the
Intelligence technique which is inspired by the generations is controlled through the evolution
theory of evaluation and biogenesis. They combine operators. Main operators are crossover, mutation
an artificial ‘survival of the fittest’ approach with and adaptation.
genetic operators abstracted from nature to form a Haidar (1999) gives a conceptual model applied
mechanism that is suitable for a variety of search in developing a genetic algorithms based
problems. The process of genetic algorithms starts optimization technique, XSOME (Fig.7).
with a randomly created first generation of In their model, XSOME solves the problem by
population. Every individual in a generation activating the following steps:
represents one solution and consist of one 1. Knowledge base system to select the
chromosome with a number of genes. Each equipment in broad categories depending on the
chromosome have the better chance of surviving to mine parameters, overburden characteristics, and
the next generation. operating conditions.
Genetic algorithms optimization for equipment 2. Procedural processing to perform the necessary
selection begins with an initial generation. The first calculation and assignments.
generation produces a random population for the 3. Dynamic data exchange to retrieve the
model number and the number of equipment related necessary data related to the equipment and costs
to the model for each generation. The cost is from a purpose built database. The database includes
calculated and each chromosome is assigned a all the makes of excavating and haulage equipment.
fitness based on its ability to meet constraints for the

551
Figure 7. Research Conceptual Model (from Haidar et al. (1999))
The physical characteristics needed to calculate the
production of each piece of equipment and the
ownership and operating costs also are included in
the database.
4. Genetic algorithms to select the model, number
and life of the equipment that produces the minimum
cost.
5. Front-end applications to request necessary
information from the user, and to provide the results
and the reports at the conclusion.
Genetic Algorithms literature applied to
equipment selection are : Haidar & Naoum (1995a,b,
1996).
3 CONCLUSION
Equipment selection for surface mining possess a
challenge to the mining engineer. The successful
operation of mine will demand on the optimum
equipment configuration. Several techniques have
been developed to assist the mining engineer to
select the optimum equipment set, among available.
Commonly used techniques are summarized in the
paper. These techniques vary from classical methods
to sophisticated computer techniques. Computerized
techniques such as expert systems and genetic
algorithms are combining large databases with
inference expertise. In this way, making optimum
decisions with the help of computer programs is
becoming easier.
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 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Problem w ith cracking o f the rope disc w elds

Zdenek Folta & Hynek Precek

Department of Parts and Mechanisms of Machines, Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic

Hynek Precek
Department o f Parts and mechanisms o f machines. Technical University o f Ostrava, Czech Republic

ABSTRACT: The article describes the measurement of stress values performed in the welded rope disc faces
of the mining machine No. 3 of the hoisting equipment 4K4016 in the mine CSM North where the cracks
began to occur in welded joints. Further, the analysis crack reasons and proposal for problem solving is
presented.

1 PROBLEM
On the rope disc inside faces of the mining machine
No. 3 of the hoisting equipment 4K4016 in the mine
CSM North, cracks began to occur in the area of
welded joints after several years of operation. After
welding these cracks, cracking occurred again. Aim
of this work was to verify the state of disc stresses
and to propose suitable measures for removing this
problem.
2 ANALYSIS
For verification of the variant proposed, the
customer presented, beside others, the „Checking
calculation“ elaborated by INCO engineering s.r.o.
Praha in the year 1994, which consists the calculation
of the stress relations on the disc faces performed by
the finite element method (MKP). According to these
results, the reduced stress values do not exceed
66 MPa. The basic fatigue limit of the material 11
425, the disc faces are made of, is 144,2 MPa, so the
basic material safety should be sufficient as far as the
material fatigue loading is concerned.
But there is a question whether the calculation by
MKP is accurate enough, especially as far as suitable
boundary conditions specified are concerned and
whether there are not other influences which could
effect the phenomenon mentioned. Therefore strain
gauge measurements were performed in suitable
places (in the area of cracks) in order to verify the
stress values in the inside disc faces from loading the
disc both by ropes and empty skip containers and by
ropes and filled skip containers as well.
3 MEASURING EQUIPMENT AND PROCESS
In four selected places near the area where repaired
cracks can be found and where the maximum stress
values occur according to the calculation MKP as
well (see figure 1 - the left face in the view of the
operator), strain gauge sensors 6/120RY31 were
stuck on. The sensors used are products of the firm
Hottinger Baldwin Messtechnik GmbH with
resistance of 120 Q and k-factor 1,93.
The sensors in question have three strain gages
revolved each against the other by 45° and therefore
they are capable to take up the changes of the
relative prolongation Si, 82, S3 (see figure 2). The
defined measurement position laid out into the Mohr
circle determines the relation between the first Sp and
the second Sq main relative prolongation. By means
of the known relative prolongation values, the values
of the first a? and the second Oq main stresses can be
determined:
^P,Q ■E-6.P,Q (1 )
and the value of the equivalent stress:

555
 performed as it is illustrated in the Smith diagram in
'^ekv ~ (2) figure 5.
Following table shows values of Oc for 2.10^ cycles
as a function of the weld type and weld quality [2],
Direction to the as developed from the preceding diagram:
axe of the disk From the table No. 1, the approximate Wohler
lifetime diagram can be developed for the basic
material and for welded joints (see figure 3)

O >1 Z

Figure 1. Sensors placing and numbering

4. VALUES MEASURED

Following table No. 1 shows an example of values

measured in four selected places.
After comparing these results with the computer
model results of the firm INCO engineering s.r.o., it
is possible to state that the results of the
measurement correspond to the values measured and
that this model can be accepted for further analysis
and calculations.

5. POSSroLE REASONS OF DISC CRACKING

ANALYSIS

In accordance with the mathematical model Figure 5 - Smith diagram for fatigue lifetime of the
mentioned, the maximum stress values occurring on steel 11 420.
the disc faces do not exceed 70 MPa. As fatigue limit
Oc of the material 11 425.1 for 10^ cycles is
144,2 MPa [1], [2], the fatigue safety n = 2,1 is
sufficient.
However, this value is valid for the basic material.
The value Oc for the weld joint is different and
depends to great extent upon the shape,
workmanship, loading and quality of welds

Table 1 - Braked disc, disc revolved by 180°, full skip No. 1

Empty skip Full skipNo. 1 Total

CTp Op (Jp Oekv
Place MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa
1 12.89 4.50 5.73 -1.46 18.62 3.04 17.30
2 7.75 -15.28 21.00 -28.18 28.76 -43.46 62.97
3 4.00 -5.24 10.50 -31.13 14.50 -36.37 45.39
4 15.43 0.65 11.69 -1.34 27.12 -0.69 27.47

556
Table 2 - Weld lifetime for different type a quality for steel No. 11 420

WELD TRANSITION AREA WELD

type quality curve ^ oc curve Oc
V AD 2 135 2 135
V BD 4 100 4 100
V CD 6b 70 6a 70
K AD 3 115 3 115
K BD 5 90 5 90
K CD 6b 70 6a 70
fillet weld CD 6b 70 8 35

Notes: .... see fig. 2;

V means V-butt weld;
K means K-butt weld;
AD .. concave weld without notches, ground out into the specified bulge radius;
BD .. concave weld without notches, with ground transition into the basic material;
CD .. flat surface of the weld, surface with small irregularities;

1,0E+00 1.0E+01 1,0E+02 1.0E+03 1.0E+04 1,0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07 1.0E-K)8 1,0E+09
Number of cycles, -

Figure 3. Approximate Wohler fatigue lifetime for the basic material and for the weld

There are two lines for the lifetime of the weld,
namely for the V-butt weld with perfect
workmanship (short dashes) and for the imperfect
fillet weld (long dashes). Over one year operation,
the disc is loaded by 4,62*10^ cycles. If a very
simplified presumption is used that the stress value in
the disc corresponds to an alternative stress with a
stress amplitude of = ±40 MPa and that the same
stress value is present in the welds, the lifetime of
welds would be about 200 years in agreement with
figure 6 for quality CD. However, in case of an
imperfect weld, the lifetime would be decreased even
up to about six months. In addition, when the weld
root is not welded through thoroughly, the lifetime
can be reduced furthermore by 30 %. It is necessary
to bear in mind that the real stress relations in welds
are not known and therefore this consideration is
only a very approximate one.
Another factor, which influences the weld lifetime,
is the existence of the residual stress in the disc fi’om
welding and assembling. This residual stress
represents another unfavourable reduction of the
welding joint fatigue lifetime.

557
6 CON CLU SIO N

On the basis of previous analysis, we suppose that

the cracking is caused by a not perfect workmanship
of welds while another lifetime reduction can be
brought about by the residual internal stress from
welding and assembling.
We recommend to weld up the existing cracks by
an expert firm while the suitable technological
instructions must be strictly adhered to (grounding
out cracks, preheating, perfect welding through the
weld root, correct laying weld beds, subsequent
reheating and similar), to regrind (to even the
surface) the welds subsequently with emphasis laid
on the fluent transition into the basic material, in case
of fillet welds then on the bulge radius as well.

7. REFERENCES

PTAK Svatopluk : Check calculation of the hoisting

machine 4K4016 CMD a s., mine CSM o.z.,
Stonava. INCO Engineering s.r.o. Praha 1996.
BOLEK A., KOCHMAN J.: Parts of machines.
Technical adviser 6 - Vol. 1 SNTL Praha,
1989, ISBN 80-03-00046-7.
NEMEC J., DEVORAK J., HOESCHL C.: Elasticity
and strength in mechanical engineering, SNTL
Praha, 1989, ISBN 80-03-00193-5.

558
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Determination of tractive capacity of the dmm of a multirope hoisting

machine with due account of flexibility of its elastic liner

V.RFranchuk
National Mining University of Ukraine, Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine
VVFranchuk
Technological University ofPodillia, Khmelnitskiy, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: In the paper the differential equations determining the transfer of force from one body to an­
other were derived on the basis of considering the physics of the process of body interaction by friction with
due account of their shear flexibility. After solving these equations the formula for determining the values of
the transferred force depending on relative and absolute velocity of bodies were obtained. The analytical de­
pendence given in this paper enable to select the rational parameters of the system of multirope hoisting not
only from the technical standpoint, but from economic standpoint as well, by determining the rational value of
the carrying capacity and the velocity of the multirope hoisting machine.

1 INTRODUCTION

The application of elastomeric material or their

combination with polyacrilamides (caprone) for the
liners of the drums of mining hoisting machines
leads to considerable reduction of dynamic loads in
transition modes (Kolosov & Franchuk 1991), to the
increase of the service life of hoisting ropes and the
surfaces of the drums themselves. The use of elastic
liners for wheels of mining electric locomotives
(Serdyuck et al. 1990) results in the increase of their
tractive capacity and improvement of braking the
conditions. It is expected that the application of elas­
tomeric materials for lining the drums of mining
(and not only mining) multirope hoisting machines
will enable to not only reduce dynamic loads on the
elements of these machines, to ensure a more uni­
form distribution of forces between the ropes, to in­
crease their service life, but will also increase their
tractive and braking capacities.

2 VALIDATION PROCEDURE

Let us consider the interaction of the steel rope

with the drum of the hoisting machine lined with the
elastomer-type elastic material in the form of sepa­
rate elements of limited length (along the drum sur­
face).
Figure 1. The calculation diagram for determining
the force of interaction of the rope of the multirope
hoisting machine with the lined drum

559
2.1 Details o f the example problem
Figure 1 represents the calculation diagram for
determining the force of interaction of the rope of
the multirope hoisting machine with the lined drum.
The drum of the multirope hoisting machine with
R radius (with the liner) rotates at an angular speed
00. The hoisting rope is loaded with the force Ti on
the running-on part and T2 on the running-off part
moves with the drum surface as well as relative to it.
The relative movements of the surfaces of the rope
and the drum are determined by the following fac­
tors: the change in the elongation of the rope under
the change of its pulling force; the simultaneous
change of radial and tangential strain of the elastic
liner; the relative motion of the surfaces accompany­
ing the transfer of force by the bodies with a mov­
able contact point.
The relative elongation s of the rope under the ac­
tion of tensile force is determined as
( 1)
where Ei is the reduced modulus of elasticity of the
rope as an individual article.
The value of compressive strain of the liner is
proportional to radial strain which is equal to
Z
R
(2)
where T is the current value of the rope pulling
force.
The pulling force of the rope is connected with
specific tangential (shear) loads on the surface of
contact of the rope with the liner by the dependence
dT
Rdcp
(3)
2.2 Analysis procedure
Assuming the dependence between the force of
effect of the rope on the liner and its radial strain
taking place in the linear field, we obtain
qh
(4)
ED
Here h is the reduced thickness of the liner, E is the
modulus of compressive elasticity of the material.
D is the equivalent diameter of the rope, usually
assumed as
D = -d ,
71
where d is the rope diameter.
560
Assuming the similar conditions for the shear
strain of the elastic drum surface, we obtain the de­
pendence
sh
GD
(5)
Here s is the specific shear load on the surfaces of
the drum and the rope; G is the reduced modulus of
shear of the lining material.
The dependence between tangential s and radial q
loads during the interaction of bodies with a mov­
able contact point assumes the form (Novikov et al.
1978):
s=q (6)
- Vj2 +
where V12 are the relative displacements of the sur­
faces of the rope and the drum (the liner); V is the
absolute velocity of displacement of the discussed
contact point; 5 and X are the coefficients depending
on geometric and rheological characteristics of the
contacting bodies; p has the meaning of the static
friction coefficient. In the general case p also de­
pends the kind of materials of the contacting bodies,
the condition of their surfaces as well as on their
elastic-rheological characteristics.
From the expression (5) it follows that provided
there is no relative motion of surfaces, there is no
transferred force, i.e. under equal force Ti and T2 the
relative velocity Vi2=0.
In case of difference of the values of forces Ti
and T2, in the course of rope displacement the value
of its relative strain will vary, and the change of the
length of the rope in the point located at the distance
of (p from the running-on point will occur at a speed
^d£ R dT R dcp R®
dv, = R — d(D = ------- d(D = ------ ^dT = ---- dT
dt E, dt E, dt E,
Taking into consideration that the accumulation
of the strain of the rope will take place along the
drum surface, the velocity of the relative displace­
ment of the rope in this point will be
‘f R ö )d T ^ R co.
(7)
The radial displacement of the liner surface points
due to the change of normal specific load q will oc­
cur in the same way, so
dy _ h dq h dT hco dT
dt ~ ED, dt ~ ED,r " ^ ~ E D , R ^ ‘
( 8)
The change of radius of the rope-liner interaction
points results in the equivalent change of location of
the point on the surface of the drum. Similar to the
relative displacement on the basis of the expression
(8) we obtain
 Passing to the dimensional values after some
:j2^,dcp = j | ^ d T = | ^ ( T - T , ) (9) transformations for the limiting case when cp=a,
ÍED.R ED.R
T=T2, then we have
The change of the value of the tangential component
of the rope-liner interaction is determined from the ÍT )
koEe ] koEe-Ti
expression (5) as
\ ^T 2 j ^ ^ o E g —A T ^
dx h ds d^T dcp h(D d^T ( 10)
dt GD, dt GD, Rdcp' dt GD^R dcp' 5VAT^
exp pa + - ^ (16
At the present stage of investigations we can ne­
glect the accumulation of shear strains as the drum
liner consists of separate blocks. where AT=Ti-Ti is the tractive forces of the drum.
The velocity of relative motion of the surfaces of
the rope and the drum liner is determined as the sum The dependence (16) under Eg oo, X=0, 6=0 is
of the velocity vo of relative movement and the ve­ transformed into the Eiler equation for the case of
locities connected with the rope elasticity and the interaction of the thread with the friction pulley.
drum liner. Then with due account of the assump­ Designating Kj = T1/T2, K2 = T2/Ee, the equation
tions made, we will have will be written in the simplified form

J_ 27ih j^l-8(Ko-KTK2)V- C()-KxK2 Kq-KxKz

=Vn + K'
V^I ED R" k„ - ( k ,- 1 ) K ,
Rco(T-TO ( 11)
Designating
= exp[pa + 5V(KT -1 )k J (17)
e ,e d , r ^
E =- — S =: ( 12)
E D ,R '+ 2E,7ih' “ E / E.
3 RESULTS
and bearing in mind that V=Rco we have
The analysis of the dependence (17) shows that in
V12 = Vo - 8 o V + S V
case of the change of relative motion ko of the rope
Let us transform the expression ( 6) to the form with the drum, the value of tractive force (the ratio
of forces in the running-on and running-off parts of
s=q
p ( ko - 8 , + s ) the rope Kt = T1/T2) changes according to a rather
(13)
6 (k „ - S o + s f V - ( K „ -So +s)+X, complicate law, has maximum. The maximal value
of this relation under braking (ko > 0) is somewhat
where ko ==vqA^ is the ratio of velocities. higher than in the operation mode. With increasing
With due account of the dependences (1) and (3) the velocity V of the drum motion the value of Kt
the expression (13) may be written in the form decreases slightly.
The increasing of the absolute velocity of dis­
j ________ p (kq - S o + s )________
(14) placement of the contact point decreases the value of
d9 6(ko - Sq + s)^ V - (kq - Eq + e)+ X, tractive force. In Figure 2 shown that if the absolute
velocity of displacement of the contact point is more
or, in view of (12), after transformation we will have then the maximum tractive force decreases. Physico-
mechanical characteristics of the contacting bodies
p d (p = - 6 ( k q —E q + e ) V —1 + - dE (15) also have an influence on this dependence. So with
E decreasing the coefficient p the value of tractive
The integration of the expression (15) under initial force also decreases (compare Figure 2 and Figure
conditions e = eq under cp = 0 results in the depend­ 3). If coefficient 6 decreases then graph of the de­
ence pendence the value of tractive force from relative
motion ko will be slightly sloping (compare Figure 2
and Figure 4).
pi(p + 5V(Eo - s ) = l-5 (k o -E o )V - When the coefficient X decreases character of de­
K -So pendence of tractive capacity of the drum changes
(Figure 5). When X tends to 0 graph of function
-In- transforms in continued decreasing dependence. At
that tractive capacity of the drum of hoisting ma­
chine increases.

561
 0 .2 0 .4 0.6 0.2 0 .4 0.6
-k
Figure 2. Dependence between tractive force and Figure 5. Dependence between tractive force and
relative motion for different velocities of motion. relative motion with decreasing the coefficient X.

4 CONCLUSIONS

The carried out a research will enable more cor­

rectly to determine tractive capacity of the drum of
the multirope hoisting machine taking into con­
sideration physico-mechanical characteristics of
elastic liner and the kinematic characteristics of the
mining hoisting machine.

REFERENCES

K o lo s o v , L .V . & V .V .F ra n c h u k 1 9 9 1 . T h e m e th o d s o f
in v e s tig a tio n o f lo n g itu d in a l-tra n s v e rs e o s c illa tio n s o f a
0 .2 0 .4 0.6
ro p e lin e w ith d u e a c c o u n t o f p a ra m e tric e x c ita tio n o f
o s c illa tio n s . In Vibrational and wave transportation-
-k technological machines :31-A3. K y iv : N a u k o v a d u m k a .
Figure 3. Dependence between tractive force and N o v ik o v e t a l. 1 9 7 8 . T h e o re tic a l p re re q u is ite s o f th e p ro c e s s o f
relative motion with decreasing the coefficient p. m o tio n tra n s fe r o f m in in g tra n s p o rta tio n m a c h in e s . In
Problems o f dynamics and strength o f mining transporta­
tion machines:10S-122. K y iv : N a u k o v a d u m k a .
S e rd y u c k , A .A ., B .S . G a v rile n k o & Y .A .B o d ro v . 1 9 9 0 . T h e d e ­
te rm in a tio n o f m o tio n c h a ra c te ris tic s o f th e e le c tric lo c o m o ­
tiv e A M - 8P w ith th e ru b b e r-lin e d w h e e ls . Ugol Ukrainy.
5: 3 2 -3 3 .

0 .2 0 .4 0.6
-k
Figure 4. Dependence between tractive force and
relative motion with decreasing the coefficient 6.

562
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The complex decision of a problem of open-pits excavator-automobile

systems reproduction

S.Zh.Galiyev, A.KhJaxybayev & A.A.Boyandinova

The Scientific Center *Mining Technology’, Kazakhstan
B.D.Lerman & T.G.Gabdullin
JSC 'Altynalmas’, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT: The economic efficiency evaluation of work variants of a mining-transport complex is one of
major stages at designing and planning of mining work and in particular at a substantiation of a choice of the
basic process equipment. It shows conformity of the chosen mining and transport equipment to accepted
transport system, organisation of mining-transport work to planned volumes of taken rock mass. However, as
well as all comparative evaluations it is relative and does not reflect a realisation degree of being available
potential. In this connection, in the offered approach to an efficiency evaluation of use of the basic process
equipment, as additional criteria a parameter of a mining-transport complex productive capacity is accepted. It
allows effectively operate of process of productive capacity reproduction of open-pit’s mining-transport sys­
tems. In the given work in the plan of an establishment economically expedient productive capacity of the
mining enterprise and the control of process of its reproduction on a basis of simulation modelling of mining-
transport systems of open-pits (MTSO) work is offered to acquaint with some aspects of scientific-practical
work developed by a science centre «Mining technology».

1 INTRODUCTION greatest degree it concerns to methods of definition

An opportunity potential of the enterprise on output
is expressed by their productive capacity, which is
measured by the maximum possible annual output or
volume of an useful minerals production for deter­
mined period (day, year) in the given nomenclature
at the most complete and effective use of the equip­
ment and other production fimds of the enterprise,
minimum labour input of work and cost price of
production, maximum productivity of labour, appli­
cation of progressive technical norms of equipment
productivity and specific norms of the charge of raw
material, materials, fuel (OPPCMI 1989, Protasov
V.F. & Damaskinsky V.A. 1990). It is defined by
such parameters, as quantity and structure of the
equipment, mode of work and fund of equipment
operating time, quality of processed raw material,
qualification of the staff, organisation of labour. The
account of these factors is very important at defini­
tion of productive capacity, as each of them renders
rather large influence on a final results of produc­
tion-economic activity of the enterprise as a whole,
as on size of the receive profit. However, the tradi­
tionally used technical approach to definition of pro­
ductive capacity of labour means has certain lacks
and main of them is distance them from the indus­
trial relations, in conditions of which they function
(Petrovich I.M. & Atamanchuk R.P. 1990). In the
of productive capacity in mining production, where
such peculiarities, as current variability of a mining-
geological situation in open-pit are available. Be­
sides it on an effective use of enterprises productive
capacities render influence updating and modernisa­
tion of their equipment, introduction in production
of new products, absence of integrated approach of
planning of a mechanisation level increase and
automation of productions, perfection of technology
and production organisation. It is necessary to take
into account influence of these directions of techni­
cal progress to a level of functioning organisation of
machines system of the enterprises, constantly to
support proportionality in its construction, to replace
separate elements of system, to modernise subsys­
tems and systems as a whole. Otherwise the influ­
ence of these factors will negatively have an effect
on size of productive capacities and intensive their
use level. Establishment of economically expedient
productive capacity of the mining enterprise, mas­
tering a rock deposit of useful minerals, allows con­
siderably to reduce capital investment and current
charges, to lower the cost price of production, to
reach high parameters on volume and production
quality at the minimum production costs, as is one of
the basic problems of the mining enterprise. Reduc­
tion of productive capacity brings in an establish­
ment of the underestimated plan of production, to

563
not complete use of internal reserves o f the enter­
prise, deterioration of qualitative parameters and re­
duction to funds formation.
As the adequate account of influence of the inter­
connected factors set, influencing to size of produc­
tive capacity and its use, by use of traditional meth­
ods is practically impossible, as is known, at the
present moment the reproduction o f machines sys­
tem is realised spontaneously, without sufficient va­
lidity, careful analysis o f expediency of made
changes and their economic consequences.
The analysis of experience of designing and op­
eration of open-pits, the long-term researches of a
transport problem of open-pit mining testify that cor­
rect definition of optimum productive capacity of the
deep open-pit and choice of a sequence of formation
of its transport system can be achieved only on the
basis of the interconnected decision of these prob­
lems in view of dynamic of mining work from be­
ginning and up to the end of a deposit use. It is obvi­
ous, that the decision of the given problem and the
realisation of the last variant o f a complex estab­
lishment of productive capacity should be based on
qualitative model o f research object and effective
economic evaluation o f its functioning.
Thus, we come to a conclusion, that in modem
conditions, when transition to new models of man­
agement and financing at the mining enterprises
comes tme, when there is the sharp problem of re­
placement o f the basic process equipment park on
open-pits, one o f the basic and actual problems is
development o f effective control methods of repro­
duction process o f functioning machine systems, al­
lowing to accept the qualitative technical, techno­
logical, economic and organisational decisions in
this question.
2 THE COMM ON APPROACH TO D EFINITIO N
OF PRODUCTIVE CAPACITY
In a common case, at definition o f MTSO productive
capacity, following variants o f problems statement
and ways o f their decision are possible:
1. Establishment o f open-pit’s productive capac­
ity at certain circuit o f opening and circuit of trans­
port (open-pits’ productive capacity or strictly is de­
termined by the supervising documents, or its
bottom lim it is established, higher o f which its
change according to accepted criterion o f optimum is
admitted, or it should be determined during design-
ing).
2. The choice of a transport type at established
open-pit’s productive capacity, when the design as­
signment determines productive capacity on ore and
the productivity on rock mass is defined during de­
signing.
564
3. Simultaneous optimisation of productive ca­
pacity and parameters of open-pit’s mining-transport
system.
If in first case the mining-transport system defines
productive capacity without account of a deposit’s
geology and accepted method of opening, in the sec­
ond case an essential lack is the fact, that all types of
transport are compared at the same fixed open-pit’s
productivity on ore, which for separate types of
transport and is possible for each of them, in condi­
tions the projected open-pit can be not optimal. The
last variant, without preliminary restrictions, in this
plan is the most favourable for a finding of an opti­
mum and should be decided in any case, even if re­
strictions of productive capacity are entered.
Traditionally the productive capacity of mine on
mining opportunities A an is defined from numbers of
working shifts on ore production in a day, number of
working days a year under the plan, shift’s produc­
tivity of I stopping face in each block (or panel),
number of working stopping faces in each block (or
panel), number of simultaneously fulfilled blocks (or
panels) and share of ore production from stopping
faces. In the approach offered in the article to defini­
tion of productive capacity of a mining-transport
complex such factors as structure of transport sys­
tem, organisation of interaction of the mining and
transport equipment and movement of transport
means, degree of them deterioration, quality of a
road covering and types of the equipment are in ad­
dition taken into account. For this purpose, as an
initial parameter annual production rate of MTSO is
accepted, which is defined under the following for­
mula:
^ 20d
+"2^2 + « 3^3) ( 1)
«1 + «2 + «3
where - the annual capacity of MTSO, mln.m^;
n^M- the quantity of shifts in a days; - shift’s
capacity of MTSO, thousands m^ (is accepted equal
to volume of ore (rock mass), unloaded on all
dumping points for shift); N - quantity of days in
considered period; K - coefficient of translation of
shift’s parameters to parameters for period; W] -
quantity of shifts in a week at normal mode of op­
erations (i.e. a mode of work, at which the mining-
transport complex works without handicaps. At
modelling is accepted 9 shifts: all night shifts and
day time shifts of weekends), k] - operating ratio of
working hours of shift with normal mode of opera­
tions (at modelling is accepted / ti= 1 ); «2 - quantity
of day time shifts in a week (at modelling «2 = 4);
k 2 - operating ratio of working hours of day time
shifts (at modelling k 2 =0,65); «3 - quantity of ex­
plosions in a week (at modelling « 3= 1 ); k^ - oper­
ating ratio of working hours in a day of production
of explosive work (at modelling ^3=0,35) (Jakovlev
V.L. 1987). Further in view of technological idle
times are established actual (in each particular situa­
tion) parameters: productive capacities of a mining-
transport complex and coefficient of its realisation.
The similar parameters are established and rather ba­
sic technological parts of a circuit at stages of load­
ing, transportation and dumping of rock mass.
Operating ratio of productive capacity of the en­
terprise K, occupies the special place among pa­
rameters of efficiency of use of the basic means. It is
defined as the attitude of annual volume of ore pro­
duction Q to productive capacity of mine M:
K=
M ( yP0M
The similar approach is used in this case. However
the initial data for accounts are shift’s parameters,
being result of simulation modelling. If necessary on
a special method transitions to similar parameters for
any considered period are possible.
3 THE EVALUATION OF AN ECONOMIC
EFFICIENCY OF WORK OF MINING-
TRANSPORT COMPLEXES OF OPEN-PITS
The efficiency of each enterprise activity is defined
by set of technological and technical-economical pa­
rameters. It is obvious, that in common the size of
industrial activity effect of the mining enterprise de­
pends on the nomenclature, volumes, quality and
cost of products and expenses for its production.
The scientific centre developed the structure of
economical-mathematical model with the purpose of
optimisation and economic evaluation of excavator-
automobile systems works of open-pits. The crite­
rion of an economic efficiency accepted the pa­
rameter of specific current expenses on extraction of
one cubic meter of rock mass. The conception of of­
fered idea consists that in process of simulation
modelling of complex mining -transport systems
work should come true strict and as it is possible the
complete account of order and sequence of all op­
T a b le . T e c h n ic a l- e c o n o m ic a l p a r a m e te r s o f e f f ic ie n c y o f m in in g -tr a n sp o r t s y ste m v a ria n ts w o r k o f o p e n -p it.
erations of simulated process. Step-by-step fixing of
a elements condition of mining-transport system is
conducted. Time of stay of system elements in con­
dition of work and idle time is taken into account. It
allows to establish qualitative and quantitative influ­
ence of each system’s elements on the final results of
its functioning.
The most important criterion of selection of ef­
fective variants of mining-transport complexes work
of open-pits is criterion - net present value (NPV),
determined under the formula:
v Fm K p B i j K'^
NPV =
+ (3)
( 2)
^M^ ^c y .T E K S ^ np.TEK ^
where - the annual volume of taken rock mass,
received by modelling results, thousand m^; Kp -
the parameter of ore density, ton/m^; Bjj - the pa­
rameter of an output of a product from 1 ton of ore,
%; IJu - the price of 1 ton of a product in the sales
market, thousand tenge; k / - the discount coeffi­
cient of the price for a product; " Ihe stripping
ratio, ton/ton; - the specific current expenses
on rock mass, tenge; 'LCnp.meK - the other current
expenses, connected to purchase of trunks and etc.,
million tenge; - the other additional lumps ex­
penses on construction of auto and railway roads,
purchase of the new equipment, construction of ad­
ditional descents and etc., million tenge; - the
discount coefficient on present cost of current ex­
penses (bank interest for the credit).
The most common information, received in result
of researches, on an example of one of mining enter­
prises is submitted in the table. From the table and
figure it is visible, that the establishment of propor­
tionality of capacities of a technological circuit parts
and rational degree of realisation by system of the
industrial opportunities is strictly based on a detail
economic evaluation of efficiency. It naturally much
raises a degree of validity of the accepted decisions.

T h e p a ra m eter s U n it o f T h e v a ria nts

m e a su r e m e n ts 1 2 3
T h e s p e c if ic cu rren t e x p e n s e s o n r o c k m a s s te n g e 6 0 .1 2 6 6 .0 2 5 6 ,5 1
T h e p r o d u c tiv ity o f M T S O o n r o c k m a s s m illio n m^ 4 .2 4 3 .7 1 4 ,1 0
T h e a n n u a l e x p e n s e s o n tru n ks m illio n te n g e 5 7 .2 1 3 7 7 .3 3 8 6 3 ,6 0 4
T h e str ip p in g ra tio n , to n /to n , m^/m^ 2 ,7 - 7 ,0
T h e c o s t o f o n e g ra m o f a p r o d u c t th o u s a n d s te n g e 0 ,6 6
T h e o u tp u t o f a p r o d u c t fr o m o n e to n o f o r e g r a m /to n 1 ,1 - 2 ,8 2
T h e d e n s ity o f o r e ton/m ^ 2 ,4 7 - 2 ,6 5
T h e c o n d itio n a l e c o n o m i c b e n e f it m illio n te n g e 3 8 5 7 ,5 3 3 4 2 3 ,5 4 3 5 3 2 ,1 6 6
T h e r e la tiv e e c o n o m ic b e n e f it m illio n te n g e - 4 3 3 ,9 9 - 4 2 4 ,7 0 4
T h e c o s t o f m in in g -tr a n s p o r t w o r k u n d er th e p la n m illio n te n g e 1 9 7 ,6 8 1 6 7 ,5 9 2 0 5 ,1 3 1
T h e r e la tiv e e c o n o m ic b e n e fit m illio n te n g e - 3 0 ,0 9 1 3 ,1 0 4

565

On mining Excavators
possibilities
Figure. The diagram of productive capacities of excavator-automobile system
elements of open-pit.
4 THE BASIC RULES OF CONTROL BY
PROCESS OF PRODUCTIVE CAPACITY
REPRODUCTION OF A TECHNOLOGICAL
COMPLEX
Recognising that on formation of the enterprise pro­
ductive capacity the significant influence is rendered
by structure of machines system, under which it is
necessary to understand set of steady organisational-
technical connections between its subsystems and
separate elements in each subsystem, we consider
mining-transport system, on the one hand, as a num­
ber of subsystems, functioning on sites, and with
other, as a unit - park of the industrial equipment of
the enterprise. In this connection the method of
process control of system reproduction is based on
complex consideration of all set of the intercon­
nected and co-operating factors, causing its produc­
tive capacity. All decisions are accepted by a method
of variants on the basis of preliminary and detailed
diagnostics of a condition of a excavator-automobile
complex, by results of research and search economi­
cally expedient proportionality in structure of the ba­
sic process equipment. It allows to carry out planned
process of continuous renewal of machines system
elements and their steady interrelations during oper­
ating. The simple reproduction of machines system
is provided by duly repair of machines and replace­
ment of the physically worn out equipment similar
new.
The basis of control is analysis of productive ca­
pacity of system on parts of a technological circuit
and evaluation of a degree of its actual realisation in
particular conditions of system functioning. The
given parameters are compared with a design pa­
rameter of productive capacity of the enterprise and
among themselves, as it is shown on the diagram.
566
□ on ore
■ on rock mass
□ maximum
Trucks Dumping points
formed within the framework of each estimated vari­
ants. In it parameters of actual productive capacity
on ore, on rock mass and really achievable, techno­
logically caused productive capacity of all parts of a
technological circuit are reflected. In result of the
given comparative analysis economically unreason­
able disproportion in system on productive capacity
come to light.
For an example, from the submitted diagram it is
visible, that each technological link has large unused
potential about 25-40 %. It confirms existing opin­
ion, that in result beforehand provided of the proj­
ects of reconstruction, expansion and new construc­
tion infringement of proportions in capacities
various kinds of the equipment are not complete
used on 10-40 % (Jakovlev V.L. 1987). As show re­
searches, the disproportion in capacities of the enter­
prises and not complete use of their equipment are
provided already at the stage of construction of ma­
chines systems. It is largely a consequence of dis­
crepancy between structure of per unit consummat­
ing of machine of product, caused by structurally -
technological peculiarities of its constructing and the
technological opportunities of structure used or pro­
spective to use of park of the process equipment,
between which should achieve a maximum level of
co-ordination. Such contradictions become aggra­
vated much more during functioning system of ma­
chines in conditions of accelerated technical prog­
ress, the important aspects of which are continuous
perfection of subjects and means of labour, organi­
sation and control of production. Result of such
changes is essential infringement of a proportionality
level in productive capacities of the enterprise divi­
sions. One of the factors, which influencing to in­
crease of a level of proportionality in throughput of
machines system is liquidation of bottlenecks in
productive capacities of divisions. However the re­
sults of the analysis testify that the orientation of the
enteq)rises to current elimination of bottlenecks, di­ P ro ta s o v V .F . & D a m a s k in s k y V .A . 1 9 9 0 . T h e e c o n o m y o f
rected on maintenance of fulfilment of the annual m in in g in d u s try . M o s c o w : N e d ra .
industrial program is only partial decision of a prob­
lem and in many cases aggravates much more proc­
ess of disproportion development in productive ca­
pacities. The liquidation of bottlenecks should come
true in view of certain complex criterion, as which it
is possible to accept average coefficient of a load of
the equipment of a conducting link on accepted size
of capacity.
The spent researches confirm the statements that
productive capacity of open-pit is defined not only
such factors, as front of mining work, transport’s and
excavator’s park, but also in an essential degree de­
pends from organisational and economic factors.

5 CONCLUSION

Thus, approach which allows to decide problems of

reproduction of mining-transport systems of open-
pits at optimum productive capacity is developed.
The novelty of the offered approach of propor­
tions regulation in capacities of the enterprise in
view of a normative use of the equipment consists
not only that it comes true on the basis of the eco­
nomic mechanism, which causes technical-
organisational construction of machines system, en­
suring steady and effective their functioning, but also
allows to use new methods of planning, control and
organisation of production. The choice of the best
formation variant can be carried out by an evaluation
of capacities increase of the enterprises and use of
being available at them equipment on the basis of a
method of simulation logical-statistical modelling.
Methodical rules developed on its base and informa­
tive-program complex allow to receive the necessary
technical-economical information on each variant of
an offered complete set of the equipment and to
make their comparative analysis. At such approach
there is the opportunity of an evaluation the most ef­
fective use of capital investments at the stage of the
projects creation of the enterprises escalating their
productive capacities.

REFERENCES

G a liy e v S .Z h . 1 9 9 7 . T h e o p tim is a tio n o f p a ra m e te rs o f m in in g -

tra n s p o rt sys te m s o f o p e n -p its o n a b a sis o f s im u la tio n
m o d e llin g . Diss. Dr. Sciences. A lm a ty .
J a k o v le v V .L . 1 9 8 7 . T h e m e th o d s o f th e a c c o u n t o f in te rre la ­
tio n o f th e d e c is io n o f p ro b le m s o f a c h o ic e o f a ty p e o f
tra n s p o rt a n d d e fin itio n o f p ro d u c tiv e c a p a c ity o f d e e p
o p e n -p its . Proceedings "Reconstruction o f transport sys­
tems o f deep open-pits": 94. S v e rd lo v s k .
O rg a n is a tio n , p la n n in g a n d p ro d u c tio n c o n tro l in a m in in g in ­
d u s try (O P P C M I). 1 9 8 9 . In L o b a n o v N .J . (e d .). M o s c o w ;
N e d ra .
P e tro v ic h I.M . & A ta m a n c h u k R .P . 1 9 9 0 . T h e p ro d u c tiv e ca ­
p a c ity a n d e c o n o m y o f th e e n te rp ris e . M o s c o w : E c o n o m y .

567
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The impact of multi-element external coal transportation on reliability

of the system and on environment

Milos M.Grujic
Faculty o f Mining and Geology, Belgrade, Yugoslavia
Miodrag M.Grujic
Faculty o f Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade, Yugoslavia
MirkoD.Ivkovic
Underground Coal Mining Company, Rasavica, Yugoslavia

ABSTRACT: Belt conveyors are often used in the process of transportation of coal from mine to primary
consumers. Big number of the conveyors in one system lessens the reliability of the whole transportation
system and, in the same time, his permeable capacity. Also, there is negative influence on environment
because of the big number of the reloading points. This paper analyses the influence of number of conveyors
on the reliability of transportation system and on environment. Besides, it deals with the general principles of
elimination of negative influences being caused by big number of transportation elements.

1 INTRODUCTION accomplishing the stipulated function in the course

Continuous transportation systems are composed of
numerous elements and their reliability depends
upon the number of these elements and also on the
reliability of each particular element. External coal
transportation systems may, in some cases, comprise
more than 10 elements and their overall reliability is
less than 50% of the minimum reliabillity of each
particular conveyor.
The large number of conveyors within the coal
transportation system also has a significantly
unfavorable bearing on the environment. It is
recorded that considerable air pollution, soil
degradation etc. occurs at transfer points. This
problem is particularly pronounced during the
transportation of coal fines from the mine to the
coal-fired power plants.
This paper aims to indicate that the number of
elements in external transportation systems affects
their reliability and transmission efficiency. In
addition, it examines the basic principles intended to
eliminate or mitigate the negative impacts resulting
from an increased number of conveyors in external
coal transportation systems.
2 RELIABILITY AND TRANSMISSION
EFFICIENCY OF MULTI-ELEMENT
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
In general, the reliability of a transportation system
may be represented as the probability of operation
without malfunctions in time t. According to its
basic nature reliability is defined as the aptutude of
of time while preserving the mining inicators within
specific limits.
If tp represents the time interval between
successive malfunctions, than the reliability of the
transportation system may be defined as the
probability of the incident tp > t, i.e.:
P J t) = P (t^ > t). (1)
Malfunction may be represented as the incident
after which the properties of the system surpass
permissible limits, and therefore, the system is
disrupted in its regular functioning. Malfunctions
usually result in stoppages, which represent the
condition of the system between the moment of
cessation of the regular operating period and the
initiation of the following operating period.
Among the parameters that define the reliability
of the transportation system the following are the
most significant ones: parameter of malfunction
course Xo , parameter of resumption course po ,
coefficient of readiness k r, machine-time coefficient
km, time efficiency coefficient kb, arithmetic time
efficiency coefficient kbr, parameter of stoppage
course X , parameter of the course of resumption due
to stoppage p etc.
Since malfunctions are generally accidental by
nature, than their occurence, in case that the
parameter of malfuncction course Xq= const, may be
defined by the function of distribution frequency,
which has the form of:
/„ (0 = V (2)

569
and the probability of operation without malfunction
will be:
(3)
If malfunctions should be regarded exclusively as
accidental, than they might be represented by
Poisson’s distribution:
(4)
Analogously to the previous, the distribution
frequency of stoppages and the probability of
uninterrupted operation may be expressed by the
following functions:
f ( t ) = Ae~ (5)
P,M) = e- (6)
The parameters of the course of malfunction and
the course of stoppage depend upon the mean
operating time between two successive malfunctions
tps and the average time of continuos operation ths,
namely:
T. a ——
1 ^ T. ——
1.
(7)
The transportation of coal from the mine toward
primary consumers (coal-fired power plants,
separation plants etc.) is usually developing through
transportation systems that consist of several belt
conveyors. If one of the reliability parameters of the
i-th element of the system is indicated as pi, than the
reliability of the system will be as follows:
=Yln (8)
The coefficient of time efficiency and the
coefficient of readiness may be considered as the
most comprehensive indicators of reliability during
coal transportation by belt conveyors. If one
transportation system is composed of n conveyors of
equal or approximately equal reliability (ideal case),
than the overall reliability of the system will be:
r = r/\ (9)
The reliability of each particular system increases
with the introduction of parallel elements. The
reliability indicator of a transportation system with
parallel elements may be displayed in the following
way:
( 10)
The diagram (Figure 1) shows how the reliability
of the transportation system changes with the
570
increase in the number of conveyors and spare
elements within the system:
F ig u re 1. D e p e n d e n c y o f th e c o e ffic ie n t o f re a d in e s s o n th e
n u m b e r o f e le m e n ts in th e tra n s p o rta tio n s y s te m
The parameters of reliability also affect the
efficiency of transmission within the transportation
system. Arithmetic transmission efficiency of the
transportation system, with directly connected
conveyors, depends upon the minimum capacity of a
conveyor within the system Qmin and the parameter
kbr*
(11)
Introducing the parameter of probability z and
creating a ratio between the arithmetic transmission
efficiency and the mean (expected) value of coal
inflow to the transportation system M (qt), the
arithmetic transmission efficiency may be
determined through the following expression:
( 12)
where a = the coefficient of coal inflow fluctuation
in observed period t.
3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF MULTI­
CONVEYOR SYSTEM
The adverse impact of multi-conveyor system for
external coal transportation is pronounced mainly at
transfer points. The detrimental effects are most
frequently recorded at conveyor junction points, and
they may be as follows:
soil degradation due to installation of drive
stations and transfer units,
occupation of areas for the construction of
power units and other facilities intended for
supply of drive stations,
increased dust concentration at coal transfer
points caused by coal dust,
high noise level at terminal stations etc
 External coal transportation systems intersect
different environments, from protected natural
environments to residential areas. The level of
detrimental impact on the environment varies and
depends on numerous factors.
Soil degradation and occupation of useful areas in
well protected and highly preserved natural
surroundings may affect the environment to a certain
extent, although, this impact generally has no major
significance. The same is with the rise of noise at
drive stations, which is not substantial considering
the entire conveyor route.
Major harmful impacts of multi-conveyor
systems appear due to increased dust concentration
at transfer points. The level of dust concentration
depends on the following factors:
content of fine fractions in coal to be
transported,
humidity level of material,
climatic conditions (humidity in air, intensity of
air streams, air temperature etc.)
conveyor belt speed,
surface of contact areas between load and air
etc.
Increased level of dust concentration that depends
on the surface of contact areas between load and air
Fk, may be expressed through the degree of exposure
^ , which is for continuous transportation systems:
, m“/t. (13)
F,Ly„
where Ft = surface of the cross-section of the
material placed on the belt, L = length f observed
segment of exposure, yn = dumping bulk density of
coal, Fk = surface of material exposure, and for belt
conveyors it is:
^ +1) _ 2 ,
ik ’^ (14)
c o s (pk
where bsr length of the middle conveyor roll, Pi =
inclination of lateral conveyor rolls.
Dust emission at transfer points may be
determined by the following expression:
G, = —ly/~ {c, - )v,,, mg/ms, (15)
k Protection against dust is generally achieved by wet
where k = air stream coefficient (1,5-5,6), 1 =
distance between measuring points and dust sources,
m, i|; = turbulence parameter:
^/ = 0.05v,, + 0,22, (16)
where Vy = velocity of air streams (wind), m/s, ci =
dust concentration at measuring point, 'mg/ms, Co =
regular dust concentration in the air, mg/m .
Multiple detrimental impacts may arise due to
dust concentration at transfer points. Harmful effects
on live world are generally produced by virtue of:
571
settling over the soil and plants,
inhaling of dust with the air.
Apart from coal dust, the presence of other
mineral dusts is also frequently detected. It should
be emphasized that these mineral dusts might be
extremely harmful to human health. Considering
this, the concentrations of harmful components
should be continuously monitored in order to
prevent their increase over the highest permissible
values.
4 SOME METHODS OF REDUCING THE
DETRIMENTAL IMPACT OF MULTI­
CONVEYOR SYSTEMS
Multi-conveyor coal transportation system is a
reality caused by a variety of reasons. The most
frequent reasons are natural and artificial obstacles,
limited conveyor length, stepwise development of
the mining process etc. The negative impact of a
multi-element transportation system may be reduced
by implementing a detailed reconstruction of the
system or by introducing measures that mitigate the
consequences originated by such a system.
Reliability of the external transportation system
may be enhanced in the following three ways:
enhance transportation schedules, improve
design and operating features of conveyors,
reduce duration of stoppage time with reference
to technological malfunctions, human factor or
averages,
introduce spare sections for the entire system or
for particular sections.
However, all the activities intended to enhance
the reliability imply large investment in necessary
facilities and equipment. Here, the crucial question
arises as to what extent this investment is profitable,
namely, which is the optimal reliability. Bearing in
mind the specific features of external coal
transportation, it may be said that the optimal
reliability is the one that produces minimum
transportation costs including at the same time the
costs of enhanced reliability.
The measures taken for environmental protection
at transfer points are mainly oriented towards the
protection of surroundings against dust dispersal.
or dry procedures.
The wet procedure implies the formation of a
water curtain, which binds and brings down the dust
at points of coal transfer from belt to belt. On the
other hand, dry procedure involves the suction of
dust-loaded air at transfer points by means of
different types of dust collectors and multi-cyclones.
The best way to eliminate the disadvantages of
external coal transportation is by introducing large
belt conveyors. The prolongation is achieved by
using high-strength belts; installing auxiliary drives
without transfer, implementing curvilinear conveyor 5 CONCLUSION
routes in horizontal plane.
To transport coal from the mine to primary
Apart from enhanced reliability and
consumers by continuous conveying, the multi­
environmental benefits, the advantages of long
conveyor systems should be avoided. The
conveyors, are the following:
detrimental effects of such multi-element systems
reduced power consumption in comparison with
may be observed through reduced reliability and
the multi-conveyor system,
transmission efficiency of conveyors. The best
reduced number of workers,
results are achieved by implementing long
minimum automation costs,
curvilinear conveyors in horizontal plane. If the
successfully avoiding of natural or artificial
installation of such conveyors is not possible due to
obstacles in conveyor route etc.
technical or economical reasons, then it should be
Coal transportation by one long curvilinear
necessary to analyze the harmful impact of
conveyor enhances substantially the reliability and
numerous transfer points and introduce
transmission efficiency of the system if compared
corresponding measures in order to mitigate or
with multi-conveyor system. If Prsv is the
eliminate them.
transmission efficiency of the system with n
conveyors, the transmission efficiency of a long
single-conveyor system will be:
REFERENCES
1 Grujic, M. 1992. Izbor transportnih sistema u
(17)
rudnicima uglja. Belgrade, FMG.
Grujic, M. 1999. Transport i izvoz u rudnicima.
Belgrade, FMG.
Ponomarenko, V.A. 1975. Sistemi podzemnogo
The use of curvilinear conveyor in horizontal transporta na ugolnyh sahtah. Moskva,Nedra.
plane adds new advantages to the system, since in Saderova, J. 1998. Vplyvy posobiace na bezpecnost
this way it is possible to avoid a large number of a spot 'ahivost ocelovych Ian zdvinaciach
natural and artificial obstacles, reducing at the same zariadeni. Trencin, In: Uloha dopravy a
time the possibility of environmental pollution. manipulacie v logistike, I odboma konferencia.
Figure 2 shows the layout of coal transportation with
a curvilinear conveyor, from the opencast mine to
the consumer.

F ig u re 2 . L a y o u t o f c o a l tra n s p o rta tio n b y a c u rv ilin e a r

conveyor

The elimination of transfer points at auxiliary

drives along the route of long conveyors is best
accomplished by the installation of auxiliary drive
belts. This method showed to be extremely
convenient for transportation of coal and other
material of inferior bulk density.

572
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Contribution to the study of cutting mechanism of Capao Bonito Granite,

Sao Paulo State, Brazil

Wilder Theodore Hennies & Antonio StellinJunior

Mining Engineering Department, Polytechnic School, University ofSdo Paulo, Brazil

ABSTRACT: Granite blocks from Capao Bonito was used at a sawing enterprise to obtain slabs and the final
product had streaks on the Quartz mineral and this defect motivated this study. The resulting slabs were also
of a lighter color than the usual dark red that is one of the most appreciated feature of this mineral, and this is
a cause of great concern as this factor may sharply influence the commercialization of the end product. Two
hypothesis were considered for this study as follows: the first one related to possible modifications in the
quartz mineral from a determined area of the deposit, and a second alternative related to the operational con­
ditions during the industrialization phase due to the sawing procedure adopted at the plant. Mineralogical and
microhardness analyses of the quartz from many samples provided useful information, which were compared
with identical analysis performed with other samples that did not present this problem. The purpose of the
quartz mineralogical analysis is to determine the technological characteristics of those crystals. The complete
absence of quality control procedures for cutting tools (sawing blades and grit) as well as gang saw opera­
tional conditions at the mining enterprise prevented more conclusive analysis. Capao Bonito granite comes
from the same area where this problem occurred and is exported in great scale as well as consumed in the
domestic market, and the recommended solution is to improve tooling quality control and the operational
conditions of the sawing equipment.

1 INTRODUCTION As granite fi*om the Capao Bonito area is ex­

Last year at MPEST999 (Hennies et al., 1999) there
was the presentation of a detailed study of the ex­
ploitation system used to produce the Capao Bonito
red Granite Blocks in Sao Paulo State, Brazil, with
the use of jet piercing.
The first beneficiation (Hennies & Stellin, 1996)
of this Capao Bonito granite blocks in a sawing en­
terprise to obtain the slabs demonstrated the appear­
ance of streaks in the quartz mineral and motivated
this study.
The main problem is that the resulting slabs also
display a lighter color than the usual dark red that is
one of its most appreciated features in the commer­
cialization, which caused great concern that this fac­
tor could sharply affect prices of the end product, as
well as the concern that this characteristic could ex­
tend to zones or regions of the deposits.
Two major work hypothesis were established for
the study as follows: first, the possible modifications
in the quartz mineral at a specific area of the depos­
its that could be a feature of this area; or second, the
operational conditions during the sawing of the slabs
at the beneficiation plant because of the sawing ma­
chinery or procedures that originated the color loss.
ported in large volumes as well as consumed in the
domestic market, and the mineral comes from the
same area where the problem occurred, the study of
the exploitation control system was first examined.
Following these laboratory studies on petro­
graphic slices, several detailed mineralogical and
microhardness analyses of the quartz samples were
performed to provide useful information. These
samples were compared with identical analysis per­
formed with rock samples that did not display any
sawing machinery issues.
The studies are presented in the following para­
graphs of this paper.
2 DEPOSITS AREA FEATURE
As mentioned above, the first hypothesis for the
slab’s loss of dark red color is that the blocks come
from a specific area of the deposit. Thus, the lighter
quartz color comes from blocks exploited from a
certain deposit location and this may be considered
as a feature of the deposit area.
To eliminate the possibility that the deposit area
feature is responsible for the problem, a research

573
was made on blocks exploited from the same area or Some of these samples display the orientation of
near this area. This was performed by means of the the rock’s easiest plane of fracture in mining, re­
controlled numbering system used on the blocks ex­ ferred to as the “rift” direction. Others samples dis­
tracted from the deposit. play a normal orientation to this easiest fracture
Other blocks from the same area were sawed, and plane, in mining technology designated as head and
many of them were exported to the international grain.
market as they did not display that loss of color. The As mentioned before, for most dimension-stone
obvious conclusion was that the problem must be re­ quarrying, the success of the art depends largely on
lated to the sawing process at the plant and that the taking advantage of joints and cleavage planes in the
first hypothesis must be discarded as the cause of the rock.
problem. In the red granite rock there is a “rift” along
Below, in figure 1, we can see the exploitation which it may be easily split. The rift of the red gran­
control system. Every exploited Block received an ite is the surface parallel plane (i.e., parallel to its
Identification Number at the site to control the place outcrop).
from which it was extracted. This Number remains Planes perpendicular to the rift are the “head” and
permanently on the block until it is processed at a “grain”, and along these orientation planes the rock
domestic plant or when it is sold to the international is not so easily split. Joints in granitic rock are at
market. Thus, all the commercialization of any perpendicular angles, and this excavation method is
Capao Bonito red Granite is made with the same referred to as block quarry.
identification number, which provides data about the The head direction that is most difficult to split is
actual location of the deposit area from which it was a direction perpendicular to the valleys, and the
extracted. grain, or third direction of intermediate splitting dif­
ficult is parallel to the valley. As the head direction
is the most difficult surface to obtain, this surface
generally created with the use of jet flaming equip­
ment.
Other samples were made from regular Capao
Bonito granite slabs (or problem free slabs) to give
us a comparison between slabs with problems and
slabs without problems, and their possible cause.
Petrographic and mineralogical identification of
defective slabs with color loss demonstrated that the
quartz crystals present some anomalous iridescence,
caused by some superficial fragmentation. These
phenomena were probably the consequence of saw­
ing operations with the use of poorly controlled steel
F ig u re 1. Id e n tific a tio n N u m b e r o f C a p S o B o n ito g ra n ite b lo c k . grit, and another factor that may influence results are
the blades used in the equipment. This anomalous
Summarizing, we may say that there is no deposit superficial iridescence must be a consequence of the
area feature that could result in lighter end product beneficiation phase, and may not be attributed to the
color, and that there are no regions or extraction rock block itself.
zones in which the red color is darker and other re­ A total of twelve different samples were studied
gions in which this color is lighter. The red granite and they are described in table 1.
of Capao Bonito is very homogeneous in its color
features, and present no variation from one point to T a b le 1. S a m p le s o f re d g ra n ite s lic e s e x a m in a te d .
another within the full area of the current deposit. S a m p le N u m b e r O rie n ta tio n
lA r if t
IB head
3 MINERALOGICAL AND MICROHARDNESS 2A r if t
ANALYSIS 2B head
3A r if t
The second hypothesis relied on the laboratory ex­ 3B head
amination of normal and defective slabs. 4A r if t
For a more precise examination of the problem, a
4B head
series of slabs were collected and then prepared as
samples for petrographic analysis. These thin and 5A r if t
polished slice samples were prepared according to 5B head
adequate fracture orientation. 6A r if t
6B head

574
 Additional examination of the polished slices
were performed after a microhardness indentation
test. The quartz crystals were submitted to a micro­
hardness test that demonstrated their behavior when
a diamond tetragonal pyramid was used to print a
square indentation at the quartz as shown in the fig­
ures 2, 3 and 4.
F ig u re 2 . In d e n te d s a m p le n o rm a l to r ift.
F ig u re 3 . In d e n te d s a m p le p a ra le l to r ift.
F ig u re 4 . In d e n ta tio n p a ra le l to r if t d ire c tio n .
575
At figures 2, 3 and 4 above, it is possible to no­
tice that the indentation promote a series of cracks
that may identify other features as follows:
1 A white indentation point area with intense frag­
mentation making the whole area white.
2 Area of the conchoidal fracture with different dip
angles, promoting the whitening and iridescence
of the quartz mineral.
3 Area of radial and vertical fractures.
4 Area of concentrical and vertical fractures.
Careful petrographic examination of the defective
slabs compared to the normal samples indicates the
existence of indentation streaks parallel to direction
of sawing of the slab that caused quartz fragmenta­
tion and iridescence along these streaks. This is
similar to the results obtained in the microhardness
tests in which there are punctual fragmentation and
iridescence marks.
In his article. Berry (1989) described the per­
formance of indentation tests with grit in granites
and noted the formation of white streaks and this
coincides with our observations.
Antonini (1988) (apud Antolini et al., 1989) has
verified in practice that there is a change to granite
color after sawing, a phenomenon that he attributed
to the existence of grit of greater diameter that con­
taminated the circulating abrasive pulp.
The observation of thin and polished slices allow
us to conclude that the loss of color of sawed slabs
must be related to poor control of grit granulation
during pulp preparation; that pulp preparation re­
quires better quality control; and that color loss is
not related to the granite block original location at
the deposit.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Main conclusions from this study are:
1 Quartz mineral is friable, and so more susceptible
to fracture than feldspar and mica. The whitening
results from the conchoidal fractures and the in­
dentation generated during the sawing operation.
2 Quartz behavior during the indentation tests is the
same for all samples of prepared rock slices.
3 The abrasive pulp was not the object of our study,
in terms of material quality, mostly grit.
4 It is known that grit granulometry, contamination
of the grit with larger diameter particles, grit
hardness, feeding failure of the pulp, sudden
changes of grit granulometry within the pulp dur­
ing sawing operations, and other factors may lead
to streaks on the rock surface.
5 Sawing and polishing operations must be changed
to provide adequate conditions for good surface
finish of the end product, thus ensuring the best
exploitation of our rock mineral resources.
6 Blocks exported from Brazil to Japan did not dis­
play any loss of color after the sawing operations.
REFERENCES

A n to lin i, L .; C a rra ro , S .; G io rg io , S. 1 9 8 9 S e g a g io n e d e l
g ra n ito c o n to rb id a a b ra s iv a : e la b o ra tio n e d i p a ra m e tri
p ra tic i c o n p ro p o s te d i tra tta z io n i te o ric h e . C o n v e g n o In te r­
n a z io n a le su; S itu z io n e e p ro s p e ttiv e d e ll’ in d u s tria L a p id e a
A .N .I.N . A s s o c ia z io n e N a z io n a le d e g li In g e g n e ri M in e r a r i
Atti: C a g lia ri 3 -5 a p rile 1 9 8 9 , Ita lia p 3 9 1 -4 0 2 .
B e rry , P .; B o n ifa z i, G .; D e C a sa, G .; F a b b ri, S. & P in z a li, M .
1 9 8 9 P ro b le m i te c n o lo g ic i n e l ta g lio d e i g ra n iti. C o n v e g n o
In te m a z io n a le su: S itu z io n e e p ro s p e ttiv e d e ll’ in d u s tria
L a p id e a A .N .I.N . A s s o c ia z io n e N a z io n a le d e g li In g e g n e ri
M in e r a r i C a g lia ri 3 -5 a p rile 1 9 8 9 , Ita lia p 3 6 3 -7 1 .
H e n n ie s , W . T .; S te llin Jr. A .; C re te lli, C . 1 9 9 9 Je t p ie rc in g a p ­
p lic a tio n fo r re d g ra n ite b lo c k m in in g in S ào P a u lo , B ra z il.
In : In te rn a tio n a l S y m p o s iu m o n M in e P la n n in g a n d E q u ip ­
m e n t S e le c tio n , 8 /T h e In te rn a tio n a l S y m p o s iu m o n M in e
E n v iro n m e n ta l a n d E c o n o m ic a l Issues. P ro c e e d in g s D n i-
p ro p e tro v s k : N a tio n a l M in in g U n iv e rs ity o f U k ra in e , 1 9 9 9 .
Proceedings N a tio n a l M in in g U n iv e rs ity o f U k ra in e ,
1 9 9 9 .p .2 1 -2 6 .
H e n n ie s , W ild o r T .; S te llin J r., A n to n io . 1 9 9 6 D im e n s io n sto n e
in d u s try a n d e n v iro n m e n ta l p re s e rv a tio n in B ra z il. In : In ­
te rn a tio n a l C o n fe re n c e o n E n v iro n m e n ta l Issu e s a n d W a s te
M a n a g e m e n t in E n e rg y a n d M in e r a l P ro d u c tio n , 4 ., C a ­
g lia ri, 1 9 9 6 , Proceedings SWEMP'96 C a g lia ri D IG IT A .
U n iv e rs ità d i C a g lia ri, 1 9 9 6 . v . l, p . 7 5 -8 4 .

576
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The methodology of the selection of auxiliary mechanisation for the open pit
mines of lignite

D. Ignjatovic & I.Ristovic

Faculty of Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade, Yugoslavia
M.Stojakovic
Coal Mine *Kolubara\ Yugoslavia

ABSTRACT: The selection of the auxiliary mechanisation for the working conditions on the open pits of
lignite in Serbia is a very complex and responsible work which begins as far as the phase of proceeding and
investment respond building, and the errors and failures made in the choice (both the kind and the technical
characteristics and necessary number) of the auxiliary machines happen to be negative to great extent later and
often become the limitation limitations factor of production. Namely, on our open pits of lignite there is
applied a highly productive mechanisation of continual effect for whose effective work a suitable preparation
is necessary, i.e. carrying out a great number of auxiliary operations on planning, cleaning, transport,
maintaining etc.
The lack of this mechanisation of the auxiliary work which is carried out badly or inappropriately make the
work of the principal mechanisation very difficult, they affect the fall of the time and capacity exploitation of
the system on the exploitation, and the safety both of the mechanisation and the people working with it is
often threatened. The proposal of the methodology of the choice of the auxiliary mechanisation for the
conditions of the open pits of lignite is presents in this work.

1 INTRODUCTION exploitation BTD or BTU systems are used (bucket

Coal is by far the most important energetic potential
of the Republic of Serbia and in the structure of the
total reserves of the primary energy it participates
with 87,7%. By far the greatest consumers of coal in
Serbia are steam power plants in which 96% of total
annual production is burnt, whereas the rest is dried
or classified for the needs of industry and large-scale
consumption. Of the total install power of the power
plants of 8760 MW, 5171 MW belong to the plants
with the lignite combustion, i.e. 60%. During the
winter period, when the electric power is most
necessary, about 70% of electric energy is given by
the plants with the lignite consumption.
Great reserves and the suitable locations of the
basin, mining and geological and climate conditions,
the geometry of the stacker sites and mechanical
characteristics of the working conditions have
enabled the application of the highly productive
mechanisation of continual effect for digging
overburden and coal on almost all open pits
including the basins of KOSOVO, KOLUBARA and
KOSTOLAC. For digging, transport and stacking
overburden the technological complexes, the so-
called BTO systems are used (bucket wheel
excavators, or chain excavators-conveyer belts with
rubber belt console stackers) and for the coal
wheel excavators or chain excavators, conveyer belts
with rubber belt-loading places or crusher
equipment). However on open pits together with the
basic production process (digging, transport, and
removing, i.e. stacking the dug out mass) by heavy
mechanisation, numerous and various auxiliary types
of work are present and they very often crucially
affect the efficiency of the work of the basic
equipment as well as its maintenance for complete
technical proper functioning. The fact that on the
open pits with the application of auxiliary
mechanisation of to continual effect 60-70% of the
total number of employed workers have been
engaged, should be particularly pointed out. Such
great extent of the engagement of the workers on
auxiliary types or work can be explained by the
lesser needs of the working people basic process as
the consequence of the high mechanisation and
automatization of this process on one side, but also
by the lack of the appropriate specialised machines
and devices for successful carrying out numerous
and specific auxiliary types of work. The increase of
the efficiency of auxiliary work, the decrease of the
participation of the hard physical work and the
improvement of the working conditions are possible
only with the proper choice of auxiliary machines
according to number, type, capacity, power etc., with

577
the full respect of the specific working conditions on
a concrete open pit. Namely, the choice of the
machines for the auxiliary work on open pit (dozers,
loaders, pipe layers, cranes, autograders, rollers,
drilling machines, all-terrain vehicles, etc.) is a
complex and responsible work and depends on
numerous and various factors such as the number,
type, and the capacity of the applied basic
equipment, the parameters of the open pit and
staking sites, the working conditions, the climate
conditions etc.
Unfortunately, on our open pits there is a
prevailing experience as a product in inappropriate
ideas about the possible "saving" considering
investment i.e. considering the saving of the
purchase of the auxiliary mechanisation, which is
later to great extent against the users having
numerous technical and technological problems
which appear as the consequence of the lack of these
machines.
In order to purchase one BTO system as far as
100 million dollars US is invested, and one million
is saved on auxiliary mechanisation. This is certainly
wrong logic, for the relatively great expenses of the
purchase and exploitation of the auxiliary
mechanisation are very quickly compesanted for by a
high degree of the utilisation of the mechanisation.
The satisfactory time and capacity exploitation of
the technological complexes on open pits is possible
only if the optimal conditions are provided for their
work. It is for certain that one of the most important
prerequisites is carrying out all the auxiliary work on
time and with high quality, which, of course,
assumes the necessity of the open pit to be provided
with the appropriate mechanisation (according to
type, number, capacity, power etc.).
For carrying out numerous and various auxiliary
work on one open pit (planning floor levels,
mowing, transporting and making the conveyer belts
longer, building and maintaining the approaching
roads, plates and ramps, building of various levels,
canals and water reservoirs for the drainage of the
open pit, making various cuts and notches, technical
recultivation of stacking space, the current and
investing equipment maintenance etc.) numerous
and various auxiliary machines are used such as;
dozers, loaders, pipe layers, scrapers, rippers,
autocranes, hydraulic dredges, dragglines etc.
Since there has been no scientific method of the
choice of auxiliary machines for the specific
working conditions on the lignite open pits so far,
the complexity of the choice of these machines is left
to the subjective appreciation of the planning
engineers or ménagers of the open pit, most often,
with hard consequences because of the inadequate
choise of these machines.
578
2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE
The choice of the auxiliary machines should include:
defining the structure and volume of the
auxiliary work on a concrete open pit,
defining the demands that should be fulfilled by
the auxiliary mechanisation for the work on the
lignite open pits,
determining the necessary auxiliary
mechanisation for carrying out all the auxiliary
work i.e. the choice should be made according to
the type of the auxiliary machines,
determining the technical characteristics of the
auxiliary machines that would successfully carry
aut all the auxiliary work (the construction of the
working organ, the necessary tractive force,
power, mass, the specific pressure on the soil,
capacity, speed, passing through etc.) and,
determining the necessary number of the
auxiliary machines for the successful carrying
out of this work.
The choise of the necessary number of the
auxiliary machines for the particular open pits
possible to be accurately made only by a detailed
analysis and establishing the volume of the auxiliary
work, as well as by establishing the possible
capacities of the chosen machines in concrete
conditions. Namely, for establishing the necessary
number of the machines of auxiliary mechanisation
for a concrete open pit it is necessary to analyse:
the parameters of the open pit (the depth of the
pit, number, the height and length of the floors,
the advancing etc.),
the working conditions (specific digging
resistance of material, planum capacity,
adhesivity, tearing into pieces etc.),
the applied basic mechanisation (number and
types of bucket wheel excavators or chain
excavators and stackers, their capacities, digging
i.e. stackinging heights, the types of conveyer
belts, the width, the construction of sections, the
types of power stations, loading and unloading
carriages etc.),
the applied working technology on the open pit,
the organisation of the work on the pit (daily
engagement of the machines, the way of the
maintenance, etc.),
the relief of the terrain in front of the pit (hilly,
flat), the existence of water currents and the
structure of the surfaces of the terrain for
cleaning in front of the pit (settlements, forests,
etc.),
the location of the pit, the existence of the
travelling network, etc.,
the climatic, hydrogeological condition etc.,
the conditions of the auxiliary mechanisation,
the availability coefficient,
the exploitation of other materials (gravel,
diatomaceous earth and similar).
 When choosing the auxiliary machines for the enables entering the greatest number of data that are
work on the open pits one should have in mind that relevant for choice of the machines, which enables
these machines should be compatible with a large each concrete open pit to get the data about the
spectrum of demands referring to exploitation, necessary volume of the work as approximate as
construction, economic and social. The choice of the possible and on the basis of the momentary
auxiliary machines according to the type can be conditions of the mechanisation and organisation of
made only after the analysis and the structure and the work of auxiliary mechanisation to reach the
volume of the auxiliary work. When choosing the necessary number of the machines for everyday work
technical characteristic of the auxiliary machines one and of total number. The algorithm for establishing
should take care of the following things: the necessary number of the machines is showed in
- THE SPECIFIC PRESSURE ON THE SOIL of the picture No. 1.
the auxiliary machines which is transported
through its device for moving, should satisfy, i.e.
it should be less than the allowed specific
pressure on a particular type of material on
planum of the dug out floor or the stacking floor
in order that the machine could carry out the
necessary work,
- THE NECESSARY MASS, TRACTIVE
FORCE AND ENGINE POWER should be such
as to provide the efficient operation of the
working cycle with the stoppage as little as
possible,
- THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE WORKING
ORGAN AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
should satisfy the conditions for carrying out the
work meeting the deadline which, is dependent
on the basic mechanisation the optimal
construction of the working organ and the
corresponding radii of digging and emptying,
- THE NECESSARY CAPACITY in order that
the auxiliary work should be carried out within
the necessary period of time,
- PASSING THROUGH in order that the
machines of auxiliary mechanisation should
reach all the necessary positions on the pit,
- THE NECESSARY STABILITY etc., in order
to carry out the lifting loading etc., and the
stability of the machines to be within the
allowed limits. th e a u x ilia ry m a c h in e s
In the end, the choise of the necessary number of
the auxiliary machines is carried out. The first step considers entering the data of the
applied basic mechanisation and working mode.
Namely, out of basis of the existent dredges one is
3 THE METHODOLOGY OF THE CHOICE OF chosen which is going to work on a given system
THE NECESSARY NUMBER OF THE and the forecast data of the time and capacity
AUXILIARY MACHINES exploitation are entered as well as the height, width
of the dug out block, the use of the self-propelled
In order to establish the necessary number of the conveyer belts etc. In the same way, the data of the
auxiliary machines for the lignite open pits a work of stackers are entered. Then, the following
computer program has been made. The program has data are entered: the length of the floor, connecting
been made in the program language Visual Basic and stacking conveyer belts, as well as the method of
3.0, under the operative system Windows 95, the advancing of the conveyer belts (parallel or
although it is successful under the operative system radial). If there exist cases (two bucket wheel
Windows 3.11. The basis of the data that is used in excavators working on one system or having one
the program is made in Access 1.1 format with the mutual connecting conveyer belt) these data are also
help of DATA MANAGER, the tools that are entered. In the picture No 2 the panel for entering the
included in the packet Visual Basic for this purpose. parameters of the basic mechanisation is entered
The program is made in such a manner that it (excavators, stackers, belt conveyors). That is the

579
way of creating possibilities for making the
calculation on the basic parameters for the
calculations: the dynamics of the progressing of the
pit, the number of moving, the surfaces to be moved
and planned, etc. That the other data are entered,
those that are relevant for the calculation of the
necessary number of auxiliary machines; the method
of maintenance, the exploitation of secondary
material, the planed assembling and disassembling
of the system, the number of water reservoirs and the
length of piping, the type of rubber belts etc. In the
Picture No3 the panel for entering the other date
relevant for the calculation is displayed.

F ig u re 3. P a n e l fo r e n te rin g th e o th e r d a te re le v a n t fo r th e
QZnSikâi sislemiK ,
r n Ê Ê m m m m m
c a lc u la tio n
I---------------
Dddai ■ riQgtotiainfy V;'|
r uaaN

Etaint SfadspoîîBfî Vem feranspofifd - ' Odi^Mifflltrantportert-

. D6daliran»p<Htif I
îrafispoftet f OforHIl transpoftgf f rr^porttf i ;

F ig u re 2 . P a n e l fo r e n te rin g th e p a ra m e te rs o f th e b a s ic
m e c h a n is a tio n F ig u re 4 . P a n e l fo r th e c h o ic e o f d o z e rs

After entering all these data the calculation of the 4 CONCLUSION

necessary number of the auxiliary machines
according to types is made. During calculating for
each machine, it is firstly chosen from the
appropriate basis, and then, all the relevant data are
entered for the calculation: for dozers - the elements
for the calculation of the capacity while carrying out
different kinds of work, scattering of the material in
front of the rotor wheel of dredge, the engagement
coefficient, availability etc., for pipe layers: the
moving speed during the moving of the conveyer
belt, the moving pace, the coefficient of
discontinuity, the engagement time on servicing the
overburden and coal systems, on assembling,
working out of connections, the time of annual
engagement and the coefficient of availability.
Because of the limited space there has been
displayed only the basic algorithm for determining
the necessary number of auxiliary machines, as the
panel for the choice of dozers (Picture No 4).
In order to perform auxiliary work on the open pits
with the continual working process, very numerous
and various mechanisation is used. This
mechanisation is called the auxiliary mechanisation.
The choice of the mechanisation for the conditions
of the lignite open pits is very complex and
responsible, because errors and mistakes made while
making the choice of these machines latter very
often become the limitation production factor.
The choice of the auxiliary machines should
include firstly defining the structure and volume of
the auxiliary work on the open pits, then defining the
demands that should be fulfilled by this
mechanisation, and after that, the choice should be
made, according to the type technical characteristic
and finally, the necessary number of the machines in
everyday work and the total number.

580
 Only with the total knowledge and taking into
consideration all the relevant factors it is possible to
make the proper choice of the auxiliary machines for
a concrete open pit and in that way to create the
prerequisites for the satisfactory exploitation in time
and capacity of the basic equipment.

REFERENCES

Ignjatovic D. 1998. Methodology selection auxiliary

mechanization for open pit mines in Serbia. FMG
Belgrade, 1-143.
Ristovic I. 1999. Monitoring of auxiliary equipment
efficiency for lignite open pits. FMG Belgrade,
1-170.

581
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Selection of current collection operation mode and power circuit design

A. B.Ivanov
National Mining University of Ukraine, Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: The paper is devoted to the problem of selection parameters and control algorithm of trolley
mine locomotives current collecting devices. Accounting restrictions caused by productivity and traction elec­
tric motor commutation factors, different ways of motor magnetic field pulsation and train speed reduce limi­
tation are analyzed. Principally new algorithm of contact power feeding system operation is described, with
account of requirements for reliability lower boundary.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 PREVENTION CURRENT COLLECTION

IMPACT
Conditions of locomotive traction motor operation in
trolley power feeding system of an underground 2.1 Prevention o f productivity reduction
mine is essentially different of its service when it is
being powered from the source of continuous volt­ Intermittent pattern of the applied voltage have an
age in usual DC systems. The difference is caused impact on underground locomotive transport produc­
by impact that interruptions of current collector con­ tivity rate (Ivanov 1999), and on the DC traction
tact have on the voltage applied to the traction mo­ motors commutation. Dependence of the locomotive
tors. productivity on current collection process caused by
In usual trolley feeding systems these interrup­ average train speed decrease. Figure I shows the
tions lead either to complete circuit breaks or to time - train speed plot for the case of motors voltage
electric discharges formation. If electric arc appears change from continuous to intermittent pattern. In
in collector contact, the voltage on the motor termi­ the plot the speed
nals reduces essentially. lowers from 3.17 m/s to average value of 2.7 m/s,
Another negative consequence that can take place i.e. for 14.8%. Treatment of data obtained for differ­
in underground mines with dangerous atmosphere is ent period - to - puls ratio value of the voltage ap­
ignition of the mine air.
Guarantee of the locomotive trolley power feed­
ing system safety in gaseous mines is reached by
special measures implementation. Among them, use
of sparking suppression devices prevents dangerous
electrical discharges which could be formed in cur­
rent collection process (Ivanov 1995).
When underground locomotives are equipped
with sparking suppression units, each current
collecting contact disturbance leads to complete
interruption of the current consumed by the
locomotive from the trolley line.
Intermittent pattern of the applied voltage have an io 20 30 40
impact on underground locomotive transport produc­
tivity rate, and on the DC traction motors commuta­ F ig u re 1. T ra in sp e e d re d u c tio n a t s p a rk in g s u p p re s s io n
tion.

583
plied to traction motor, and for different traction mo­ ier to manufacture and cheaper, it is preferable for at
tor types leads to conclusion that the voltage period - the underground locomotive.
to - pulse ratio can be assumed as an indicator for To receive favorable conditions for the traction
assessment of current collection affect on the loco­ motors commutation, the most effective of the above
motive transport productivity rate. If maximal per­ indicated methods is combined circuit with smooth­
missible reduction of the productivity rate is adopted ing reactor connected to the motor in series, and riv­
equal 8%, maximal value of period - to - pulse ratio erse diode shunting the motor circuit.
should not exceed 1.15. This means that
For time intervals , on which applied voltage is
interrupted, and when voltage is applied to the
+ h motor, the motor current is defined by two different
Qp = <1.15 ( 1) systems of differential equations:
• for the interval of the voltage break:
where t and fj, = accordingly average pulse
and break duration, = applied voltage period - to + L,
d[iAh)]
dTu K
(2)
- pulse ratio. The inequality (1) can be used as a cri­
teria for selection current collector design for under­
ground locomotives equipped with a sparking sup­
pression system. ,3,
b ^
2.2 Improvement o f traction motors commutation • for the interval when the voltage is applied:
Another property of a current collector that should dUArA]
be considered is influence of the collection process rp,iai^p) + K dz„
on a traction motor commutation.
(4 )
Salient feature of series wound motors that are
used for underground electric locomotives is that + U
any change of armature winding current causes K
causes a change of field pole flux. On account of
that an alternative electromotive force induces in d lviT Jl [iA ^A Y
commutated armature winding coils. If this EMF be­ Wit ,
- Fc (5 )
comes significant, brush sparking intensifies that can dr„ K
make motor operation impossible. To provide a
good quality commutation and lower additional where = armature current; = instantaneous
power losses traction motor per cent current ripple
should be not higher than 30%. Among known ways time values for intervals accordingly and ;
to reduce traction motor current ripple the following fp, r^= suitable resistance value correspondingly
three methods are considerable: circuit configuration; circuit inductance
• Shunting the traction motor circuit with a riv­
erse diode for appropriate time interval; = masses of
• Use of smoothing reactors connected in series the train and motor rotor (referred to translation
to the motors movement of the locomotive); v = train
• Combination of these two means s p e e d ; k^= coefficients; = train static resis­
A space for placement a smoothing reactor on the
locomotive is limited. Besides overall reactor di­ tance force; U = trolley line voltage.
mensions are not the only limiting condition that af­ The results of the equations (2) and (3) solution
fects the reactor inductance. The other factors are show that the main impact on pulsation of the motor
current density determined by thermal conditions, current, at other equal parameters, has length of
and the reactor resistance that should not exceed the inteval fj,.
some permissible value to avoid impact on the lo­ This method of smoothing, however, does not
comotive tractive characteristics. By its structure the give acceptable result. Plot in the Figure 2 represents
reactor can be done with a core as one leg or two leg time diagram of the traction motor current received
construction, and without a core. As analyses shows, at = 0.025 s, and = 3 mFl. For existing cur­
the greatest inductance value provided in the case of rent collectors minimal average value of the break
a two leg core coil. Inductance of the reactore with­ interval is not less than 0.025 s. In this case the
out a core is 1.65 as less as for two leg core coil, and value of the motor current pulsation equals 73.5%,
1.8 as much as for reactor with one leg core. Taking and at time of break about 0.1 s it arises to 100%.
into account that the structure without a core is eas­

584
 200
175
^150
■h 125
100
75
50
8.7 8. 8 8.9
t, s
Figure 2. Diagram of traction motor current.
To receive the required pulsation level of not
more than 30% the reactor inductance should be in­
creased to more than 16.2 mH, that is not acceptable
due to space limitations.
As it follows from the above indicated results, it
is required some new point of view to traction motor
power circuit configuration that could give essential
improvement of commutation conditions.
The main reason of commutation conditions of
the DC series traction motor worsening is pulsation
of current in the winding of the main poles that
cause pulsation of the main field, and inducing EMF
in commutated coils of the armature winding. This
EMF can not be balanced with by the commutating
EMF caused by the field of auxiliary poles.
If stabilization of the main traction motor field
during the voltage break is provided, the favorable
conditions for the brush - commutator unit operation
will be obtained, in spite of remaining pulsation of
the motor armature current. The pulsation of the ar­
mature current produces a corresponding change of
commutating poles field.
In this way, normal operation of the locomotive
traction motors energized fro a trolley line through a
sparking suppression device is provided by smooth­
ing the main field. This method is much more effec­
tive because in the case of the main field stabiliza­
tion impact of losses caused by the armature rotating
EMF on the field current is excluded. Smoothing of
the armature current is provided with a separate cir­
cuit, that reduces the speed of its variation, and so
creates better conditions for the commutation.
Integrated data of the new method investigation
are shown on Figure 3. The curve 1 gives the motor
current ripple for the smoothing with combined use
of reverse diods and reactors, and the curve 2 repre­
sents pulsation of the field current when the method
of separate smoothing of the main traction motor
field is applied. To be derived from the obtained
data, use of the flexible main field stabilization pro­
vides satisfactory of the traction motors in the range
585
of the break time till 0.2 s. Such a result ensures
normal function
□ 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
tZ f 3
Figure 3. Current pulsation for different smoothing methods
ing the traction motors at locomotives that are
equipped with usual production - type current collec­
tors and sparking suppression.
At the same time this method may be useful when
series traction motors operate in ordinary service
conditions of trolley or battery locomotives applica­
tion, espcially taking into account that worsening
commutation is frequent reason of underground
mine locomotives traction motors failure.
3 CURRENT COLLECTION RELIABILITY
In the conditions of gaseous underground mines
safety demands cause restrictions for locomotive
current collection unit operation reliability. Combi­
nation of different measures and means for mine air
explosion protection permits to achieve the required
safe level of trolley mine locomotive current collec­
tion reliability of 0.9 and more.
This reliability value is guaranteed by the follow­
ing two ways:
• Use the sparking suppression devices
• A special algorithm of the locomotive trolley
power feeding system operation
The most efficient sparking suppression is ob­
tained for multicontact current collectors. The cur­
rent collection reliability depends on number of con­
tacts n connected in parallel, and on contact
disruption À and restoration // rates. The indicated
minimal level of current collection reliability is pro­
vided at definite restrictions of continuous operation
time. Depending of values of n, À, // maximally
permissible continuous operation time varies. At
definite package of these quantities, the time of
continuous operation is greater than maximal time
of locomotive continuous driving. There is no rea­
son in this case to interfere in the power supply
system operation. In such a case safe use of trol­
ley locomotives is provided under condition f
sparking suppression devices availability, and use
control means prohibiting movement beginning if
any collector contact does not touch the trolley line.
At the transportation distance of 6 km maximal
time of continuous driving in underground mine
equals 55.4 - 72 min. Maximally provided permissi­
ble time of continuous driving have to be
tu = T A
where = maximal driving time; k = assurance
factor
The provided ultimate value can be taken equal
220 min. Minimal values of collecting contacts res­
toration rate providing indicated value of
for n = 7;10 as functions of the disruption rate is
represented in Figure 4.
D is r u p t io n R a te , 1 /s
F ig u re 4 . R e s to ra tio n ra te as a fu n c tio n o f d is ru p tio n ra te .
Immediate use of this possibility is difficult in
view of large contact number that makes current col­
lector structure very complicate d, and because of
necessity to provide ultimate restoration rate.
Disruption and restoration rate values for differ­
ent n at which contact feeding system operates
without dangerous sparking during ultimate time of
driving are given in the Table 1.
T a b le 1. P a ra m e te rs o f c u rre n t c o lle c to r p r o v id in g re q u ire d re -
n ; i ,s - ‘
5 0 .5
7 1.0
10 1.5
Current collecting contacts behavior makes pos­
sible to lower requirements to the needed values of
the restoration rate. An operation algorithm of moni­
toring and control devices that run service of of the
power feeding system of trolley mine locomotive
can be changed so that discrepancy between driving
time and reliability requirements would be ruled out.
Figure 5 shows a diagram of trouble free operation
probability as dependence to time. It is seen that the
shown diagram is periodical. Cycle duration is
(6)
0 t
F ig u re 5 . C y c lic d ia g ra m o f tro u b le fre e c u rre n t c o lle c to r c o n ­
ta c t o p e ra tio n p r o b a b ility .
tc = h + t. (7)
During time interval the current flows through
the collecting contacts. Time Ì2 is duration of the in­
terval at which the contacts are not loaded with cur­
rent. For the current interruption, the switch of the
sparking suppression device is used. Monitoring of
contacts state is executed by special control unit.
At the instant t = 0 power is given to the motors
circuit, and train motion begins. During the time in­
terval the probability p decreases gradually,
i.e. reliability of current collection gradually re­
duces. Duration of is chosen so that for
given values n, //, À. In this case , reliability of
current collection falls not lower than its mini­
mally permissible value. At the end of forced
switching off the circuit is made. During ¿2 rcli-
ability of current collecting unit increases to 1, and
the following operating cycle begins at the same ini­
tial conditions as the very first. Owind to the de­
scribed operational algorithm reliability of cur­
rent collection meets the requirementsfor any
long period of time.
Duration of the interval ^2 should be not more
than it is necessary to provide fulfillment of the re­
40 quirements to maximally permissible traction motor
25 current pulsation. The value p = 1 can be received
15 before the end of this interval by several different
ways. The simplest and most practical method is
based on the natural restoration of the disturbed part
of collector contacts, and switching in the power un­
der control of the monitoring unit. The described
system is serviceable with current collectors that
have n>3.
An important property of the suggested system is
its benefit not only for extreme conditions but too
586
for usual service in gaseous mines where application
of trolley locomotives is permitted by the standing
mine safety regulations. As well as sparking preven­
tion the system decreases wear of a trolley line and
current collecting contacts, and excludes the blind­
ing effect of electric arcs that form in the process of
current collection.

4 CONCLUSIONS

1. For use in gaseous underground mines, eco­

nomical and high productive trolley locomotives
should be equipped with sparking suppression de­
vices.
2. Trolley locomotives performance without pro­
ductivity losses is provided by application of current
collectors giving voltage period to pulse ratio not
more than 1.15.
3. High quality traction motor commutation is ob­
tained with power circuit design decreasing main
poles magnetic flux pulsation. The current collector
performance should run with break interval not
longer than 0.2 s.
4. Providing the required reliability of current
collection is achieved with special operation mode
with cyclic feed and break of the power circuit under
the contacts state control.
5.Sparking suppression provides safety of under­
ground mine locomotive performance, lower wear of
trolley line and collecting contacts, energy saving,
and blinding effect exclusion.

REFERENCES

Iv a n o v , A .B . 1 9 9 5 . T r o lle y lo c o m o tiv e s w ith s p a rk le s s c u rre n t

c o lle c tio n . In O z d e m ir & H a n n a (e d s ), Mine Mechanization
and automation - Proc. 3'"^Int. Symp. MMA, Golden, Colo­
rado, USA, 12-14 June 1995: 1 2 -2 1 - 1 2 -2 6 .
Iv a n o v , A .B . 1 9 9 9 . In flu e n c e o f s p a rk in g s u p p re s s io n o n tr o l­
le y lo c o m o tiv e tra n s p o rt p ro d u c tiv ity . In P iv n y a k & S in g -
h a l (e d s ), Mine Planning and Equipment Selection - Proc.
8‘^ Int. Symp. MPES, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine, 15-18 June
1999: 4 1 - 4 4 . D n ip ro p e tro v s k : N M U U .

587
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The conveyor belt wear index and its application in belts replacem ent policy

LJurdziak
Institute o f Mining Engineering, Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland

ABSTRACT: Based on the uniform classification of conveyor belt failures with five grade, verbal description
of their intensity a method enabling the numerical processing of fuzzy data is proposed for the determination
of the single-valued index of belt wear. The index takes into account past belt operation time and can be used
together with results from on site, non-destructive tests of belt condition. Since belt removal decisions are
bound with a different belt replacement policies used in polish mines the particular classes of failures has been
weighted according to their goals. A special program has been developed and used to calculate several indexes
for belts in different condition. Results were compared to improve weighting and to develop the optimal belts
replacement strategy based on their degree of wear. The belt wear index can be used to schedule all belts in a
mine for replacement and it is possible to find out a cut-off index enabling the most profitable reconditioning.

1 CLASSIFICATION OF DAMAGE TO Still those capabilities were insufficient to

CONVEYOR BELTS USED IN MINES
In all mines decisions about the removal of belts
from belt conveyors and their replacement are
subjective. There is no uniform procedure and no
belt removal criteria have been established. Even
mines with computer-aided belt management have
adopted their own individual solutions to the
problem of the belt, i.e. the determination of the
cause for its replacement.
Prior to the introduction of computer systems
aiding the management of conveyor belts few data
about belts in and out of operation were recorded.
For instance, an analysis of the durability of belts
based on the records found in the replacement
reports of the “Belchatow” lignite mine showed only
such causes of belt removal as: wear, longitudinal
cuts, burn, torn out steel cable, belt defect and a few
others. After computers had been introduced the
situation improved. In the TASMA information
system more causes of belt removal could be
entered:
• natural wear • pulley replacement
• failures • forced replacement
• abrasion of edges strips • cover separation
• lengthwise cuts •• grooves abraded by belt
skirt
• pulling out of a steel • belt shortening
cord
• pulling out of belt parts
determine the current condition of a running
conveyor belt.
Many more kinds of data could be recorded in
the SUFLER system developed for the “Turow”
lignite mine (Brzezinski et al., 1988). The description
of the belt includes, among others, such information
as: initial and current thickness of carrying and
running cover, aggregate quantity of transported
output; data about hazard to normal belt operation:
damaged belt edges, worn off carrying and running
cover, cuts in carrying and running cover; damage
peculiar to belts with steel cables: punctures of
rubber between steel cables, uncovered steel cables,
torn out cables, broken cables; damage peculiar to
fabric belts: damaged interlayer, puncture of core,
cuts in core, ply separation, separation of rubber
from core; repairs done: number of repairs, area of
so-called defects (repaired belt area); and causes of
belt removal.
In underground mines there is even more
nonuniformity. In (Lachman, 1982) the incidence of
different kinds of damage to fabric belts was
analyzed and the damage was classified as follows:
abrasion perforation
grooves carcass breaks
lengthwise grooves ply separation
lengthwise cuts blister
through cuts rottening
cover damages splice damages

589
 The damage to belts in the “Rudna” mine
(Jurdziak et al. 1996) was classified as follows:
ply separation strikings
lack of rubber cuts
damaged belt edges stretching
wears unstitches
cracks other
rottenness
The worn out belt exhibited several (sometimes
as many as 6) kind of damage at the same time and it
was difficult to point to the principal cause. This
shows once again that there is a need to develop a
uniform classification of belt damage and its
intensity, which would enable the comprehensive but
easy (visual) assessment of belt condition.
2 PROPOSAL OF UNIFORM CLASSIFICATION
OF CONVEYOR BELT DAMAGE (UCCBD)
The arbitrariness of the terminology used for the
description of belt condition and the
nonhomogeneity of the damage classifications are
serious obstacles to: the exchange of experience
between belt users, the complex analysis of belt wear
and the exploitation of belt condition data in belt
replacement decision making (development of
replacement policy guidelines). To avoid such
difficulties it is proposed to individual belt conveyor
transport users that they should use a uniform
terminology and classification of types of damage
with specified damage intensities. Since certain kinds
of damage are closely associated with particular
conveyor belt types where necessary separate
classifications have been introduced for fabric belts
and belts with steel cables.
On the basis of an analysis of the existing
classification systems and ways of describing belt
wear condition the following kinds of damage have
been distinguished: worn off edges (1-left and 2-
right), worn off cover (3-carrying and 4-running),
stripped off cover (5-carrying and 6-running),
longitudinal slit (7), grooves (8), cuts and punctures
(9).
For fabric belts the following kinds of damage
are additionally introduced: ply separation (10),
elongation (11), dry-rot and rot (12), and for belts
with steel cables: torn out cables (10) and cut cables
( 11).
A detailed classification with a description of belt
wear condition and kinds of belt damage can be
found in (Jurdziak et al. 1996). Here as an
illustration one kind of damage, i.e. worn off edges,
is analysed in detail.
The belt’s edges wear off as the belt rubs, due to
its tendency to run off the conveyor, against the
structural elements of the latter. The belt’s edge may
become ragged (and so the belt may easily jam and
590
be torn) or smooth and worn off (even to the fabric
core or the first steel cable, which may be damaged
as a result).
Grade Degree Guidelines for damage
intensity assessment
A Slight Slightly worn off edge, smooth edge
B Minor Markedly worn off edge (by about 5
cm), irregular edge
C Medium Considerably worn off edge (by about
10 cm), uneven and ragged edge
D Major Uncovered fabric core or cable (edge
worn off by about 15 cm), uneven and
broken edge
E Extreme Uncovered and damaged fabric core
or cables (edges worn off by over 20
cm), uneven and ragged edge
The above description is applicable to both left
and right edge of the belt (looking in the direction in
which the belt moves).
3 PREREQUISITES FOR APPLICATION OF
UCCBD
If the above verbal-literal classification of conveyor
belt damage and its intensity is to be used effectively
in practice, the following are required:
1) a computer database storing information
about the belts operating in mines,
2) data inputting transferred from the office to
the field (where information originates) and the use
of field recorders,
3) data inputting by means of bar-code readers,
4) a system making it possible to interpret
complex belt condition strictly and to calculate a
single-valued belt wear index for scheduling belts for
replacement.
The above should comply with the mine’s belt
replacement policy, i.e. they should be implemented
after weights have been assigned to the particular
damage classes. Since the belt’s condition is assessed
only visually while the soiled belt is in motion the
assessment is subjective and inaccurate. For this
reason fuzzy sets should be applied to the calculation
of the wear index (Jurdziak, 1998).
4 APPLICATION OF LINGUISTIC VARIABLES
AND FUZZY SETS TO CALCULATION OF
BELT WEAR INDEX
The UCCBD presented earlier requires the numerical
processing of subjective verbal-literal information
about the condition of belts. It is obvious that
without the use of special belt condition diagnosing
tools, each evaluation made by a human being is only
approximate. The most rational way to describe and
process imprecise information is to apply the theory
of fuzzy sets (put forward by Zadeh in 1965).
In the case of a verbal-literal evaluation of the
intensity of the particular failure classes, the
triangular membership functions can be used
(Jurdziak, 1998). We can also apply a fuzzy interval
numbers L-R introduced by Dubois and Prade
(Yager, 1992).
This approach basically consists in the
approximation of fuzzy number membership fimction
F(x) through the combination of left (L) and right
(R) reference functions which are defined by centre
(focus) m of fimction F and left-handed and right-
handed scatter F, a and p. In this formulation the
fuzzy number is represented as a combination of the
left and right part.
Functions L and R are a real line’s fuzzy subsets
with the following properties;
- they are symmetrical to zero (L(x)=L(-x) and
R(x)-R(-x)),
- their degree of membership for x=0 is 1 and they
are unascending in interval [0, oo].
Max (0, l-'|x|P) for p>0 and exp(-|x|^) for p>0 are
examples of such functions. For specially chosen
parameters for functions L and R each fuzzy number
can be defined by ternary (m, a, P).
In our case appropriate L-R number representing
verbal-literal evaluations can be defined as follows;
A (m=0.00, a=0.00, p=0.25), B (m=0.25, a=0.25,
p-0.25), C (m=0.50, a=0.25, p=0.25), D (m=0.75,
a=0.25, P=0.25), E (m=1.00, a=0.25, p=0.00) for
function F(x)=max (0, 1 -1x | ^), p==l.
4.1 Belt replacement policy
Having a verbal-literal description of the condition of
a belt and a mathematical apparatus suitable for the
processing of subjective and imprecise evaluations
we can start to interpret the results of the evaluation,
i.e. to calculate the aggregated index of the condition
of the belt which makes it easier to take a decision
whether to replace it or leave it on the conveyor.
This cannot be done, however, without a
reference to the mine’s belts replacement policy. A
description of the condition of a belt is independent
of the belt and it can be made in an identical way in
surface and underground mines of any type but a belt
replacement decision depends on the employed
replacement policy. Therefore the importance of the
particular failure classes should be weighted against
the goals of this policy.
In (Jurdziak, 1996) three principle goals of the
replacement strategy used in Polish mines are
distinguished;
I. The maximization of the operating time of
the belt - the exploitation of the belt until it is totally
worn out.
591
II. The assurance of a proper safety level for the
continuity of transport system operation - the use of
preventive replacements to avoid down-time losses.
III. The minimization of belt operating costs per
a unit of total operating time before and after
successive reconditioning.
In the first strategy, the classification of belt
failure rates and their weighting does not make much
sense since the belt is not replaced preventively but it
is used until it becomes totally worn out or fails. In
the other strategies, in view of the different goals,
the assignment of weights will differ significantly. To
avoid down-times, close attention should be paid to
any physical damage that increases the risk of a
down-time due to the rupturing or slitting of the belt
and these kinds of damage should be assigned the
heaviest weights. In the third replacement policy, the
wearing away of the lining and the avoidance of
excessive damage which would make the belt
unsuitable for reconditioning get the priority.
Generally, the rate of the kinds of damage, which
lead to the removal of the belt, will be the lowest in
the last policy. This means that the employed
replacement policy affects not only the assignment of
weights to particular kinds of damage but also the
level of the latter and thus the level of the aggregated
index of belt wear.
4.2 The belt wear degree
Taking all above into consideration the belt wear
degree Szt should be devised in such a way that it
includes both the different significance of the
particular damage classes and their intensity. On the
basis of (Juang 1992, Jurdziak, 1998) the following
form of the aggregated belt wear degree is proposed;
V -. 0)
^ZT ~
where Szr = a degree of belt wear, / = a damage class
number, U, = a degree of the rate of damage
belonging to class i, W, = the weight of the i-th class
of damage in a given belt replacement policy.
The automatic computing of this belt wear
degree free the inspection personnel from analyzing
the significance of the particular types of damage in
the replacement policy and their rates separately for
each belt section.
4.3 The degree o f belt exploitation
Because of fatigue, damage processes take place
inside a belt during its operation, which are invisible
to the eye of the inspector who evaluates the
condition of the belt. This applies to the reduction in
the belt’s strength and in the adhesion of the rubber
to the cables, the biological and chemical
degradation of the textile core and the cables
(corrosion), small punctures in and invisible damage V -
to the core, and so on. Without the application of ‘^IVTä ~ -•WTg ■ (4)
special diagnostic equipment or strength tests, it is ^dot ^dot ^ '^ R g

impossible to include these factors directly in an where ETRd = the lower limit of the confidence
evaluation. They can be taken into account in an interval for the expected remaining work time of a
evaluation only indirectly on the basis of the past belt section, ETRg = the upper limit of the confidence
operating time of the belt. These processes have interval for the expected remaining work time of a
cumulative character and their intensity increases belt section.
with time. It may be assumed that this increase is
directly proportional not to the past operating time
but to the ratio of the past operating time to the
expected time of operation of the belt on a given
conveyor. The expected times of operation of belts
on different conveyors differ substantially and it
would be impossible to use this index for belts on
different conveyors if an absolute time value was
applied. The index defined in the above way can be
called a degree of belt exploitation; Normalised parameter, x

V - _ (2) Figure 1. Triangular membership function for the

-ET, degree of belt exploitation S wt •
where S wt ^ a degree of belt exploitation g [0,1); After a triangular membership function has been
idot = a belt section’s past operating time, ET r = a constructed for belt wear degree S wt the latter
belt section’s expected reminding operating time. should also be assigned a weight in the users belt
On the basis of more exhaustive investigations of replacement policy. Pair S wt and Wwr (the weight of
the fatigue processes taking place in the belt in time, the belt’s wear) can be directly used to calculate belt
the direct proportion assumed here can be replaced wear degree iSzr (1).
by a relationship of a different type.
This coefficient could be utilized, e.g. by: 4.4 The belt wear index (defuzzification methods)
- including it in an evaluation of the degree of belt
wear together with the other kinds of damage - then All the elements of relation (1): damage intensities
and their weights in a belt replacement policy are
it would represent the intensity of the internal
fuzzy sets and so special procedures are needed for
damage to the core and the advancement of fatigue the calculation of belt wear S zt-
processes in it, which are invisible to the naked eye;
- making a final evaluation on the basis of belt
wear degree S zt and belt exploitation degree S wt,
- taking into account the effect of time (degree of
belt exploitation) on a change in the weights of
particular damage classes, e.g. in the case of belts
operating for a short time, physical damage like
punctures and slits would be more important in an
evaluation of their condition while the degree to
which the lining has worn away would carry more
weight in the case of belts approaching the end of the
expected operating time.
Wear degree S wt is a number and not a fuzzy set
and so it cannot be incorporated directly into the
formula for belt wear degree S zt (1). But if one uses
the limits of a 95% confidence interval for expected
remaining belt work time (3), one can construct a
triangular membership function for the belt wear
degree (4 and fig. 1).

E T ,s (E T ,„ E T ,J (3)
Figure 2. Block diagram showing conversion of
verbal-literal description of conveyor belt condition
by means of fuzzy sets.

592
 Generally, they consist in the conversion of fuzzy
sets to a conventional form, the performance of
appropriate algebraic operations and the
reconversion of the conventional form to a result
fuzzy set (Fig. 2).
Different methods, e.g. a-cut method and the use
of L-R interval numbers, can be applied to convert a
fuzzy set to a conventional form and to perform
appropriate operations.
To do this, a belt wear index can be defined in
the following form:
(5)
where I zt = a belt wear index belonging to interval
[0, 1], P/ = a field on the left side of the membership
function for set S zt, Pp = ^ field on the right side of
the membership ftmction for set S zt (Fig. 3)
Figure 3. Membership function for the belt wear
degree S zt
For a fuzzy set represented by a triangular
membership function (Fig. 3) the belt wear index will
take on this value:
_ a + b + 2c
¡Z T ^ (6 )
The proposed method of determining the belt
wear index is one of several ways in which fuzzy
information S zt can be defuzzified to single-number
index I zt-
Two basic methods of defuzzification: the mean
of maximum (MOM) and the centre of area (COA)
are commonly used.
In recent years several parametric methods,
which take into account the degree of confidence in
fuzzy information, have been proposed (Yager,
1995). These are:
- BADD - BAsic Defuzzification Distribution,
SLIDE - SemiLInear DEflizzification method,
- M-SLIDE - Modified SLIDE.
Generally, all the above methods can be reduced
to nonparametric methods by introducing suitable
additional parameters into them. This means that
they represent a generalization (expansion) of basic
nonparametric methods.
In the MOM method the post-defuzzification
value is determined as a mean of all the space-X
values with the maximum degree of membership. In
593
a fuzzy set defined by a triangular membership
function only one maximum occurs. For set S zt
(Fig. 3) the membership function reaches the
maximum value for x = c and so Xmom (Jurdziak,
1998).
In the COA method the post-defuzzification
value of fuzzy set F is determined as a centroid. If
the method is applied to a triangular function (Fig. 3),
the following is obtained (Jurdziak, 1998):
a + b +c
^COA ~ ^ 0)
Expected values Xms after M-Slide defuzzification
cover a continuous interval of all possible
realizations between Xmom and xcoa for different
values of parameter p (Yager, 1995).
Relation (8) represents a convenient form of the
post-M-SLIDE defuzzification value as a linear
function of parameter p. This method can also be
used as an approximation of the BADD method.
COA )
(8)
-px, ■(1 - P)^COA
The entropy of M-SLIDE distribution (a measure
of confidence in fuzzy information) is maximum
(lowest confidence) for (3 = 0 and minimum (highest
confidence) for |3 = 1.
If proposed index I zt and values Xmom and xcom
calculated for S zt are substituted for x^s in equation
(8), one can determine parameter (3. The latter
amounts to 0.25, which means that if we use index
I zt, we have limited confidence in fuzzy set S zt- The
influence of maximum value c is greater at index I zt
than at Xcoa- Thus the proposed belt wear index (Izt)
is a fully valid procedure for the defuzzification of
information contained in a fuzzy set. Because of its
simplicity it can be easily used in practice. The
greater influence of the maximum value is fully
justified in the case of triangular membership
functions since the single maximum value should
play a more significant role than extreme values a
and b. If other than triangular membership functions
are applied, the calculation of the field on the right
side and on the left side may be not unique (e.g. if a
membership function does not reach 1, the linguistic
variables will be described by subnormal membership
sets). Then one should apply the other methods, e.g.
MOM, COA and M-SLIDE.
5 TESTING PROGRAM FOR CONVEYOR BELT
WEAR INDEX CALCULATION
To test the verbal-literal description of the wear
condition of a conveyor belt a testing program called
WIZT has been developed. It is used to determine
the conveyor belt wear index on the basis a verbal
description of the belt’s wear condition. The
software was written in Visual Basic 5.0.
The program makes it possible to determine the
weights of the particular damage classes in a belt
replacement strategy used in underground and strip
mines and to include a word-letter description of the
wear condition of both TP and St belts.
The weights of the particular damage classes in a
belt replacement strategy are specified by assigning
one of the letters A, ..., E to each of the 12 damage
classes. The specified weights can be written in a
text file or read in from it.
The belt wear index of a conveyor belt can be
calculated for a specified wear condition of the belt
and an adopted replacement strategy. Data on the
strategy and the belt’s wear condition can be written
into a text database or loaded from it into the
program.
CONCLUSIONS
The automatic computing of the belt wear index for
all the belt sections in a mine makes it possible to
schedule (sequence) the replacement of conveyor
belts. Belts with the highest indices should be
replaced first. This would make the management of
belts more efficient and permit the taking of
economically sound decisions.
This index can serve as a basis for a strategy of
determining the sequence of replacements and it
would also indicate the optimum points in time at
which the replacements should be made.
Taking into consideration the simple way in
which the necessary data can be acquired, the
possible numerical processing (the complexity of
calculations, analyses and statistical can be handled
by a computer program algorithm) and the clear,
unique and easy to use result, the proposed method
has a good chance of being implemented in mines. Its
implementation would, however, entail:
- the introduction of a uniform classification of belt
damage and its intensity (the adaptation of the
existing belt data bases or creation of new ones, the
purchase of software for field data acquisition and its
adaptation to the description of the condition of
belts, and the communication between these data
bases and the main data base);
the selection of proper weights for different types
of damage according to the goals of the employed
replacement policy;
- the thorough testing and correcting of all the
elements of the belt replacement scheduling method.
Despite this, it seems that the benefits the method
would bring the users would exceed greatly the costs
of the necessary investments and changes. The
method takes into account the subjectivity of human
evaluations, it combines these evaluations with
594
results of statistical analyses, permits the full
automation of data processing from an evaluation to
the computing of a single-valued index which
indicates explicitly the aggregated state of wear of
the belt and its place in the queue for replacement. In
addition, which is also highly important, the method
prepares the user well for the application of specialist
belt diagnosing equipment. It is enough to
supplement the visual valuation of the condition of
the belt with an evaluation generated by a diagnostic
device and process the two evaluations jointly.
REFERENCES
Brzezinski W., Jurdziak L., Kawalec W. ,Wieczorek
W. , 1988. System SUFFER at KWB "TUROW"
(in Polish). Fundamental Problems of Mine
Transport, Scientific Papers of the Mining
Engineering Faculty, Wroclaw University of
Technology No 50, Conferences No 11,
Wroclaw.
Juang C.H., Amirkhanian S.N., 1992. Unified
Pavement Distress Index for Managing Flexible
Pavements, Journal of Transportation
Engineering, Vol.118, No.5 , September /
October.
Jurdziak L., Hardygora M., 1996. Uniform
Classification of Conveyor Belt Damage and its
Intensity (in Polish), Fundamental Problems of
Mine Transport, Scientific Papers of the Mining
Engineering Faculty, Wroclaw University of
Technology No 80, Conferences No 20,
Wroclaw.
Jurdziak L., 1996. Method of determination of
conveyor belt operating time distribution and its
application in forecasting of belt replacement (in
Polish), doctoral thesis. Wroclaw University of
Technology.
Jurdziak L., 1998. Application of linguistic variables
to determination of belt wear degree - method of
scheduling conveyor belts for replacement.
Scientific Papers of the Mining Engineering
Faculty, Wroclaw University of Technology No
82, Conferences No 21, Continuous Surface
Mining, 5th International Symposium, Wroclaw
26-29 May.
Jurdziak L., 1998. Development of the practical
procedure of transformation a linguistic
decription of conveyor belt condition onto the
belt wear index (in Polish). Scientific Works of
the Mining Engineering Institute, Wroclaw
University of Technology (not published).
Lachmann H.P., 1982. On the Investment for
Conveyor Belting, bulk solids handling, Vol.2,
No.l, March.
Yager R.R., Filev D.P., 1995. Essentials of fuzzy
modelling and control, WNT, Warszawa.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 178 3

The effect of conveyor belt load upon belt durability

L. Jurdziak & M. Hardygora

Institute of Mining Engineering, Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland

ABSTRACT: One of methods of decreasing costs of operation in existing belt conveyor systems is the
increase of the relative conveyor load by shortening the time of conveyors operation. The interesting point in
calculation of savings is possible increase in conveyor belt durability measured in calendar time of operation.
Until now it was impossible to estimate this because conveyor load effect upon belt durability has not been
determined yet. After the discussion of hitherto methods for estimating belt durability a theoretical model has
been chosen which take into account both important for belt durability factors; relative conveyor load and
conveyor length. Basing on data acquired in the „Rudna” mine a regression of number of belt cycles on these
both factors has been determined for linear, exponential and reciprocal model. Positive verification of
theoretical model (corresponding to the reciprocal model) enables now to use it for making predictions of belt
durability after the increase of conveyor load

1 THE IDEA OF POSSIBLE SAVINGS
One of the ways in which the operating costs of belt
transport in underground mines can be lowered is
through the better utilization of the conveyors’ rated
capacity, which can be achieved by increasing the
conveyors’ load and reducing their operating time.
This obviously applies to lightly loaded mine-flat
conveyors that could well be switched off for one
shift. The winning mined on the idle shift would be
stored near the charging hoppers and loaded on the
conveyors on the other two shifts. This solution
would bring substantial benefits in the form of saved
energy and reduced manpower on the idle shift. It
could also effect other significant savings, for
example, by increasing the calendar operating time of
the conveyor belt - one of the most expensive
components of belt transport. But increasing the
belt’s calendar operating time is not such a simple
thing, as it would seem at first sight. The elimination
of one shift (a 33.3% reduction in operating time) is
linked with an average increase in load by 50%. The
winning mined on the idle shift would have to be
transported on the other two shifts. Although the
percentage increase in load is considerable it would
apply to conveyors whose rated capacity is utilized
to a low degree (5-30%). And so if their load were
increased by half, the relative load still would not
exceed 50% of their nominal capacity. Therefore one
can expect that the increased load would not cause a
significant reduction in the belt’s durability. Thus
through the elimination of one work shift the belt’s
calendar operating time would increase - the
reduction in durability due to the increased load
would be smaller than the increase in the calendar
operating time. As a result substantial savings would
be achieved. This problem requires, however, a
detailed theoretical analysis and verification for the
operating data presented in this paper.
2 CONVEYOR BELT LOAD IN EXISTING
METHODS OF BELT DURABILITY DETERMI­
NATION
Until now the effect of the conveyor belt load on the
belt’s durability has not been investigated closely,
though some authors included it in their formulas for
belt durability (Wajda 1975, Zur 1975, 1980, 1983).
But the formulas were not verified in this respect
because no sufficient operating data were available.
In the statistical analyses of operating data which
have been made until now it was assumed that belt
conveyors were equally loaded and so the conveyors
whose load differed markedly from the average load
were excluded from the analysis (Jurdziak 1987).
The most significant method of determining the
durability of belts depending on the different
technical parameters of the belt and the conveyor
was developed by Zur (Zur 1975, 1980 and 1983)
who divided the factors contributing to belt wear
into factors which act in a “point” manner (i.e. at
particular locations on the conveyor such as: the
feed, the cleaning devices, the drive, etc.) and factors

595
which act “linearly” (along the conveyor’s route, e.g.
rubbing against the rollers and the side stops, etc.).
Assuming that the sum of “point” damage is
proportional to the number of runs of the belt round
the conveyor and the sum of “linear” damage is
proportional to the distance covered by a specified
cross-section of the belt, he proposed the following
formula for belt durability measured in belt operating
time h;
A, L,
t, - . [s] (1)
where: Lt = the total length of the conveyor belt, m.
At = amount of work resulting in the belt wear, J/m,
Z Ap = the total of “point” damage work, J,
Aj = “linear” damage work, J/m, v = the velocity of
the belt, m/s.
Formula (1) was transformed to a
nondimensional form and verified statistically
(Jurdziak, 1988);
1 could be expected. It seems that an increase in load
(2)
A,
Thus belt durability, measured by number of
cycles Uc, was expressed as a function of belt loop
length and coefficients specifying the shares of
“point” damage work and “linear” damage work in
the wear of the belt for its one run round the
conveyor. The relationships were verified and the
two coefficients were calculated on the basis of
operating data.
Starting from relation (1) Zur (Zur, 1980)
derived a formula for approximate conveyor belt
durability depending on, among others, average
capacity:
k ,E ,B
Lt , W (3)
3600gß^(k,Ä + k,L^)
where: kj = b, conveyor maintenance quality factor
(ki=\ no belt repairs, k{>\ for repairs), B = the belt’s
width, m, Lt = total length of the belt’s loop, m,
Et = the energy of the falling winning, J/m^; the belt’s
energy storage capacity, g = gravitational
acceleration, m/s^, Qm = average capacity, kg/s, fe =
a calculation coefficient, hp = the height fi’om which
winning falls down, m, = a calculation coefficient.
The above relation was verified empirically for
belt conveyors operating in brown coal mines and
aggregate producing plants (Wajda, 1975).
Formula (3) can be applied to determine the
belt’s durability measured in number of its cycles
(runs round the conveyor) nc:
596
(4)
g Qnom ( k l + 2 kj
k^E ^B v ß«
where; Lp = length of the conveyor, m, Lp = 0.5Zr,
Qnom = the conveyor’s rated capacity, kg/s,
Qn/Qnom relative conveyor load, %.
As a result of a 50% increase in conveyor load,
due to the elimination of one shift in model (4), the
number of cycles will decrease to 2/3 of the former
value, irrespective of conveyor length.
n c '( l- 5 e j =
(k2 h^+ 2k^Lj, ) l.5g^
k, E, Bv (5)
n .'(1.5ej = |n , ( e j
In formula (4) the same relative effect of a
change in load on belt durability is assumed for short
and long conveyors. This is at variance with what
in the case of short conveyors should cause more
intensive wear of the belt at the feed point because of
the great number of its passes under the charging
hopper, whereas in the case of long conveyors extra
loading may have the opposite effect - the belt’s
durability may increase because the belt has less
tendency to run off the conveyor and the energy of
the lumps jumping up on each roller set may be
dampened by the layer of winning lying on the belt.
Owing to this, the above model will be excluded
from further considerations.
In (Zur, 1983) Zur proposed a slightly different
form of the formula for belt durability. Starting from
“linear” and “point” damage work, he focused this
time on the effect of these factors on the size of
rubber loss (due to abrasive wear, punctures and
tear-outs) sustained while the belt runs on the
conveyor. He estimated the admissible rubber
volume which can be worn off (the volume of the
covers removed during regeneration) and the amount
of rubber loss sustained in one run of the belt round
the conveyor (broken down into the part due to the
effect of “linear” factors and the part due to the
effect of “point” factors). The ratio of the latter
quantity to the former one was used to calculate the
number of cycles of the belt until it wears out and to
determine its durability measured in operating time
(taking into account the influence of belt velocity and
length).
kl ( \ ) B
L, , [h] (6)
g Q n , K h, + F vL,
where hg = the carrying cover’s thickness, m,
hmm = minimum cover thickness, m, Fj = the share of
damaged surface along the length of 1 m.
Similarly as in the previous case, formula (6) can
be transformed in order to determine the belt’s
durability measured in the number of its cycles Uc:
, (7)
Q.
3600A:, ( / 2^ - )Bv \mOk, {h^ - )B
Although this relation seem to be similar to
formula (5), it is fundamentally different from it since
the denominator is not directly proportional to the
capacity (or to the relative load) but only to one of
its terms. Thus the denominator can be expressed as
a linear fiinction of two variables: relative load
Qrr/Qnom and convoyor length Lp.
1
(8 )
where
and are
constants dependent on belt and conveyor
parameters and on operating conditions.
By comparing relations (2) and (8) one can
conclude that the work of “point” damage is directly
proportional to the relative conveyor load whereas
the work of “linear” damage is practically
independent of it - the advantages and disadvantages
due to a change in the load cancel each other out.
This is in accord with the expectations and so model
(8) will be subjected to verification using the
operating data presented below.
3 STATISTICAL VERIFICATION
Two groups of data were used for the statistical
verification of theoretical model (8) (Jurdziak,
1998). The first group represented 72 sections of
belts removed from the conveyors in the “Rudna”
mine in the period from 04.02.93 to 25.10.1994. To
make the assessment of the effect of conveyor load
on belt durability the data were supplemented with
information on the average operating time of the
particular conveyors and their average load on a
shift. Their calendar operating time was converted,
incorporating the additional data, into cycles. The
loading of the conveyors from which the considered
belts had been removed ranged from 11.9 to 57.1%
of their rated capacity. The mean relative load was
27.8% and only two belt sections came from a
conveyor whose load was over 38.1%.
The data in the second group represented the
average belt operating times for five selected
conveyors of different length and operating under
different load. The size of this group was smaller and
597
the load was less varied. There were no data for
short conveyors (shorter than 700 m) and operating
under loads below 10% of their rated capacity.
Similarly as the first group, it did not include data for
loads over 40%. This does not pose a problem,
however, since conveyors operating in mine flats do
not exceed the above limit even if their load is in­
creased by 50%. The advantage is that the data are
up-to-date: they are for belts recently removed from
conveyors after considerable improvements in the
quality and culture of belt maintenance had been
made in the “Rudna” mine.
The data in the two groups were subjected to
statistical analysis by investigating the regression of
the number of cycles the belt sections went through
until the removal of the belt for two independent
variables: relative load and conveyor length.
Different models, based on the Gauss-Markov
model, of a linear ftmction of the variables were
analysed:
Qm
Linear model n, =m, - + m. L ,+ h (9 )
^nof
Q
Exponential model II c ~ b m j m. ( 10)
Reciprocal model = ( 11)
m, - ^ ^ + m. L„ +b
^nom
Q
Reciprocal model (11) for constant b=0
corresponds exactly to theoretically derived relation
(8).
4 ANALYSIS OF RESLHLTS
The values of the coefficients R^ for all the analyzed
models are given in table 1 for the first group of data
and in table 2 for the second data group.
Tabela 1
Model R^ R"
b=0
Linear 0.381 0.153
Exponential 0.662
Reciprocal 0.456 0.448
The exponential model, for which R^ = 0.662, is
the best-fitted model. This means that correlation
coefficient R is 0.814, which is quite a good result
for the subject of investigation - the durability of
conveyor belts - characterized by considerable
scatter of results. In the case of the reciprocal model
(having theoretical foundations), the value of
coefficient R^ is lower: R^ = 0.448 (for b=0) and
correlation coefficient R = 0.669. These are not
disqualifying results but predictions made by means
of this model may be saddled with a greater error.
Tabela 2
Model R^
b=0
Linear 0.793
Exponential 0.847
Reciprocal 0.902 0.866
The reciprocal model for which R^ = 0.902 (tab.
2) fits best the second group of data. This means that
correlation coefficient R is 0.950, which is a very
good result. One should bear in mind, however, that
the surface was selected on the basis of average
values for belts from a group of merely five
conveyers. For the theoretical model, i.e. at constant
b=0, coefficient R^ = 0.866 and correlation R is
0.931, which is an equally good result. Such a good
fit of the theoretical model to the empirical data
should ensure accurate predictions of changes in the
operating time after an increase in the load.
The constants determined for the theoretical
model (8 and 11 at b=0) assume the following
values;
mi = 0.571417314, m2 = 0.001080516
A graph of function iic is shown in fig. 1
The high number of cycles (nearly 1 851 000) for
the short (50 m) conveyor running light (the left top
corner of graph 1) corresponds to the fatigue wear
of the belt running light on a very short conveyor. It
is difficult to assess the reliability of the data since no
empirical data for this range of conveyor length and
load are available. By estimating the model it is now
possible to predict the durability of belts for various
atypical situations.
Figure 1. Dependence of number of belt cycles on
relative conveyor load [%] and its length [m] for
reciprocal model b=0.
The fact that the durability of the belt on short
conveyors decreases under increased relative load is
an interesting and important observation
This becomes clearly visible if operating time is
used instead of cycles. For this reason the latter were
598
converted into calendar operating time under the
same assumptions as regards the number of days in a
month, shifts and working hours on a shift. The
relations obtained for the hyperbolic model (b=0) are
shown in a diagram (fig. 2).
Figure 2. Dependence of belt operating time
[months] on relative conveyor load [%] and its
length [m ] for reciprocal model b==0
If follows from them that for an over 100 m long
conveyor an eightfold increase in load from 10% to
80% of the rated capacity will result in a 3.6-fold
reduction in operating time from about 36 to 10
months (by 26 months). Whereas the same increase
in load for a 1200 m long conveyor will result in a
merely 23% reduction in belt operating time from
52.5 to 40.5 months (by about 12 months).
However, the decrease in reliability applies to a
much larger number of belts.
CONCLUSIONS
1) Thanks to the operating data on removed
belts it became possible to verify a theoretical model
(8 and 11 at b=0) representing the relationship
between the number of belt cycles (runs round the
conveyor) and the conveyor relative load and length.
The very high correlation: R = 0.931 of the model
for the up-to-date operating data (the second data
group) validates the theoretical considerations and
the model. Thus the model can be used to assess the
effect of a change in conveyor load on the durability
of the belt.
2) Further verification of Zur’s theoretical
model (8 and 11) is needed to identify the
dependence of estimated constants mi and m2 on belt
and conveyor parameters and operating conditions.
On this basis the durability of belts could be
predicted for a wider range of conveyors and belts
operating in various conditions and so even a higher
degree of universality would be achieved in the form
of a functional relation between the number of belt
cycles and the conveyor’s relative load and length.
Such a model could well be applied to the solution of Zur T., 1983. Die Grundlagen einer Berechnungs­
many practical problems and thus bring benefits to methode zur Bestimmung der Lebensdauer von
mines (Gladysiewicz 1996). Fördergurten, Neue Bergbautechnik 13 Jg., Heft
3) One of the problems is the optimization of 9, Sept.
the conveyor’s design aimed at the cost-effective
redimensioning of the conveyor in order to fully
utilize its rated capacity. Now it has become possible
to determine whether it is more profitable to use
conveyors with a narrower (and so cheaper) belt but
carrying greater relative load or redimensioned
conveyors with a wider (more expensive) belt which
utilize their rated capacity to a small degree but
ensure that the belts have a longer service life.
Results of such analyses will be highly useful for
designers.
4) Furthermore it has now become possible to
find an answer to the question how an expected
change in the output will affect the demand for
conveyor belt in the mine since it possible to predict
how a change in conveyor load will affect the
durability of the belt.

REFERENCES

Gladysiewicz L., Jurdziak L., 1996, The effect of

application of intermediate belt drives on
conveyor operational cost decrease in copper ore
mines (in Polish). Fundamental Problems of Mine
Transport, Scientific Papers of the Mining
Engineering Faculty, Wroclaw University of
Technology No 80, Conferences No 20,
Wroclaw.
Jurdziak L., 1987. Statistical identification of causes
of conveyor belt durability differentiation in ZG
"Rudna" (in Polish). Cuprum nr 3-4.
Jurdziak L., 1988. The effect of conveyor length on
belts durability in underground mines (in Polish).
Fundamental Problems of Mine Transport,
Scientific Papers of the Mining Engineering
Faculty, Wroclaw University of Technology No
50, Conferences No 11, Wroclaw.
Jurdziak L., Hardygora M., 1998. Ascertainment of
conveyor load effect upon belt durability (in
Polish). Fundamental Problems of Mine
Transport, Scientific Papers of the Mining
Engineering Faculty, Wroclaw University of
Technology No 83, Conferences No 22,
Wroclaw.
Wajda A., 1975. Calculation of conveyor belt
durability based on real data (in Polish),
Gornictwo Odkrywkowe nr 1.
Zur T., 1975. Method of calculation of conveyor belt
durability (in Polish), Gornictwo Odkrywkowe
nr 1.
Zur T., 1980. Belt conveyors used in mines (in
Polish), "Slask", Katowice.

599
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

E ffect o f cutting tool angle on failure m echanism o f rock

in rock-tool interaction

A. Wahab Khair & Srikanth Addala

Department of Mining Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, W.Va., USA
Celina Pezowicz
Institute o f Machine Design and Operation, Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland

ABSTRACT: The scope of this research was to evaluate the geometry of the cutting tool and design an inno­
vative cutting head for the continuous miners in order to cut coal/rock efficiently with minimum amount of
respirable dust generation, and energy consumption. This study consists of three parts namely 1) Effect of in-
dentor angle on the failure mechanism of rock utilizing holographic interferometry, 2) Analytical studies us­
ing three dimensional stress analysis of the tested specimen, 3) Fractured surface analysis. However this paper
is devoted to the effect of cutting tool angle on failure mechanism of rock.

1 INTRODUCTION 2.2 Bit spacing

Past research indicates that the energy required to
cut rock/coal is influenced by the bit tip design
namely bit tip angle and bit tip size. Hence in order
to evaluate the effect of the cutting tool (the geome­
try and shape of the cutting tool) on the failure
mechanism of the rock and the energy consumption,
three bits with indentor angles of 40^, 60^, 90^’
which are generally used in the mining industry
were used in this study. The edges of the angles for
all three wedges were 1mm. The indentors were pre­
pared with hard steel (38-42 HRC). Tennessee sand­
stone specimens of 74*48*37 mm (3.0*2.0* 1.Sin)
were prepared and tested using a specially designed
loading frame
2 BACKGROUND OF ROCK CUTTING
The important parameters of rock cutting are
i) depth of cut, ii) bit spacing, iii) angle of the bit tip,
iv) bit tip size.
2.1 Depth o f cut
Past research indicated that as the depth of cut is in­
creasing the specific respirable dust reduces. Deeper
cutting enable interaction between adjacent cuts and
help produce larger chips of the material. Hanson
and Roepke (1976) found that the average cutting
force increases with increase in depth of cut,
while the specific respirable dust and specific energy
decreases with depth of cut.
Optimum bit spacing reduces confinement and pro­
vides free space, which results in less energy con­
sumption and reduces dust generation.
2.3 Angle o f the bit tip
Research conducted by Khair (Khair et al. 1999) in­
dicated that the required cutting forces in rock cut­
ting were decreasing with increasing angle of the bit
tip in unconfined condition and in the confined con­
dition (bi-axial state of stress) the required forces
were increasing with angle of the indentor. In an­
other study by Khair (1984) using coal specimen, in
the bi-axial state of stress the mode of failure
changed from lateral splitting (perpendicular to the
face of the indentor) to a free surface failure
(perpendicular to the plane of stress) in the direction
of intermediate principle stress field (g2 = 0). There­
fore in a laterally confined specimen the failure of
rock/coal may change its direction and mode from
extension to tension depending on the state of stress
field, anisotropy, porosity of the material, and the
angle of the indentor may influence the rate of fail­
ure process.
2.4 Bit tip size
Two types of the bits with small and large tips were
considered and the results indicate that the specific
energy consumed increases with the increasing bit
spacing and depth of cut for both small and large bit
sizes. Large tipped bits resulted in high energy con­
sumption.

601
2.5 Fracture process in rocks
The fracturing process is governed by dynamic and
quasi-static forces. The dynamic forces causes frac­
ture formation and fracture extension, while the
quasi-static forces are responsible for grading the
fracture surface. Observations during the tests indi­
cated that after the cutting head induces certain
fracture (different intensities, magnitudes, and
lengths), its rotational velocity slows down. Ana­
lyzing the cutting action, when the bit enters the coal
it indents and compresses the coal under it and
shears off the fragments. This process yields coal
fragments, coarse and fine, and dusts particles. The
key to analyzing and understanding the source of
dust generation is to identify the different phases of
the cutting process and to correlate them with the
production of coarse and fine fragments and dust
particles. Previous investigators have observed that
during the indentation of a cutting bit into a brittle
material, two phases occur (Paul and Sikarskie,
1965, Miller and Sikarskie, 1968). These are called
the crushing phase and chipping phase. This was
later extended to the linear cutting by observing the
cutting action under very low speed (Warner, 1970).
In this study it was theorized that when the bit first
starts to cut, elastic deformation followed by the
inelastic subsurface cracking takes place. Such an
action leads to crushing due to the coalescence of the
cracks. Crushing and subsurface cracking will pro­
duce fine fragments and dust. It was observed that
the cutting and thrust forces build up and increase
during the crushing/pulverizing phase of the material
and drop when a major crack is generated, resulting
in chip formation.
3 RESEARCH PROGRAM
3.1 Holographic experiments
Two types of holographic interferometry techniques
1) plain and 2) speckle holography were used to
analyze the displacements in the specimen, in the
first case displacements in the direction perpendicu­
lar to the plane of observation are measured, while
in the later case displacements in the direction par­
allel to the plane of observation are measured. Fig­
ure 1 shows the arrangement used for taking holo­
grams. A hologram is a record of interference
pattern formed on a high resolution photographic
plate, when two sets of coherent light waves a refer­
ence and an object beam which illuminate the object
interfere (Duw-won et al. 1977). A beam splitter
splits the laser into two beams 1) an object beam and
2) a reference beam. The wave fields reflected by
the object in two slightly different configurations
can be superimposed to form an interference pattern.
602
Displacements can be measured by superimposing a
hologram of the surface in an undisturbed condition
over a hologram in disturbed condition thus creating
an interference pattern, which describes the way the
surface has moved. The holographic interferometry
technique has been used to study the interface be­
havior of geological material (Khair, 1983), and bit-
rock interaction in quasi-static state of stress (Khair
et al. 1997). An initial load of 300N was applied on
the indentor and the first set of holograms were
made, an incremental load of lOON was applied in
each subsequent stages of testing and the holograms
were made in disturbed condition of the test speci­
men. Figures 2 and 3 shows the displacements in the
specimen using a 90^ indentor in unconfmed and
confined conditions respectively. The less number of
fringes in the unconfined condition shows that more
load distribution and more number of fringes in the
confined condition is an indication of localized
stress field in a direction perpendicular to the load­
ing direction and possible change of failure mode.
3.1.1 Speckle Holography
There are two types of Speckle holography tech­
niques applied to surface displacement measure­
ment, speckle photography and speckle interfe­
rometry. In the speckle photography, the light
scattered from an object is recorded on a photo­
graphic plate before and after deformation. Two
speckle patterns are produced which are identical to
each other except that one is displaced relative to the
other by an amount, which depends on the extent of
the displacement of the object and the magnification
of the imaging system. The speckle displacement
can be determined by illuminating the developed
plate and viewing the diffracted light in the Fourier
plane.
3.1.2 Results o f Speckle Holography
Figures 4 and 5 shows the effect of load on the dis­
placement induced in the specimen. With in the
range of experiments conducted the following gen­
eralizations can be observed. Generally the dis­
placement decreases as the load increases.
1) In general sharper the tool edge is, more dis­
placement it will impose in the rock, while
wedges with wider angle results in more stress
distribution in the rock.
2) As the failure approaches the displacement di­
minishes similar to the findings in the analytical
studies using the finite element modeling.

Figure 1. Experimental set-up for holography
Figure 2. Displacements using 90" indentor
in unconfmed condition.
Figure 3. Displacements using 90" indentor
in confined condition.
603
tfistogram o f Load vs Displacemt
Loads
Figure 4. Histogram of Load and Displacements
for three indentor angles.
Figure 5. Relationship between Load and Strain
for three indentor angles.
Figure 6 . Schem atic diagram o f the experim ental setup
I. T est sp ecim en , 2. C onfining plate, 3. Indentor, 4. H y ­
draulic cylind er, 5. Load cell, 6. L oading fram e, 7.
A co u stic em issio n (A .E ) transducer, 8. D ata acquisition
system , 9. H ydraulic gage, 10. H ydraulic p ow er supply,
I I . A E Pream plifier, 12. A E M onitorin g system , 13.
Sp ecim en w ith dum m y gage
 Table 1. Strains induced in various directions using three indentor angles

VC 40 VC60 VC90
Height ex ey ez ex ey ez ex ey ez
1.39 1.26E-04 -4.57E-04 7.48E-05 8.10E-05 -3.83E-04 7.40E-05 6.90E-05 -3.83E-04 7.87E-05
5 5.28E-05 -2.31E-04 7.69E-05 5.63E-05 -2.47E-04 7.59E-05 6.19E-05 -2.72E-04 8.30E-05
25 1.62E-05 -3.90E-05 6.56E-06 1.48E-05 -3.51E-05 5.83E-06 1.61E-05 -3.81E-05 6.33E-06
48 -5.95E-08 -2.52E-05 1.81E-07 -5.42E-08 -2.23E-05 1.60E-07 -5.88E-08 -2.41E-05 1.73E-07

3.3 Rock-wedge damage analysis

Figure 7. Correlation between Angle of In­
dentor (a) and Failure force (KN)
Testing procedure in these experiments was same as
in the holographic experiments. Two types of tests
namely with confinement pressure (confined) and
without confinement pressure (unconfined) were
conducted. Test specimens were placed in a spe­
cially designed loading frame as shown in the figure
6. The indentors were mounted rigidly on the hy­
draulic loading cylinder, which was mounted on
load cell. An acoustic emission transducer was
mounted on the wedge indentor. An initial load of
300N was applied on the specimen utilizing a manu­
ally operated hydraulic power supply. For the case
of confining experiments, an equivalent to 8p strain
was applied, prior to the vertical load application.
The load, strain and A.E.counts were monitored at
each stage of incremental load of lOON. The frac­
tured/ damaged surfaces of the rock and the wedges
were analyzed.

3.4 Fracture surface study

i) Correlation between the angle of the indentors and
the failure forces are presented in the figure 7.
a)Failure load moderately increases with increasing
wedge angle in confined state (bi-axial state of stress
field), see figure 7. b)Failure load decreases with in­
creasing wedge angle in unconfined condition.

ii) The RMS parameter corresponding to the Spa* is

Figure 8. Correlation between Angle of In­
dentor (a) and SPq in rock.
3.2 Analytical Studies
ANSYS program was used for finite element mod­
eling in analytical studies. The data in Table 1 repre­
sents the strain per unit load at a selected number of
nodes along the vertical axis (Y) (along the height of
the specimen) represented by the height of the
specimen. The values ex represents the strain in a di­
rection perpendicular to the vertical axis of the
specimen, ey represents the strain along the height of
the specimen and ez represents the strain along the
free face.
presented in the figure8. The figure 8 shows that
SPq is decreasing as angle of the indentor in­
creases. From figure 8 one can conclude that the
fracture surface will become smoother as the inden­
tor angle increases.
*SPa = Arithmetic mean of departures of the surface
from the mean plane.
**SPq = RMS parameters corresponding to SPa.
iii) In figures 9-10 wear parameters SPa, and SPq are
sloping down as the angle of indentor (a) is in­
creasing i.e., to say wear is decreasing as the angle
of wedge is increasing. Since the failure force is de­
creasing with increasing wedge angle, hence dam-
age/wear on wedge is also decreasing with increas­
ing wedge angle (in unconfined condition). From the
stress analysis point of view interaction of wedge

604
indentor, with rock will be more complex which re­ duce equivalent tensile stress (splitting stress) than
quires three dimensional stress analysis of wedge the larger wedge angle. Furthermore for hard mate­
rock interaction. rial, sharp bits will wear faster and becomes dull and
less effective than the large wedge angle. The thick­
3.5 Failure mechanism ness of the damaged zone is higher for lower wedge
angle (40^) than the larger wedge as it was shown
This analysis is based on the range of experiments analytically that wider wedge angle (90^)is more ef­
conducted. As shown in the Table 1 the lateral strain fective in producing strain in z direction (Cz) in con­
(normal to the wedge plane X-direction) is decreas­ fined conditions and cause failure in soft materials
ing as the load on indentor is increasing. This proc­ (i.e. coal) at lower load in comparison to a sharper
ess is due to the penetration of the indentor into the bit. This will assist the fragmentation process with
rock and results in transformation of the stress con­ least energy consumption. So from dust generation
centration from the tip to the surface of the wedge. point of view a wider angle is better to select in par­
The larger the wedge angle, the higher the redistri­ ticular when cutting rock.
bution would be. As the specimen reaches to failure,
lateral displacement decreases with increasing load
irrespective of the angle of the wedge (see Figure 4).
That means the wedges are already penetrated suffi­
ciently into the rock to produce tensile stress (split­
ting stres^ with in the specimen. The lower wedge
angle, 40" penetrates deeper at the initial loading
stage with higher stress concentration imposed on
the rock, higher wedge angle 90^ however required
higher load (see Table 1).

From the failure process point of view, its obvious

that initial wedge-rock interaction results in high Figure 9. Correlation between Angle of In­
stress concentration (compression and shear) (see dentor (a) and bit wear.
figure 11) at the area of the contact zone, results in
crushing of the material in the vicinity of the contact
zone (between wedge and rock), microfailure. As the
stress exceeds the strength of the material, it results Indentors V\èar(*SPci)
in pulverization of the interface zone. As the wedge 7.00
I • VVter
♦
' UnearOAfear)
penetrates further and the loading continues, the &00
&00
pulverization of the contact zone extends until suffi­ 400 ♦ ^ -------
' ^
cient tensile stress (splitting stress) develop to initi­ 3.00
200
ate failure, the extension of the pulverization zone 1.00

stops, hence failure of the specimen occurs. () 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

The thickness of the pulverized zone in the wedge-

*Unfiltered RMS parameter œrrespondlng to Spa
rock interface depends on two factors i) material
characteristics, such as brittle, ductile behavior of
the material in particular cracks, discontinuities, po­ Figure 10. Correlation between Angle of In­
rosity and flaws in the material, which are more sus­ dentor (a) and SPq for indentors.
ceptible to crushing stress and allow wedge to pene­
trate deeper into the material, ii) wedge angle, the
higher the angle, less wedge penetration and less
crushed material.

4 CONCLUSIONS

From the material characteristics one can conclude

that soft material (ductile) require more wedge
penetration to cause failure of the material than the
hard material (with brittle characteristics). Sharper
( and low angle) bits require less forces to penetrate
into the material, however this results in more wear Figure 11. Various stress zones in the indenta­
of the wedge, because of its travel distance to pro­ tion process

605
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank Dr./Eng. Janusz Szymkowski

and Mgr./Eng. Franciszte Bienia, Technical Univer­
sity of Wroclaw, Poland for helping in the instru­
mentation of the experiments. This research was car­
ried out under the sponsorship of Fulbright and
special thanks are due to the Fulbright Organization.

6 REFERENCES

Abramson, N. 1981. The Making and Evaluation

of Holograms, NewYork, NY: Academic Press,
Inc.
Duk-won,P, D.A.Summers & N.B.Aughenbaugh
1977. Model studies of subsidence and ground
movement using Laser Holography.
3. Hanson, B.D., & Roepke, W.W., 1979, Effect of
symmetric bit wear and attack angle on air borne
respirable dust and energy consumption,
USBMRI 8395, 24pp.
4. Miller, M.H., and Sikarskie, D.C., 1968. On the
penetration of rock by three-dimensional inden-
tors, Int.J.Rock Mech. Min.Sci., Vol 5, pp. 375-
398.
5. Paul.B., & Sikarskie,D.L., 1965, A preliminary
theory on static penetration by a rigid wedge into
brittle rock material. Transactions of SME-
AIME, Dec., pp. 372- 383.
6 . Khair,A.W., 1983, Analysis of interaction be­
tween models of mine roof-pillar-floor using
holographic interferometry and analytical tech­
niques, 24^ U.S.Symposium on Rock Mechan­
ics, pp. 107-118.
7. Khair, A.W., 1984, Study of fracture mecha­
nisms in coal subjected to various types of sur­
face traction using holographic interferometry.
Proceedings of the 25^*^ U.S. Rock Mechanics
Symposium, North Western University, pp. 103-
114.
Khair, A.W., S.K.Bhuvanapalli, B.Cialkowski &
J.Szymkowski 1997. Assessment of Geometrical
parameters for cutting bits. Proceedings of Inter­
national Conference on Geomechanics 96, pp.
361-368.
9. Khair, A.W., Dr/Eng. Janusz Szymkowski &
Mgr.Eng. Franciszcle Bienia, 1999. The effect of
indentor angle on fracture intensity - a qualita­
tive assessment of the design to reduce respirable
dust. Control of Dust Hazards in the Mining In­
dustry, International Scientific and Technical
Conference, KOMAG, Poland.
10. Warner, E.M., 1970, Machine and cutting ele­
ment design, Min-Congr.J., Aug., pp 35-43.
11. Wenyon, M. 1978, Understanding holography,
NewYork, NY, Arco Publishing Co, Inc.

606
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Prediction o f roadheader performance: A geotechnical assessm ent schem e

M.A.Kirkbride
Kvaerner Cementation, Doncaster, UK

ABSTRACT: Roadheader type machines are now widely used in mining and tunnelling applications, and
encountering the full spectrum of ground conditions. This study examines the key geological and geotechnical
factors that influence machine performance and uses a series of influence diagrams to illustrate the complexity
of the cutting process. A classification scheme is presented which can be used to predict the performance of a
given machine under particular geotechnical conditions. The scheme has been compiled using case history
data and research work, and is similar in principle to the Rock Mass Rating scheme. Genuine case studies
have been used to calibrate and confirm the ability of the new Scheme to reliably predict roadheader
performance.

1. INTRODUCTION performance, in the same way for example that a

geotechnical engineer might use a rock mass
Boom type tunnelling machines (roadheaders) were classification scheme to assess rock support
first developed during the late 1940’s in the USSR, requirements.
as a progression from coal cutting using saws and
chains. These prototype machines used a boom
equipped with cutters. The first machine used in the
UK was a Russian PK3 roadheader, purchased by
the National Coal Board (NCB) in 1961. This
machine provided the basis for subsequent research
and development work, and can be identified as the
precursor to the current roadheaders now in
production.
The research carried out at the UK NCB MRE
during the 1960’s and 1970’s led to machines of
increasing size, weight and power, and also led to
the development of a detailed catalogue of research
and operating experience with these machines;
including cutting head and tool design, tool selection
and machine monitoring systems. Figure 1: Typical roadheader machine
Many studies of machine performance have been
undertaken to examine how geomechanical For performance, roadheaders are generally
parameters might influence both cutting rates and classified by their overall weight and cutting power,
tool consumption. The bulk of this early work, into one of three main groups;
however, focuses either upon the influence of intact 1. Light duty - A utility roadheader for in-seam
rock parameters (such as strength indices obtained mining work and other soft rock cutting - machine
from laboratory rock testing) or, less commonly, weight up to 40t.
solely upon rock mass parameters (such as RQD 2. Medium duty - similar dimensions to light
values). duty, but equipped with high power cutting booms,
This resulted in some very detailed knowledge of (up to three times greater than light duty machines) -
machine performance correlated to specific machine weight from 40t up to 80t.
parameters in a limited number of rock types. It did 3. Heavy duty - Large in physical size, overall
not provide a general scheme to predict machine weight and installed power - machine weights in
excess of 80t.
607
2. OBJECTIVES OF THE WORK
The study was initiated to investigate the use of
roadheaders with the aim of producing an
assessment scheme that could predict accurately the
expected performance from a given machine in any
particular ground conditions.
The company’s previous experience was with
machines operating almost entirely within Coal
Measures strata (sedimentary deposits of mudstone,
siltstone and sandstone with occasional igneous
features). Civil engineering and mineral mining
projects will encounter the complete spectrum of
material types, from fractured to massive, from
sedimentary mudstones, metamorphosed schists
through to hard igneous rocks. This raises two key
commercial questions:
1. what are the limits of machine application ?
2. at what rates could a given machine be
expected to perform ?
3 RESEARCH PROGRAMME & SITE STUDIES
The research work examined existing methods to
predict and assess machine performance, including
those currently favoured within the industry. The
literature review highlighted the fact that previous
studies had not fully examined the combined effects
of both rock mass and intact rock parameters upon
machine performance. Another review examined
the many available methods for geotechnical
assessment of rock mass and intact rock parameters.
This work was essential to any subsequent progress
on the subject.
These studies showed up an insufficient range of
detailed case histories that could be used to assess
machine performance - some studies were available,
but these alone were not detailed enough with
respect to rock mass or intact rock conditions. To
supplement these case histories a significant
proportion of this study was devoted to both mining
and civil site-based performance assessments of
various machine types, operating in a wide range of
geotechnical conditions.
A large database of operating conditions,
geotechnical parameters and machine performance
was assembled over a period of more than 2 years -
the majority coming from on-site observations and
records of numerous tunnelling and mining projects
and some from published case histories.
4 FACTORS fNFLUENCING ROADHEADER
PERFORMANCE
When planning a tunnelling system, the overall
tunnel advance rate is one of the major parameters to
define. Machine performance is just one of several
608
parameters which influences the overall tunnelling
advance rate (Figure 2).
The prediction scheme described here is aimed at
giving guidance in the selection of the appropriate
type of roadheader machine, and so at the outset the
following question was posed: -
‘what are the essential machine performance
requirements of any roadheader ?’
Three immediate responses to this question are:
1. Will the machine cut the rock ?, if so
2. at what rate, and level of performance will the
machine be expected to cut ?, and
3. will it be durable - what wear should be ex­
pected on the machine and cutting tools ?
Figure 2: Influence diagram for parameters
influencing tunnel advance rate
To develop the prediction scheme, a study of all
possible factors influencing machine performance
was required. Influence diagrams were produced to
help identify these factors, and to provide a clear and
simple approach to scheme definition. An influence
diagram shows the main parameter under
consideration positioned centrally, with the various
first order influence factor groups surrounding this.
In this way, the factors influencing the
performance of roadheader machines can be
investigated, and a pair of influence diagrams
illustrate this. Figure 3 shows five first order factors
considered from the work described above, to have
the most influence on machine performance.
Second order influence factors can now be added,
and the detailed influence diagram is shown on
Figure 4. This illustrates the complexity and wide
range of factors that influence machine performance.
It also demonstrates how the simple yet often used
method of basing machine performance solely upon
the unconfmed compressive strength of a rock can
be extremely misleading. Very often a weak rock
can be extremely onerous to cut if massive and
abrasive - as many project managers have
discovered!

Figure 3: Influence diagram for main factors
influencing machine performance.
5 PREDICTION SCHEME
5.1 Comprehensive approach
A comprehensive prediction scheme needs to
provide sufficient information to select the
appropriate machine; and to define a number of key
parameters;
1. Machine type & size
2. Machine cutting power (kW)
3. Boom arcing/sumping/lifting forces (kN)
4. Predicted cutting rate (m^/hr)
5. Predicted tool wear (toolsW )
6. Overall operating costs
7. Required debris disposal rate
8. Ease/difficulty of operations - identify problem
areas
A scheme to predict and outline all of the above
information would require the development of a
hugely extensive database covering many hundreds
of case histories, from which reliable estimates
could be produced using an expert system approach.
To develop such a model to predict accurately these
parameters, the whole range of influences would
need to be considered (shown previously in the
influence diagrams).
A traditional way to predict performance is to use
statistical regression analysis of distinct measurable
parameters, and this approach has produced various
methods to determine the cutting forces and specific
energy, as well as tool wear rates. This approach is
beneficial for certain parameter predictions within
the overall framework of an in-depth analysis.
If a detailed scheme were to be developed based
upon figure 4, a minimum of 86 parameters need to
be considered. Some of these are pre-defined in
design, others fixed, such as some of the rock mass
parameters, and others unknown, such as operator
experience.
With such a large number of parameters any
prediction scheme would be very difficult to
achieve, and in reality such a comprehensive
prediction scheme is not attainable. It is necessary to
609
reduce the number of parameters to a workable level
by elimination of non-critical parameters. The aim is
to create a practical prediction scheme, which
considers only the main influencing parameters that
control the performance of roadheader machines.
5.2 Practical approach
As discussed, a comprehensive prediction scheme is
beyond the scope of short-term study because of the
large number of variables involved. However, to
reduce these to a level where a scheme can be
produced, it is essential that the main influencing
factors can be identified.
The data collected from the site monitoring, and
the various case histories have provided an
indication of those factors that do influence machine
performance.
5.3 Minimum prediction scheme requirements.
A major consideration when looking to develop a
classification scheme is the ease with which the
information required to use the scheme is gathered,
and the overall ease of use of the scheme itself
It is possible to develop classification schemes
using various techniques, as in the case of rock
support assessment schemes. The various
methodologies that can be used include;
1. Empirical - relying on experiment or experience
2. Analytical - using numerical methods such as
finite element modelling, computer simulations
etc.
3. Observational - using monitoring to detect
various influences and behaviour.
Typically, and historically, most engineering
classifications have been developed from an
empirical approach; this is true of most common
engineering classification schemes which are in use
today.
For this study, in general, the empirical scheme is
incorporated with the observational techniques to
establish both the first and second order parameters.
The most important aspect of this proposed
assessment scheme is to accurately predict the likely
success of a machine within any given rock type/s.
Following the main decision concerning the
ability of a roadheader to cut the rock, a measure of
the expected cutting rates of given machines is the
next major factor. In many cases these two
considerations will be sufficient to finalise the
decision of whether to use a roadheader or not.
Finally, and secondary to the two main decision
making processes, is the ability to predict the tool
wear rates.
The point at which machine cutting becomes
uneconomical is a function of both the actual cutting
rate and tool replacement rate, and this is examined
later.
 Figure 4: Influence diagram for detailed factors influencing roadheader machine performance.
5.4 Roadheader classification scheme.
For the decision process outlined above, and with
the information gained from site analysis, it was
decided that an empirical classification scheme
would be the most suitable. Empirical schemes such
as the Rock Mass Rating Scheme, (RMR) have been
widely adopted within the industry.
One of the major decisions in producing a new
classification scheme is the main framework used to
develop this. Here it was felt that if a similar
framework to that developed by Bieniawski, it
would be more familiar, and thus easier to use, for
the majority of engineers already conversant with
RMR classification.
Following the same framework dictates that the
rating scheme should produce final ratings in a range
where 0 represents the easiest cutting conditions and
100 represents the worst cutting conditions. Also, six
main parameter groups have been outlined, using the
information gathered from site studies, case histories
and personal experience.
It was also deemed essential for practical
purposes, that more than one method of classifying
many of the parameters be provided, similar to the
RMR scheme. In many cases the only rock mass and
intact rock information available is abstracted from
610
site investigation data, and this is often presented in
various formats.
The six main parameters for the new scheme are:
1. Intact rock strength
2. Abrasivity
3. Rock fracture
4. Fracture orientation
5. Machine specification
6. Tunnel parameters
These six parameters have been weighted to
indicate the relevant influence on the overall cutting
performance. Parameters 4, 5 & 6 use sub ratings,
which then sum to the final rating.
Six categories of performance have been used,
ranging from excellent cuttability to not cuttable.
These rating groups also define a predicted cutting
range in cubic metres per hour and additional
remarks are provided to outline the expected
performance. The full classification scheme is
incorporated onto one sheet, shown in table 2.
5.5 Comparison o f actual and predicted
performance using the Classification Scheme
To provide a significant correlation, and to
investigate the success, or otherwise, of the
Roadheader classification scheme, a series of test
data sets have been collected from a number of case
histories. These were used to produce ratings to
provide estimated machine cutting performance
characteristics and ratings in order to provide
confidence in the application of the scheme.
These cases included applications in a number of
different tunnel conditions, ranging from large road
tunnels in igneous rocks through to conventional
bulk mining applications such as coal and potash
mining. They also contain a variety of machine
types, with varying sizes and cutting powers. A
summary of the actual and predicted performance is
presented in table 1.
These results clearly demonstrate the excellent
correlation between the predicted and actual cutting
rates. In every case the classification placed the
cutting suitability into the correct grouping, and this
demonstrates its usefulness as a prediction tool.
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
cutting to be both complex, and dependent upon a
number of autonomous geotechnical and geological
factors.
The classification scheme that has been outlined
in this work has been based upon a framework
similar to the Geomechanics Rock Mass Rating
scheme. It uses a number of influencing parameters,
outlined from the site based work, that have a major
effect on the performance of a given machine in
specified ground conditions.
The scheme cannot be used as a ‘simple solution’
approach to machine application and performance
assessment. However, when used in combination
with practical knowledge and some care, it allows a
greater understanding to be gained of the expected
machine performance, based upon a number of
easily measured and readily available tests and data
sets. The scheme provides a basis from which
machine performance can be more reliably and
confidently predicted.

This work provides a starting point for the

7.0 ACKOWLEDGEMENTS
assessment of roadheader performance based upon
geotechnical parameters. It is not an exhaustive
The author would like to thank Kvaemer
scheme, nor can it be regarded as a guaranteed
Construction Group, and in particular Stewart
method of performance prediction. Keeble, Managing Director of Kvaemer
However, it does draw together many aspects of
Cementation, for the support provided throughout
previous work, and provides a practical scheme
this work and for permission to publish this paper.
which can be readily used to provide an unbiased
The views and opinions expressed in the paper
assessment of likely performance of a given machine are solely those of the author: they are not
in particular conditions.
necessarily those of Kvaemer ASA.
The discussion and examination of the various
factors influencing the performance of roadheader
type machines has shown the system of machine

T able 1: C ase history com parisons

C utting rate (m'^/hr)
C ase R ocktype actual predicted Suitability Rem arks

1 T u ff 8 13 Poor A ctual rates not instantaneous,

B asalt 3 4 V ery poor include som e non-cutting tim e
Tuff- 14 18 M oderate
B asalt 4 .6 7 Poor
2 M udstone 25 27 M oderate
Sandstone 8 6 Poor
Siltstone 2 1 V ery poor
Sandstone 12 8 Poor
G reyw acke 23 21 M oderate
Shale 6.6 7 Poor
S h ale/clay 19.2 23 M oderate
Sandstone 11.5 9 Poor
3 M udstone 7.2 7.5 Poor
4 Potash 60 3 8 -5 9 G ood W orst-best cases
5 T u ff 40 46 G ood
T u ff 15 23 M oderate
Trachytes 12 13 Poor
6 Siltstone 9.3 8 Poor L ow er case m achine w as
Siltstone 19 10.5 Poor reprofiling on ly
7 Schist 10 11 Poor

611
Table 2. Roadheader Classification Scheme

Moderately Modrastely SiFOTtg Very Strong Extremely

W«dt SfiTM
^ Strong
K25-5 ; jr; >,■■■123-50 .;T| j, -■Vjl./:. 50-190 }>- > ■'
<0,5 0 .5 -1 1 -2 ■ ■2 - 4 ■ • 4 -7 .5 ........ >7.5

- WHÊ- ,
% in strata ■'. <5 , ■ 5 -1 5 ■ 15 - 30 3 0 -45 4 5 -6 0 > 60 '
mwmmmmmm
Cwtdiar dMBsivity Non^trasive . Low Medium Modoate H i^ Extreme^ High
i l . i - 2.5
i3iiiS8Ki3HB
Rating 0 3 S 14 20 25

Cementation type ; : Non-cemented Clay cement Cakite cement Sflt & some quartz QuarU cement
m
Ratiuts " ' . : ■:o' " 6 14 ..' 20 '25

Large & Heavy, or shield Medium & heavy Medium & medium Light &. medium Ltgiit & low

Sub ratiag 1 ^ ^ 0 ^ ^ ' 1.25 2.5 3.75 s"

kW >200 110-200 ^ ^ ^

Note , Add 2.5 to the cutting head power rating if a hydraulic cutter motor is fitted.
Subtract 1.5 per 50kW of head power more than 250kW
Subtract 1.5 per 50t of machine mass more than lOOt.

Area 4-15m^ >15m^ < 40m^

Profile Rectangular / D diape Circular Non-standard

Water Inflow Damp Wet Dripping Flowing

.......
Cuttability classes based on ratings
^
from 1.-6. .
‘ CÏÏ0» ■■
¿1^ '' 'i ^ % t.
Rating 0 -1 2 1 2 -25 2 5 -40 40 -5 5 55 - 70 70-100

i -■■' Exodlenl-J--- i VayPotw ji/ti'j 'Ndtceâtdblc

Predicted Cuttalnlity range > 50 30 to 50 15 to 30 5 to 15 <5 N/A

(iii^Æir)

R e m m t^ . -. ^ j^ c e lie n tilii^ id e a l^ 1
Cutting and sumping i WiU^Kitcut, t« t wdl not - - vrilh ' ' [ " l l É i t ô â E canned’be cut
i suited to r o a d h ^ m . ■ 1 easüy. with deep cuts. ! p ro d u d ^lsg h ^j produce good rates, WiU j great ffifficidty, rjnông '.. 1 using ^a n c ^ d roadheader
1 Stgtport proWems may ' ? Wdl suited for ’ prodtn^on raea. M stirâe | t also incut «.^aficant V J v « y high wear and j etpnpment.
^ reduce die final advance : Toadiwader appheatiem. 1 wearfetkeed to ■ ; 1 damage to madant^ .. ' 1 d a i ^ e to die machiiK. '
!■ rates ] Good productioii rat« and ‘ f servkedjle levels. . _
1 low machine and to d 1
i 1 utukr proioBged . .
1 cond^rma. ■
I '■■ ■■■■■'■■■■■
i ! wear ' \1. . o '. \ 1 I- . ■ ^ V;

612
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3
Computer sim ulation o f the open pit transportation system s
B.Kolonja & N.Vasiljevic
Faculty of Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade, Yugoslavia
R.Stanic
Coal Mines ‘Pljevlja\ Yugoslavia
ABSTRACT: This paper presents two typical GPSS/H simulation models: in-pit crushing system and con­
tinuous mining system (BWE/conveyors). These models can be used for the operation planning purposes and
equipment selection, therefore we present two cases studied.
1 INTRODUCTION
Mine simulation modeling is most popular approach
for planning and selection of the transportation
systems for a new mining project or the change to a
technologically more advanced one for existing
operation. Mining operations are concentrating on
the best possible utilisation of their resources to
increase their productivity. It is important to realize
that these issues are largely in the domain of the
mining engineer, who has responsibility for overall
performance of the mine production system. To
achieve these advances operations have been looking
to new and innovative ways of maintaining and
improving their competitive advantage. Simulation
has been applied in the mining industry, mainly in
connection with transport systems, mine planning
and production scheduling.
Simulation has evolved over the last three
decades into a powerful tool for the design, analysis,
and control of complex systems. Recent advances in
computer simulation software have enabled it to
become widely accessible as an effective
optimisation tool within the mining industry. Most
of the simulators have been developed using
simulation languages such as SIMAN/ARENA,
GPSS/H, WITNESS or 3D-simulation package as
AutoMOD.
This paper details the comparativ analysis and
simulation study of the new in-pit crushing system at
the "Bogutovo selo coal mine", and simulation study
of the coal blending process on "Tamnava coal
mine" during the working phase. The overall aim of
these projects was to use simulation software to
firstly simulate the system and then optimise the
operation of the system given the operational
constraints. Developed animation has allowed
613
simulation to become a powerful communication
vehicle amongst engineers, operators and senior
management. Complex analysis can be clearly and
simply demonstrated to non-technical people. Here
should be pointed out several other potential benefits
for employing animation during a simulation run.
These would include assistance with model
validation, assistance with debugging, and an
illustration of the dynamic behavior of the system.
2 THE SIMULATION MODEL OF COAL MINE
"BOGUTOVO SELO"
Using shovel-trucks system as the means of transport
in surface coal mines makes for highly flexible
materials handling. However, this advantage only
assumes priority importance when the mining
process switches between several working levels or
different face areas of the mine. Considering facts
that truck haulage represents about 50% or more of
operating costs in most surface mines, there is a need
for efforts to reduce shovel-truck system's operating
cost. Consideration regarding alternative handling
systems (in-pit crushing technology) become
attractive when the flexibility of pure truck transport
is no longer required.
Generally speaking, the significantly reduced
operating costs of the semi-continuous system as
compared with truck operation are dinstictive for the
economic advantages of continuous equipment. The
main benefits are:
■ lower specific power requirements
■ considrably lower costs of spares and wearing
parts
■ considrably lower costs for road construction and
maintanance
 ■ lower personnel costs
- low environmental pollution (dust, exhaust
fumes etc.)
In-pit crushing systems are being increasingly
selected whenever long-term planning is possible
and accurate operating cost analyses are prepared.
When evaluating the costs of two transport
technologies such as the pure truck system and the
in-pit crushing system, analysis should include
techno-economic comparison between different
system equipment scenarios. This led to the
development of a program system for technological
and economic calculations which are presented next.
The first and primary objective was to
develop a working simulation model of the mine
haulage system which is an accurate reflection of the
actual haulage system. Figure 1. Secondlly, the goal
was to use the computer simulation model to
simulate the truck haulage with and without in-pit
crushing system for purposed surface mine
operations. A model was programmed with GPSS/H
simulation language. Animation in PROOF was used
to check for computer model validity. During the
verification and validation, some small changes were
made in the program to bring it closer to the reality.
Than, developed model was used to:
1. Estimate various trucks and shovels
configurations within discontinuous haulage
system
2. Study the impact of a new in-pit crushing system
on the trucks and shovels operation productivity
3. Serve as planning tool to estimate the expected
production from a given trucks /shovel - in-pit
crushing haulage system.
Since a large number of variables and
parameters were involved in the analysis it was
decided to simulate the operational reliability of the
production system using the existing performance
and production information from the mine records.
In time studies, it was very important to clearly
define the duration of each operation time element.
To collect information about the times between the
various events and the corresponding duration of
C ru s h in g
U n lo a d in g T ru c k T ru c k
w ith tr u c k h a u la g e h a u la g e
I--------
Figure 1. Mine haulage system at "Bogutovo selo" coal mine.
614
such events (the times between the failures of
machines, the loading time, shovel moving-
repositioning time, truck travel times, dumping and
spotting time at crusher etc.), the daily shift
performance sheet for a period of two years were
collected from the operation and maintenance
reporting cards from the mine.
Using the performance statistics, all major
disturbances were identified and, after trend analysis
of the reliability data, the performance statistics from
the daily production and maintenance reporting
sheets and timing data were used to calculate the
frequency of occurrences and their duration for each
type of disturbance. Their respective distribution
functions were determined using UniFit II, a
commercial statistical analysis package.
The structure of the simulation model is composed
of five distinctive parts:
1. Submodel of the operation-time, equipment
failure and repair occurrences;
Submodel of the loading process by a shovels;
Submodel of the trucks hauling on road network
and unloading at dumping sites or crushing
bunker;
4. Submodel of a three-shift working day with
organizational delays during shifts;
5. Submodel for the performing simulation
experiments and analysis of the simulation data.
The INPUT menu for the simulation program
consists of the following:
1. Shift information: this includes the total shift
time, the time lost in shift preparation, and the
effective working time per day.
2. Production system data: this incorporates the
number of the working sites, the quantity of
weste to be transported, the number of the
dumping sites, the quantity of weste to be crused,
etc.
3. Truck-shovel information : this includes all the
information concerning the trucks, shovels such
as mean times between failures, mean times to
repairs, loading capacity, operating weight, the
C o n v e y o r b e l t h a u la g e U n lo a d in g
 2 0 0 0 2001 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2011 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3

Project life

Figure 2. R equired num ber o f trucks through project life

haul road network, trucks speed on road network,
etc.
4. In-pit crushing information: this includes the
crusher and belt conveyors capacity, the mean
times between failures, mean repair times etc.
5. Options for simulation: this facilitates the
selection of the number of days to be simulated
and also the number of simulation runs.
The following output were obtained from the
simulation runs:
- Production volume - daily or cumulative
- Time lost due to individual disturbances on a day
to day basis.
- Truck and shovel downtimes and wait times,
- The total production and production from each
truck-shovel system
- The total production for each truck-shovel-in/pit
crushing system
- The total system availability, and utilization
3. CASE STUDY
Three combination of equipment have been
considered: RH120/Faun K.120, RH120/LH M.120
and H241/CAT 785B. The optimal number of
trucks for various system configurations was
determined according to the maximal degree of
coordination among equipment in the system. Figure
2 and Table 1 show the required number of systems
with optimal number of trucks for the expected
yearly production in both transportation systems.
The economic analysis was performed to evaluate
these two transportation systems using NPV method.
As a result of the analysis, the technical and
technological effects of a given equipment
combination are considerred and expressed through
the unit of costs. The structure of total investment
has shown that the material and energy costs are
dominant and participate by 38% to 43 %. The total
transportation costs are not proportional to the
increase in the truck capacities. Figure 3 shows that
the lowest costs per unit of transported waste (2,16
D M W ) is generated by the truck-shovel system - H-
241/CAT 785B.
4. THE SIMULATION MODEL OF
BWE/CONVEYORS SYSTEM ON "TAMNAVA
COAL MINE"
The schematic display of the continuous production
system (BWE - and belt conveyors) for the
transportation of coal from the surface mines to the
crushing plant is shown in figure 4.
This study was carried out in order to identify and
evaluate different distrubances in the coal production
process that would enable Tamnava Coal Mines to
increase the utilization of lowe coal quality in
deposit. The simulation model was developed to
analyse:

Table 1. T he num ber o f trucks in transportation system s

RH-120/ RH-120/ H-241/

FAUN K. 100 LH M120 CAT 785B
The type of system Number Number Number Numbe Number Number
of of of ro f of of
shovels trucks shovels trucks shovels trucks
Pure truck-shovel
5 22 5 21 5 15
system
In-pit crushing system 5 16 5 15 4 11

615
 □Trucks transport
■Trucks with in-pit crushing

CO
E
Q
i2
w
o
O

2000
■
2001
II
2002
1
2003
i i i i !■
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Project life
Figure 3. The NPV costs through the project life

conveyors with determination of the pondered

Figure 4. Schematic display of the continuous system on
Tamnava coal mine
- Influence of the equipment failures (BWE, belt
conveyors) on the coal blending process;
- Influence of the total shift time, the time lost in
shift preparation, and the effective working time
per day on total coal production;
- Influence of mixing the coal quality from the
different mine sites;
- Influence of the BWE capacity change on the coal
mixing process.
Simulation model was developed in GPSS/H 3.0
simulation language. The integral model include five
characteristic parts:
1. Submodel for simulation of the work and the
appearance of the failures of the conveyor
groups within the system which are connected in
line,
2. Submodel for the simulation of BWE digging
conditions and capacities,
3. Submodel for the simulation of the BWE failures
and repair process,
4. Submodel for the simulation of coal
transshipment from one to another group of
values of the overload coal calorific value,
5. Submodel for the simulation of the working day
in three shifts with organizational stops
appearing during the change of the shifts,
6. Submodel for the simulation time progress,
determination of the worming up period length
for simulation output analysis.
After analysis of the reliability data, the
performance statistics from the daily production and
maintenance reporting sheets and timing data we
calculate the frequency of occurrences and their
duration for each type of disturbance. Their
respective distribution functions were determined
with its parameters and used in the model.
The process of transportation has been
observed through the material flow that is provided
by BWE's on one side, and by throughput of
conveyors on the other. The capacity of the BWE’s is
obtained by multiplying the subbench height which
is dug, the depth of onset and the rotating speed of
the rotor. During simulation the arm speed is
stochastically changed according to the normal
distribution with the variance of ±5% relative to the
expected value. Verification and the validation of the
program was done using the techniques discussed in
Law and Kelton, 1991 in close cooperation with the
mine planning engineers.
The characteristics of the deposit according
to blocks: the dimensions of the block, its height and
the quality of layers are entered from the prepared
data file by the order GETLIST and store on the
defined matrix (MATRIX). The recognition of the
failures in the work on the excavator is done by the
block GATE which checks the state of the logic
switch (LOGIC) which is switched on when any of
the group of conveyors, in the line providing the
flow of the material fails or when a defect occurs on
the very excavator. According to the generated
values of the capacity and the familiar quality of coal
on the mine sites, the pondered values of the quality

616
 Simulation time (min)
Figure 5. Changes of the coal quality for four BWE's
Figure 6. Correction of BWE capacities
on the crossing points of the conveyors from
different mine sites, are obtained, see Figure 4.
Each BWE has assigned parameters of the blocks
within the deposit in which digging takes place. On
this basis working parameters are calculated: digging
cuts, the failure while changing the cut, the total time
of subbench digging, the failure while changing the
subbench, the total time of block digging, the
progressing length within the subbench, the number
of cuts etc. The possible period of the work when the
quality of coal is under optimum (5800 kJ/kg) is
determined by the control analysis and in that case
the introduction of the waste dump with a certain
quality and capacity, is planned. Similarly, the
analysis of the production quality while performing
the correction of the certain BWE capacities (see
Figure 5) is possible to be made in order to achieve
the satisfying quality of coal from the open pits.
617
5. CONCLUSIONS
Every day computer simulation has become easier to
understand and operate. Thus it has become a tool
which is available to a wide range of applications.
The major benefit of simulation is that a proposed
method can be tested for its effectiveness and
evaluated before making actual operational changes.
The case studies presented above illustrate just a few
of the applications of discrete event simulation in the
design and analysis of mine materials handling
systems. Because of the very high costs of mining
equipment and production operations, when capital
investments must be made to improve productivity
the benefits must be realized and simulating the
system and possible alternatives is the only way to
quantify whether all expectations will be met. In
addition to identifying bottlenecks and critical
components in the production system, these studies
has been quite useful in understanding the
production process and its configuration from a
reliability point of view.

REFERENCES

A. M. Law, W. D. Kelton, Simulation Modeling

and Analysis, 1991; McGraw-Hill Inc.
B. Kolonja and J. Mutmansky, Analysis of Truck
Dispatching Criteria for Surface Mining
Operations Using SIMAN, SME Transactions,
Vol. 296 1845, 1995, USA.
B. Kolonja, Stojanovic L., Vasiljevic N, Computer
simulation modeling and analysis of in pit
crushing systems for waste material handling,
ICCC2000,pp 293-296, High Tatras, Podbanske,
Slovak Republic, May 23-26, 2000.
M. Stojakovic, D. Ignjatovic, B. Kolonja, Covering
the blending process on the Tamnava deposit,
LIFE2000, 29. March-1. April, Freiberg,
Germany
Henriksen Jim, Robert C. Crain, GPSS/H reference
manual. Little River Turnpike, 1996.
Schriber J. Thomas, An introduction to simulation
using GPSS/H, 1991

618
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A ssessm ent o f the perform ance o f raise boring 73 RM -DC at the Pongkor
gold m ine, W est Java

S.Kramadibrata, M .A.Rai, S.Darmawan & I.Arif

Department o f Mining Engineering, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia
D.A.Sumanagara & A.Ardianto
PT Aneka Tambang, Indonesia
K. Matsui & H. Shimada
Department of Mining Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

ABSTRACT: A vertical shaft, so-called Ciurug Raise Boring II (CURB II), at the underground cut and fill
Pongkor Gold Mine, West Java was developed for ventilation, waste pass, and ore pass purposes by means of
a raise boring 73RM-DC. Assessment on the performance of the raise boring related to the geomechanical
parameters of the rock mass being excavated is described. The geomechanical parameters of intact rock, such
as, density, Brazilian tensile strength, unconfmed compressive strength, and Young’s Modulus were
determined from core rock samples obtained from depths of 40 m, 70 m, and 100 m below the shaft collar.
The machine performance parameters included, load per cutter, and reaming production. The raise boring
performance was analysed using Rock Excavatability Index.

1. INTRODUCTION mine area is in the range of 400 m - 700 m AST,

Development at the underground Pongkor gold mine
was based on total ore production of 12,000
ton/annum, and this was concentrated at the Ciurug
vein. Considering a number of aspects such as,
geology, geological structure, rock mechanics,
nydrogeology and economics, it was decided to
mine the ore by means overhead cut & fill method
and using a combination of load - haul - dump and
jumbo drill. For the purpose of ore and waste
transportations, bringing down the filling materials
to stopes and mine ventilation, nine vertical shafts at
a number of sites, including Ciurug intake (CURB
II) were developed. The development of the vertical
shafts was done by a raise boring of Robbins 73 RM-
DC.
This paper describes the assessment of the
performance of the raise boring related to the rock
properties and machine parameters during the
development of the vertical shaft at the Ciurug Raise
Boring II (CURB II). Length of the shaft was 97 m.
Rock properties concerned with this assessment
were physical and mechanical properties of intact
rock being excavated.
2. PONGKOR GOLDMINE
The underground Pongkor goldmine is located in
Kampung Sorongan, West Java, about 150 km from
Jakarta, and this is one of the mines operated and
owned by PT. Aneka Tambang. The altitude of the
and surrounded by mountaneous region. It is
important to mention herein that the mine site is
situated next to the Gunung Halimun National Park,
hence the mine is being done in a very proper
manner.
The gold veins were formed within the Miosen
vulcanic rocks and dominated by tuff andesitic, tuff
lapilli and vulcanic breccia. The total probable
reserve is estimated at amount of 6 million tonnes at
grades of 17.14 gr/tonne of gold and 154.28
gr/tonne of silver. The ore reserve is distributed
within three main veins, namely Ciguha vein,
Kubang Cicau vein and Ciurug vein. This paper is
concerned with the Ciurug vein as the assessment of
the raise boring performance was carried out at the
Ciurug Raise Boring II.
Complex geological structure that is encountered in
the Ciurug vein area of course weakens the rock
mass strength compared to the other veins.
3. RAISE BORING CHARACTERISTICS
The machine used was Raise Boring 73RM-DC of
Robbins. The drive power of the machine is 112 kW
and it has two drive speeds; 0 - 7 0 rpm and 0 - 3 0
rpm. According to the maximum pump out put, the
feed rates for pilot hole drilling and reaming are 150
mm/minute to 178 mm/minute and 84 mm/minute to
102 mm/minute respectively. The rod length, raise
diameter and pilot hole diameter are 152 cm, 2134
mm and 279 mm respectively.

619
The machine uses flat type reamer, and its operation
is based on standard method. This method allows
pilot hole be commenced either from the surface or
a level at underground, and afterwards a reamer is
attached at the end of the bit and retraction is carried
out from the surface or the level above.
The cutting head is equipped with 12 disc cutters.
This type of cutter is selected due to its suitability to
the rock strength characteristics. According to the
application of different types of cutting tool with
UCS (qc) of rock, disc cutter is appropriate to be
used for rock cutting in soft to hard rock as shown in
Table 1.
T a b le 1. C u ttin g to o l a p p lic a tio n fo r d iffe r e n t ro ck
s tr en g th s (a fte r D u r st & V o g t, 1 9 8 8 an d H a n d e w ith &
D ahm en, 1982)
Cutting tool Classification
Wedge tooth Very soft
Drag pick Very soft - soft
Disc cutter Soft - hard
Button cutter Hard - very hard
Efficient rock cutting using disc cutter can be
achieved when optimum cutter load is known, and
this is also applicable for the raise boring operation.
Cutter load can be determined based on thrust force
and torque force. The cutter load based on the thrust
force and torque can be calculated using the
equations [1] and [2] respectively.
Fih - W
Fct
n MPa, that is in agreement with that one obtained at
V/here, Fcth, Fth, W, and N are cutter load based on
thrust force (kg), thrust load (kg), dead weight (kg)
and number of cutter (for dome cutting head
mutliply by 0.66) respectively.
Fxq
rCTq -
^*0.66*r * /
Where, Fcxq, Fjq, r and f are cutter load based on
torque (kg), torque (Nm), radius of disc cutter, and
friction coefficient (0.08 for carbide cutter in hard
rock and 0.15 for kerf cutter in soft rock)
respectively.
4. GEOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION AND ROCK
ENGINEERING DATA
Observations on the operation of the raise boring
73RM-DC for vertical shaft CURB II development
vvere conducted at three levels, such as 40 m, 70 m
and 100 m, whereas the machine foundation was at
683 m AST. These levels corresponded to the core
rock samples obtained for laboratory test purposes.
The general geological description of the rock mass
and the Rock Quality Designation (RQD) of the
rock mass along the vertical shaft, particularly at the
3 levels are as follows;
• Level 40 m. Rock mass was relatively compact,
RQD = 80% - 100%, breccia vulcanic with
average value of Qc being 15.31 MPa,
weathered, and characterised by slightly smooth
wet it got wet.
• Level 70 m. Rock mass was compact, RQD =
100%, breccia vulcanic with average value of ac
being 25.93 MPa, no weathering identified,
breccia vulcanic was found from level 40 m to
70 m. Although the rock type encountered at this
ac (MPa) level was the same with that of level 40 m, the
<20 Qc value obtained from the level 40 was lower
than that of level 70 m. This may be attributed to
< 124 weathering and fractured as a result of complex
5-310 joints present at the area of level 40 m.
• Level 100 m. Rock mass was compact, RQD
>240
100%, andesitic rock with average value of ctc
being 47.60 MPa, fine fragmented, and dark
grey.
Laboratory tests were carried out to determine the
physical and mechanical properties of the intact
rocks obtained from the 3 levels. The average values
of density (y), ac, Young’s Modulus (E), Poisson’s
Ratio (v), and Brazilian tensile strength (at) are
given in Table 2. According to Rai (1995) the UCS
values of intact rocks in the Pongkor area, at depths
[ 1] greater than 100 m, are in the range of 30 MPa - 50
depth of 100 m (Table 2).
It can be noted that the values of ac, at and Young’s
Modulus of the rock encountered around the shaft
increase as the level gets deeper. This indicated that
rock excavation at deep levels would be more
[2 ] difficult than the levels near surface.
Table 2. Average values of the physical, and
mechanical properties of the intact rock samples
obtained from levels 40, 70 and 100 m of the
vertical shaft CURB II.
Depth Y (7 c E V <7t
(m) (gr/cc) (MPa) (GPa) (MPa)
40 2.24 15.31 3.84 0.22 3.41
70 2.17 25.93 5.59 0.42 5.44
100 2.44 47.61 11.82 0.48 10.61
620
5. OBSERVATION OF THE RAISE BORING
PERFORMANCE
It is important to mention that the following aspects
were not taken into account during observation on
the performance of the raise boring;
• stability of the shaft wall below the cutting head
• cutting tools are assumed to remain in good
condition
Thus, the observation was emphasized on deviation
Figure 2. Relationship between depth and cutter
of pilot hole drilling, cutter load, and reaming
load and reaming production.
production. Pilot hole drilling was based on
rotational methods using a tricone roller bit of 11
inch diameter. The deviation measured upon the The values of cutter load and reaming production at
completion of the vertical shaft development at the levels 40 m, 70 m and 100 m are given in Figure 2.
CURB II was 2.864 m for 168 m long with diameter This figure shows that as the level gets deeper, the
of 2.13 m. This deviation was apparently the largest cutter load increases, whilst the reaming production
among other deviations measured in the 8 pilot decreases. This evidence is in agreement with the
holes drilled within the Pongkor Goldmine fact that the intact rock becomes stronger at deeper
levels.
Based on the pilot hole drilling data, a curve of
relationship between deviation and hole depth was
constructed (Figure 1). In this figure, deviation 6. CUTTABILITY PREDICTION
classification proposed by Robbins Company is also ASSESSMENT
shown, and it can be seen that about 90% of the
pilot hole drilling (black dot) carried out in the The strength characteristics of a rock mass are much
Pongkor gold mine area but CURB II was within lower than for an intact rock sample (Kramadibrata
category of standard accuracy. & Jones, 1993). Beside, intact rock specimens are
easy to collect, cheap and can be tested under
various laboratory conditions. On the other hand, to
A c c u r a c y a b o v e s ta n d a r d A c c u r a c y u n d e r sta n d a r d
determine the strength characteristics of a rock mass
are difficult and expensive. Therefore, the majority
of suggested predictive methods still rely on the use
of intact rock specimens.

The RIFIN (Rock Impact Hardness Number - Misra,

1972, Wootton, 1974 and Brook, 1977) expressing
the fracture characteristics and RQD representing
one of the joint characteristics in the rock mass can
be used for assessing the performance of
roadheader. The performance, which is defined as
drivage rate of S-200 roadheader at the Miike
Figure 1. Relationship between deviation and hole Colliery, Japan can be predicted using the following
depth of pilot hole equation (Shimada & Matsui, 1994),

The pilot hole of CURB II was apparently within DR = f(RIHN.RQD) [3]

category of accuracy below standard. This was
attributed to the fact that the rock mass at the CURB where, DR, RIHN and RQD are drivage rate, rock
II was heavily fractured, starting from collar down impact hardness number, and rock quality
designation respectively.
to the depth of 26.7 m. The rock fracture may be
associated with highly weathered rock and the It is however important to note that recommended
present of a fault that intersected the hole at depth of tests to determine physical and mechanical
26.7 m at angle of 60° to vertical. properties that normally used for rock mechanics
purposes would be appropriate for rock cutting
assessment as well. It has been reported elsewhere

621
as well that an increase of joint frequency in a rock Where, X is defined as number of joints per meter
mass can improve rock cutting performance (Fowel (m-').
& Johnson, 1991; Kramadibrata & Jones, 1995).
Laboratory studies showed that under favorable Using the data obtained from Table 2 and Figure 2,
strata conditions the energy required to cut a jointed and fitted to the rock cuttability index model (Eq.
rock with disc cutter can be up to 50% lower than [4] and [5]), regression analysis was carried out. The
that required in intact rock (Howarth, 1987). regression revealed a linear equation with a very
Drivage rate with the use of a roadheader in heavily high degree of correlation (R^ = 0.97).
fractured rock mass was found to be dependent of
joint spacing than of rock strength. Consequently, a [RCI] - 0,43 + 141,23 [REI], R^ = 0,97 [7]
model that includes such intact rock and rock mass
properties as well as machine characteristics would Figure 3 shows relationship between REI and RCI
offer a better approach. of equation [7]. It indicates that equation [4]
apparently applicable for assessing the performance
Assessment on the performance of cutting machine of raise boring.
is an attempt to relate the machine power or cutting
head power to the physical and mechanical
properties of the intact rock and rock mass, by
recording its productive rate. An excavating power
model derived from field monitoring of Voest
Alpine Surface Miner 2D and Bucket Wheel
Excavator at a number of mine sites, including
Europe. Australia and Indonesia was proposed by
Kramadibrata and Jones (1995). This model takes
a*^count intact rock properties and rock mass
characteristics and is referred to as Rock
Excavatability Index (REI). This is defined as
follows,

[RCI] = 0,23 + 141 [REI] , R^ - 0,93 [4] It can be noted that the power required for the raise
boring to perform at the same level of production
where, [RCI] is defined as a ratio between cutting and rock properties is higher than for other cutting
head power (N - kW) to productivity (L - bcm/hr) machines.
times compressive strength (Gc - MPa) of intact
rock ( - + — ). 7. CONCLUSIONS
L * cr^
The assessment of the raise boring Robbins 73 RM-
According to data analysis of the excavating power DC performance indicates that the following may be
model, the REI is found to be as follows. important.
[REI] = [RMF] * [BI]-' [5] The data curve of pilot hole drilling shows that
eight from nine drilling can be categorised
where. [RMF] = ^ and [BI] = ^ within standard accuracy, whilst the one can be
CT„ a, considered as under standard accuracy, and this
may be attributed to heavily fractured rock
where, y and 5 are density (ton/m^), and joint condition.
spacing (m) respectively.
The use of raise boring machine for vertical
When the joint spacing is not measured directly, it shaft development at the Pongkor gold mine
can be estimated from the equation proposed by gives an alternative method against drilling and
Priest & Hudson (1976), blasting. Although, it should be borne in mind
that shaft wall stability is rather difficult to
RQD = 0,I e'“ '^(0,I X+ I) [6] maintain.

622
• Direct monitoring on both intact rock and rock Kramadibrata, S., and 1.0. Jones, 1993. Size effect
mass properties together with power delivered to on strength and deformability of brittle intact
the cutting tool are the most important rock. 2nd Int. Workshop on scale effects in
parameters for cutting machine assessment. rock masses. Lisboa, Portugal, pp. 277 - 284.
Misra, B., 1972. Correlation of rock properties with
• The cutting power model proposed is in fact
machine performance, Ph. D. Thesis, Leeds
significantly applicable for raise boring
University.
excavation within a range of intact rock and rock
mass properties Priest, S.D., and Hudson, J.A., 1976.
Dicontinuity spacing in rock. Int. J. Rock
Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., Vol. 13.
Acknowledgement
pp. 135 - 148.
PT Aneka Tambang is a state owned company who Rai, M.A., 1995. Evaluation of Stope Stability at
runs a number of mines in Indonesia including Ciguha Vein & Kubang Cicau Vein in the
nickel, gold, and iron sand mines. The authors wish Pongkor gold mine, ITB, December.
to thank to the management of PT Aneka Tambang
for allowing this research be carried out. Shimada, H., and Matsui, K., 1994. Prediction of
drivage/drilling rate by using rock impact
Any opinions stated in this paper are those of the hardness number. MMIJ/AusIMM Joint
authors themsleves and are not necessarily those of Symposium, Ube.
the Pongkor gold mine. Wootton, D., 1974. Aspects of energy requirements
for rock drilling. Ph. D. Thesis, Leeds
References University.
Brook, N., 1997. The use of irregular speciments for
rock strength tests. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min.
Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 14, pp. 193 - 202.
Durst, W., and Vogt, W., 1988. Bucket Wheel
Excavator - Series on Mining Engineering,
Vol. 7. Trans Tech Publications, Clausthal, pp.
49 - 124.
Fowelf R.J., and Johnson, S.T., 1991. Cuttability
assessment applied to drag tool tunnelling
machines. Proc. 7th Int. Congress Rock
Mechanics. ISRM, Ed. Wittke, A.A. Balkema,
Aachen, pp. 985 - 990.
Handewith, H.J., and Dahmen, N.J., 1982.
Tunnelling machines; in Underground mining
methods handbook. Ed. W.A. Elustrulid, SME,
New-York.
Howarth, D., 1987. Mechanical rock excavation -
assessment of cuttability and borability. Rapid
excavation and tunnelling conference, Vol. 1,
pp. 145 - 164.
Kramadibrata, S., and TO. Jones. 1995. Report on:
Workshop on validation of research findings
on cutting power modelling for excavation at
Krupp Fordertechnik in Lubeck, Rheinheusen,
Germany and Mining Engineering Department
of the National Technical Universty, Athens,
Greece, Curtin University of Technology,
August.

623
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

R ock technological parameters useful to water jet cutting system s

C.T Lauand, G. R. Martin C. & W.T Hennies

Mining Engineering Department, Polytechnic School, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
R.Ciccu
DIGITA, University of Cagliari, Italy

ABSTRACT: High pressure water jet technology for cutting rocks is currently employed for a very wide
range of materials including rocks, more specifically ornamental rocks. This advanced technology is applied
not only to drilling or excavation of hard rocks for winning the blocks with the opening of holes or slots, but
also for end products in the field of ornamental rocks. In recent years, the increasing worldwide use of ad­
vanced machinery, as new and advanced technology replaces conventional procedures, has led to fully auto­
mated technique that use CAD/CAM processes to manufacture high quality end products. A Brazilian Re­
search Program in this field began last year with the installation of a sophisticated equipment of high pressure
abrasive water jet system that was imported from the USA. This paper presents the first results of researches
about the main technological characteristics of Brazilian ornamental rocks, determined in laboratory with
granite and marble samples using this advanced technology. Laboratory determination of these parameters on
test samples of appropriate geometry were performed and the first results indicate that this procedure will
provide important data for the optimization of the cutting process. The tests were performed on samples of
commercial granite and marble that are very appreciated in the domestic market and also on rocks exported to
the international markets.

1 INTRODUCTION Research Development (Lauand et al.,2000), to im­

In a paper published by Kovacevic et al, (1997)
there is the following reference: “Thermodynamic
analysis of material removal mechanisms indicates
that an ideal tool for shaping of materials is a high
energy beam, having infinitely small cross-section,
precisely controlled depth, and direction of penetra­
tion, and does not cause any detrimental effects on
the generated surface. The production of the beam
should be relatively inexpensive and environmen­
tally sound while the material removal rate should
be reasonably high for the process to be viable. A
narrow stream of high energy water mixed with
abrasive particles comes close to meeting these re­
quirements because abrasive waterjet machining has
become one of the leading manufacturing technolo­
gies in a relatively short period of time.”
To make high precision parts with automatic
computer-aided control, the international market
currently offers sophisticated systems for cutting
hard materials with the abrasive water jets or soft
materials with only water at high pressure.
Last year, one of such high technology equipment
was bought by the Sao Paulo University with the
help of FAPESP, the Sao Paulo State Foundation of
plement an advanced technology workshop.
The abrasive water jet Module was installed at
the Rock Mechanics Laboratory and a Brazilian Pro­
gram for cutting Ornamental Rocks has begun as
part of a Masters of Engineering Graduation Course.
The purpose is to develop research projects on tech­
nological parameters for cutting rocks.
The system requires high quality garnet for
proper operation. Whenever a quality equivalent
product is not available in Brazil, it is necessary to
import from foreign countries, and the recommended
80 mesh grain size is the most expensive abrasive
that can be used in the system. As in Brazil there are
quality suppliers of manufactured, cheaper abra­
sives, two samples were also tested. These materials
are aluminum oxide and silicon carbide, 80 mesh
grain size, supplied by Alcoa, with facilities located
in Salto de Itu, Sao Paulo, at a convenient distance
from our Institution.
2 GENERAL ASPECTS
For the first studies intended to check the new
equipment behavior and its performance for cutting
different kinds of rocks.

625
 Geological Squetch and Quarries location
Figure 1. L ocation o f the Granite and M arble Quarries in the S ao Paulo State.
For the first studies, three granite and one marble
specimens of commercial quality ornamental rocks
from the State of Sao Paulo were selected, and pre­
liminary samples cut for testing the system, as well
as to determine major technological parameters and
behavior of this rocks under the new cutting system.
Another purpose was to determine test parameters
of different abrasive options for the water jet system,
not only because of the issues with imported garnet,
as mentioned above, but also because of the fact that
synthetic, or manufactured, abrasives normally have
more constant chemical and physical properties than
those of natural minerals.
Field trips to collect rock samples was the first
part of the work. Then these samples were shaped
according to standard procedures, with conventional
diamond blades, prior to the test with the water jet
cutting nozzle of the OMAX System. The next phase
was the actual test of system, when several rock
samples were cut at different transverse speed and
with different kinds of abrasives.
Finally, the test results and some general conclu­
sions about the main technological parameters for
the optimization of the abrasive water system were
established and will be described in the following
paragraphs.
Unfortunately, the initial evaluation tests with the
synthetic alumina and silicon carbide produced in
Brazil by Alcoa, were not satisfactory and the use of
these products is not recommended. Thus, the only
suitable product for our test program was the im­
626
1 Capao Bonito red Granite
2 Interlagos silver Granite
3 Piracaia black Granite
4 Campos do Jordao dolo-
mitic Marble
ported 80 mesh grain size garnet, from Flow, that
was bought in Sao Paulo.
3 THE ROCK SAMPLES
The three commercial granite quarries selected are
the valued Capao Bonito red Granite, the Interlagos
silver Granite and the Piracaia black Granite. The
mining sequence of the red granite with jet piercing
channeling was presented last year at MPES’99 in
Dniepopetrovsk, Ukraine (Hennies, W. T. & al.,
1999).
The other two are the silver Interlagos Granite
that is explored from Parelheiros, a district in Sao
Paulo city, and the black Piracaia Granite, localized
north of Sao Paulo near to Piracaia city, at a distance
of about one hundred km from Sao Paulo city.
The Piracaia black Granite is generally used for
funeral arts as cemetery tombstones.
The granite is from Precambrian age and belongs
to the crystalline Brazilian shield.
Finally, the marble is a dolomite marble that is
partially exploited as dolomite limestone for special
white cement production, other part for ground soil
corrective purposes, and also marble blocks as di­
mension stone or also as unpolished, ornamental
stone. This marble comes from a bed found in the
Precambrian migmatites that occurs near the city of
Campos do Jordao in the Mantiqueira Mountains,
State of Sao Paulo.
Figure 1 shows the location of the four quarries in
the State of Sao Paulo..
 Table 1. Physical, Mechanical and other technological characteristics of the granite and marble samples.
Property C apao B on ito red Interlagos silver- Piracaia black C am pos do Jordao
Granite Granite Granite w hite M arble
D ry D en sity 2 ,6 2 5 kg/m" 2 ,6 2 5 kg/m" 2 ,8 0 3 kg/m" 2 ,8 1 6 kg/m"
A pparent P orosity 0.68 % 0 .7 8 % 0 .5 2 % 0 .8 7 %
W ater A bsorp tion 0 .2 6 % 0 .2 8 % 0 .1 9 % 0.31 %
A m sler W ear T est 0 .6 0 m m 0 .6 4 m m 0.68 m m 3 .8 4 m m
Im pact Strength T est 0.51 m 3 0 .3 8 m 3 0.22 m .3
Linear Therm al E xpansion 8 .9 m m /m ° C x 10 9.3 m m /m °C x 10 11 m m /m °C x 10
C om pression B reaking L oad at 133 M Pa 179 M Pa 1 7 0.0 M Pa 7 7 M Pa
Natural State
C om pression B reaking L oad af­ 134 M Pa
ter Freezing/Thraw ing
M odulu s o f Rupture 9 .2 M Pa
B en d in g T est 13.2 M Pa 14.1 M Pa 17.8 M Pa 6 .0 M Pa
Static D eform ability M odulus 56.1 GPa 3 2 .9 6 3 GPa 5 5 .2 7 7 G Pa
K noop M icro hardness 6 7 8 9 M Pa
U ltrasonic P u lse V elo city 5 3 8 0 m /s
A m m on ium H ydroxid e U naltered aspect
(N H 4O H )
Sodium H yp och lorid e (N a- U naltered aspect
CIO 5H 2O )

4 THE TECNOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS A regular 10 cm x 15 cm x 50 cm parallelepiped

Some of the major technological characteristics of
the collected rocks are presented in table 1. This data
were in part collected from sources of the following
papers: Capao Bonito red Granite (Hennies et al.,
1999); Interlagos silver Granite (Bom et al. 1996);
Piracaia black Granite and Campos do Jordao dolo­
mite Marble in the work of Ornamental Stones of
State of Sao Paulo published by IPT the Sao Paulo
Research Institute (Caruso et al, 1990).
Other data as mineralogical description and pho­
tographs of the polished rocks of three of the sam­
ples appears in the last work of Camso et al, 1990.
5 SAMPLE PREPARATION
After a field trip to collect the rocks, test samples
were prepared according to a specific shape for the
new cutting system.
prism was first cut with a diamond saw blade with
and then split in two at a 30° angle at the middle of
the shortest distance to provide two samples for as­
say.
Figure 2 shows these rock samples for the abra­
sive water jet system cutting test.
These samples of the four selected rocks were
then cut to determine some of the kerfs topographi­
cal features.
6 LABORATORY ASSAYING
Two different laboratory assays of the four rocks
were performed, a linear cut with greater traverse
velocity and a circular cut with lower traverse veloc­
ity to test the performance of the resulting kerf The
employed jewel had a 0.3556 mm (0.014”) diameter
and pressure of 290 MPa (42,000 psi). The mixing
tube of the equipment had 0.762 mm (0.03”) diame­
ter. The distance of the nozzle to the rock surface
was about 5 mm. The abrasive used in the test was
the imported garnet sample from Flow, 80 Tyler
mesh and 0.180 pm mean grain diameter.
To characterize the various topographic entities
of the kerf the following parameters were measured:
1 top width of the cut (bj)
2 bottom width of the cut (bs)
3 taper o f the cut (T r)
Additionally, there were two distinct cut regions,
an upper, smooth finished kerf zone, and a lower,
wavy kerf zone on the samples. These data are:
4 high of the smooth kerf
5 high of the wavy kerf
6 total kerf high.
All the above mentioned topographic measures
are illustrated in figure 3, from the papers of N. S.

627
Guo, 1994 and D. Arola & M. Rumulu, 1993 in ( In this table 3 the results values for straight linear
cut ranging from quality levels 1 to 5 are presented
as Q1 to Q5.
T able 3. R esults o f the laboratory assaying.
R ock granites m arble
red silver black w hite
bx Q1 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.3
hs 0.5 0.6 0 .9 1.0
Tr 2.6 2.3 1.6 1.3
sm ooth k erf 18.9 2 5 .3 18.6 13.7
w a v y k erf 2 1 .4 13.9 22.8 2 2 .7
total k erf high 4 0 .3 4 0 .3 4 1 .4 3 6 .4
bx Q2 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.3
bfi 0.3 0.5 0.6 0 .7
Tr 4.3 2.8 2.3 1.9
sm ooth k erf 2 2 .5 2 5 .5 2 3 .9 19.0
w a v y k erf 19.5 20.0 2 9 .3 2 3 .6
total k erf high 4 2 .0 4 5 .5 5 3 .2 4 2 .6
bx Q3 1.3 1.4 1.4. 1.3
bfi 0 .4 0.5 0.5 0.5
Tr 3.3 2.8 2.8 2.6
sm ooth k erf 2 5 .8 2 9 .5 3 1 .4 22.6
w avy k erf 22.8 2 3 .7 3 4 .2 3 1 .7
total k erf high 4 8 .6 5 3 .2 6 5 .6 54.3
bx Q4 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.3
be 0.3 0 .4 0.5 0.5
Tr 4.3 3.5 2.8 2.6
sm ooth k erf 3 4 .6 3 8 .4 3 2 .6 2 3 .6
w avy k erf 3 2 .4 2 5 .9 > 3 6 .4 > 4 5 .4
total k erf high 6 7 .0 6 4.3 >69 >69
bx Q5 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.3
be 0.3 0 .4 0.5 0.5
Tr 4.3 3.5 2.8 2.6
ber & K o v a cev ic, 1988) sm ooth k erf 3 6 .7 3 8 .6 3 7 .9 31.1
w a v y k erf > 3 2 .3 > 3 0 .4 > 3 1 .1 > 3 7 .9
total k erf high > 6 9 .0 > 6 9 .0 > 6 9 .0 > 6 9 .0

7 ASSAYING RESULTS
The first series of assays were straight cuts in the
rock samples using default values for granite and
marble machining, and considering a 5 cm theoreti­
cal thickness of the target material. The systems’s
machining control software provides 5 quality set­
tings with corresponding mean traverse speed in mm
per second, according to table 2.
Figure 4 exhibits the bottom view of the cut in the
black Piracaia granite and white Campos do Jordao
dolomite marble, whose slab thickness is approxi­
mately 70 mm.
The samples’ bottom view indicate full cut length
for quality 5 setting.

Table 2 Linear traverse sp eed o f n o zzle in straight cut

R ock granite m arble
(m m /s) (m m /s)
Q uality 1 3 .3 7 6 6 .0 5 4
Q uality 2 2 .0 9 7 3.761
Q uality 3 1.316 2 .3 5 9
Q uality 4 0 .9 4 5 1.695
Q uality 5 0.731 1.311

The laboratory test results for this characteristics

with default transverse cutting speed for granite and Figure 4. B otton v iew o f straight cut in: a) black Piracaia gran­
marble, and 80# garnet is presented in table 3. ite and b) w hite C am pos do Jordào dolom itic m arble.

628
 This figure also indicates that at the bottom view, Figure 6 illustrates the top view of the cylindrical
for any quality setting from 1 to 5, there is a maxi­ cut with 25 mm and 50 mm diameter respectively.
mum of smooth kerf height. In the higher quality Slab thickness was 50 mm, and just two test settings
settings 4 and 5, the sample was completely cut, not were performed, quality 3 and quality 5. Figure 6 (a)
as a straight kerf, but in the wavy kerf zone. illustrates the red Capao Bonito granite and 6 (b) de­
If we look at next quality setting (3) the sample picts the white Campos do Jordao dolomite marble.
was not completely cut, and the same happens with As mentioned above, these cut tests were performed
quality settings 2 and 1. at quality 3 on right side and quality 5 on the left.
Figure 5 (a) and (b) illustrate the same straight
cuts from the samples top view for the black Piracaia
granite and the white Campos do Jordao dolomite
marble. In this figure it is possible to notice the ef­
fect of the garnet’s impact on the kerfs’ edges, as the
kerfs are wider and with round instead of straight
edges.

Figure 6 . T op v ie w o f circular cut on; a) red Capao B on ito

granite and, b) w hite C am pos do Jordao dolom itic m arble.

Figure 5. T op straight cut in a) black Piracaia graniteand w hite

C am pos do Jord5o d olom itic marble.

The second series of tests consisted of cutting two

concentric circles with 25 mm diameter and 50 mm
diameter, respectively, on 50 mm thick samples at
quality settings ranging from 3 (average) to 5 (high).
Table 4 displays the system’s average cut speed.

Table 4 Traverse sp eed o f n ozzle in curved cut

R ock granite marble
(m m /s) (m m /s)
Q uality 3
(25 m m ) circle 0.7 7 3 1.356
(5 0 m m ) circle 1.156 2 .0 3 6 Figure 7 illustrates the bottom view of the same
Q uality 5 circular cut tests from the previous figure. It is no­
(25 m m ) circle 0 .1 8 9 0 .2 7 4 ticeable that while quality 3 setting for the granite
(5 0 m m ) circle 0 .2 8 2 0 .503 (left side) only accidentally cut through the full

629
sample thickness. The marble sample was com­
pletely cut, but in the wavy zone of the kerf. Other­
wise, quality 5 settings at lower speed provided good
results (right side on Figures 5 and 6) for marble and
granite.

8 SOME INITIAL CONCLUSIONS

After the series of laboratory test performed on Bra­

zilian granite and marble, the following initial main
conclusion are:
1 The OMAX machining system works well for
cutting marble and granite slabs up to 50 mm
thickness, with good finish surfaces. As tile or
plate thickness dimensions range from 10 mm to
30 mm even the most complex designs will be
easily cut.
2 Parts with straight cuts are faster to make, but the
system also works well for circular cuts, but at
lower speeds.
3 Accuracy of CAD designed parts is very high, as
the numbers presented in this paper demonstrate.

REFERENCES

B o m , H.; Soares, L. & Braga, J. M . S. 1996 Caracteriza^ao

T ecn o lò g ica d os M aterials de constm ^ao de Jazida lo ca li­
zada em área urbana, S ao Paulo - SP E G A T E A : R evista da
E sco la de Engenharia. U niversid ade Federal do R io Grande
do Sul, n. esp ., p .3 2 3 -3 1 , n ov. 1996./A presentado ao 4.
C ongresso ítalo B rasileiro de Engenharia de M inas, Canela,
1 996/
C am so, L.G . et al 1990 C atalog o f D im en sion Stones o f the
State o f s a o Pau lo Secretaria da C iencia, T ecn o lo g ia e D e-
sen volvim en to E con òm ico - SC T D E - PR Ó -M IN É R IO IPT
Instituto de P esquisas T ecn o ló g ica s do Estado de Sao
Paulo, Pu blica 9ao IPT 1820 122 pp.
H ennies, W . T.; S tellin Jr. A .; C retelli, C. 1999 Jet piercing ap­
plication for red granite b lock m in ing in Sao Paulo, B razil.
In: International Sym posium on M ine Planning and E quip­
m ent S election , 8/T h e International Sym posium on M ine
E nvironm ental and E con om ical Issues. P roceed ings D ni-
propetrovsk : N ation al M inin g U niversity o f Ukraine, 1999.
P ro c ee d in g s. N ation al M inin g U niversity o f U kraine,
1 9 9 9.p .21-26.
K ov a cev ic R.; H ashish M .; M ohan R.; Ramulu.; K im T.J.;
G esk in E .S . 1997 State o f the art o f research and d ev elo p ­
m ent in abrasive w aterjet m achining. Journal o f M anufac­
turing S cien ce and E ngineering, T ra n sa c tio n s o f th e A S M E .
V 119 n 4 (B ) N o v 1997, p 7 7 6 -7 8 5 .
Lauand, C.T.; M artin C ., G .R .; H ennies, W . T.; C iccu, R. 2 0 0 0
The B razilian Program o f H igh Pressure W ater Jet to Cut
Ornamental R ocks. In: International C onference on E nvi­
ronm ental Issues and W aste M anagem ent in E nergy and
M ineral Production, 6 ., Calgary, 2 0 0 0 . P ro c ee d in g s . C al-
gari, 2 0 0 0 . p. 7 1 1 -1 6 .
M om ber, A . W .; K ovacevic, R. 1998 Prin cip les o f A brasive
W ater Jet M ach inin g Springer V erlag L ondon L im ited 3 9 4
pp.

630
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

C ost estim ation o f earthm oving done by hydraulic shovels and tm cks
in m ines

M.Leontidis & B.Patmanidou

Mine Planning Section o f Mines Development Department, Division of Mines, Athens, Greece

ABSTRACT; The main equipment of the operating mines in Greece runned by PPC is electrically powered.
The biggest mine uses diesel equipment consisting by shovels and trucks of big capacity varying from 50 to
136 T, for earthmoving of overburden containing hard formations, with annual rate of 15 MBCM. The Paper
presents one method of cost estimation of earthmoving done by shovels and trucks. It is used in the example of
feasibility study for a new mine using that equipment for earthmoving of 14 to 18 MBCM. The operation pa­
rameters used for the cost estimations are taken from real data selected from the operation of 136 T mining
trucks in the mine mentioned, and from theoretical approach. The cost estimation method is helping to get fast
the indicative BCM cost needed for the case of feasibility study or more generally speaking for new construc­
tion works.

1.INTRODUCTION 2. COST ESTIMATION PROCEDURE

When there is needed the estimation of the unit
cost of earthmoving for use in a feasibility study or
in a technoeconomical research, referring about
mines, it is vsdshed the existence of a procedure
suitable to give the indicative cost.
In the case it is needed the indicative cost of earth-
moving done by diesel equipment, the estimations
must give results about the hourly cost of the die­
sel equipment and about the cost of the fleet of
trucks and shovels used.
An example is a feasibility study for a new open pit
mine. The equipment of that mine will be diesel at
the whole. The total annual earthmoving varies in a
range of 14 to 18 million bank cubic meters,
MBCM. The procedure used for the cost estima­
tion of earthmoving is consisted by three steps.
Step one is the definition of m ine's operation con­
ditions containing theoretical and real data. Step
two the method estimates and is giving results
about the hourly cost for shovels and trucks in an­
nual basis. Step three the method is giving cost es­
timation of earthmoving done by shovels and
trucks expressed in $ or EURO per BCM
The procedure for cost estimation of earthmoving
done by shovels and trucks in mines has been used
in the feasibility example for a new mine. The new
mine will operate with diesel equipment consisted
by hydraulic shovels with 19 CM bucket capacity
and 136 T trucks. The cost estimation has been
made with the procedure using partly real operation
parameters from the operation of 136 T trucks in
the overburden earthmoving mentioned in the ab­
stract . There is shown also the earthmoving cost
for the example s mine, equipped with the same
size of trucks and smaller size for shovels. There is
presented a comparison between the cost estimated
by theoritical data and by partial use of real data.
2.1 STEP ONE : DEFINITION OF THE OPERA­
TION IN A MINE
The first step for the estimation of the mine's cost
parameters is the definition of the operation. At the
example of feasibility study for a new mine using
hydraulic shovels and trucks for earthmoving , the
operation in the mine is defined by their size. In the
feasibility study the size of trucks is given ,being
capacity of 136 T, and the economical size of
shovels to work with them is 19 BCM bucket ca­
pacity. The equipment's operation will be continu­

631
ous with three shifts per day. In the case that are 3. Hourly production capability of the trucks
existing operation measurements or estimations of Ptruck = C * N cycle
a given similar operation in a mine then there are 4. Annual production per truck , Pann,truck
available real data to estimate cost parameters. If Pann,truck = Htrucks * Ptruck

real data are not existing it is necessary to estimate 5. Hours of operation of the fleet of trucks
based in theoritical approach. For the feasibility H fleet,trucks = N trucks * Htruck.

study of the new mine the basic operation condi­ 6. Hours of operation of the fleet of shovels.
H fleet,sh ov. = N sh o v . * H shov.
tions are defined by the exploitation study. They
7. Hourly production capability of the mine,Pmine,
are the annual earthmoving for every year of op­
in BCM per H, estimated by the formula :
eration, the distances and grade of routing. The op­
Pmine = N tru ck s * Ptruck
erational conditions of the mine are good for the
The procedure is estimating the number of shovels
use of mining trucks. The length of a typical dis­
and trucks needed to be available, as follow :
tance is varying between 1,5 and 4,5 km. The grade
Number of trucks needed ,Ntrucks.
of roads is good 3 to 6 %. The estimations for the
N trucks = E m ine / Pann,truck
operation data of the 136 T trucks are based in real
Number of shovels needed ,Nshov.
data taken from the use of those trucks in the trans­
N sh ov. = E m ine / Pann,shov.
portation of overburden in a more difficult mine al­
ready in operation. The operation data, which are
2.2. STEP TWO: ESTIMATION OF INDICA­
estimated from that mine, are shown in TABLE 1;
TIVE HOURLY COST FOR SHOVELS AND
TRUCKS
T A B L E 1 .R eal operation data for earthm oving overburden
Operational data V alue The second step of the method is the estimation of
hourly cost for 19 CM shovels and 136 T trucks.
T im e for loading, em ptying,
m an eu vrin g and w aitin g
The operation conditions of the new mine are char­
o f the truck ,T 1, 5 min. acterized good to moderate .The operation data are
Truck capacity , c 64 C M shown in TABLE 3 :
H ours o f trucks operation
Per year, H oper,truck 5 7 2 2 H.
A verage truck v e lo c it y , V av. 2 7 K M per H T A B L E 3 H ourly co st operation data
M a te r ia l' s H ourly c o st operational data V alue
sp ecific w eig h t ,k g / C M 1800
P roduction capability ,P s h o v , E con o m ica l life o f sh o v els 12 Yr
for sh ovel o f 13,5 C M b u ck et capacity 400 BCM / H E con om ical life o f trucks 8 Yr
Operators occu pation hours 1776 H
D ie se l fu el consum ption for trucks 100 L / H
Those are real data given as input at the program of D ie se l fu el consum ption for sh ovel 150 L /H
cost estimation .The theoritical data given as input
at the program are presented in TABLE 2 :
To estimate the indicative hourly total cost of die­
sel equipment , C h , the formula is :
T A B L E 2 T heoritical operation data
O peration data value
C H = K H +R H +B H +P H
A nnual earthm oving, E m in e 18 M B C M Where
T ypical d istan ce o f routing ,L 2000 M K His the hourly capital cost including tires cost.
H ours o f sh ovel operation R H is the hourly reparation cost including spares
per year ,Hshov 5000 H
H ourly production capability, Psh ov.,
cost.
for 19 C M bu ck et capacity 87 8 B C M B His the hourly diesel fuel cost plus lubricant cost.
T im e a vailab le per h o u r , Tav. 6 0 M IN P His the hourly operation personnel cost.
The hourly capital c o st, K h , is estimated by di­
viding the annual capital cost to the number of op­
The procedure estimates the following hourly op­
eration hours per year given as input in TABLE 1
eration parameters needed for the cost of earth-
,2 depending on the type of machine.
moving using the formulas:
The hourly reparation cost , R h ,is estimated by
1. Time of cycle, Tcycle by the use of the formula
Tcycle = ( 0,06*2*L*VaV^ ) + Tl the formula:
2. Number of cycles,Ncycie R H = coefficient of reparation * K h
Ncycle = Tav. / Tcycle

632
The coefficient for trucks reparation is 0,83 from Depending on what is needed for the study it can
tables containing depreciation parameters for diesel be estimated the operation cost or the total cost of
equipment for 8 years or 46.000 hours of economi­ main diesel equipment in EURO or $ per cubic
cal life. The coefficient for shovels reparation is meter.
0. 75.for 12 years or 60.000 h of economical life.
B H is estimated by the formula:
B H = 1,2 *hourly diesel fuel consumption * unit 3.RESULTS.
price of diesel fuel
Where 1,2 is the coefficient of cost participation The results of the cost estimation procedure are :
for lubricants and grease . The number of trucks and shovels needed to consist
P H is estimated by the formula : the mine s fleet and 7 hourly operation parame-
P H = annual operator' s cost / hours of operator ' s ters.They are shown in TABLE 4 .
occupation per year. The indicative hourly total cost and the capital,
In case the operation conditions of the mine are reparation, diesel fuel and, operation personnel cost
more difficult ,containing longer distances of of the equipment expressed in $ per H are shown as
routing, bigger values of slope ,bad weather condi­ percentages of the total cost in T A B L E 5: H O U R L Y
T O T A L C O ST A N A L Y S IS OF 19 C M SH O V E L and T A ­
tions, then the value of hourly equipment 's cost
B L E 6 ; H O U R L Y T O T A L C O ST A N A L Y S IS OF 136 T
may be increased by a coefficient of relative diffi­ TRUCK
culty, which will be estimated by the experience. The indicative cost of earthmoving 18 MBCM per
Yr by 19 CM shovels and 136 T trucks in the new
2.3 STEP THREE : COST ESTIMATION OF mine of the example is 0,62 $ per BCM.
EARTHMOVING DONE BY SHOVELS AND That cost is acceptable for a mine with permanent
TRUCKS. maintenance workshop , moderate operation con­
ditions and small average length of routing.
The 7 hourly operation parameters estimated in the
first step of the procedure are used with the
indicative hourly cost to give the cost results. The TABLE 4 : mine s operation data
M in e data value
cost results are:
1. The total cost of mines’s annual earthmoving, Ct T cy cle 14 M IN
done by shovels and trucks, expressed in $ or N c y cle 4 ,3 2
EURO is estimated by the formula : Ptrucks 2 7 6 B C M per Hr
Pann,truck 1 .5 8 0 .0 0 0 B C M
H ann,trucks 6 5 .1 0 4 H
C t — E fan n ,tru ck s * C H ,tm c k s E ia n n ,s h o v * C H ,s h o v
Pann, sh ov 4 .3 9 0 .0 0 0 B C M
where Hann, shov 20.5 0 1 H
Hann.trucks is the number of operation hours for N truck 11,4
trucks annually N sh o v 4,1
CH,trucks is the indicative hourly total cost for trucks
Hann,shov is the number of operation hours for T A B L E 5; H O U R L Y T O T A L C O ST A N A L Y S IS OF 19 C M
shovels annually SH O V E L FO R 5 0 0 0 H O U R S OF O P E R A T IO N
CH,shov is the indicative hourly total cost for shovels PER Y EAR
H ourly ind icative co st V alu e %

2. The indicative cost of earthmoving done by

Capital 24 %
shovels and trucks ,Ce, expressed in $ or EURO R eparation 18 %
per BCM, is estimated by the formula : D ie se l fiiel 47 %
O peration's personnel 11 %
Ce = Ct / Emine Total 100 %

where
Ct is the total cost of mine’s annual earthmoving TABLE 6: H O U R L Y T O T A L C O ST A N A L Y S IS OF 136 T
Emine is the annual earthmoving done by shovels T R U C K FO R 5 7 2 2 H O U R S OF O P E R A T IO N
PER YEAR
and trucks, in the example it is 18 MBCM. V alu e %
H ourly ind icative co st
The total cost of earthmoving done by shovels and
trucks can be analyzed to cost by shovel and cost Capital 24%
by trucks, expressed in $ or EURO per BCM. Reparation 20%
These estimations are made by the formulas : D ie se l fuel 40%
O peration's personnel 16%
CtsHov~ ChsHov/ Pshov and Total 100
C e tru c k ~ C n t r u c k / P tr u c k

633
The analysis of the hourly cost for shovels and The cost estimated is a parameter for the decision
trucks is keeping the biggest safety coefficient for of the selection of the shovel 's proper size in a
the reparation cost. The hourly costs of the equip­ mine where the trucks size is given.
ment are indicative and can be used for cost fore­
cast when there are not existing data produced by REFERENCES
measurements.
1. Feasibility study for the exploitation of
The hourly total cost of a smaller shovel of 13,5 DOMENICO coal seam, PPC, Mines Develop­
CM bucket size, has been estimated by the proce­ ment Department, Decembre 1998- Akylas,
dure for 5000 hours of operation per year. Leontidis, Patmanidou, Roumbos, Liakoura.
The hourly total cost, CH,shov, for that size of shovel 2. Activities report from hard overburden earth
is about 30% smaller than the one for a 19 CM ca­ moving in PPC's SOUTHMINE Z. Pakas,
pacity. S. Bozinis, LCPA 2000.
In TABLE 7 there is a comparison of earthmoving 3. CATERPILLAR performance handbook Ver­
cost estimated by the same procedure using first sion 30
partly real data and then theoritical data. The mine
is the same examined in the feasibility study 4. Tables of equipment depreciation
,equipped with 13,5 CM instead of 19 CM shovel.
5. Time and cost in constructions planning
TABLE 7 c o m p a r is o n o f r e su lts fo r e a r th m o v in g b y s h o v e ls C.J. Efraimidis, Athens 1992.
1 3 ,5 C M an d tr u c k s 1 3 6 T

6. LIEBHER Machine Performance Characteristics

M in e in o p e r a tio n P a n n ,s h o v P a n n ,tr u c k Ce
BCM BCM $ /B C M
7. UNITRIG Technical features
N e w m in e w it h p a rtia l 1 .6 0 0 .0 0 0 1 .5 8 0 .0 0 0 0 ,7 4
u s e o f re a l d a ta 8. HITACHI Machine Performance Characteris­
N e w m in e w it h tics.
u s e o f th e o r itic a l d a ta 1 2 .0 0 0 .0 0 1 .5 8 3 .0 0 0 0 ,7 2
N e w m in e w ith
u s e o f th e o r itic a l d a ta 2 2 .7 5 0 .0 0 1 .5 8 3 .0 0 0 0 ,6 4

The cost estimated with partial use of real data is

0,74 per BCM for 4.000 hours of operation for the
shovel, and 400 BCM hourly production capability.
The cost estimated with use of theoritical data 1 is
0,72 $ per BCM for 5000 hours of operation for the
shovel. The impact from the difference in shovel’s
hours of operation is the cheaper hourly shovel’s
cost.
The cost estimated with use of theoritical data 2, is
0,64 $ per BCM for 5000 hours of operation for the
shovel and for bigger value of the shovel's hourly
production capability.

4. C O N C L U S IO N S

The cost estimation method presented is giving fast

the indicative cost of earthmoving done by hydrau­
lic shovels and trucks, using estimations of the in­
dicative hourly equipment cost.

634
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Application of LCC techniques in selection of mining equipment

and technology

T. Markeset & U.Kumar

School o f Science and Technology, Stavanger University College, Norway

ABSTRACT: Emerging technologies are revealing unprecedented opportunities for deploying new and im­
proved machines/equipment that are more cost effective. However, selection of such technologies demands
careful engineering and economic analyses. Generally speaking, in many companies, purchasing decisions are
made on the basis of past experiences and suppliers reputation without any application of engineering and
economical optimization techniques. If management decides to invest money for the implementation of the
capital intensive new and emerging technologies and systems, life cycle costing (LCC) techniques can pro­
vide tools for engineering and economic analyses. The LCC analysis is an engineering and economical opti­
mization technique where the main goal is to identify and choose alternative that generates the highest reve­
nue over lifetime or in other words generates the lower life cycle cost. LCC techniques have successfully been
applied in many other capital-intensive industries to make optimal decision regarding investment in capital
equipment.

This is an expository paper for the mining industry discussing the application of LCC as an engineering and
economical optimization method while selecting capital-intensive mining machines/equipment.

1 INTRODUCTION LCC models can be used for selecting equipment

The need of a product is moving from a “technologi­
cal driven push” to a market driven development, or
a “market pull” (van Baaren & Smit, 2000). The
trend shows that it is the customer who buys the
product who decides how the product is going to
look, be operated, and used. It is more often seen
that it is not the engineering contractor or manufac­
turer who “pushes” the product on customers or cre­
ates a market. There is no reason why this should not
be the case for the mining industry too. New tech­
nology and technology under development promise
new and improved machines and equipment which
may be more cost effective, productive, safe, and
environmental friendly. If management decides to
invest money for the implementation of the capital-
intensive new and emerging technologies and sys­
tems, Life Cycle Costing (LCC) techniques can pro­
vide tools for engineering and economic analyses. A
LCC analysis can also provide a basis for evaluating
the economic and engineering performance of the
asset, namely machines/equipment and production
system. LCC models are often projected as an eco­
nomic tool. However, LCC can also be used as a
powerful engineering tool that can provide basis for
improvement in system effectiveness. Therefore,
and productions systems. LCC methodology may
also be used for optimizing cost and benefit for se­
lecting alternative production schemes, modifica­
tions of existing systems or machines/equipment, in­
vestments in new and improved technology,
selecting machines/equipment from different suppli­
ers.
In this paper an LCC approach for selecting min­
ing equipment and production systems are discussed
with a simplified example.
2 LIFE-CYCLE COSTING APPROACH
2.1 What is LCC?
The abbreviation LCC is applied both about Life
Cycle Cost analysis and Life Cycle Costing analysis.
These two analysis terms are however different. Life
cycle cost refers to the total costs associated with the
product or system over a defined life cycle i.e. all
cost related to acquisition and utilization of a prod­
uct over a defined period of the product lifetime.

635
 LCC = acquisition cost
+ operating costs
+ disposal cost
Life Cycle Costing, however, refers to evaluation
of alternative products, alternative system design
configurations, alternative operational or mainte­
nance solutions, and so on and can be defined as “a
systematic analytical process of evaluating various
alternative courses of action with the objective of
choosing the best way to employ scarce resources”
(Fabrycky & Blanchard, 1991).
Life cycle costing is a tool for decision-making
when several alternatives are under consideration,
which is different from life cycle cost which evalu­
ates the cumulative cost of a product throughout its
whole life cycle. Life cycle cost analysis might be
very complex and requires large quantities of data.
Life cycle costing is an economic decision tool and
is a continuation of what earlier was called cost
benefit analysis, but is a more systematic approach.
In life cycle costing the purpose of the analysis is to
analyze the difference between two or more alterna­
tive products in economic terms in order to select the
best investment alternative. The analysis tries to
identify the major cost drivers that contribute to the
difference between the alternatives (Lund, 1998).
2.2 Mapping o f cost drivers
Operational and maintenance costs can be broken
down in the following categories (Fabrycky &
Blanchard, 1991):
• Operations cost
• Operating personnel
• Operator training
• Operational facilities
• Support and handling equipment
• Energy/utilities/fuel•
• Maintenance cost
• Maintenance personnel and support
• Spare/repair part
• Test and support equipment maintenance
• Transition and handling
• Maintenance training
• Maintenance facilities
• Technical data
• System/product modifications
• Disposal cost
Furthermore, the disposal cost may be substantial
dependent on the product and location (this is easily
seen in the North Sea where the retirement of pro­
duction platforms and equipment is a serious prob­
lem).
It can be observed that many of the underlying
possible cost drivers are connected with operations
636
and maintenance. It is therefore important to map the
factors that influence maintenance and operations
throughout the life cycle of the product before pur­
chasing new equipment/machines.
2.3 Life Cycle Phases
A product lifecycle can be divided into 5 distinct
phases (see Figure 1):
A) Need analysis and specification phase
B) Conceptual design phase
C) Detail design and development phase
D) Construction, production and commissioning
phase
E) Installation, system use, phase out, decom­
missioning and disposal phase
L C C c o m m itm e n t to t e c h n o lo g y , c o n fig u r a -
100 %
A B c D E
^^ U t iliz
. . .a .tio n
A c q u is itio n
L ife c y c le p h a se s: A : S p e c if ic a t io n o f n e e d , B : C o n c e p tu a l and
p re lim in a r y d e s ig n , C: D e ta il d e s ig n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t, D :
C o m m is s io n in g , p r o d u c tio n a n d /o r c o n s tr u c tio n , E: P r o d u c t
( s y s te m ) p h a s e o u t a n d d is p o s a l
F ig u r e 1. L C C c o m m itte d , c o s t in cu rr ed , k n o w le d g e , an d e a s e
o f c h a n g e fo r v a r io u s lif e c y c le p h a s e s (a d a p te d fr o m F a b r y c k y
& B la n c h a r d , 1 9 9 1 ).
The figure shows how technology, configuration,
performance and cost are committed throughout a
product lifecycle. The initial design iterations start
with customer specifications and a need analysis,
which is converted into design specifications in the
conceptual phase. In this phase of product life cycle
an iterative creative process starts in which one tries
to come up with several design alternatives, out of
which one should be selected. If the chosen design
fulfills the need and specifications, the next phases
are preliminary design and then final design. In the
figure it is observed that not much capital is commit­
ted in the need phase of the design process. It is first
in the conceptual design phase that much of technol­
ogy, configuration, performance and cost starts to
become committed. The ease of change of a design
decreases rapidly as the design progresses in time.
The system specific knowledge is low in the concep­
tual phase, but increases fast as the design pro­
gresses in time. Incurred cost is also low in the be­
ginning of a design project, but starts to rise fast in
the detail design phase.
The specifications of the product need have to be
evaluated and decided before various concepts are
considered as shown in Figure 1. In the design speci­
fications one has the opportunity to quantify reliabil­
ity and maintainability (R&M) considerations/ char­
acteristics, in particular maintainability requirements
such that modular constructions, workforce mainte­
nance skills level restrictions, if a multi-skilled
workforce will be required, and/or if there are accep­
tance or test criteria and reliability requirements.
There also is the opportunity to consider which envi­
ronmental conditions the product will be subjected
to through its lifetime. As observed in the figure it is
in the specification of the needs phase, the customer
has the greatest influence on the product. Later the
cost of changing the product rapidly increases.
When the acquisition phase is over and the utiliza­
tion phase starts, the possibilities to influence the life
cycle costs is limited. Even though the purchaser not
always is involved in the design and development
phase, it is important to be aware of the commitment
to life cycle cost in the acquisition phase of a prod­
uct. It is in the early phases of product development
that a large percentage of life cycle cost is commit­
ted. It is up to the purchaser to evaluate if the prod­
uct is fit for the operational condition in which the
product is to be used, and to specify the require­
ments fit for the users conditions (environmental,
operational, social, etc). The operator/buyer knows
the environment the product is to be used in, while
the producer of the machine/equipment knows the
strengths and weaknesses of the product. It is there­
fore, important that the two parts works together to
develop a product that fits the purpose and the envi­
ronment.
2.4 Time value o f money
The value of money is time dependent - what you
have of value today, is going to have a different
value in the future as shown in the following equa­
tion:
Value today=Future value / (1+Discount Rate)^"”^
To compare the value of assets, the assets have to
be compared at an equal basis. Future LCC cost and
income have to be discounted to today’s value. The
Payback, the Net Present Value, and Internal Rate of
Return, are some of the more common discounting
methods among several others. A thorough descrip­
tion of strengths of weaknesses of these three meth­
ods is discussed in Bang (1998).
2.5 Uncertainty and risk in LCC analysis
“A LCC analysis that does not include risk analysis
is incomplete at best and can be incorrect and mis­
637
leading at worsf’ (Craig, 1998). LCC analysis com­
bined with risk analysis provides different decision
scenarios where the consequences of the decision
made are considered in dept.
Some of the data necessary for analysis might not
be applicable for the situation because of different
operational and environmental or other conditions,
however, by using experts, comparison with similar
systems, and parametric evaluations techniques, a
basis for decision can be established. The goal is to
optimize with respect to LCC.
Failure mechanisms, effect and criticality analysis
(FMECA), fault tree analysis (FTA), event tree
analysis (ETA), and Hazard and operability analysis
(HAZOP) are some of the tools and methods which
can be employed in the design phase to reduce the
uncertainty and to optimize the design with respect
to maintenance and availability.
3 APPLICATION OF LCC TECHNIQUES FOR
MACHINE / EQUIPMENT SELECTION
The mining industry is characterized by that it does
not produce any machines/equipment itself, most are
bought from suppliers. The equipment is often large
and expensive, and operated for long hours in a
harsh and demanding environment. Many of the ap­
plications are specialized and demand special oper­
ating skills. Research shows that 60 to 70 % of sys­
tem failures can be attributed to the design and
construction, 25-30% to operating procedures, and
5-15% to maintenance (Kumar, 1990). If we look
carefully, we will find that most of the problems are
due to the designer’s failure to foresee the system’s
work load/ profile and working environment the de­
sign will be subjected to. Often operation profile of
the product is considered, but the working environ­
ment is not. Maintainability issues like repair time,
repair cost, accessibility, diagnostic ability, and ser­
viceability, should be planned and designed into the
system from the beginning. The same argument is
valid for reliability issues like downtime, uptime,
availability, dependability, etc. Often one has the
choice of doing cost benefit balancing between
maintainability and reliability issues in the design
phase.
In brief, most of the problems can be tracked
down to the design phase. The preference of consid­
ering maintenance at the design stage through reli­
ability and maintainability considerations is to find
the most critical properties that affect the system
failure and repair characteristics throughout the de­
sign’s life cycle. This emphasizes the importance of
mapping the real need with respect to how the
equipment is to be operated and used, skills of the
operators, maintenance strategy, and last, but maybe
most important, the work environment in which the
 machinery is to be operated in, before purchasing the
machine/equipment.
If one looks at the life cycle cost of a product it
can be depicted as in Figure 2. The thick line de­
scribes pre-exploitation costs and accumulated ex­
ploitation costs. If R&M issues are being considered
in the early phases of the product life cycle it is
normally expected that the investment cost and the
lead-time may increase, but the accumulated exploi­
tation costs may be reduced, as the product will have
a longer life span because it is designed with respect
to maintenance. Further it is argued that including
maintenance and reliability considerations in the de­
sign stages might not cause an increase in invest­
ment cost and lead time, but rather decrease, as
shown by the dotted line in the figure (van Baaren &
Smit, 2000). This is based on the fact that if the
maintainability and reliability issues were addressed
early in the project there would be fewer expensive
and complicated design iterations.
C o st
E x tr a in v e s t m e n U
cost '
E x tra
‘f f e e c f ................... le a d -
C o n c e p t, tim e
E n g in e e r in g
C o n s tr u c tio n ,
M a n u fa c tu r in g E x p lo ita tio n S a v in g s ^
C o m m is s io n in g * E x p lo ita tio n
F ig u r e 2 . I n c lu d in g M a in te n a n c e c o n s id e r a tio n s
(A d a p te d fr o m v a n B a a r e n & S m it, 2 0 0 0 )
By studying the operational and the environ­
mental characteristics degradation causes and cost
drivers might be identified, studied, evaluated, and
steps might even be taken to try to avoid the induced
R&M cost by changing the design, choosing better
material, removing rotating parts, choosing another
design alternative, etc.
The cost of maintenance is often very high, ap­
proximately 40-60% (Campbell, 1995, Kumar,
1990) in the mining industry; so while designing and
selecting mining equipment and production systems
one has to perform LCC analysis to arrive at the
most optimal solution.
3.1 Application o f LCC to select design
alternatives: to design out maintenance or to design
for maintenance
The manufacturer of a product has the choice of ei­
ther design out maintenance or design for mainte­
nance. To design out maintenance, or to create a
maintenance free product, can prove impossible due
to technological limitations or cost. To design for
maintenance means to balance cost and benefits with
respect to reliability and maintenance. When consid­
ering maintenance in design one generally has two
options as depicted in Figures 3 and 4; either to try
to design out maintenance, or to try to optimize the
design with respect to maintenance issues. After
having identified maintenance related characteristics
in the design one has the possibility to try to elimi­
nate those characteristic that would cause mainte­
nance costs. However, if maintenance is to be de­
signed out, one has to consider the cost of reliability
throughout the product’s life cycle. One also has to
consider the state of the art of technology - lack of
available technology might not allow elimination
maintenance, or it might be too costly. LCC analysis
might be used to compare design alternatives.
Reliability
Design out
Trade Cost
o r e lim in a ­
off State of art
tio n o f
Other considerations:
m a in te n a n c e
D e s ig n a lte r n a tiv e s
C a p a c ity
LCC C u s to m e r w illin g n e s s to p a y
Analysis P a y b a c k o f d e v e lo p m e n t c o s t
F ig u r e 3 . D e s ig n o u t m a in te n a n c e .
The design for maintenance option is attempted
described in Figure 4. When attempting to design
L o n g e r life out maintenance one has to consider reliability
against maintainability issues. What availability do
T im e
we want and need in the product? What does the
in d e s ig n
customer want and is willing to pay for? It is well
known that increased reliability results in increased
cost. If the state of art does not allow us to design
out maintenance, or if we are able to decide that the
reliability is good enough throughout the product life
span; i.e. acceptable availability is achieved, we may
have a good design alternative. If we see that the re­
liability demand is too low we have to consider
maintainability issues such that accessibility to parts
that need to be maintained, serviceability and inter­
changeability of parts and systems (see Blanchard &
Fabrycky 1997).
Much of this data basis might not be available to
the purchaser at the time of need. It is therefore im­
portant to specify to the manufacturer what data is
needed and how they are to be used. An alternative
would be to make the supplier to analyze the LCC
on the basis of both the supplier and purchasers data.
Sources for data for life cycle costing might be:
• Engineering design data
• Reliability and maintainability data
• Logistic support data
• Production or construction data
• Consumer utilization data
638
 Value analysis and related data Expensive bulbs:
Accounting data 0.22x(l/1.5)xl2x(50+500)=SEK968 per bus per
Management and planning data year
Market analysis data
The yearly cost of the cheap bulbs is 40% higher
than the expensive bulbs per bus per year. If the bus
Design for Maintenance company has 1830 buses, the cost accumulates to
2.49MSEK for the cheap bulbs and 1.77MSEK for
Optimize the expensive bulbs. Furthermore, it is worth notic­
ing that the calculation is simplified; the cost of tak­
O ing the bus out of schedule, and the cost difference
Reliability Maintainability of energy use by the bulbs is not accounted for.
Designed
T im e E a s y a c c e s s ib ilit y The numbers used in the example are rounded. To
Availability
C o st E a s y s e r v ic e a b ility see the critcality of accurate input data, a sensitivity
S ta te o f A rt E a s y in te r c h a n g e a b il- analysis can be performed. E.g. assume the follow­
O ing:
LCC
Analysis • Improvement of the expensive lamps is only
25% (instead of 50%)
• The cost of taking the bus to the workshop is
F ig u r e 4 . D e s ig n fo r m a in te n a n c e .
only SEK250
• The expensive bulb costs SEKIOO instead of
Reliability is a single factor that control failure
SEK50
events. One cannot increase reliability without in­
creasing the cost or reducing the maintainability.
The result then becomes (MSEK/year)
State of the art in technology is also an factor to be
evaluated. Often it is not possible to design out
Alternative*• Cheap bulb Expensive bulb
maintenance and one end up trying to balance, reli­
Base case 2.49 1.77
ability, cost and availability. Other ways to eliminate
a) Only+25% 2.49 2.13
maintenance is to reduce capacity, to remove the
b) Only 250 1.28 0.97
weak functions, or to replace weak components by
more robust ones. If we allow the system/component c) Expensive +50 2.49 1.93
to fail due to various limitations then we need to
have provision for easy quick repair/replacement. a) + b) 1.28 1.16
Thus, when adjusting design for maintenance first a) + c) 2.49 2.32
one will have to examine the reliability characteris­ b) + c) 1.28 1.13
tics and then go for deciding the maintainability a) + b) + c) 1.28 1.35
characteristics. Both R&M are traded off to meet a
design requirement and budgetary constraints using The result indicates that in spite of large changes in
LCC analysis. Any improvement in R&M will cost the input data, basis for decision does not change till
money, but may result in saving when whole life all of the three changes occur simultaneously. This
performance of the asset is taken into account. stability in the analysis results is normal and impor­
tant because of uncertainty always exists in the input
3.2 Bus bulb example (adaptedfrom Wddk, 1995) data.

The following bus bulb example illustrates the The example shows that:
principle of LCC modeling. • Exact input data for the LCC analysis
A H4 bulb for a bus can cost between 15SEK and normally is not important
50SEK. The cheap bulbs cost only 30% of the more • In those cases the alternatives are close in
expensive ones. However, taken maintenance into result, and where accuracy of the input
consideration, the cost of replacing the bulb at the data can be important, the effect of a
workshop is SEK500, the cost of replacing the bus wrong choice not critical
on the line is SEKIOOO. It is further observed that • Normally, only a few input data are criti­
the cheap bulb is replaced at a rate of 0.22 per cal.
month. The expensive bulbs have a 50% longer life
length. The yearly costs can now be calculated:
4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Cheap bulbs:
0.22x12x(15+500)=SEKl 360 per bus per year Fabrycky and Blanchard (1991) compare poor cost
management with navigating around icebergs. See-

639
ing only the acquisition cost is like seeing only the
top of the iceberg; there might be many hidden costs
underneath the surface. The purchasing company
may not have the necessary information to do the
LCC analysis themselves, and it is therefore of im­
portant to cooperate with the supplier and to specify
the need at the purchase request stage. Even if there
were only one supplier, a LCC analysis would visu­
alize purchasing consequences for different design
alternatives with respect to cost and create a cost
awareness among management and employees. LCC
is not only an economic tool, but also an effective
engineering tool for improving asset performance
and system effectiveness.

REFERENCES

A ven , T. 1992. R eliab ility and risk analysis, L o n d o n : E ls e v ie r

A p p lie d S c ie n c e
B a a r e n v a n , R . J. & S m it, K . 2 0 0 0 , D e s ig n fo r r e lia b ility , a v a il­
a b ility , m a in ta in a b ility , s a fe ty , a n d lif e c y c le c o s t, S D V F o ­
rum : M aintenance Engineering, S ta v a n g e r , N o r w a y , 1 F e b ­
ruary 2 0 0 0
B a n g , K . E . 1 9 9 5 . L if e c y c le c o s t - th e w a y a h ea d . S em in a r,
The N O R SO K Life C ycle cost Standards, O s lo , N o v e m b e r
23 1995.
B la n c h a r d , B . S & F a b r y c k y , W . J. 1 9 9 7 . Systems Engineering
and A nalysis, 3 r d e d itio n . N e w J er sey : P r e n tic e H a ll Inter­
n a tio n a l s e r ie s in in d u str ia l a n d s y s te m e n g in e e r in g
C ra ig , B . D ., 1 9 9 8 . Q u a n tify in g th e c o n s e q u e n c e o f r isk in life
c y c le c o s t a n a ly s is . F irst international industry forum on
life cycle cost, S ta v a n g e r , 2 8 - 2 9 M a y , 1 9 9 8 , N o r w a y
F a b r y c k y , W . J. & B la n c h a r d , B . S . 1 9 9 1 . L ife -C ycle Cost and
Econom ic A nalysis, N e w J er sey : P r e n tic e H a ll Inc.
K u m ar, Lf. 1 9 9 0 . R eliab ility analysis o f load haul dump ma­
chine. P h D T h e s is : 8 8 T , L u le a U n iv e r s ity , S w e d e n
L u n d , P . 1 9 9 8 . L if e c y c le c o s t in g a s a d e c is io n to o l. F irst in­
ternational industry forum on life cycle cost, S ta v a n g e r,
N orw ay, 2 8 -2 9 M ay 1998
L C C - ett beslutsverktyg som ger effektivare
W ^ ^k, O . 1 9 9 5 .
tekniska utrustningar med Idgre totalkosnad, (in S w e d is h ),
le c tu r e n o te s , L u le ^ U n iv e r s it y , S w e d e n

640
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Abrasives in water jet cutting systems

G. R. Martin C, C.T.Lauand & W.T Hennies

Mining Engineering Department, Polytechnic School, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
R.Ciccu
DIGITA, University of Cagliari, Italy

ABSTRACT: Abrasives used in high velocity water jet cutting systems are one of the most important ele­
ments for kerf opening. The most commonly used product as an abrasive is mineral garnet. Many of its tech­
nological characteristics are very important. The common characteristics that influence the cutting system
were defined as abrasive power and among these features there are grain size distribution, abrasive hardness,
geometrical form of the particles, and other features that will be presented. Different grain sizes are available
to provide best cutting features for different materials. Operation with softer materials such as wood and rub­
ber do not require the use of abrasives, but for cutting hard rocks, as well as steel, other metals and ceramics,
the use of abrasives is mandatory. Garnet is the most commonly used abrasive, but there are other natural and
man made abrasives such as slag, aluminium oxide and carborundum that may be used. Careful selection of
the abrasive material is recommended to achieve a compromise between nozzle durability and the part to be
machined.

1 INTRODUCTION furnaces. In 1955 the General Electric Company

Abrasives are sharp, hard materials used to wear
away the surface of softer less resistant materials.
Included within the term are both natural and syn­
thetic or manufactured substances that range from
the relatively soft particles used in household
cleansers and jeweller’s polish to the hardest known
material, the diamond. Abrasives are indispensable
to the manufacture of nearly every product made in
modem industry with high precision components as
automobiles, aeroplanes and space vehicles, me­
chanical and electrical appliances, and machine
tools.
The history of abrasive usage is very old. The
earliest man’s mbbing one hard stone against an­
other made use of abrasives to shape his first
weapon or tool. Natural abrasives were used during
the first industrial revolution in the early stages of
large scale mechanisation.
An interesting story of those days is the event
from 1873 in the United States, when Swen Pulson,
working in the Norton and Hancock Pottery,
Worcester, Massachusetts, won a jug of beer by bet­
ting that he could make a grinding wheel by combin­
ing emery with potter’s clay and firing them in a
kiln. Just before the turn of the century man discov­
ered the manufacturing process to obtain aluminium
oxide and silicon carbide with the use of electric
succeeded in manufacturing synthetic diamond.
Most recently, industry mechanisation evolved
into full automation, with the development of com­
puter controlled systems for cutting a range of mod­
em materials, and the use of abrasives is critical for
machining hard materials.
In modem automated systems with computer con­
trolled operation by a Cad/Cam software, it is possi­
ble to make precision parts for industrial applica­
tions. The new abrasive water jet system installed as
a Module of the Rock Mechanics Laboratory at
EPUSP and the Brazilian aims for the following
years are described in a paper presented this year at
Calgary (Lauand et al., 2000), Canada, during the
SWEMP’2000, in May.
Manufacturer’s instmctions indicate the use of
garnet, 80 mesh grain size, for effective operation of
the water jet system.
Unfortunately, garnet as a quality abrasive for
water jet application is not available in Brazil, and
we need to import the product. The price of the im­
ported product is R$2.00/kg (about US$l/kg).
On the other hand, in Brazil there other suppliers
of synthetic or manufactured abrasives, generally
aluminium oxide and silicon carbide. The prices of
manufactured abrasives are R$1.13/kg for alumin­
ium oxide and R$1.86/kg for silicon carbide, for 80

641
mesh grain sizes, which are cheaper than imported
garnet.
Complete technological characterisation of abra­
sive materials used in the new abrasive water jet cut­
ting system will here presented below.
2 TECNOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
ABRASIVE MATERIALS
The main technological characteristic of an abrasive
as defined to be used as grains in abrasive water jet
systems (Agnus et al., 1995 & 1996) is its power
that can be calculated by the following mathematical
expression:
p _ Tjal oa2 ,a3 ia 4 a5
^A br - ^ Pv m
[1]
In equation [1] Hp is the Knoop abrasive material
hardness, S is a particle shape factor, p is the abra­
sive material density, d is the abrasive particle di­
ameter, and m abrasive mass flow rate.
To better understand their features, the powder
materials were evaluated according to their abrasive
power as determined in equation [1].
The mineralogical composition of the samples
was determined in a semi-quantitative determination
by Spectometry with an Xray apparatus.
Then, the shape of the particles was measured by
a method suggested by Ayres da Silva & Hennies,
1983, to determine the mean roundness of the abra­
sive grains.
Additional chemical analyses of the abrasives
were also performed.
Abrasive grain hardness was determined from
microhardness indentation tests on polished grain
section samples.
Abrasive material density was another physical
characteristic that we measured or evaluated from
available data provided by the manufacturer.
Grain size distribution was measured with a laser
beam measuring apparatus (Malvern) to evaluate the
mean diameter of grains for every abrasive sample.
3 EXAMINED SAMPLES
As mentioned above, different kinds of abrasives
were examined. First, we examined two artificial
powder abrasives fi*om Alcoa, identified as alumin­
ium oxide and silicon carbide or carborundum, 80
tyller mesh grain size.
Additionally, Flow brand garnet samples im­
ported from the USA were also examined, 80 and
120 tyller mesh grain size, as well as another sample
used in the preliminary testing of the equipment,
also 80 tyller mesh grain size.
Finally, a Brazilian garnet sample, from the
tailling product of the monazitic sands processed at
642
the Nuclemon, the State Nuclear Agency of Brazil,
was also characterised.
Eletroctastic separation of this Brazilian garnet
was performed at the mineral processing laboratory
of the mining engineering Department of EPUSP,
providing a good concentration of this abrasive ma­
terial for the characterisation study. Initial tests were
performed with a 5kg sample that resulted in 20% of
good concentration garnet.
Summarising, our study evaluated the physical
characteristics of 6 different samples, as follows: 2
artificial abrasives (aluminium oxide and silicon
carbide or carburundum), and 4 garnet samples (3
imported and 1 fi*om the domestic market).
4 ASSAYNG RESULT
Most of the tests were performed at the Laboratory
of Technological Characterization of the Mining
Engineering Department of EPUSP, as follows:
Mineralogical characterisation; Grain size distribu­
tion; Particle shape characterisation; Chemical
analysis; Abrasive grain hardness; Abrasive grain
density; Abrasive grain scaiming.
4.1 Mineralogical characterization
Abrasive powder samples were submitted to an Xray
to obtain a diffractogram.
The resulting interpretation of these diffracto-
grams determined the mineralogical constituents of
the abrasive grain crystals.
The interpretation demonstrates that the mineral
content in all four garnet samples corresponds to
Almandine and Almandite. There is also some
Quartz content in all of the samples.
The Flow brand garnets also include small
amounts of Goethite in the 80# kind and Allophane
and Pseudobrookite in the 120#.
The Omax 80# samples include some Quartz con­
tent as well as a small amount of a mineral known as
Ulvospinel.
Finally, the Brazilian garnet sample included
some Ilminite as well as Allophane and Pseudo­
brookite.
The diffractograme of Aluminum oxide artificial
abrasive indicates the presence of synthetic Corun­
dum as the major component and minor amounts of
some Goethite and Silimanite. There was also a dif­
fractograme of Silicon Carbide or Carborundum
samples.
4.2 Grain size distribution on Malvern
The grain size distribution of all the six abrasive
powder samples was determined in a Malvern laser
apparatus and the results are presented in a theoreti­
cal mesh size distribution in pm.
 These results are shown in the figure 1. scribed in the literature. The results are presented in
table 4.
T a b le 2 . C h e m ic a l a n a ly s is o f th e a b r a s iv e s
A brasive A1203 SiC F1G80 F1G120 O G 80 —
S i0 2 3 .4 4 9 8 .5 2 0 .7 20.0 2 1 .7 2 8 .3
T i0 2 8.61 0.02 0 .2 5 0 .2 4 0.81 3 .4 4
M n02 0 .3 0 — 2.81 3 .0 0 1.38 1.17
A 1203 82.1 0.12 8 .3 8 7 .9 6 8 .0 9 13.9
Fe203 0 .5 6 0 .1 5 6 4 .3 6 5 .7 5 4 .8 3 5.3
CaO 0 .6 7 0.21 1.52 1.47 9 .9 9 1.79
M gO — — 0 .4 7 0 .4 4 1.84 3.41
N a20 0.20 0 .0 5 — — — —

K 20 0 .4 8 — 0.31 0 .1 4 0 .0 6 0 .0 6
P205 1.90 0 .8 9 0 .7 4 0.68 0 .9 7 1.88
S03 0 .6 5 tr. — — 0 .2 5 0 .0 6
F ig u r e 1. G r a in s iz e d is tr ib u tio n o f th e s ix k in d s o f a b r a siv e . V 205 — 0 .03 — — — —

ZnO — — 0 .1 9 0.12 0 .0 4 0 .0 8
Y 203 — — 0 .2 7 0 .1 7 — 0.31
4.3 Particle shape characterization Z r02 0 .5 9 — — — — 4 .0 2
C e02 0 .4 9 — — — — 3 .3 6
The shape characteristics of the various abrasive
grains was determined according to a method sug­
T a b le 3 R e s u lts o f th e h a r d n e ss o f th e a b r a s iv e s
gested by Ayres da Silva & Hennies (1983), pre­
sented at the 6^ International Rock Mechanics Con­ A b r a siv e V ic k e r h a r d n e ss K n o o p h a r d n e ss

gress of Melbourne, Australia. A lu m in iu m o x id e 8 0 # 274 2 ,1 0 0

The results of this determination on the six stud­ S ilic o n C a rb id e 8 0 # 323 2 ,4 8 0
F lo w g a r n e t 8 0 # 172 1 ,3 2 0
ied kind of abrasives are presented at table 1.
F lo w g a rn et 1 2 0 # 170 1 ,3 1 0
The results of this determination on the six abra­ O m ax garnet 8 0 # 177 1 ,3 6 0
sive samples are displayed at table 1. B r a z ilia n g a rn et 175 1 ,3 4 0
T a b le 1 R e s u lts o f th e p a r tic le sh a p e c h a r a c te r iz a tio n

A b r a s iv e v a lu e T a b le 4 . R e s u lts o f th e th e s p e c if ic g r a v ity o f th e a b r a s iv e s .
A lu m in iu m o x id e 8 0 # 0 .3 8 A b r a siv e S p e c if ic g r a v ity (g /c m ^ )
S ilic o n C a r b id e 8 0 # 0 .3 5
A lu m in iu m o x id e 8 0 # 3 .9 8
F lo w g a r n e t 8 0 # 0 .5 5
S ilic o n C a rb id e 8 0 # 3 .1 9
F lo w g a r n e t 1 2 0 # 0 .4 8
F lo w g a r n e t 8 0 # 4 .1 2
O m ax garnet 8 0 # 0 .6 2
F lo w g a rn et 1 2 0 # 4 .1 1
B r a z ilia n g a rn et 0 .7 3
O m ax garnet 8 0 # 4 .0 8
B r a z ilia n g a rn et 4 .0 4

4.4 Chemical analysis

t s o l ( ‘A M -n n w » i
The chemical analysis of the abrasives were also
performed at the Technological Characterisation
Laboratory of EPUSP.
The results of these test are shown in table 2.
These data provide a chemical composition of the
abrasive and identify the minerals of the natural
abrasives or garnets.

4.5 Hardness o f abrasive grain

Polished slices were prepared for Vickers micro­
hardness determination and then submitted to an in­
dentation test with a tetragonal prism of diamond.
The Vickers hardness values were then correlated
to Knoop hardness. The results of these tests are
F ig u r e 2 . T h e g r a in s o f 8 0 # F lo w g a rn et.
shown in table 3.

4.6 Density o f abrasives 4.7 Scan o f the abrasive grains

Finally, the determination of density of the abrasives Figures 2 to 7 display photo of the abrasives.
was performed according to standard procedures de-

643
 In figure 2 we can see the shape roundness and
other details of the 80# Flow garnet in a 200 times
magnification. Figure 3 corresponds to 400 times
magnification of 120# Flow garnet.

Figure 6. The grains o f 80# Alcoa Aluminium oxide.

Figure 3. The grains o f 120# Flow garnet.

Figure 7. The grains o f 80# Alcoa Silicon carbide.

In figure 4 the grains 80# Barton garnet used by

OMAX is presented at 200 times magnification.

Figure 4. The grains o f 80# Barton garnet. Finally, figure 5 corresponds to the Brazilian gar­
net in 320 magnification, and figures 6 and 7 to arti­
ficial abrasives from Alcoa amplified at 400 times
magnification (Aliminium oxide and Silicon carbide
samples).

5 MAIN CONCLUSIONS

There are two conclusions from this work as fol­

lows:
1 The Brazilian garnet demonstrates potential char­
acteristics for use in water jet systems. A signifi­
cant quantity must be prepared for actual testing
with the system.
2 The initial tentative to use synthetic abrasive led
to some troubles with the grain size and shape.
Carefully examination and improvement of the
feeding system are required before scheduling
new tests.
Figure 5. The grains o f the Brazilian garnet.

644
REFERENCES
Agus, M.;Bortulussi A.; Ciccu, R. et al. 1995 Abrasive per­
formance in rock cutting with AWJ and ASJ. In Labus T J.
(ed) 1995 Proc. 8th Amer. Water Jet Conf., Water Jet
Techn. Ass. St. Louis, pp. 31-48.
Agus, M.;Bortulussi A.; Ciccu, R. et al. 1996 Abrasive-rock in­
teraction in AWJ cutting. In Gee C. (ed) 1996 Jetting Tech-
n o l Meehan. Engng. Publ. London, pp. 509-20.
Ayres da Silva, L. A. e W. T. Hennies 1983 A N ew Method for
Particle shape determination. Proceedings: International
Congress on Rock M echanics, 6th. p 245-50. Melbourne,
Australia.
Lauand, C.T.; Martin C., G.R.; Hennies, W. T.; Ciccu, R. 2000
The Brazilian Program o f High Pressure Water Jet to Cut
Ornamental Rocks. In: SWEMP, 6., Calgary, 2000. Pro­
ceedings. Calgary, 2000. p. 711-16.

645
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Engineering ceram ics for wear-protection o f m ining and mineral

processing equipm ent

E.Medvedovski
Ceramic Protection Corporation, Calgary, Alb., Canada

ABSTRACT: Engineering ceramics have a growing application potential for the wear-protection of working
parts of extraction, processing, conveying, and dust collection equipment and piping systems in mining and
mineral industries. The alumina, zirconia, alumina-zirconia, and silicon carbide-based ceramics developed
and manufactured by Ceramic Protection Corporation (CPC) are reviewed. These ceramics have high
hardness and other mechanical properties, excellent wear- and corrosion resistance at wet or dry working
conditions, at high velocity and turbulence of transported materials, high pressure and cavitation. They
provide significantly longer life cycle than many other materials widely used in the mining and mineral
processing. The ceramic components may be manufactured in accordance with the customer design and
requirement as monolithic bodies, including the bodies with the complicated shapes, and as tiles. The wear
test results and the factors effected wear resistance are discussed. The range of products and applications in
the mining and mineral industries are reviewed.

1. INTRODUCTION such as carbides, borides, nitrides, and some others.

Mining and mineral processing companies
including companies working in the ores, coal, oil,
and other industries note significant losses due to
wear- and corrosion-related damages of production
equipment. These damages result in unscheduled
shutdowns and replacement of the destroyed parts,
decrease of productivity and quality of the
processed materials. Traditionally used hard irons
and steels and some polymers are quickly
destroyed, especially, if the processed hard particles
are transported in liquid corrosive environment, at
high velocity and pressure, turbulence and
cavitation.
Engineering ceramics have a growing application
potential for the wear- and corrosion-protection of
different working parts of extraction, processing,
conveying, and dust collection equipment and
piping systems in mining and mineral industries.
They have high mechanical properties; e.g.
hardness, general chemical inertness, and they are
able to work at severe thermal conditions. The
mostly wide-used ceramics for the wear-protection
are basalt, dense or low-porous alumina and some
other oxide-based ceramics, non-oxide ceramics.
The proper ceramics are chosen based on their
physical properties, particular application
conditions (e.g. corrosive environment, temperature,
pressure, velocity and impingement angle of
transported materials, etc.), the ability to obtain the
required shape, and from the economical standpoint.
2. FEATURES OF THE STUDIED CERAMICS
Engineering ceramics such as alumina, zirconia,
alumina-zirconia, and silicon carbide-based
ceramics are commercially manufactured by CPC.
They have the highest application potential from the
mentioned above standpoints. All these ceramics
have high mechanical properties, high hardness that
is greater than for the majority of processed
materials and greater than for hard steels widely
used for wear-protection, and also excellent wear-
and corrosion resistance. They are able to work
without high mechanical loads at high temperatures
(greater than 1300 - 1500°C in dependence on
composition).
Dense alumina, alumina-zirconia, and zirconia
ceramics are manufactured from high-grade starting
powders with average particle size from 0.35 to 2.5

647
|Lim and specific surface from 1.5 to 10 m /g in
dependence on the composition. The required
powders are mixed with the specially developed
proportions for the aqueous slurry preparation; the
ceramic parts are manufactured by slip casting or
dry pressing processes with the following firing at
temperatures 1520-1550°C. The silicon carbide-
based ceramics is manufactured from silicon
carbide with particle size from 3-5 pm to 2.5 mm
taken with the specially developed particle size
distribution provided the high-level particle
compaction; the additives used provide the high-
temperature-bonding of the silicon carbide particles.
The silicon carbide-based ceramic parts are
manufactured by slip casting under vibration or by
ramming processes with the following firing at
1520-1550^^0. This ceramics does not need
expensive high temperature firing with special
gaseous atmosphere. The optimal ceramic
compositions and the process parameters have been
developed; however, they may be adjusted in order
to provide the particular customer requirements.
For the ceramic component installation into metal
housing of equipment the gap between them is filled
with the special adhesives. In dependence on the
working temperature conditions organic epoxies or
high temperature inorganic cements can be applied.
The used adhesives provide not only high strength­
bonding between ceramics and housing, but also
they can resist corrosive environment, such as
acidic working conditions. When weldable tiles are
lined, small ceramic “cups” are installed to the
welding place also using by the special adhesive.
High alumina ceramics have been developed in the
oxide systems Al203-Mg0 -Ca0 -Si02 and AI2 O3 -
MgO. The ceramics have an approximate aluminum
oxide content 91, 95, 98, 98.5, and 99.5 wt.-%, and
they are varied by microstructure and properties,
including wear resistance. All studied alumina
ceramics have uniform and microcrystalline
microstructure. The corundum crystals (major
phase) with average size from 1-3 pm (isometric
shape) for AL99.5 to 4-10 pm (isometric and
prismatic shape) for AL91 and AL95 are bonded by
a small amount of the glassy phase and a small
amount of mullite or spinel crystals (minor phases)
uniformly distributed between corundum crystals.
All ceramics have zero open porosity, and they do
not absorb water; the closed porosity (i.e. residual
pores between the crystals and the glassy phase) is
insufficient.
648
These alumina ceramics have high level of
mechanical properties (Table 1) that depend on their
composition and microstructure (i.e. the amount,
size, shape, and distribution of corundum crystals,
the amount and distribution of glassy phase, closed
porosity, etc.). The alumina ceramics with higher
alumina crystals content and smaller crystal size
usually demonstrate better mechanical properties.
However, the AL91 ceramics demonstrate better
mechanical properties than the AL95 that may be
explained by the optimal ratio between crystalline
and glassy phases for the AL91 ceramics.
The partially stabilized zirconia ceramics (Y2 O3 is
used as the stabilizer) have very uniform and small-
crystalline microstructure (crystal size 0.3-1.0 pm),
absence of a glassy phase, and zero porosity. Such
sub-micron microstructure and crystallographic
features of stabilized zirconia provide superior
mechanical properties, including flexural strength
and fracture toughness close to metals (Table 1).
This ceramics may be used as structural material
(i.e. can work under high mechanical loads) even at
temperatures grater than 1000°C.
Alumina-zirconia ceramics (AZ) is based on the
optimized ratio between corundum and zirconia
crystals. The zirconia crystals with size less than 1
pm are uniformly distributed between corundum
crystals with size 1-3 pm. Such uniform
microcrystalline and glassy phase-absence structure
strongly effects mechanical properties. This AZ
ceramics combines positive properties of alumina
and zirconia ceramics, and this combination results
in superior data (Table 1). For example, if Vickers
hardness HVIO for high alumina and zirconia
ceramics is ranged 1250-1400, HVIO for the AZ
ceramics is 1550; fracture toughness of the AZ
ceramics is between of the numbers for zirconia and
alumina ceramics.
The features of the silicon carbide-based ceramics
ABSC are based on the optimization of the particle
size distribution of silicon carbide grains, their high-
temperature oxidation and interaction of the
oxidized silicon carbide with the inorganic bonding
agent. As a result, these ceramics consist of silicon
carbide grains bonded by sub-micron mullite
crystalline phase and alumina-silicate-glassy phase.
The developed ratio between silicon carbide
particles with different size provides high level of
compaction from one side, and good manufacturing
ability of the mix. The optimized composition and
amount of the bonding agent and firing conditions
also provide high compaction and bonding level and
the formation of practically dense crystalline-glassy
surface of the ceramics. Due to coarse-grained
microstructure these ceramics have only moderate
strength (Table 2); however, they have excellent
thermal shock resistance. These ceramics resist
multiple cycles of tremendously fast heating and
cooling without cracking and deterioration of
properties.
3. WEAR TESTING RESULTS
Wear resistance was tested in accordance with
ASTM B611-85 and ASTM G65-91, i.e. at wet
conditions when the abrasive media (coarse alumina
particles in water) are supplied between a test
sample and a rotating steel wheel, and at dry
conditions when the abrasive particles (dry coarse
silica sand) are supplied between a test sample and
a rotating rubber lined wheel. All CPC-ceramics
demonstrate high wear resistance (Tables 1 and 2);
its values are at the same level or exceed wear
resistance of many commercial ceramics and metals
widely used for the wear-protection in mining and
mineral processing. All studied alumina, zirconia,
and silicon carbide-based ceramics showed the
same level of wear resistance (volume loss is 0.02-
0.03 cm^) in dry testing conditions as one of the
best wear resistant material tungsten carbide (WC-
NiCr), and they are significantly stronger than 440-
500HB Steel and Mild Steel (volume loss is 0.15
and 0.24 cm^ respectively). All studied ceramics
showed from 2 to 10 times higher wear resistance in
wet testing conditions than basalt (volume loss 3.6
cm^); their wear resistance is also higher than for
another competitor such as nitride-bonded silicon
carbide ceramics (volume loss 1.6-2.5 cm^).
Ceramics like many other materials used for wear-
protection works better in dry than in wet (slurry)
conditions. In case of wet erosion, the liquid exerts
a wedging action on the material surface, first of all,
subjecting on the weakest constituent of ceramics
(usually, a glassy phase). Ceramics works better at
sliding abrasion conditions. At the impingement
angle increasing, i.e. at higher influence of impact
of processed particles, ceramics demonstrate less
wear resistance. For example, wear resistance of all
alumina ceramics is approximately 3-5 times better
at impingement angle 20 degree than at 90 degree
(at 45 degree wear resistance has intermediate
values). However, this difference is significantly
less for ceramics with high fracture toughness, e.g.
for the alumina-zirconia and, especially, for zirconia
ceramics.
649
Among the studied ceramics, the alumina-zirconia
ceramics AZ has the highest wear resistance; its
volume loss is about 3 times less than for highly
resistant alumina ceramics AL99.5, AL91, and
AL98 and zirconia ceramics. It may be explained by
high mechanical properties, first of all, hardness and
fracture toughness, optimal ratio between corundum
and zirconia crystals, very uniform microcrystalline
structure, the absence of a glassy phase, and very
low closed porosity. Among alumina ceramics, the
best wear resistance are marked for AL99.5 due to
very uniform microcrystalline microstructure and
practically absence of a glassy phase, and for AL9I
due to the optimal ratio between crystalline and
glassy phases and the presence of the tiny mullite
crystals reinforced the glassy phase bonded alumina
crystals. Alumina-zirconia, zirconia, and alumina
AL99.5 ceramics with high mechanical properties
also demonstrate excellent cavitation resistance, and
they withstand highly corrosive environment such
as acids, salts, alkalis, gases at elevated pressures
and temperatures. High wear resistance of the
silicon carbide-based ceramics, especially in dry
conditions, is explained by high compaction level of
very hard silicon carbide particles which are also
bonded by the alumina-silicate crystalline-glassy
phase. The low-porous crystalline-glassy surface
layer of these ceramics improves their wear
resistance.
Wear resistance of ceramics depends on many
factors related properties, microstructure and phase
composition, manufacturing features and surface
quality of ceramic parts, and working conditions.
The dominant physical properties effected wear
resistance include hardness and fracture toughness;
flexural and impact strength and modulus of
elasticity are also important. However, only the
combination of all important mechanical properties
as well as features of microstructure and phase
composition should be taken into consideration at
the evaluation and choosing of ceramics for wear-
protection.
In order to decrease turbulence and impingement
angle negatively effected wear resistance of ceramic
parts, their design should provide maximized radii
of elbows and bends; the transition from smaller to
higher thickness of the part should be smooth and
without steps. Ceramics with higher surface quality
demonstrate higher wear resistance because of
smaller area for abrasive or corrosive attack. High
surface quality may be achieved by the tooling
surface quality improvement or by the use of green-
or, especially, post-fired machining.
Table 1. Properties of the CPC-dense ceramics *.
Property Alumina ceramics AZ Zirconia ceramics
AL91 AL95 AL98 AL98.5 AL99.5
Density**, g/cm"^ 3.58-3.61 3.67-3.69 3.78-3.82 3.81-3.84 3.90-3.91 4.34-4.39 6.05
Young’s Modulus, GPa 260-275 270-280 320-360 330-370 340-370 310-340 200-205
Hardness, Moh’s scale 9 9 9 9 9 9 6.5-7
Hardness HVIO I090-II90 980-1100 1250-1300 1320-1370 1520-1560 1520-1560 1230-1260
Fracture toughness
Kic, MPa.m"^ 2.7-3.0 2.4-2.9 3.2-3.3 3.3-3.4 3.2-3.3 3.7-4.0 6.0-10.0
Flexural strength, MPa 315-370 275-290 250-340 270-350 320-360 500-800
Wear resistance
(volume loss), cm^
ASTM B6I1 0.32-0.35 0.48-0.50 0.33-0.36 0.35-0.36 0.30-0.33 0.10-0.12 0.33-0.35
ASTMG65 (13-16). 10'^ (20-24). 10'^(16-18).10 -3 (13-16).10'^ - (12-15).10’^
Linear coefficient of
thermal expansion
( 2 o - 6 o o ° c ) , irc (6-8). 10'® (6-8). 10'^ (6-8). 10'^ (6-8). 10'^ (7-8). 10'^ 10.10'^ 10.10'^
Max use temperature.
1350 1400 1450 1450 1500 1500 1500

* These accumulated data are performed for the materials prepared from different raw materials and
manufactured by slip casting and dry pressing
‘ Water absorption of all materials should not be greater than 0.02%

Table2. Properties of the CPC-silicon carbide-based ceramics.

Property ABSC20 ABSC15 ABSC17 ABSC30m
Density, g/cm^ 2.86-3.0 2.86-3.0 2.86-3.0 3.1-3.25
Flexural strength, MPa 23-30 20-28 20-28 35-45
Hardness, Moh’s scale 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5
Knoop hardness (principal crystal) 2700 2700 2700 2700
Linear coefficient of thermal expansion
( 2 o - 6 o o ° c ) , irc (6.0-6.5).10'^ (6.0-6.5).10'^ (6.0-6.5).10‘^ (6.0-6.5).10‘^
Thermal conductivity (20-300°C), W/m.°C 23-26 23-26 23-26 26-30
Wear resistance (volume loss), cm^
ASTM B611 (top surface/center section) 1.2-1.5 0.9-1.2 0.8-1.1 2.0-2.2
3.0-3.5 1.1-1.2 1.5-1.7 4.9-5.1
ASTM G65 (20-30). 10'^ (15-20).10'^ (18-25).10'^ (33-42). 10'^
Max use temperature, °C 1350 1350 1350 1300

4. APPLICATION AREAS OF CERAMICS IN (curve or flat, square or hexagonal) or monolithic

MINING AND MINERAL PROCESSING custom shape sections may be produced.

Due to excellent wear- and corrosion resistance
combined with the ability to withstand thermal
shocks and high temperatures, the CPC-ceramics
are widely used for the protection of equipment and
piping systems working at hard abrasive conditions,
even for material processing after heat treatment
operations or in strongly corrosive environment
such as acids, salts, alkalis, hot gases, and even
steam. The ceramic liners extend equipment service
life reducing downtime. In dependence on the
required product design and size, the tile lining
Piping systems include monolithic straight pipes,
elbows, reducers, Y- and T-sections, and other parts
with length and diameter up to 0.5 m are produced
from the silicon carbide-based ceramics. Also, the
alumina ceramic lining may be used as monolithic
pipes or custom shaped tiles; usually, alumina
ceramics is applied for protection of the most
important sections. Such ceramic piping systems are
successfully used for pneumatic and hydraulic
conveying of various ores, minerals, sand, cement,
and also for tailings with different pH values.

650
Cyclones and hydrocyclone sections and other parts
of extracting equipment made from the silicon
carbide and, especially, alumina ceramics showed
excellent performance for classifying of oil sand
and various minerals. In hydraulic conditions the
solid with different particle size and shape being
conveying may create serious damages due to
significant effect of velocity of flow, turbulence,
gravity, and wet environment that may be strongly
corrosive. Pressure and velocity in the feed chamber
of hydrocyclones induce a centrifuge effect causing
the acceleration and swirl of processing materials
around the interior of the chamber. As expected, the
equipment where the most important areas (bends)
were lined with the alumina ceramics with the
highest wear resistance demonstrated higher
performance and longer life cycle. Based on the
analysis of the market and customer needs. Heavy
Medium Cyclones (with inside diameter almost 1
m) with alumina ceramic lining have very high
application potential. If the size of cyclone can not
permit producing monolithic ceramic liners, custom
shape alumina tiles are used to line the square and
round feed chute and cone segments, but monolithic
alumina sections are applied in the bottom cone
vortex finder, and apex.
The silicon carbide and alumina ceramic lining are
successfully used in dust collection systems and for
exhausting of hot gases. Fan housing and fan blades
are the examples.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Structure and properties of the alumina, alumina-
zirconia, zirconia, and silicon carbide-based
ceramics have been studied. These ceramics have
high hardness (greater than for the majority of
processed materials), fracture toughness from
moderate values to high level for zirconia ceramics,
the ability to work at temperatures greater than
I300°C and to resist thermal shocks. Due to the
optimized compositions and microstructure and
high mechanical properties these ceramics have
excellent wear resistance both in dry and wet severe
conditions, i.e. their areas of application are not
limited. Wear resistance of the studied ceramics
exceeds wear resistance of different materials used
for wear-protection. The main factors effected wear
resistance of ceramics are emphasized; only the
combination of all factors should be taken into
consideration at the evaluation and choosing of
ceramics for wear-protection. The studied ceramics
are widely used in mining and mineral industries for
wear- and corrosion-protection of processing
equipment due to their superior properties and their
ability to produce different complicated shapes.

Mixer and blender working parts (lining, paddles,

scrapers, blades, flumes, etc.) as well as lining of
milling equipment made from the alumina and
alumina-zirconia ceramics are used for processing,
mixing, and milling of abrasive materials in dry and
liquid conditions. Hoppers, storage tanks and
containers protected by alumina tile lining serve
significantly longer than steel lining in mineral and
ore processing.

Mechanically stronger ceramics such as alumina-

zirconia, zirconia, and high alumina ceramics (with
AI2 O3 content greater than 98%) can be used for
manufacturing of different pump and valve wear-
resistant parts such as impellers, plungers, sleeves
and rings, valves, lining for pump volutes, and
many others. In some cases the ceramics for such
applications should be machined to achieve high
surface quality and precise tolerance of the parts.

Nozzles made from the alumina-zirconia, zirconia,

and high alumina ceramics (AL99.5) for spraying
strongly abrasive slurries under high pressure
showed good working ability.

651
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A pplication o f pre m ixed abrasive water jet for m aintenance o f oil

and gas ducts

M.L.A.Mendes, L.Soares & W.T.Hennies

Mining Engineering Department, Polytechnic School, University of Sdo Paulo, Brazil
R.Ciccu & A.Bortolussi
DIGITA, University of Cagliari, Italy

ABSTRACT: A review of general principles of the application of pre mixed abrasive water jet is also dis­
cussed, and that is widely used in different fields of the modem industry. Technical applications of ultra high
pressure abrasive water jet are used with success for cutting steel ducts, even when these are reinforced with
fibber systems or internal protection. The steel and reinforced elements can also be cut simultaneously with
concrete stmctures. The use of tools specially developed to actuate in surface work locations and for cutting
through walls ensure the success of this job. The new technology is an athermic system that does not generate
heat, scrap, or gas, and this can be favorable for the stability of the base metal grains, as it is known that great
energy can promote an adverse growth of these grains when temperature gets close to 1,038° C. The base
metal grain growth is harmful as it weakens the metal that needs to be repaired. In this process, the elimina­
tion of the danger of an explosion results in better safety conditions, even though safety remains as a critical
issue in the subsequent welding of the new segment. In this case, the effective use of the pre mixture abrasive
water jet may provide better quality welding and greater safety for the new duct segment.

1 INTRODUCTION ter at Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro, as a failed fuel

1.1 Historical review
A hundred years ago, the first investigations about
the use of water jet as a tool were performed by a
group of mining engineers. In those trial investiga­
tions, the energy of a water jet was not only used to
disintegrate soft rocks and coal, but also as a mean
of transportation, as the excavated material was
transported in a fluid state as slurry.
Since then, a series of works have been developed
in several countries to utilize water jet to cut materi­
als in the industry. Since the seventies, applications
of this process have grown. Nowadays in Europe
around 1,200 advanced shops use this water jet cut­
ting system for a wide range of applications.
1.2 General Aspects
Ducts are one of the most tmstful and secure means
to transport fuels such as oil and gas. However, dur­
ing their useful life they develop defects that may af­
fect the transport stmcture. Among them, the reduc­
tion of wall thickness caused by corrosion is one of
the major maintenance problems that can affect the
duct structure. This problem appears either in land or
underwater ducts.
A significant example of the damage potential of
such duct defects is the recent environmental disas­
duct caused an oil spill that could be avoided.
With the evolution of environmental protection
laws and the growth of systems of oil and gas trans­
portation lines worldwide, the evaluation of new
corrosion resistance standards has acquired great
importance.
Because of economical and ecological reasons,
operators of fuel transport lines must take the neces­
sary measures to avoid duct failures that lead to
product leaks, disruption to their productive sched­
ule and above all, serious damages to the environ­
ment.
Accidents prevention represents considerable sav­
ings of resources as it also helps to protect lives, to
improve corporate image, to avoid material damages
and to protect the environment.
To avoid these accidents, transport lines must be
periodically inspected, with subsequent structural re­
sistance analysis of corroded duct elements.
The results of the structural evaluation of cor­
roded ducts should provide enough data to continue
with the transport operations or to make a repair de­
cision. An adequate follow up schedule should be
implemented to ensure safe duct operation until the
repair is completed.
Generally, inspections are performed with the use
of an instrumented “pig” or an ultrasonic scanning
device that can detect a variety of defects caused by

653
corrosion. Once the exact location is identified, the
cutting operation is scheduled and the regular proce­
dure is to freeze the liquid flow within the duct. At a
safe distance from the location, a pumping truck re­
moves the oil from the duct section that will be re­
placed.
Figure 1 displays an ultrasonic inspection appara­
tus that is normally used in Brazil by Petrobras-
Petroleo Brasileiro S/A.
2 GENERATION OF PRE MIXED ABRASIVE
WATERJET
There are two different systems to generate abrasive
water jets, the bypass and the direct pumping sys­
tem. There is a sketch of both systems in figure 2.
Despite the different generation mechanisms, the
most important process feature of these systems is
the pressure range. In the bypass system the pressure
is limited to 200 MPa; whereas direct pumping sys­
tems can operate at pressures up to 350 MPa.

Figure 1. U ltra-sound inspection system . SourceiPE T R O -

BRAS.

This duct is cleaned and once all the safety meas­

ures are implemented, it is possible to start the cut­
ting process utilizing ultra high pressure pre-mixed
abrasive water jet without risks to the integrity of
workers and materials that are there. As this opera­
tion is a non-thermic process, it does not generate
sparks or high temperatures that could cause an ex­
plosion.
Once the corroded section is replaced and as the
line still remains frozen, the new part is then safely
welded into position (Bueno, 1999).
Figure 2. System o f generation o f susp en sion abrasive w ater
jet.
Table 1 includes some data collected by Member
& Kovacevic (1998) regarding technical characteris­
tics of the generation of suspension abrasive water
jets.
In the bypass system, part of the water volume
flow is used to bring the abrasive material out of the
storage vessel and to mix it back into the main wa­
ter-flow line.

Table 1. R esults o f the laboratory assayin g w ith abrasive susp en sion water jet.
R eference Pump pressure A brasive flo w rate Slurry concentration A brasive-grain size F o cu s (j)
(M pa) (g/s) (%) (p m ) (m m )
B Y P A S S S Y ST E M
A nerson (1 9 9 2 ) 28.5 108 - - 2 .8 -4 .8
B lo o m field & Y eom an s (1 9 9 1 ) 3 5 -6 9 2 .8 -1 7 3 12 - 0.3-2.1
Brandt et al (1 9 9 4 ) 2 5 -2 0 0 8 .3 -5 0 - 4 5 -2 5 0 0 .5 -0 .7
G uo et al. (1 9 9 3 ) - - 15 # 3 0 -# 1 0 0 * 1.5-2.3
Laurinat et al. (1 9 9 2 ) 18 8.3 -8 3 - 1 8 0 -7 1 0 1 .5 -2 .4
L iu & C iu (1 9 8 8 ) 2 -9 50 - 630 2 .2
L iu et al. (1 9 9 2 ) 10-35 3 .7 -1 4 2 1.5-36 - 1.36
Shim izu & W u (1 9 9 4 ) 20 - 18-24 7 5 -2 1 2 1.0
W alters & Saunders (1 9 9 1 ) 15-69 28.3 - 1 5 0 -5 0 0 1.0
Y a zici & Sum m ers (1 9 8 9 ) 21 -3 5 2 0 -1 5 0 - 3 0 0 -1 2 5 0 2 .0 -2 .8
Y o u e t a l. (1 9 9 3 ) 35 3 3 -1 1 7 13-17 # 2 8 -# 8 0 * -
D IR E C T P U M PIN G S Y S T E M
H ashish (1 9 9 1 ) 104-345 1.0-11 6 -4 8 # 8 0 -# 2 2 0 * 0 .2 3
H ollin ger et al. (1 9 8 9 )* * 5 2 -1 0 4 1.2-1.7 10 5 3 -1 0 6 0 .1 -0 .3
* M esh designation ** P olym er addition apud M om ber & K o v a cev ic (1 9 9 8 )

654
 The generic system design includes a plunger
pump, high pressure abrasive storage tank, bypass
line and abrasive hopper.
The direct system used for our tests adapted a
conventional Omax water jet system and delivered
an agitated slurry into the feeding of the mixture
tube, without air and using the high pressure of the
jewel as an accessory feeding of water.
3 PREPARING THE ABRASIVE SUSPENSION
OF THE WATER JET CUTTING SYSTEM
An adapted container was used to prepare the abra­
sive suspension. This container was a cylindrical
vessel with a mixer attached to maintain a reasona­
bly homogenous concentration.
Measured quantities of abrasive provided 5%,
10% and 15% slurry concentrations. A plastic tube
connected to the bottom of the container transported
the abrasive suspension to the feeding line of the
OMAX 2652A system. Thus, only water and abra­
sive with no air was fed into the cutting system, and
characterizes a pre-mixed abrasive water cutting sys­
tem.
In figure 3 displays the laboratory apparatus used
to make the pre-mixed water jet.
Figure 3. T he apparatus used for the pre m ixed water jet.
655
4 TARGET MATERIAL OF DUCTS
The target material of standard ducts for the oil in­
dustry are construction steel tubes whose diameter
ranges from 160 mm to 660 mm with wall thickness
ranging from 8 mm for small diameter piping to
more than 25 mm for larger diameters.
Duct steel specifications are standardized by API
- Association of Petroleum Institute - and some
tubes made of this material were provided by Petro-
bras, both new and used samples, for laboratory test­
ing purposes.
Our aim is to determine technical procedures as
guidelines for a future development of an adequate
equipment for the maintenance, recovery, and re­
placement of worn out or corroded duct sections in
fuel transportation systems.
Current cold mechanical cutting system in use.
Figure 4, after Bueno (1999).
Figure 4 . C old m echanical cut n ow utilized.
Evaluation of the duct structure can be performed
by indirect physical methods of transmission waves.
Problematic segments can be identified by ordi­
nary scheduled inspections, and corrective measures
taken whenever necesary.
5 LABORATORY TEST RESULTS
Several laboratory tests were performed with differ­
ent abrasive suspension concentration, as previously
mentioned, using a 200 mm diameter duct, and ap­
proximately 10 mm wall thickness..
First test was performed with the conventional
Omax water, abrasive and air system, using quality
5, or the lowest traverse velocity of about 1 mm/s.
This cutting operation was a success, with about 33
wiggles and no problems. Two cuts were made in
the duct. The first was in normal to the diametric di­
rection with a length of 100 mm. The other cut was
10 mm away from the first cut, also with the same
length in diametral direction. Figure 5 (below)
shows this test.
 The grains from the base metal maintain their
stability after the water jet cutting operation, and dis­
play better performance during the welding the new
duct section.

REFERENCES

M om berg, A . W .; K o v a cev ic, R. 1998 Prin cip les o f A brasive

W a ter J e t M a c h in in g S p r in g e r V erlag L ondon L im ited 3 9 4
pp.
M om berg, A . W .; N ielsen , A .G . 1998 P ip elin e R ehabilitation
by W ater-Jetting M a te r ia ls P e r fo rm a n c e V . 3 7 , n. 2 , p. 9 7 -
101, Feb. 1998.
B u en o Sergio I. O. 1999 Isolam en to de trecho do gasduto u tili­
zando a técn ica da estim ula^ào da form a 9ào e crescim ento
Figure 5. The con ven tion al air, abrasive, water je t cut. de um "SO LID ICE PLUG" p elo resfriam ento e x tem o com
líq uidos crio g én ico s. G asoduto PCE-1 / Cabiúnas. 2 °
Figure 6 displays one of the three tests in which S e m in à rio B r a s ile iro d e D u to s. R io de Janeiro B rasil em
C D -R O M
at this time it was not possible to completely cut
through the duct wall thickness. There were some
difficulties to obtain good pulp homogenization for
the cutting operation to be successful.

Figure 6. Partial cut w ith the low est concentration o f garnet by

the pre m ixed w ater jet.

6 MAIN CONCLUSIONS

These first laboratory tests demonstrated that it is

possible to cut steel ducts with abrasive pre-mixed
water jet without problems. More than one pass was
necessary to cut the duct. The pulp feeding system
needs fhrther developments but there is improve­
ment potential to achieve full cuts with a single pass.
Another procedure to achieve the same goal is to
reduce the nozzle’s traverse velocity, which was
about 1 mm/s at this time.
Other noticeable aspect was an increase in water
temperature during the pre-mixed water jet opera­
tion, but within a limited range that will not affect
the growth of metal grains. The new procedure will
allow cutting operations of metallic ducts without
the excessive heat generation noticed in conven­
tional cutting technology (figure 4).

656
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A spects regarding the determ ination o f the volum e o f the silo-w agons

S. Mihailescu & I. Dumitrescu

University o f Petrosani, Romania
N.S.Ungureanu
North University o f Baia-Mare, Romania
L. Mihailescu
SC PROSECOM SA Petrosani, Romania

ABSTRACT: The determination of the basic, functional parameters and the design values of the mining
equipment that can be efficiently used underground, must be made in close connection with the technological
mining factors. The useful volume is the main parameter that characterizes the working potential of the silo-
wagons in certain conditions and it influences decisively the other design values and functional parameters. In
turn, it depends on the maximum load of the silo-wagons given by the condition of resistance to bending of
the 13.75 kg/m type rail.

1 INTRODUCTION dimensions use factors; the shifting speed of the

The importance of drifting mechanization of the
horizontal opening and first-mining workings results
from their high volume related to the quantity of
useful mineral matters worked off, from the need of
an increase the rates of advance, decreases the cost
price per metre of drifted roadway, from the neces­
sity of an increase the output per man-shift and of
improving the working conditions. It is enough to
highlight among these that the rates of advance ac­
complished in Romania now - about 30 m per month
- are considered at the lowest level from Europe.
The receiving and the removal of the dislocated
material represent a real problem for all advancing
technologies and it has not been solved.
Self-discharging silo-wagons are high capacity
haulage equipment devoted to acquire and evacuate
the rock from the working face, during entries ad­
vancing, behind both loaders and roadheaders. Using
the silo-wagons with maximum operational effi­
ciency during the receiving, removal and haulage of
the dislocated material, to carry out a large variety of
horizontal workings, starting with the exploration
and the opening drifts to the hydroenergetic gallery
and road or rail tunnels, requests the correct find out
of the basic parameters in correlation with a series of
technological factors, as: the nature of the rocks
loaded in the wagon; the profile, length and the cur­
vatures of the horizontal workings; the quantity of
the rock resulted at a jump; the type and the pa­
rameters of the equipments that work in complex.
The basic parameters of the silo-wagons are the
volumetric capacity or the useful volume, the overall
dimensions; the volumetric use factor; the overall
charge volume.
2 VOLUMETRIC DETERMINATION
The useful volume is the main parameter that char­
acterizes the best the working potential of the silo-
wagons. It influences decisively the other design
values, the technical-economic and functional pa­
rameters. If one basic indicator regarding the pro­
ductivity of the drifting process - length of the road­
way drifted during a month - is being analysed; it
can be noticed indeed that for a given section (which
remains, generally constant) it reflects actually the
volume of the dislocated rock during the considered
period.
2.1 Criterion o f the dislocated rock volume
The decisive criterion for determination of the useful
volume is the volume of the rock that has to be re­
moved following an advancing jump, which, on its
turn, depends on the work section, the length of the
bore holes and the type of rock. For the drifting sec­
tions, 5*5, between 5 m^ and 20 m^, for different
depths of the bore holes, Ig, for bore hole breakage
efficiency, q = 0.9 and for a medium coefficient of
rock aeration, ka = 1.4, using the relation (Letu et al.
1984):
( 1)
the rock volumes, U, obtained at a jump have been
determined, the results being included in Table 1.

657
Table ï . The rock volume resulted at a jump.
T he depth o f the T he drifting profile, Sj, m
B oreh o le, Ig, m
5.3 6.3 7 .6 8.2 9 .0 9.5 11.5 13.5 19.7

T he rock volu m e V ,, m

1.0 6 .7 0 7.9 7 9 .5 7 10.33 11.34 11.97 14.49 17.01 2 4 .8 2

1.1 7.3 7 8.77 10.53 11.36 12.47 13.17 15.94 18.71 2 7 .3 0

1.2 8 .04 9.5 7 11.49 12.40 13.61 14.36 17.39 20.41 2 9 .7 8
1.3 8.71 10.37 12.45 13.43 14.74 15.56 18.84 22.11 3 2 .2 7
1.4 9 .3 8 11.16 13.40 14.46 15.87 16.76 2 0 .2 8 23.81 3 4 .7 5
1.5 10.05 11.96 14.36 15.50 17.01 17.95 2 1 .7 3 25.51 3 7 .2 3
2 .0 13.40 15.95 19.15 2 0 .6 6 2 2 .6 8 2 3 .9 4 2 8 .9 8 3 4 .0 2 4 9 .6 4
2 .6 17.43 2 0 .7 4 2 4 .9 0 2 6 .8 6 2 9 .4 8 3 1 .1 2 3 7 .6 7 4 4 .2 2 6 4 .5 4

Analysing the data from Table 1, the frequency dia­ T able 2. P h y sico-m ech an ical properties o f the loaded rocks.
gram for different rock volumes obtained at a jump The rock S p ecific w eig h t o f A eration
(Fig. 1) has been traced using the method of empiric the rocks in wracks, c o efficien t
statistics (Florea & Czibula 1978). Analysing Figure 10" N/m^
U nscreened 0.8-1 1.4
1, results that for the usual roadway profiles, the fre­
anthracite
quency of emergence of the different rock volumes U nscreened 0.8-1.1 1.4
is higher during the interval of 7.5-17.5 m^, this steam coal
should also be the variation range of the useful vol­ L ignite 0 .8 -1 .1 1.3
ume of the silo-wagons. P ieces o f lim estone 1.2-1.5 1.3
C arboniferous clay 1.2-1.3 1.6
C lay 1.6 1.2
D am p sand 1.9 1.1
Slates 1.9-2 1.6
Hard m ine w aste 1.8-2 1.4
M anganese ore 1.2 5 -1 .2 8 1.3
Iron ore 2 .2 -3 .6 1.4
C om p lex ore 2 .0 -4 .5 1.4

The volumetric weights of the material determine

the total weight of the loaded wagon and implicitly
the value of the stresses that appear on the elements
of resistance and traction of the wagon: chassis,
walls, shafts, traction chains, stars, flights, axle-
trees, movable beams, etc.
It is necessary that the self-discharging silo-
wagons should be used in the existing underground
railway, without being taken any other additional
consolidation measures. The determination of the
Figure 1. Frequency p o ly g o n o f the rock volu m es resulted at a
accepted maximum gross weight of the silo-wagon
jum p.
will be made taking into account the rail of 13.75
kg/m type that now is the most used in underground
mine railways.
2.2 Criterion o f the nature o f the dislocated rock The general form of the relation for the determi­
nation of the maximum strain from the rail is:
The second criterion that determines the useful vol­
ume is the kind of rock that loaded in the silo-
wagons. The useful volume is given by the relation: ^max =9*- - < g ^ , [ N/ mm^] (3)

(2 ) where Mmax " the maximum moment in rail, in

y N*mm; Wxi = strength modulus of the rail, in mm^; (p
where G = weight of the nominal charge volume of = 1.15, the dynamic coefficient for speeds included
the silo-wagons, in N; y = volumetric weight of the between 15-25 km/h; Oa = admissible strain of the
loaded rocks, in n W (Table 2) (Marian 1984). rail, in N/mm^.

658
 Being known the admissible stress and the type of
Vu,[m^]
rail, it can be determined the efficient stress the rail
40
resists, using the relation:
a W
(4) 30
9
For calculation of the maximum moment in rail
there are used the methods of Zimmerman, C.W. 20
Clarke, Joehn and the method proposed by the inter­
national association of railways.
Zimmerman’s method is based on the following 10
hypotheses:
- the rail has a limited length, equal with the
threshold of the distance between beams;
- the point of application of the P force is the 0,5 1,5 2,5 3,5 4,5
middle of the rail; y, [kN/m^]
- between the strains of the leaning assemblies
and the load values, the hypothesis of the linear in­ Figure 2. D ep en d en ce betw een the useful v olu m e o f the silo -
terdependence is accepted. w a g o n s and the volum etric w eig h t o f the rocks.
Based on the elasticity theory and the mentioned
hypotheses it has been found out that the maximum
static bending moment in rail is: loading of each kind of material: coal, mine waste or
U + 7 Pa -, ore. Knowing that the roadways are drifted generally
(5) in mine wastes or ores having a volumetric weight
4Â: + 10 4 ^ ^ higher than 1.5 kN/m^, the variation range of the
where a = 500 mm, the distance between the sleep­ useful volume of the silo-wagon is 7.5-17.5 m^.
ers axes; P = the maximum load transmitted to the It can be noticed that the variation range of the
rail by the silo-wagon wheel, in N; k = coefficient useful volume of the silo-wagon resulted from both
which is calculated with the relation: of the methods coincides.
The useful volume being established, depending
6 ^ on it results the other parameters as: the forces be­
k= ( 6) tween the rake-chains; the resistant moment; the
a^bcL
sizes of the strength elements; overall dimensions;
where E = 2.1-10^ N/mm^, a longitudinal elasticity other technical and economic parameters.
module of the material of the rail; E = 1403000 Nevertheless, to establish the overall dimensions
mm^, an inertness moment of the transversal section (length, width, height), it will be also taken into ac­
of the rail; b = 200 mm, the width of the sleeper count other factors that are in close connection with
foot; c = 0,04 N/mm^, ballast coefficient, numeri­ the overall dimensions, as: the admissible maximum
cally equal with the vertically applied force on the width and length of the hauling equipment for the
surface unit of the leaning assembly, which cause a given roadway; the maximum loading height of the
displacement equal with the unit; L = 150 mm, half used loaders; curvature radiuses of the roadways.
the length of the sleeper that is under the rail calcu­ The constructive solution of the VS AH type silo-
lated. wagon allows the designing of a tipodimensional
Knowing that the admissible bending strengths, range of silo-wagons, by modifying the height of the
for the light type rails, vary between 290-350 trough walls, of the intermediary trough length and
N/mm^, using the relation (4) it is calculated the ef­ the wagon width. Combining these dimensions, 32
ficient effort of the rail, and from relation (5) it is tipodimensions have been obtained, presented in Ta­
found out the admissible maximum load which can ble 3.
be transmitted to the rail by the wheel of silo-wagon,
getting Pmaxadm = 53,570 N. The self-discharging
silo-wagon foreseen with two bogies by two axle- T able 3. T ipodim ensional range o f V S A H type silo -w a g o n s
trees of two wheels, can have the maximum gross W idth, B , [m] 1.25 1.4
weight Pbrmax ^ 428,560 N. The nominal weight of H eight, H, [m] 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
the silo-wagon charge is of 280,000 N. Length, L, [m] V olu m e, V , [m^]
Based on the relation (2), it has been traced the 9 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 9 .0 10.0 11.0 12.0
curve of the useful volume of the silo-wagons volu­ 10 8.5 9.5 10.5 12.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.5
metric weight of the loaded rocks (Fig. 2). 11 9.5 10.5 12.0 13.0 11.0 12.0 13.5 15.0
In principle, the silo-wagons can be used for 12 10.5 12.0 13.0 14.5 12.0 13.5 15.0 16.5

659
The ensemble self-discharging silo-wagon VS AH REFERENCES
(Fig. 3) consists in the following parts: the box, con­
sisting in three furrows (1), (2), (3), two bogies (4); Florea, A . & R. C zibula 1978. T e c h n o lo g y o f M in in g E q u ip ­
m e n t M a n u fa c tu r in g . Petrosani: M inin g Institute Lithogra­
an electro-hydraulic group (5); hydromechanic
phy.
driving (6); a scraper conveyor (7); chain (8). Letu, N ., E. M arica & C. Sem en 1984. H e a d in g s o f H o rizo n ta l
U n d e rg r o u n d M in in g = s. Petrosani: M inin g Institute Li­
thography.
3 CONCLUSIONS Marian, I. 1984. E q u ip m e n ts f o r M in in g L o a d in g a n d T ra n s­
p o r ta tio n . Bucharest: D idactic and P ed agogic Editor.
M ihailescu , S. 1998. T he In c r e a s e o f th e M e c h a n iza tio n E x te n t
Given the existent type silo wagons, the VSAH type o f th e R o c k L o a d in g -R e m o v a l O p e ra tio n a t th e G a lle ries
silo-wagon presents the following advantages: D rivin g . D octoral T hesis, Petrosani.
1. The useful volume of the silo-wagon is within
7.5 and 16.5 m l
2. The use factor of the total overall dimensions
of 0.525 is higher with 50%.
3. The use coefficient of the transversal overall
dimensions of 0.565 is higher with 60%.
4. The fault coefficient of 0.43 is lower with
20% .
5. The overall dimensions are lower, but the ca­
pacity is higher.
6. They join in the radius of curvature of only 10
m roadway.
7. The bogies having track widths of 600, 630,
750 and 900 mm are lighter and have a lower height.
8. The driving of the scraper conveyer from the
bottom of the silo-wagon box is electro-hydraulic.
9. The installed power is half given the driving of
other type of silo-wagons.
10. It can be assembled and disassembled easily
in underground conditions.
11. It allows the mining with maximum effi­
ciency in every kind of rocks and at every roadway
having a larger section than 5 m .

660
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Investigation o f the relationship betw een cutting angles and wearing on beads
in diam ond w ire cutting method

Y.Ozgelik & S.Kulaksiz

Department o f Mining Engineering, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey

ABSTRACT: Diamond wire cutting machines have been used in marble industry since 1985 and have
affected the production rate and efficiency considerably. Despite the common use of these machines in our
country, there is a lack of investigation about improvement of working conditions together with increasing
efficiency.The cutting angle of diamond wire and wearing at the diamond beads are some of the operating
parameters of diamond wire cutting machines. A study related to determination of optimum operating
conditions will increase the rate of production, enable the proper selection of diamond wire type and
efficiency of cutting.In the scope of this study, concerned with the mentioned problems, diamond wire cutting
studies in industrial scale were performed on rocks with different mechanical and physical characteristics in
seven different marble quarries located at Ankara-^ubuk, U§ak-Banaz, Eski§ehir-Sivrihisar, Mugla-Milas,
Mugla-Kozaga9, Afyon-ts^ehisar and Burdur-Ye§ilova and data were collected without changing operating
condition of quarries. During data collection and diamond wire cutting, some of the machine and cutting
parameters are fixed so that some of the effective parameters in cutting can be studied in detail. The results
obtained are evaluated seperataly on the basis of horizontal and vertical cutting and also for different types of
rock. As a result, it is found that cutting machines should be operated for cutting angles over 15°.

1 INTRODUCTION rocks was investigated in detail. Moreover, the

While the amount of wearing on diamond bead
increases, cutting rate and wire productivity that
means cutting area per hour decrease, so the cost
production of marble per square meter increases.
Therefore, the indication of wire productivity
conditions according to optimum bead wearing rate
is the most important subject for marble industry.
The rate of bead wearing is effected by lots of
variables such as the cutting angle between wire and
rock, cutting speed, cutting area. Therefore,
investigation on the effect of the cutting angle
variable is an important subject (Oz9elik 1999).
The determination of optimum working
conditions for diamond wire cutting method in
marble industry is very important to indicate the
correct and economic usage of the method. It has
been generally accepted that rock parameters in
production area are not changed and small
deviations don’t influence main system. Therefore,
in this study only crystal grain size in carbonaceous
parameters affecting the performance of diamond
wire cutting machine were investigated from the
point of the productivity of diamond wire cutting
and block production. These factors are;
• Cutting angle
• Amount of bead wearing
So far, no studies have been made in relation with
the parameters given above affecting the optimum
working conditions. The detailed study on the
relations among these parameters will help to
understand the method better and the optimum usage
of diamond wire cutting machine will encourge all
marble producers.
2 FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES
In order to find the most productive working
conditions for the marble cutting process by using
diamond wire cutting machine, five different
quarries in different regions of Turkey have been

661
chosen. A location map of the investigated marble The reasons for stabilisation of parameters are:
quarry areas is shown in Figure 1. • The reasons arised from machine,
• During working, any change on machine can’t be
allowed.
In order to make more correct measurement of
the change of angle between diamond wire and
horizontal plane during cutting process, big angle
meter with level has been used. Three digit Hitachi
digital micrometer has been used to measure bead
wearing amount. Wearing measurements have been
determined by containing at least % of used wire
length and by taking at least four measurements
Figure 1. Location map of the investigated marble
from different sides of a bead. Figure 2 shows the
quarry areas.
diamond wire cutting layout and applied
measurement system.
It has been also planned to find the changes that
may occur in diamond wire cutting process on
different rock types. Andesite which is the only
sample in Turkey containing quartz for hard rock
cutting by using diamond wire cutting machine, has
been chosen as a hard rock. Moreover, andesite
hasn’t been cut with diamond wire cutting machine
in all over the world. The other chosen types of rock
are carbonatic rocks that are defined as limestone
and real marble. Production quarries that apply
diamond wire cutting process on marbles having
different crystal size have been chosen.
While taking measurements in marble quarries,
some machine parameters have been tried to fix in
order to reach more correct comments. Fixed
parameters of machines and equipments that were
used in investigation area are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Fixed parameters of machines and

equipments.
Hard Rock Carbonaceous Rocks
Parameters (Andesite) (Real Marble and
Limestone) measurement system.
Number of beads 37 33
per meter Cutting angle and wearing on diamond beads for
Power of 37.3 37.3 any rock types from five different locality have been
machine (kW) recorded. Evaluations directed towards determining
Speed of 750 850 optimum working conditions of diamond wire
machine (rpm) cutting machines’ have been done by using data
Voltage (V) 380 380 from diamond wire cutting practices in field. These
Stretching 25 35 evaluations seperately reflect cutting type actions,
amperage (A) before and after wire shortening process.
The effect of angle variation on cutting
Pullback force 3.6 3.2
(MPa) performance hadn’t been examined in recent
researches on diamond wire cutting machines. In
Pulley diameter 80 80 this research, the effect of cutting angle variation on
(cm) wearing of diamond beads has been examined. The
Drilled hole 90 90 relationship between cutting angle and wearing on
diameter (mm) diamond bead for horizontal and vertical cutting
types that reflect the results of diamond wire cutting

662
 a ID » M 40 50 M
Aagle{Dt»i«)

0.H
R’ -0,9

f
I’-“ !
c
) 10 M 30 40 50
As(k (Dccnx)

SivTihisar Umestone

F ig u re 3 . R e su lts o f d ia m o n d w ir e cu ttin g p r a c tic e s in f iv e d ifferen t quarries for v ertical cu ttin g

663
Before stiortenlno

Before shortening
- (Willi 0.0W

Sivnhisar Limestone

664
 Table 2. Results of laboratory studies
Sample Texture and Average Grain Size Mineralogical Composition UCS (MPa)* Tensile S. (MPa) SSH** Cone-Indenter
Qubuk9 Andesite Microlitic, hyaline, porphyritic Plogioclase, biotite, hornblende and 50.50 9.25 63.70 9.81
texture. Plogioclase and biotite opaque minerals present. Horblende
grain size are 0.060 mm and 0.080 less common, amorphous silica
mm respectively. very common and gas pores are
seen.
^ubuklO Andesite Microlitic, hyaline, porphyritic Plogioclase, biotite, hornblende and 54.23 9.20 62.48 9.80
texture. Plogioclase and biotite opaque minerals present. Iron
grain size are 0.056 mm and 0.095 content is poor, gas pores are seen
mm respectively. less.
U§ak White Granoblastic texture. Calcite grain Calcite Accessories, muscovite, 69 5.25 47 4.66
size is 0.062 mm (medium coarse quartz, opaque minerals and
grain). dolomite
Milas Lilac Granoblastic texture. Calcite grain Calcite Accessories, muscovite, 55 4.97 46 4.12
size is 0.094 mm (medium coarse quartz, opaque minerals
grain).
05 Kozaga9 White Granoblastic texture. Calcite grain Calcite Accessories, muscovite, 42 4.20 42 4.10
o
cn size is 0.144 mm (very coarse quartz, titanite, opaque minerals.
grains).
Sivrihisar Limestone Micritic texture. Calcite grain size Calcite veine and sparitic changes. 72 7.0 62 4.99
is 0.0256 mm (very fine grain).

* : Uniaxial Compression Strength

** : Shore Scleroscope Hardness
practices in 5 different quarries are shown in Figure
3 and 4. Graphs reflect previous and afterwards of
wire shortening process separately.
The physical, mechanical, mineralogical and
petrographical properties of rocks are determined in
laboratory with respect to ISRM (1981) standart.
The results obtained from the laboratory studies are
given in Table 2.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
During cutting process, bead thickness due to angle
values between diamond wire and horizontal has
been evaluated and a decrease in values (wearing
out) of beads’ thickness due to angle variation have
been found. Cumulative wearing values have been
taken by adding wearing values at each angle
variation.
It is seen from the Figures 3 and 4 at variations of
the amounts of wearing on diamond beads
depending on angle variation, amounts of bead
wearing rapidly increase at highest angle values of
wire and rock interaction, and generally relations
show linear relationship. Defined angle values for
each type of rock and cutting (horizontal and
vertical) are seperately given below (when
determining those angles, sometimes extrapolation
was used) (Table 3).
Table 3. Defined angle values for each type of rock
and cutting
Vertical Horizontal
Investigated Area Angle (Degree) Angle (Degree)
Cubuk9 23-51 15-31
CubuklO 25-45 20-65
Usak White 18-47 23-50
Milas Lilac 21-51 25-49
Kozagac White 18-50 18-53
Sivrihisar Limestone 23-51 23-54
It has been seen from Figure 3 and 4 that after the
optimum cutting angle values given in Table 3,
quick increase of wearing amount continuously
decreased and linear relationship turned to parabolic
relationship because of cutting block comers at the
beginning of cutting process. In other words, until
finding an eliptic orbit, wire passes through sharp
comers and excessive friction causes quick increase
of wearing out. After a certain cutting process, when
the time for increasing angle value comes, relation
turns to linear behavior by shortening wire and by
increasing angle value. After shortening process
666
although bead excessively wears away in the first
working phase of wire, when the wire forms an
eliptic orbit linear relation and homogeneous
wearing due to angle variation have been observed.
In the test on andesites, although amounts of bead
wearing depending on angle variation are more than
other cuttings, general relations without any
connection with rock type have been preserved.
Before wire shortening process, relations were
parabolic, but after shortening process linear
stmcture has been observed. Similarly, general
stmcture has been preserved both in horizontal and
vertical cuttings.
4 CONCLUSION
a) Before wire shortening process, relationship
between the cutting angle and amount of
cumulative wearing shows a parabolic trend; after
shortening process, the relation becomes linear. It
shows that after certain period of time, cutting
angle has to be increased and linear relation has
to be preserved.
b) In the quarry, increasing the angle by shortening
wire couldn’t be done in a proper time. Because
of insufficient place for machine movements,
wire has been shortened either early or late. Early
wire shortening causes loss of time and obstmcts
homogeneous wearing on beads. Another
disadvantage of misapplication is continuous wire
shortening and lots of joints on wire.
c) In all cuttings, at the beginning of block cutting
process the amount of wearing away on diamond
beads is too much because of cutting comers.
It is concluded from this study that the angle
between wire and horizontal plane has to be on top
of minimum 15^ irrespective of rock type and
cutting in order to decrease wearing on diamond
wire cutting practices, to extend life of wire, to make
active and productive cutting. This angle value leads
to increase wire’s contact with cutting surface.
Therefore, cutting area for a unit time and cutting
productivity will increase and optimum working
condition will be achieved.
REFERENCES
ISRM, 1981. Rock Characterization Testing and
Monitoring; Suggested Methods, Oxford, 16 p.
Oz9elik, Y., 1999. Investigation o f the Working
Conditions o f Diamond Wire Cutting Machines in
Marble Industry, Ph. D. Thesis, Hacettepe
University, Ankara, 242 p. (unpublished) (in
Turkish).
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Perform ance and efficiency m easures for m ining equipm ent

J. Paraszczak & S. Planeta

Department o f Mining Metallurgy, Université Laval, Quebec City, Que., Canada
XSzymanski
School o f Mining and Petroleum Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alb., Canada

ABSTRACT: In modem mining, capital and operating costs related to equipment employed are among the
most important factors affecting overall production cost. In tough international competition, a reduction of the
latter is cmcial to remain competitive. Therefore, it is extremely important that the equipment used be effi­
cient and highly productive. In this paper traditional performance measures used in mining, such as availabil­
ity and utilization rate are critically reviewed and discussed. Based on that the paper stresses the need for a
new approach to performance indicators. Consequently, a concept of overall equipment effectiveness is intro­
duced and discussed. The issues such as utilization, maintainability and reliability are addressed and adequate
performance measures are proposed. The paper concludes with the possibilities for improvement offered by
proper tracking and measuring of equipment performance.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 CURRENTLY USED PERFORMANCE

Globalization and a strong competition in interna­
tional mining business exert substantial pressure on
companies to reduce production cost. In these cir­
cumstances, mine operators are forced to generate
revenues using increasingly constrained resources.
Since in modem, highly mechanized mines produc­
tion depends heavily on the performance of the
equipment, the latter issue is among the most critical
ones. Due to that it should be followed closely and
periodically analyzed so that the avenues for im­
provement can be identified. Unfortunately, it seems
that traditional performance indicators used
throughout mining industry give not only simplified,
but also nebulous image of a real situation. This has
a negative impact at the stage of decision-making on
equipment strategies. For example, it is difficult to
identify trouble spots and bottlenecks in the produc­
tion system, to take decisions about a size of equip­
ment fleet or its renewal, schedule properly the work
of maintenance crews, etc. It becomes then evident,
that a new, more profound approach should be ap­
plied. While performance is properly quantified and
measured, it becomes possible to perform criticality
analysis for a system concerned and, consequently,
undertake corrective actions. With this in mind, in
the following sections the problems associated with
commonly used performance measures will be dis­
cussed and the question concerning an introduction
and interpretation of new ones will be addressed.
MEASURES
2.1 Availability
Availability is one of the most commonly used per­
formance indicators. It tells us the proportion of the
time that we can expect the item to be operating. Ba­
sically, it is understood as a ratio between equipment
uptime (i.e. when equipment is mechanically able to
execute the work it was designed to do) and total
equipment scheduled time. One of the frequently
used definitions is the one given by Kales (1998):
MTBF
A =-
MTBF+MDT
In the above equation MTBF is a mean time between
failures being a measure of reliability (see also the
section 3.3), whereas MDT is the mean downtime.
The latter may be composed, in addition to active
maintenance downtime maintenance, of a logistics
delay time and administrative downtime.
Depending on downtime components taken into
consideration, the following kinds of availability
may be distinguished (Blanchard et al., 1995):
1. “inherent”, considering only active corrective
maintenance time;

667
 2. “mechanical”, including all active mainte­
nance times (corrective and preventive), which
assumes ideal logistical and administrative
support (no delays);
3. “operational”, that takes into consideration all
components of equipment downtime: all active
maintenance times and all related delays
and/or waiting time.
As availability depends on the “combined aspects
of reliability, maintainability and maintenance sup-
portability” (European Standard WI 319-003, 1997),
it is undoubtedly an important performance measure.
Once properly quantified, it may render a lot of
meaningful and valuable information about all three
above-mentioned aspects. Unfortunately, looking at
some industry practices concerning data collection
practices it is sometimes hard to believe that the
analysis based on the records kept could be conclu­
sive. One of the main problems consists in inade­
quate and imprecise reporting, which may introduce
a substantial bias in the data already at the beginning
of the whole process. For example, it is not uncom­
mon that availability numbers recorded are based
exclusively on information provided by production
crews, who tend to use a shift as a base unit. In such
cases, regardless whether a given machine was actu­
ally down for 3 or 9 hours out of the 10-hour shift, it
is usually reported “down” for a full shift. Another
problem concerns tracking dovmtime components.
Since, in order to calculate maintenance cost, man-
labor is seen as far more important than actual active
maintenance time, the latter is frequently disre­
garded. There is however, a substantial difference
between “maintenance man-hours” (MMH) and
“time to maintain” (TTM). To see that let’s look at
the following example: a mechanic worked for 3
hours to repair the machine #1, while the machine
#2 required simultaneous work of two mechanics for
3 hours. The number of maintenance man-hours
(MMH) recorded for both cases will be respectively
3 and 6, while the active maintenance time (neces­
sary to determine asset downtime) elapsed on the
clock was exactly the same (3 hours). If dovmtime is
calculated based on maintenance man-hours, in
many cases a significant error can be introduced.
Unfortunately, even if the data entered is quite
reliable, superficial interpretation of the results is
often an issue. Availability numbers, when taken out
of the whole context, can blur an image of the as­
set’s performance. In order to see it better, let’s ex­
amine a real case, encountered by one of these
authors. In an underground metal mine, for the same
period of time, two LHD machines had availability
figures at 65% and 90%. Looking at these bare
numbers, we might have had an impression that
something was going wrong with the first machine,
while the other performed just great. An inquiry into
this case has revealed a somehow different image.
668
Due to a rock fall in the underground, the first LHD
was severely damaged and it had to undergo long-
lasting repairs. Mine records however, did not make
any distinction between machine downtime due to
failures and due to accidents unrelated to its reliabil­
ity and maintainability (so-called “acts of God”). As
a result this LHD was always reported “down” (as if
it had been a result of its low reliability), which,
from the mine’s point of view was entirely true, but
unjustly “spoilt” machine’s dependability record.
Once we censored the data removing the period of a
complete overhaul and rectified the numbers, avail­
ability of the ill-fated LHD for the rest of the period
jumped up to 89%, while being used for about 68%
of its uptime (both figures well above the mine’s av­
erage). The other machine (available 90% of its
scheduled time), a brand new model introduced in
this mine, has logged a very low amount of engine
hours on its counter. Its utilization rate turned out to
be barely 25% of its uptime. Logically thinking, be­
ing idle for most of the time it had less chances to
fail. What would be its availability, had it been used
more often?
Another point to consider concerns the question
what are the main “contributors” of downtime.
Please note that the same availability level may have
entirely different background. Let’s consider two
machines, each with availability of 80%. For the
first machine, in the downtime of 20%, delays ac­
counted for 17% and active maintenance for 3% of
its scheduled time. Looking at these numbers, we
can conclude that reliability nor maintainability of
this asset does not seem to be a big problem, con­
trary to logistics, administration and maintenance
support. Consequently, the best chances for im­
provement lie in better management of resources
and/or better service from a supplier. In the case of
the second machine whose downtime is also at the
level of 20% (i.e. availability being equal to 80%)
but delays are marginal compared to active mainte­
nance time (let’s assume 2% and 18% respectively).
This time, we face an entirely different situation
compared to the previous case, which merits a more
profound and thorough analysis. Excessive “time to
maintain” may be due to a variety of reasons, such
as reliability related issues (design, quality of parts,
working conditions, machine abuse, etc.), but it may
be associated also with poor training and skills of
maintenance crews. The above examples indicate
that availability figures ought to be interpreted with
caution. Then, there is a question which availability
figures can be considered as “satisfactory“ or
“poor”. Unfortunately, very few, if at all, “mining“
benchmarks in this respect can be found in technical
literature.
Hosseini (1999) also indicated deficiency of
availability as a single performance measure. He
gives an example of a haul truck that, due to an en-
gine problem can be driven at only 80% of its full
speed. In a general sense it is still available, and it
will most probably be reported as “in use”, but its
maximum output has not been achieved. Therefore,
its performance does not much the one of another
truck, which worked the same amount of time, but at
its full capacity.
Following this discussion it may be concluded,
that with regards to the improvement of equipment
performance, it is not enough to determine a single
value of availability. It is far more essential to un­
derstand what lies behind this number, so that we
can see where the problems are and undertake ap­
propriate, the most cost effective corrective actions.
Therefore, reliability and maintainability, which are
the factors affecting availability, should be analyzed
more profoundly.
2.2 Utilization rate
Together with availability, it is among the most
frequently used performance indicators. In the sim­
plest way it may be defined as the “use of availabil­
ity” (Campbell, 1995). Some mines use more than
one concept of utilization rate as in the following
examples:
• utilization of availability - hours worked to
hours of availability (uptime)
• effective asset utilization - hours worked to
planned (scheduled) hours.
Undoubtedly, a concept of utilization rate is very
useful. Once again however, obtaining truly mean­
ingful figures is not as simple as it may seem. In the
first place, we need to know the exact amount of
hours of availability (uptime), which, as discussed in
the section 2.1, is already a problem in itself The
second part of trouble is determination and interpre­
tation of “working hours”. For some pieces of
equipment it is relatively easy to find out how many
hours they worked: loaders, trucks, shovels have got
counters of engine-hours, drill rigs have percussion
hours counters, etc. However, even in some of the
mentioned cases (for example loading and haulage
equipment), engine hours do not need to express
precisely an amount of useful work done and there­
fore they are not always representative. The fact that
an engine turns does not automatically mean that a
given machine is working. Quite often, particularly
in harsh climate conditions, engine is left running for
a long time without actual useful work being done.
Then, a distinction should be made between work
character of the machine concerned. An LHD load­
ing blasted ore and hauling it to ore passes does its
primary duty, that is the one it was designed to do.
Sometimes however, it can be used however, to de­
liver a bunch of spare parts for another piece of
equipment in the another area of the mine. This can
be considered as secondary or auxiliary duty. Even
669
though it is used and working in both cases, it could
be better perhaps to keep it for loading job and use a
service truck instead. Long hours logged on a coun­
ter may be also partly due to poor dispatching and
asset management, for example when a given ma­
chine had to do long unnecessary tramming. In brief,
it seems logical to refer utilization rate more closely
to a real amount of revenue generating job, rather
than using hours only. Following this reasoning,
similarly to the case of availability, one single value
may not render enough information. Therefore it
may fail to reveal troublesome issues and it may be
insufficient for the purpose of criticality analysis.
This aspect will be further discussed in the following
section.
3 OVERALL EQUIPMENT EFFICIENCY - A
NEW APPROACH TO EQUIPMENT
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
Following the discussion in the previous sections,
common ways to measure equipment performance in
mining industry have some drawbacks making them
inadequate with regards to the needs. Therefore,
there is an urgent need for a new approach leading to
formulation and implementation of new more
meaningful and useful ones (Moore, 1998; Hosseini,
1999; Paraszczak, 2000). A concept of “Overall
Equipment Effectiveness” is a very good example of
a shift in the way of thinking what equipment per­
formance indicators should be. Its definition, fol­
lowing Australian sources cited by Hosseini (1999),
is the following: “the product of availability, utiliza­
tion and production efficiency”. The latter is under­
stood as “the ratio of actual output from a machine
(which meets the required quality standards) to its
rated output, during the time that it is operating”. We
should be aware however, that an implementation of
such concept does not mean that there will be a sin­
gle, universal performance measure. For practical
reasons, there may be more than one necessary in
order to be helpful not only for evaluation purpose,
but also in diagnosing the whole system. Conse­
quently, they should reveal weak points and indicate
the ways to improve. With this in mind, in the fol­
lowing sections the whole new approach to equip­
ment performance evaluation will be presented and
reviewed. Given a primary topic of this paper, we
will not address the question of data quality and
quantity any further. It is assumed that, realistically
thinking we are able to collect the most essential
data without excessive bias and errors.
3.1 Service effectiveness - measuring combined
availability and utilization.
As mentioned already in the section 2, in an attempt
to evaluate equipment performance it is important
not to dissociate completely the issues related to
availability and utilization. It may be done using one
common meeisure encompassing both of them, but
leaving a possibility to analyze each one separately,
whenever necessary. It will be called “service effec­
tiveness”. It can be expressed as a ratio between the
amount of operating hours (spent on primary, secon­
dary or both types of duties) compared to a total
number of clock hours elapsed. Wiebmer and Wid-
denfield (1997) have proposed similar type of ap­
proach. They have suggested considering it as a ratio
between operating hours logged by an asset during
one year and 8760 hours, i.e. a total number of hours
per calendar year. According to the mentioned
authors, such number is by far more meaningful than
availability referred to an actual working schedule
(particularly in the case of the mines working less
than 24-hour day shifts and less than 365 days a
year). Appropriate tracking of an asset status pro­
vides us with the information indispensable to de­
termine “service effectiveness” (Lewis, 2000). For
most of the machines used in mining the following
statuses may be distinguished:
• Operating (ideally with a further subdivision
into primary and secondary duties being done,
wherever applicable)
• Standby/ready (mechanically fit to work, but
not used)
• Non-operational (down, including delays and
waiting related to failures and maintenance).
Once, for a given asset, its status is known pre­
cisely for every moment within a certain period, a
respective timeline may be obtained and analyzed.
Subsequently, “service effectiveness” may be de­
termined. For the assets that may perform more than
one type of duty, such as mentioned in the section 3
about LHD machines (primary and secondary or
auxiliary ones), it is recommended to make a dis­
tinction between the hours worked doing each of
them. It is also highly desirable to have more precise
information about downtime components (see sec­
tion 3.2 below).
The benefits of an adequate status timeline are
not limited to evaluation of equipment performance.
It helps also identify areas of potential improvement.
For example, “standby/ready” times reveal bottle­
necks related to equipment utilization, such as those
associated with planning and operational logistics.
Contrary to utilization, which is relatively easy to
analyze based on a status timeline, the question of
availability is a more complex one. Since reliability,
maintainability and maintenance support influence
the latter, “service efficiency” should be comple­
mented with other performance measures related to
670
availability. This issue is addressed in the next sec­
tions.
3.2 Evaluation o f maintainability
Due to a complex nature of availability, with re­
gards to performance evaluation, we need more spe­
cific information about equipment downtime than
just the length of a period during which its status is
“down”. Ideally, one ought to have downtime split
into a number of components such as (Lewis, 2000):
1. Maintenance response time;
2. Troubleshooting and diagnostics;
3. Waiting for parts;
4. Active repair time (corrective and preventive)
5. Testing and release
Each of them may become a separate perform­
ance measure, indicating possible corrective actions
to take. Maintenance response time may reveal the
problems associated with maintenance personnel re­
quirements and management of the resources. Trou­
bleshooting and diagnostic time as well as active re­
pair time may serve not only to evaluate skills of
technicians involved, but also a design of a given as­
set with regards to ergonomics and easiness of
maintenance actions. “Waiting for parts” is an indi­
cator of efficiency in administration and logistics.
The above proves that a timeline covering precisely
periods of unavailability is an indispensable tool in
the evaluation of maintenance activities and person­
nel.
Obviously, if we wish to obtain such timeline, we
need to have more rigorous data collection practices
and procedures than those commonly encountered in
the industry. However, even before this type of im­
provement takes place, an application of a very use­
ful performance measure may be recommended. A
ratio between maintenance man-hours to operating
hours for a certain period of time - “MMH/OH”,
called “maintenance manpower ratio” (Blanchard et
al. 1995), is relatively simple to calculate and quite
informative. Contrary to some other performance
measures, some (but not many!) MMH/OH bench­
marks may be found in the literature. For example
for LHD machines Kuruppu & Golosinski (1998)
have given values between 0.25 - 0.30. Similar
benchmark has been put forward for surface trucks
by Caterpillar (Wiebmer & Widdenfield, 1997). One
of these authors studied this measure for LHD ma­
chines in two underground gold mines. Values be­
tween 0.17 and 0.22 were obtained for machines that
logged about 3500 engine hours in one year. For a
fleet of older machines (14500 engine hours on av­
erage), a much worse number of about 0.42 was cal­
culated. The latter may be a sign to begin thinking
about phasing them out and replacing them by the
units that would be more dependable. In the opinion
of these authors, MMH/OH is a very useful per­
formance measure, particularly with regards to
equipment and maintenance scheduling.
3.3 Reliability as an important performance factor
Reliability of an item can be defined as “the
probability that the item will perform a specified
function under specified operational and environ­
mental conditions, at and through a specified time”
(Kales, 1998). For engineering purposes. Mean Time
between Failures (MTBF) is probably the most im­
portant and frequently used reliability parameter. It
is defined as “the expected average time between
failure events that cause the item to go down ” (Ka­
les, 1998). It is important to stress, that the units
used to express MTBF do not need to be related to
time. Mean number of revolutions, cycles or travels
may be more adequate for certain types of equip­
ment than operation hours. While using time units, it
is desirable to specify precisely whether “operation”,
“shift” and “calendar hours” were used to determine
MTBF values. These with imcertain “origin” should
be treated with caution due to a high risk of confu­
sion and/or substantial bias in numbers. A proper
tracking of MTBF for an asset as a whole and,
whenever possible, for its subsystems or even parts,
is among the most crucial means to maximize the
use of equipment and minimize cost. A question of
preventive and/or predictive maintenance intervals is
one of the most important issues in this respect. It is
not uncommon that the intervals suggested by origi­
nal equipment manufacturers (OEM) are arbitrarily
determined and not necessarily optimized. Moreo­
ver, due to working conditions that vary substan­
tially from one site to another, they do not need to be
the same everywhere. Subsequently, an adequate re­
liability information and data can serve to determine
the optimal amount of condition-based maintenance,
preventive maintenance and run-to-failure mainte­
nance. This proves that reliability measures are very
pertinent with regards to equipment performance
evaluation. They provide also OEMs with a lot of
valuable information over where a product im­
provement is the most urgently needed.
3.4 Production efficiency
As for today, out of the three aspects of Overall
Equipment Effectiveness, production efficiency is
probably the most difficult to quantify. This situa­
tion however, changes gradually for better. Many
leading equipment manufacturers have developed
sufficient instrumentation to monitor closely per­
formance of individual machine subsystems or even
elements. More and more mining equipment comes
(or will soon come) with devices similar to flight
data recorders used on airplanes. Systems such as
VIMS (Vital Information Management System)
671
from Caterpillar (Caterpillar, 1997) or CECAM
(Computerized Equipment Control And Monitoring)
from Sandvik Tamrock (Kallio et al., 1998) are sup­
posed to deliver a lot of valuable information on
equipment use and performance. This way it be­
comes feasible to quantify production efficiency
and, subsequently, evaluate overall equipment ef­
fectiveness. As discussed previously, the latter is a
truly representative and meaningful performance
4 CONCLUSIONS
Equipment performance is one of the key factors in­
fluencing production cost. Therefore, it should be
subject to constant surveillance and analysis aimed
to improve it. Despite the importance of this issue, it
is only slowly gaining recognition. Current practices
concerning data collection on equipment failures and
maintenance as well as the ways to analyze them
make tracking equipment performance inadequate.
This in turn is an obstacle to identify the most cost-
effective ways and means for improvement. With
proper performance evaluation, it becomes easier to
optimize the number of resources without affecting a
required output. Once performance is measured and
tracked, it becomes possible to attempt several ave­
nues of optimization such as those listed below for
instance (Hosseini, 1999):
• Minimizing maintenance cost by finding op­
timal maintenance and/or inspection intervals
(frequencies);
• Minimizing the number of resources while
maintaining the same output;
• Quantitative justification of the optimal diag­
nostics and condition monitoring;
• Determination of the optimal amount of con­
dition-based maintenance, preventive mainte­
nance and run-to-failure maintenance.
With this in mind, a notion of “overall equipment
effectiveness” was introduced and discussed in this
paper. It represents an entirely new approach to
equipment performance evaluation, which is by far
more useful, informative and beneficial, than a tra­
ditional one. The latter lacks a global vision of the
issues influencing all aspects of performance. Im­
plementation of more adequate measures will be un­
doubtedly a great leap forward in the efforts of the
industry to improve productivity and cut costs with
constrained assets.
REFERENCES
Blanchard, B., D. Verma, and E.L. Peterson, 1995.
Maintainability: A key to effective serviceability
 and maintenance management. New York: J
Wiley and Sons.
Campbell, J.D. 1995. Uptime - Strategies for Ex­
cellence in Maintenance Management, Portland:
Productivity Press.
Caterpillar, 1997. Caterpillar Performance Handbook
- Edition 28. CD-ROM SERD0339.
European Standard WI 319-003, 1997. Maintenance
terminology, Brussels: Comité Européen de Nor­
malisation (CEN)
Hosseini, M. 1999. Reliability revolution. Canadian
Mining Journal Vol.120, no.2, 33-35.
Kales, P. 1998. Reliability for technology, engi­
neering and management. Upper Saddle River:
Prentice Hall.
Kallio, P., J. Puputti, and J. Paraszczak, 1998.
Reliability of automated mine and construction
equipment. Proc. of ICMA ’98 - 2"‘‘ Inti.
Conference on Machine Automation, Tampere,
Finland, 15-18 September, pp. 87-98.
Kuruppu, M. & T. Golosinski, 1998: Maintenance
practices of mining machinery. Proc. 7^ Inti.
Symp. on Mine Planning and Equipment Selec­
tion, Singhal (ed.), Calgary, Canada, 6-9 October,
pp.607-612.
Lewis, M.W., 2000. Interactive Maintenance Man­
agement. Paper no.2 (on a CD-ROM), 11^^ CIM
Maintenance Engineering Operators’ Conference,
Sudbury, Ont, Canada, 7-10 May.
Moore, R., 1998. Maintaining the edge. World
Mining Equipment, vol.22, no. 11 (November),
pp.75-78
Paraszczak, J., 2000. Failure and downtime reporting
- a key to improve mine equipment performance.
Paper no.43 (on a CD-ROM), 11*^ CIM Mainte-
nance Engineering Operators’ Conference, Sud­
bury, Ont, Canada, 7-10 May.
Wiebmer, J. and L. Widdenfield, 1997. Cost-per-ton
improvement ideas for underground equipment.
Paper no. 97-169 presented at SME Annual
Meeting, Denver, Colorado - February 24-27 pa­
per no.97-169.

672
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3
Basic factors estimation which define rotary blast hole drill production
R.Y.Podemi
Moscow State Mining University, Russia
ABSTRACT: New conception the main factors estimation influencing on the Rotary Blast Hole Drill (RBHD)
performance has been developed at the Moscow State Mining University (MSMU), Russia.
1. INTRODUCTION
In any drilling operation, some technical parameters
must govern drill rig productivity. They might be:
rotary torque and rotary speed, pulldown force and
pulldown speed, air volume and air pressure
cleaning the bore hole, bit diameter and bit type,
depth of the hole and its diameter, drill pipe type
and its length, working weight of the drill rig, etc.
Rotary Blast Hole Drills (as well as the other types
of drills) must have one or several initial principal
parameters be based on which we can estimate with
sufficient accuracy all secondary of them. By our
opinion the principal parameters for the RBHD are:
the max/min hardness of the rock must be drilled;
the max/min diameter of the bit ( hole needed ) and
depth of the hole should it be drilled in Single Pass
(SP) or Multiple Pass (MP) modes.
Initial machine investment usually is too high to
have it deficient in performance abilities. With
high machine capabilities, the productivity rate can
then be increased up to the point at which the
consequent reduced drill bit life results in the
overall lowest cost per foot of machine operation.
Modem drill design philosophy has resulted in max
RPM of drill bit capabilities guaranteed by its
manufacturer for certain weight (pulldown force)
which might be applied to it in order to take of the
rotary head motor max power possible. For
effective continuous operation of this equipment,
it is necessary to select first of all optimal
combination of weight on a bit, torque level,
rotation speed and air for flushing the hole not only
in volume, but in pressure as well.
673
2. GENERAL ROCK CHARACTERISTICS
From the stone age imtil the present time, man has
worked to improve his ability to drill holes in
"rock." The term "rock" generally refers to all the
material that forms the essential part of the earth’s
solid crust, and includes loose, incoherent masses as
well as the very firm, hard and solid masses.
Most rocks are aggregates of one or more
minerals and are most readily classed as igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic.
Igneous rocks. Types: Granite, Rhyolite, Syenite,
Monzonite, Granodiorite, Diorite, Gabbro, Basalt,
Peridotite. Igneous rocks form by solidification
from a very hot, molten mass call a magma or
from accumulation of very hot volcanic ash.
Igneous rocks are usually very hard, tough, possess
low porosity are difficult to drill. Low drill bit life
and low penetration rates are the rule.
Sedimentary rocks. Types: Sandstone, Argillite,
Claystone, Limestone, Mudstone, Dolomite, Coal,
Lignite, Rock Salt, Cherty Iron. They are formed
by accumulation of sediments (rock fragments of
various size, shape and chemical composition) in
water or from air. Coal and Lignite are formed by
the compaction and decomposition of plants which
accumulated in tropical swamps.
Metamorphic rocks. Types: Slate, Quartzite,
Marble, Homfels, Schist, Gneiss. They are formed
by the action of heat, pressure and chemical action
on preexisting rocks which can be either igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic. Metamorphic rocks
are usually difficult to drill. This is caused by the
general interlocking character of mineral crystal
which produces a tough rock, difficult to spall.
3. EFFECT OF FORCES ON ROCK
PENETRATION
Many environmental factors greatly influence
drilling: geologic conditions, rock physical
properties, internal structure of material and stress
distribution. These factors can have a significant
affect on drilling penetration rates. Rocks can be
brittle and weak in tension, can change in volume,
contain cracks and expand or dilate prior to
fracture. Brittle fractures involve growth and
interaction of previous existing cracks.
Fracture in uni-axial compression, particularly of
hard, ingenious rocks, is preceded by cracking an
incline at an acute angle to the direction of stress.
Rocks stressed in compression developed axial
cracks well below fracture stress levels.
Fracture in uni-axial tension, the initial crack
follows a long axis normal to the direction of stress.
Of the mechanical constants of hard rocks, that
most widely used is their compressive strengths
(dcom)- It correlates well with the principal
mechanical means of acting on rocks (rate of
drilling, unit expenditure of explosives, productivity
of machines, etc.). The compressive strengths is
characterized by the maximum amount of stress
which a rock can withstand. Index characterizing
relative resistance of rocks to breakage during
extraction is known as “Coefficient of strength ”
(Protodyakonov's skale - / ). It is approximately
equal to one tenth of ultimate compressive strength
represented as MPa.
f ~ 0- lOcom •
In Protodyakonov's skale all rocks are divided into
ten categories those in the first category have the
highest degree of strength (the most compact,
strong and rigid basalts, quartzites, taconites and
other rocks), while those in the tenth category are
the weakest running ground. The maximum value
of the coefficient on Protodyakonov's skale is 20,
but possible can be more.
The tensile strength is the other strength constant
less in magnitude than acom (probably ten times).
Hardness is resistance of rocks to indentation by
an indentor. In rock, the average pressure over an
indented area is approximately ten times the
compressive strength (if the indented area is larger
then the rock's grain size). Hardness is measured by
the conventional hardness skale called Mohr's
skale, in which ten standard minerals are arranged
in such an order that each successive mineral
scratches the preceding one. The lowest degree of
hardness in this skale is 1 for talk and the highest 10
for diamond.
674
Compressive strength, hardness and coefficient of
rock strength show certain correlation with drilling
strength.
4. BIT TYPES, USAGE, PULLDOWN FORCE
ON BIT AND ROTARY SPEED
Tree-cone bit's steel or tungsten carbide tooth
under cone circulation, weight (pulldown force),
rotational torque, rotational and translational
movements, fracture rocks using impacts which
cause elastic deformation and permit secondary
cracking along shear trajectories. In the point of
tooth and rock contact we can visualize three
dimensional strain state contain very complicate
combination of principal stresses: compressive,
tensile and shear.
The analytical solution of the impacting damage
caused by a bit as it enters the rock, the actual
stresses induced during drilling are complicated,
difficult to obtain mathematically and do not help.
Following fracture, the normal stress (force of a
bit tooth on a rock) produces a frictional stress
which resists displacement of fractured material in
the crater. As the bit tooth leaves the crater, the
chips must be transported up to 20-60 meters to the
surface by compressed air.
Pulldown force (weight) strongly influences
penetration rates even though little power need be
applied to the bit. If pulldown force is small a
poor penetration rate and short bit life result.
The first phase of rock failure called the
Abrasion Phase, this is the result of insufficient
weight on the bit. The cuttings coming out of the
hole will be very fine dust.
The additional weight has caused some
penetration of the inserts into the formation, but not
actual failure of the rock. This is called the Fatigue
Phase. Small chips and a high percentage of dust
will be coming out of the hole. The penetration rate
will be considerably less than desired. If the inserts
are loaded up to 80% of their height under the
proper weight to cause the formation to spall, the
bit will drill at maximum efficiency. A large
amount of chips with very little dust or fines will be
in the returns. Once the Spalling Phase has been
achieved, applying additional weight to the bit will
only be harmful to drilling efficiency.
To obtain optimum drilling rate, the operator
must be able to change rotary and down feed speed
correspond to variations in the rock’s compressive
strength.
Required pulldown force depends on hole size
and rock's compressive strength and varies from
0.18 kN/mm of bit diameter in soft material, to 1.62
kN/mm in extreamly hard rock.
T5^ical drilling rates range from 0.03 in hard
rock to 3.3 m/min in very soft material.
Penetration rate can be increased by increasing
the weight on the bit. At some point, as bit cutters
bury deeper into the material, the penetration rate
will not increase proportionally to the added thrust
force. Maximum drilling rate is achieved at this
point assuming the drill has sufficient rotary power
and bailing medium to remove cuttings. Exceeding
this limit will produce excessive vibration which in
turn will shorten bit life and may increase machine
maintenance.
Soft formation bits with steel tooth is designed
for performance in formations of low compressive
strength (acom up to 40 MPa) , such as soft sand
rock, calcite, shale and clay. These formations quite
often contain abrasive materials and may be
interspersed with layers of medium and hard
formations. Soft formation bits are designed with
long, slim, strong teeth to permit deep penetration
into the formation with comparatively small
weight on a bit. Bit geometry is adjusted to give
maximum desirable scraping action on bottom.
Normally, these bits should run with relatively light
weights, ranging from 0.18 to 0.56 kN/mm of bit
diameter and rotary speeds usually range from
120 to 70 rpm, respectively upon the weight
applied to the bit. If excessive tooth breakage
occurs, it might be that either the combination
of weight and rotary speed is too great or
formation is too hard for this type bit.
Medium formation bits with steel tooth are
designed for abrasive and non-abrasive medium
formations (acom up to 80 MPa) such as shales,
sandy shales, limestones and sandstones, differs
from the soft formation bits that they have more
closely spaced teeth with a large included angle
and bit geometry to provide more chipping­
crushing action. Excessive rotary speeds should be
avoided to reduce the shock loads inherent in
drilling these harder formations. This is especially
important when formations are broken, having
voids, causing rough operation. Drilling weights
commonly range from 0.36 to 0.9 kN/mm of bit
diameter, with rotary speed from 100 to 60 rpm,
depending upon the relative weight on the bit.
Hard formation bits with steel tooth are designed
to drill hard formations having: high compressive
strength (acom up to 90 MPa) with low abrasive
content such as dolomite and trap rock or high
abrasive content such as granite, siliceous limestone
and hard dolomite; medium compressive strength
with high abrasive content such as quartz.
675
sandstone and the copper ores compared with the
soft and medium formation bits. This bit has
higher capacity bearings and more closely spaced
teeth with increased tooth angles to allow the of
heavier weights required to drill hard formations.
The geometry of this bit provides max chipping
and crushing action with min scraping action.
Hard formation bits are commonly run with
weights ranging from 0.72 to 1.26 kN/mm of bit
diameter with rotary speeds decreasing from 80 to
40 rpm as weight is increased.
Tungsten carbide insert bits have sintered
tungsten carbide “chisel-shaped” or “hemispherical-
ended“ compacts for cutting elements instead of the
conventional chisel-shaped steel teeth.
"Chisel-shaped" compacts are designed for
drilling formations (acom up to 105 MPa) such as
limestone, sandstone, dolomite, etc.
“Hemispherical-ended” compacts are designed
for the stronger medium-hard formations (acom from
55 and up to 175 MPa) quartzite, hard quartzitic
sands, an extremely tough, abrasive formations
such as very hard taconite and basalt that are too
hard for "chisel-shaped" design.
Tungsten carbide compact bits cost more than
steel tooth bits but can drill 4 to 10 times the
metrage normally drilled with hard formation
steel tooth bits. The penetration rate of tungsten
carbide compact bits will usually exceed that of
conventional steel tooth bits. Sufficient weight
should be applied to the tungsten carbide compact
bit to produce an effective chipping and crushing
action of the formation. Weights used on these
bits range from 0.54 to 1.62 kN/mm of bit
diameter with rotary speeds varying from 120 to
30 rpm.
Operating conditions can then be optimized
by increasing weight and varying rotary speed to
obtain the most economical performance.
Weigh vs. Bearing Life: Increases in weight will
have a higher than proportional adverse effect on
bearing life. Bearing life in standard machinery
applications is inversely proportional to the cube of
the weight. Rock bit bearing employ both friction
and non-friction elements and deteriorate as a result
of both wear and fatigue, this load-life relationship
is not valid. Life of rock bit bearings operated in a
dry air atmosphere is inversely proportional to
weight raised to a power ranging from 1.8 to 2.8,
for the range of weights commonly used on blast
hole bits.
Weight vs. Cutter Life: Weight increases the rate
of carbide breakage in hard rock and cutting
structure wear in abrasive rock. In softer
nonabrasive formations, the cutting structure very
seldom limits bit life, and weight offers no harmful
effects if sufficient air is circulated to clean the
hole.
RPM vs. Bearing Life: Bearing life is inversely
proportional to rotaiy speed. Faster rotation will
decrease the bit rotating hours proportionally to the
increase in rpm but will not materially affect the
total number of rotations which the bitwill make.
RPM vs. Cutter Life: The rate of carbide wear in
an abrasive formation increases as rotary speed is
increased. In harder formations higher rotary speed
results in increased carbide breakage due to the
greater impact velocity of the tooth on bottom.
Penetration: Drilling rate will normally increase
as weight, rotary speed, or both are increased, but
the drillability of the rock encountered will
determine how much faster the bit will drill.
Increased weight will result in a higher than
proportional increase in penetration rate up to
the point where sufficient weight is applied to
completely bury the cone teeth, assuming cuttings
are effectively removed.
Weight in excess of that required to bury the cone
teeth will not appreciably increase penetration rate.
Increases in RPM will result in approximately
proportional increases in penetration rate in both
soft and hard rock. In hard rock, since carbide
breakage increases as RPM is increased, penetration
rate improvement by this means is limited.
5. MAIN FACTORS INFLUENCING ROTARY
PRODUCTION ESTIMATION
Rotary blast hole drill rates depend on: weight on
bit (pulldown force); rotary speed and torque; rotary
power and bailing medium. External factors such
as rocks formation, bit condition and operator
proficiency also influencing production.
Maximum weight on bit needed Wmax (kN) can be
estimated on empirical formulae:
= lO'^K d D / „ « . = 1 0 - ’ K d D O c o m ,
where. K d- coefficient equal 6-9 (greater value for
bits of bigger diameter); /max - max needed for this
drill rig coefficient of strength Protodyakonov's
skale; acom - rock compressive strengh, MPa.; D-bit
diameter, mm.
The minimum teeth penetration depth ( h, mm) of
the bit (diameter D, mm) under weight on bit (W,
kN) into the rock having compressive strength
(cicom, M Pa) might be calculated by this formulae:
h = 15W[D Oeom (tg o/2+n) K b ] '-
where: a- teeth angle (average -90 **); n- friction
coefficient metallic cone body upon rock (ju =
676
0.25-1); Kb- coefficient of teeth blunt (Kb=l-1.3,
greater volume for formation with higher abrasive
and hardness).
The teeth height of soft and medium formation bits
( /== 1-10 ) might be as much as 20-15 mm while
hard formation bits { f = 10-18) have upper part of
their inserts above the cone not more than 5-10 mm.
Theoretical penetration rate (Vp, m/h) is equal:
VF = 0 .1 8 K shnR,
where: Kg- coefficient of rock successfulness
spalling (Kg = 0.8-0.5 greater volume for softer
formation and better hole cleaning); nR - bit
rotation speed, rpm.
With the bit drilling in the Spalling Phase, it is
possible to increase the penetration rate by
maintaining the proper weight, while increasing the
rotation speed.
Drill penetration rate (Vp, m/min) in accordance to
J. Nelmark can be predicted by this formulae:
Vp = 6.28nRT/AE,
where: T - nominal rotary torque (N-m); A - area
hole (sg. m); E-rock specific energy, (MN-m)/cu.m.
For rock: soft ( Gcom up to 60 MPa); moderate hard
(cTcom up to 100 MPa); medium hard (acom up to
140 MPa); hard (Ocom up to 180 MPa); very hard
(<7com up to 200 MPa) and extremely hard (Ocom
above 200 MPa), E is equal respectively up to 175;
240; 306; 364; 430 and above 430 (MN-m/cu. m).
This particular formulae neglects pulldown force
(weight) on bit because real value of power needed
to afford proper thrust at existing diapason of
penetration speed is small. However, thrust does
influence actual penetration rate. Weight on bit is
sufficient to cause the cratering of rock, but bit
rotation power will do most of the work.
Sufficient torque should be applied to the bit in
order to produce an effective chipping and crushing
action of the rock to get over friction of long drill
pipe columns in deep holes and while drilling soft
formation with inadequate hole cleaning.
For any particular rock there is optimal relation
among weight on bit W, rotary speed or and rotary
torque T. When drilling particular rock with
constant rotary speed, increase of W will have a
necessity of higher T value. If drilling hard rock
with W constant, the torque needed on a bit is
getting less because its teeth penetration in the rock
are decreasing. Bad cleaning of hole bottom also
needed increase of T to rotate the bit.
As a rule, rotary head is capable to produce
specific rotaiy torque up to 40 N-m/kN of pulldown
force W, but practically its volume very seldom
should be more than 20-30 N-m/kN.
Torque needed on the bit T (N-m/kN), which take
into account ^veight on bit W (kN); with some
accuracy may be estimated by this empirical
formulae:
T = 2,84 10'^ K r D ( 0.22W)'’’
where: K r - coefficient depending on the strength of
the rock f (for f - 6-8, K r - 12; f = 8-10, K r = 10;
10-12, K r = 9; f= 12-14, K r = 8; f-14-16, K r =
8; f - 16-18, K r = 6; f = 18-20, K r =4 and for f
above 20, K r =2); b - power, depending on hole
cleaning quality, ranging: 1.25- for very good; 1.5-
for moderate and 2- for very bad.
Soft materials allow and need higher rotary
speeds than do harder materials.
Maximum allowable value of rotary speed nR^ax,
(rpm) when drilling particular rock of certain Ocom,
applying weight W (kN) on bit having D (mm)
diameter can be estimated by this formulae:
J^Rmax =K„.W/(a comD).
where: Km -coefficient, equal 8000 for very soft
material and 5000 for extremely hard rock.
If the capacity of rotary motor (P r, kW) is known
the change of rotary torque (T, N-m) depend on the
bit speed (nR, rpm):
P r = 2.95 10-^ K r H D (0.22W )'’/ tir. , and
r
T = 9554.1 PRiiR/nR.,
where: t|r -efficiency of rotary drive.
The translational power Pt (kW) delivered to the bit
from pulldown mechanism is equal to the force
applied to the bit W (kN) multiplied by the
translational velocity (feed speed) Vp (m/h) of bit,
which is the time-average penetration rate.
P t = 2.8 IQ-^WVf/tit
where: t|t -efficiency of feed drive.
6. HOLE CLEANING AIR REQUIREMENTS
The air flow required to clean the hole bottom
depends on several variables, density of rock being
drilled; penetration rate; size of chips being
produced; annulus between borehole wall and drill
pipe and area of the hole bottom. There are two
aspects for adequate cleaning air: sufficient air to
clean the hole bottom and remove chips from in
front of the rolling cones; adequate air velocity to
transport cuttings up the hole
The important factor is the amount of an air(Q
cu. m/min) that sweeps across the bottom of the
hole and keep constantly fresh rock exposed for
attack by the bit.
677
Relation to determine the amount of air required is:
Q =7.85 10''' V ( D^-d^),
Where: V- air return velocity (m/min); d-pipe
diameter, mm.
V = 1.274 10*Q/(D^- d^).
The velocity of air passing through the annulus
between borehole wall and drill pipe (bailing
velocity) is the important factor in cleaning the
hole. It can be made almost any number desired,
with a fixed volume of air and hole diameter, by
increasing or decreasing the pipe diameter.
If the chip is resting on the bottom of the hole at
zero velocity, and must be accelerated to, perhaps
1500 m/min in a very short distance (70-80 mm) it
takes a lot of power to do this, and the force is
supplied by the air jet through the bit orifices. The
higher the pressure inside the drill pipe and within
the bit body, the higher the jet velocity.
If rock density (G, kg/cu. m) and chip diameter
(D, mm) is known, this formula can be used to
determine minimum acceptable velocity (V m/min):
V= 16.46 G (0.00 328 D f ^ /(O.OOl G+1).
As a general rule to use when selecting
compressor size, drilling soft material a optimum
bailing velocity range of 1220-1830 m/min,
medium rock requires 1525-2130 m/min, and hard
rock requires 1830 -2440 m/min. For wet, heavy
material and great production rate approaching 20
m/h and over velocity 2700 m/min might be
required.
The best pipe diameter to choose for a given
hole size is. in soft material, size drill pipe 75 mm
less in diameter than bit (with minimum bailing
velocity of 1220 m/min). This will allow drill chips
from 38 mm to 50 mm size and larger to pass
between hole and drill pipe without regrind and
plugging. For medium rock, the drill pipe should be
50 mm diameter less than the bit (minimum bailing
velocity of 1525 m/min). This allows chips of 25
mm diameter to pass up the hole. Hard rock usually
produces small chips. Where drill pipe diameter is
38 mm smaller than bit, chips of up to 15 mm can
pass up the hole.
Bits are designed with various air nozzles
(orifices). They split the air flow between cooling
and cleaning functions. For adequate cooling, must
tri-cone bits require that a minimum of 20% of the
compressed air flow be passed trough bit bearings.
Orificing the jets could raise the discharge pressure
at the compressor up to 0.7 MPa or even more.
 A standard compressor uses 50-75 % of the total
power consumed by a rotary drill rig while drilling
mode. About 75 % of the energy of the compressed
air is consumed by cleaning the bearings and
making a jet. Bare minimum pressure needed across
the bit is 0.21 MPa, plus usually a 0.07- 0.14 MPa
drop in rotary drill piping. Most bits require a
minimum of 0.1 MPa for cooling, so the pressure
at receiver must be corrected at these value.
The recommendation of bits producers is to use
orifices of sufficiently small diameter to keep
pressure at the receiver above the minimum
pressure a minimum of 0.56 MPa. Higher pressures
may by essential when wet clay or silt is
encountered or when holes under water. This
procedure will help insure the maximum bearing
life of the bit and efficient bottom-hole cleaning
with the air that is available.
The power in the air stream of estimated volume to
clean the hole bottom from the chips of certain
density will be:
Pc = 1.66 10'^ Kg Q Ect|cr|g,
where: Pc -power needed to compress air, kW; Kg -
coefficient, depended of rock density (1.1-1.25);
Ec -energy work to compress 1 cu.m of air from
environmental pressure pi (Pa) on input of
compressor (standard -one atmosphere) up to
receiver output pressure p2(Pa), J/cu. m;
Tjc- compressor efficiency (0.6-0.7); rjg gear case
efficiency (0.92-0.95);
E=2.303 Pi Ig 10^ P2/P1.
Altitude and ambient temperature are two factors
which affect air density. Air compressors are
usually designed and rated at air density at sea level
at ambient air temperature of 15.6^ C, and at inlet
pressure of 0.1 MPa. If the compressor is
operated at altitudes (H, m) above sea level,
compressor output will be lower.
To find of air volume (QL, cu.m) and power (PL,
kW) loses, we use following equations:
Q L=1.64 10^QH and
PL = 3.94 10’ P H.
where: Q (cu. m/min) air volume of compressor
operating at see level; P (kW). power required at
sea level.
The tables exists and gives correction factors for
various conditions of altitude and temperature. On
sea level this temperature correction factor varies
from 0.803 at - 40 ^ C up to 1.112 for +50 ®C.
678
7. SECONDARY FACTORS INFLUENCING
DRILL PRODUCTION
There are many secondary factors which are often
overlooked that can influence drill production.
Each added drill pipe requires one to three
minutes for pipe handling and storage. Add to that
the time to hoist, and lower rotary machinery,
usually 0.5 - 1 minute, and pipe change outs
become very time consuming. Time delays also
mean lost production. Multiple Pass (MP) drilling
commonly required in soft and medium types of
overburden, often requires pipe changing.
It has been estimated that adding a drill pipe results
in a 10 to 15 % loss in production. Using a mast of
sufficient length to drill the hole in a Single Pass
(SP) is one solution. SP drilling is desirable
whenever possible; however, a long mast for SP
work must be specified. As designers we must
suggest to use a drill rig with an extendable mast
which will be able to make a hole in Single Pass
mode as deep as 20 - 30 m.
When drilling holes deeper than 45 m, strong
consideration must be given to buckling of drill
pipe columns. For example, if you need to drill 60
m depth and rock requires 230 kN trust force, you
must use 273 mm diameter pipe which requires a
minimum of 311 mm bit. If you try to use a drill
pipe smaller than this, it will buckle. A thicker wall
of drill pipe will not substantially help to prevent
buckling. In fact, the only solution is to drill a
larger hole with a larger pipe. Large holes produce
more volume of blasted material per meter of hole
drilled. To achieve the greatest productive benefit
from a rotary drill, it should be operated with the
largest diameter bit possible which allows for using
a larger drilling pattern. Larger bits should yield
longer life. Trying to use a smaller bit and still
achieve the same rates of overburden removal
causes one to operate at higher penetration rates.
This could result in operating at a value of trust
force beyond the point where penetration per
revolution equals cone tooth or insert height with
the subsequent negative consequences.
REFERENCES
Baker Hughes Mining Tools, Blasthole Bit Handbook,
1998.
Jack D. Nelmark., “Blast Hole Drill Design and
Application”, AMF, Perth,W. Australia, 1983.
Podemi R. and others, 1996. “Blast hole drill rig with
extendable mast”. Proceedings, Symposium MPES, Sao
Paulo, Brazil, October 22-25.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

W irtgen Surface M iner - N ew m achine developm ent and project experience

B.Schimm
Wirtgen GmbH, Windhagen, Germany

ABSTRACT: Mining of material without blasting and/or selectively becomes more and more important for
high quality ROM-products. Surface Miners have been developed especially for this purpose. The experience
from more than 100 machines sold and countless test- and rental operations has been incorporated into a new
machine concept. The cutting technology of these machines has been improved, so that harder material as
well as wet and sticky materials can be cut with better results now. Especially the cutting drum design and
more precise drum manufacturing process now allow production and equal tool wear over a long period. The
better knowledge of rock parameters influencing the cuttability and cutting results allow higher production,
less cutting tool wear and therefore reduced production costs.

1 INTRODUCTION Loosening harder materials by means of this method

Mechanical mining of rock becomes more and more
important in the following cases:
1. Ehmination of the negative effects of blasting,
like:
-> flying rocks
vibrations
noise
dust
2. Selective mining of different material qualities
respectively pay material and waste.
3. Improved exploitation of the deposit.
4. Precise preparation of stable surfaces and
walls.
5. Simplification of the mining process.
In this paper the present status of development of
the cutting technology and the achievable results
with this technology incorporated into Wirtgen Sur­
face Miners shall be shown. Wirtgen Milling Ma­
chines use the principle of a rotating drum equipped
with cutting tools. The power for driving this drum
comes from a diesel engine. A multiple V-belt drive
transfers this power to the drum.
Only since this drive concept is able to transfer up
to 1600 HP it is possible to transfer power effec­
tively to the drum with very high efficiency.
This drum is located underneath the machine al­
most in its centre of gravity.
This allows to transfer a maximum of force to the
cutting tools. This high force available at the cutting
tools is necessary to loosen the material effectively.
become possible after the development of point at­
tack cutting tools known as round shank cuttings
tools. These self-sharpening conical tools equipped
with a tip of tungsten carbide allow to concentrate
the forces on one point, the tip of the tool, and there­
fore allow penetration of harder rock also.
In 1977, Wirtgen started using this type of cutting
tools for cutting of asphalt. The big success, espe­
cially the improved cutting performance, resulted in
the development of the first Wirtgen Surface Miner
in 1980 for cutting of rock. Since this time, a con­
tinuous machine development - especially of the
cutting drum system including the tools - leads into
higher production, less tool wear and the ability to
cut harder and more difficult rocks.
2 DEVELOPMENT OF THE CUTTING TECH­
NOLOGY FOR MECHANICAL MINING
Different factors influent the production, wear and
the ability to cut hard rock.
1. The type of cutting tool.
2. The type of toolholder.
3. The angles of the tool on the drum.
4. The location of the tool on the drum.
2.1 Cutting tools
The chisel is the grandfather of all mechanical cut­
ting tools.

679
 However, the requirements of high production,
loosening of harder rock and moderate tool wear
caused a permanent development of the cutting
tools.
Presently, round shank cutting tools are the status
of the art.
These tools consist of a cylindrical shaft and a coni­
cal head which at the tip is equipped with a tungsten
carbide bit.
This tungsten carbide bit is made from a mixture of
tungsten carbide and cobalt with a defined grain
size. Cutting tools manufacturers offer different
mixtures to cope with the widely varying hardness
and abrasiveness of the rock. These bits are soldered
to the tool body with a special braze material.
Different diameters and shapes of tungsten car­
bide bits have been developed for the different re­
quirements. In general, small diameter tungsten car­
bides are used in soft materials and on small Surface
Miners while larger diameter tungsten carbides are
used for harder materials on larger Surface Miners.
In general, cylindrical bits are used. However, espe­
cially for not too hard but abrasive materials a coni­
cal „cap“ type bit is available.
The tool body has to fulfill different duties:
The conical head has to carry the tungsten carbide
bit and being hard to withstand wear.
The supporting area has to transmit the axial forces
to the toolholder. The area of this ring has to be so
big that the surface pressure is low enough not to de­
stroy the tool and the holder. However, on the other
hand this area should be as small as possible to al­
low little friction so that the tool can rotate for self
sharpening purpose.
The cylindrical shaft has to be elastic to withstand
the bending loads.
A high-grade steel with special heat treatment is
used for this purpose.
At the lower end a grove is machined in to accept
the clip ring for securing the tool in the holder.
The cutting tool is sitting in the bore of the tool
holder and is secured by clip rings against axial
movement respectively loss.
The cylindrical shaft allows the rotation of the cut­
ting tool so that the self-sharpening effect is reached.
This rotation is required for permanent high produc­
tion and long lifetime of the tool.
2.2 Toolholders
The toolholder has to carry the tool and transmit the
forces from the tool to the cutting drum itself
Also the toolholders have to fulfill contradictory
requirements:
On the one hand they have to be big and strong to
withstand the high forces and the wear. On the other
hand they should be slim enough to allow the mate­
rial flow in the spiral to the middle area of the drum
where the conveyor is fitted.
680
The experience showed that when cutting harder
rock the standard toolholders have not been strong
enough to withstand the high forces long enough.
So Wirtgen started developing special toolholders.
The first step was a holder with larger diameter
head and larger contact area to the drum to give
larger welding area. An insert of a hardened sleeve
should reduce the wear between the rotating tool and
the toolholder on the surface and in the bore.
However, cracks in the shell of the toolholder ap­
peared.
So the next type of toolholders has been devel­
oped. The sleeve has been eliminated and the tool-
holder has been manufactured out of one solid piece.
Special heat treatment reinforced the surface and the
bore. Improved lifetime of the toolholder has been
the result. However, due to fatigue now the welding
cracked after some time.
The present type of toolholder is the cylindrical
type holder sitting in a machined support. The cylin­
drical part transmits the majority of the forces axial
to the support. Large welding area between cylindri­
cal part and support as well as between the support
and the drum body give enough strength to with­
stand the high forces for a long lifetime of the drum.
However, this development required a special
manufacturing procedure to allow the positioning of
the cylindrical part exactly at the right location and
with the right angles.
Wirtgen has got a patent for this special set-up and
manufacturing method.
2.3 Cutting drum
Precise location of tools with the right angles to
reach good results for:
-> Production
Gradation
Lifetime
This starts during the layout of each drum in the
design department.
Depending on the requirements the cutting drum can
be layed out specifically for each project.
Angle and location of the tool are selected to reach
equal load and cutting work distribution to all tools,
optimal penetration and therefore production, grada­
tion and transportation possibilities to the middle of
the drum via a spiral system (location in a different
manor to reach a good mixing).
Manufacturing starts by locating and tag welding
of the supports to the drum. This is done on a ma­
chine especially built according to Wirtgen’s speci­
fications. On this machine the information from the
design department directly are transferred into
manufacturing information for positioning of the
supports.
Then, after complete welding, these supports are
machined according to the patented procedure.
 Finally, the cylindrical toolholders are welded to
the supports. This allows precise replacing also in
the field and therefore exactly the same cutting be­
haviour of the drum during its entire life.
3 CUTTING SYSTEM
Besides the cutting technology - represented by the
drum with the toolholders and last but not least the
cutting tools - the location, drive system and moving
systems have at least the same importance.
3.1 Cutting drum location
Sufficient force at the cutting tools is the main re­
quirement to allow penetration into the rock.
On a mobile machine the concentration of all
forces respectively the machine weight is the centre
of gravity. So Wirtgen consequently placed the drum
close to the centre of gravity to allow the whole ma­
chine weight to be resting on the drum and totally
being transferred into cutting force.
Machines using this „central drum concept“ are the
only ones which allow this 100 % transfer of the
machine weight.
3.2 Cutting drum drive
High forces at the cutting tools require high torque.
Together with the required revolutions of the drum a
specific power is required. To allow transfer from
the engine to the drum with the highest efficiency
Wirtgen developed a V-belt drive system. With this
system it is possible to transfer up to 1.600 Hp from
the engine into the cutting drum almost without slip.
Efficiency losses appear in the reducer only.
Revolution speed can be changed by different
pulleys allowing a change of the transfer ratio.
This speed should be as low as possible to reduce
the wear of the tungsten carbide but as high as pos­
sible to allow transportation of the cut material
through the spirals to the middle of the drum and re­
duce vibrations caused by the changing number of
tools in operation.
3.3 Propel drive
To reach production the cutting drum need to be
moved forward.
Four crawlers take care for this movement. These
independently height-adjustable crawlers are hy­
draulically driven. This allows infinitely variable
speed selection for the different cutting cases and for
moving of the machine.
681
3.4 Conveyor
Via a conveyor system the material can be loaded di­
rectly onto trucks. The size of the conveyor has to be
layed out to move the quantity of material which can
be cut. However, the conveyor has to be linked to
the cutting with the lowest possible loss to the con­
veyor.
4 PARAMETERS INFLUENCING THE PRO­
DUCTION AND GRADATION
Under para. 2 and 3 the single elements of the cut­
ting system and the major machine components have
been described.
In this paragraph the requirements to these different
parameters and its interlinking to influence the re­
sults of rock cutting will be discussed.
In general, customers require a certain quantity
and quality of material.
The quality can be defined as a specific gradation
and/or a specific minimum percentage of pay mate­
rial or maximum percentage of waste/harmful mate­
rial in the ROM product.
While the ROM quality of the mined material is
mainly controlled by means of the height-adjustment
system of the Wirtgen Surface Miner the production
(cutting performance) and the gradation can be con­
trolled in the cutting system.
However, both, production and gradation mainly
depend on the rock to be cut.
4.1 Rock characteristics influencing the cuttability
The rock parameters mainly influencing the cut­
tability are:
1. Compressive strength
2. Tensile strength
3. Degree of fractures (defined by e.g. RQD,
elastic valve velocity)
4. Direction of fractures
5. Distance of fractures
Good cutting results can be expected in brittle mate­
rial (high ratio between compressive strength and
tensile strength) and in material with high amount of
cracks. The degree of cracks also influents the gra­
dation.
Since deposits are very seldom homogeneous the
cutting system of the Wirtgen Surface Miner has to
be layed out for the majority of the material respec­
tively the conditions. Changing material conditions
can cause substantial changes in production and gra­
dation. That means that the properties and charac­
teristics of the rock itself have the highest influence
on the result of production and gradation. However,
there are chances to alter these results by modifying
the cutting parameters.
4.2 Production More fines: Narrow spacing, big diameter of tung­
sten carbide.
The production mainly can be influenced by the cut­
ting tool type and the number of cutting tools and its The influence of the machine parameters like
cutting depth/forward speed change, spacing of cut­
location.
ting tools and the diameter of the tungsten carbide
The tools have to fulfill two contradictory require­
tip on the gradation depends very much on the hard­
ments:
1. They have to be as slim as possible to penetrate ness and the structure of the material. In a soft, ho­
mogeneous and solid deposit the influence is much
the rock easily.
bigger than in a fractured deposit in harder material.
2. They have to be as big as possible to reach low
wear.
The following tendency can be seen at the differ­ 4.4 Loading
ent tungsten carbides:
Especially in softer materials the direction of loading
Big diameter: longer lifetime, poor penetration.
has an impact on production and gradation.
Small diameter: low lifetime, good penetration.
Front loading requires the material remaining in the
The optimum is reached when the wear per t ma­
cutting housing for a longer time than rear loading.
terial cut has reached a minimum.
So in this case the material is milled more and be­
The spacing of tools should be selected as wide as
comes finer.
possible to have low number of tools in contact with
Sticky material or materials with a sandy structure
the material and therefore reach good penetration.
can be loaded with a higher efficiency when using
However, this works well only in very brittle and
rear loading.
relatively soft material.
In hard material the vibrations and peaks of
forces caused by the low number and changing 4.5 Types available
amount of tools in operation are the limit.
Wirtgen now offers a new fleet of Surface Miners
In soft but tenacious materials sometimes a very
which are built to fulfill the wide range of require­
narrow spacing has to be selected to cut the material
ments:
and not leaving uncut material sitting between two
neighbouring tools.
The specific force defined by machine weight di­
vided by the width of the cutting drum is another Model Width Depth HP Weight (t)
limit for use of specific cutting tool types respec­ 2200 SM 2,2 m 0,35 m 800 41
tively spacing of cutting tools. 2500 SM 2,5 m 0,60 m 1000 89
So the smaller models with a low specific force 3700 SM 3,7 m 0,60 m 1600 176
can accept only tools with small to medium size 4200 SM 4,2 m 0,80 m 1600 191
tungsten carbide diameter and narrow to medium
wide spaced tools.
The highest production can be reached with: The 2200 SM is a front loading machine which is
- The smallest possible diameter of tungsten car­ designed as a multiple purpose machine also to be
bide. used for asphalt milling and cold recycling.
- The widest possible spacing. The 2500 SM, 3700 SM and 4200 SM are heavy
- Long tool heads in soft material. duty mining machines with rear loading system for
hard rock mining or high production machines for
selective mining of coal or phosphates.
4.3 Gradation changes With this new machine range and the experience
Especially in softer materials the range of forward from the machines in operation Wirtgen now can of­
speed and cutting depth to be selected is relatively fer economical solutions for mechanical mining of
big. rock in the fields of
In these cases a variation in cutting depth and subse­ 1. Selective mining.
quently forward speed can be used for gradation 2. Mining without blasting.
control. 3. Trenching and terracing in construction jobs.
In general, the following tendency can be seen:
More fines: Big depth and low speed.
Lower cutting depth normally allows over propor­ 5 EXAMPLES
tional higher speed. This results in high production 5.1 Gypsum mining in South Africa
and courser material.
Other possibilities to influent the particle gradation Material: Solid layers of gypsum, tenacious
are the spacing of the cutting tools and the diameter Through SM:
of the tungsten carbide tip: 1. Quality improvement by selective mining.

682
 2. Gradation control.
Result: Quality control and gradation control im­
prove the preparation process.
By altering the cutting depth/forward speed ratio the
gradation could be altered significantly.
5.2 Marl mining in the Netherlands
Material: Massive deposit, tenacious, sticky when
wet.
Hard pebbles of silit = flint stone.
Through SM:
1. Mining of wet and sticky material possible
where blasting is not allowed.
2. Quality improvement through selective min­
ing from different levels.
3. Small gradation reduces respectively elimi­
nates crushing.
4. Conveyor transport possible due to small
particle size.
5. Solid surface, well leveled with defined incli­
nations to drain water to the sump.
A specially designed primary conveyor and con­
veyor loading area allowed to accept material from
the cutting drum and transport this material.
5.3 Caliche mining in Chile
Material: Caliche
Through SM:
1. Small particle gradation improves the leach­
ing result (higher output of pay material).
2. Simple and easy mining method (Producing
of final product during the mining process. So just
the Wirtgen Surface Miner, trucks and a front-end
loader for auxiliary work are required).
3. Special tools (small diameter support area of
the tool) to allow turning and reach
equal wear resulting in long lifetime
-> high production since the tool has always been
sharp.
6 CONCLUSION
The cutting technology using the system of Wirtgen
Surface Miners can reach benefits like
1. ROM material quality improvement by selec­
tive mining
2. Elimination of blasting
3. Mining without interruption in widely varying
material conditions
4. Reducing the amount of preparation (e.g. by
elimination of primary crushing)
5. Simplification of the mining process by reduc­
tion of number of necessary machines
6. Exploiting of areas where blasting is prohib­
ited
7. Preparation of steep and stable walls and sur­
faces
and mine material economically in rock with UCS
up to approx. 100 Mpa in mining and up to 160 Mpa
in construction applications.
Standard conical cutting tools as well as specially
designed tools have been used to reach this goal.
The cutting tool, toolholder and drum development
has reached a level to offer solutions for mechanical
mining for a wide field of rock cutting applications.
With the practical experience it is possible to se­
lect the appropriate model of Wirtgen Surface Miner
and design the cutting head according to the re­
quirements of production, gradation and tool wear
taking into consideration the material conditions and
properties.

5.4 Tunnelfloor dinting in Italy

Material: Limestone, partly dolomitized, widely
varying degree of fractureness from solid to frac­
tures in distance of less than 10 cm.
Compressive strength up to 160 Mpa.
Through SM:
1. Precise floor leveling.
2. Cutting through all materials without inter­
rupting the mining process.
3. Direct loading on wagons.
Cutting tools with 17 mm HM diameter to reach
good lifetime. But production has been reduced.

683
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 178 3

Factors affecting loading perform ance o f the excavators in Garp lignite

enterprise

M.Taksuk
Garp Lignite Enterprise, Tungbilek, Turkey
K.Erarslan
Department of Mining Engineering, Dumlupinar University, Kutahya, Turkey

ABSTRACT: In this study, various factors affecting loading performance of the excavators in Garp Lignite
Enterprise, Turkey, are investigated. Loading is a crucial stage in excavation-haulage-dumping-retum cycle.
Digging, hoisting, swinging and crowding actions are main elements of loading which are affected by many
factors. In the research, thousands of measurements are performed to clear out the effect of parameters on
loading performance and efficiency. Work site organization factor, loading period, swing angle and time,
crowding period, particle size of material, fill factor, swell factor, specific digging energy and digging time
are the main parameters and discussedby considering the measurements. Several tables and figures are
utilized to represent the quantitative change in parameters for different cases. As a result, several comments
are made in order to increase the work efficiency and reach at theoretical performance of machines.

I INTRODUCTION parameters for all seasons a year. The measurements

and observations are commented on and discussed to
The success of open pit mining is mostly dependent improve the performance of work machines.
on performances of heavy-duty work machines.
Open pit stripping and mining techniques are called
even with the types of excavating-loading and 2 GARP LIGNITE ENTERPRISE
hauling machines. After drilling and blasting, there
are two crucial steps to be paced; excavating-loading Garp Lignite Enterprise (GLE) is located on a
by excavators or loaders and hauling by trucks, district close to western part of Anatolia. The mine
conveyors or a rail system. has been active since 1940. The area of GLE is
Excavating-loading step is an integrated system of 13,477 hectare, mineable open pit reserve is over 70
heavy-duty digging work machines and hauling million tons and underground mine reserve is about
vehicles (Aiken and Gunnett, 1990). The aim is to 265 million tons. Annual amount of stripping is 60
handle optimal performance. The catalogues of work million m^, open pit coal production is 1 million tons
machines and vehicles generally reflect perfect (GLE, 1999). The averages of coal properties are
conditions. During short, medium and long term given in Table 1.
planning, these performance charts can be regarded Total (open pit + underground) annual coal
to some extent. production is about 5 million tons. 2 million tons a
The major factors affecting this important step can year are sent to nearby power plant having 429 MW
be listed such that loading period, digging time, electricity production capacity. The rest of the coal
swing angle and time, crowding, operator efficiency, is utilized in public heating.
diggability o f geological formation, specific energy,
material size, blasting efficiency and machine
characteristics (Atkinson, 1992). Table 1. The properties of GLE coal.
Property Value
In this research, performances of excavators and
Organic Carbon 19.84%
affecting factors are investigated. Loading Calorific Value 2877 kcal/kg
performances of the excavators employed in Garp Moisture 15.0%
Lignite Enterprise are examined. Thousands of Volatile Matter 26.95 %
measurements and observations are performed Sulfijr 1.35%
Ash 38.21 %
during last one year to clear out the effects of these

685
The machine-park of the district is presented in Table 4, Work Organization Factor (WOF) of panel 48-C.
Table 2. Exc. No 30 31 33 35 36 37 Aver.
Work 1826 1895 1785 2269 1928 2134 11837
Dura" hrs hrs hrs hrs hrs hrs hrs
Table 2. The machine-park of GLE.______________________
Active 2257 2462 2543 2622 2224 2523 14631
Machine Amount Total Capacity
Dura” hrs hrs hrs hrs hrs hrs hrs
Off-Highway Truck 99 9,265 ston WOF 81 77 70 87 87 84 81
Dragline 1 60 yd^
Electrical Excavator 20 257.5 yd^ _______________________________
Hydraulic Excavator 4 32 yd^
Bulldozer 34 Due to inefficient blasting, material can not be
Loader 6 60 yd^ decreased to desired size, which may result in
Grader 12 interruptions in scheduled works. Here, blasting
Winch 11 217.25 ton
manner as a step of integrated works should be well
studied and applied accordingly.
3 THE FACTORS AFFECTING LOADING
PERFORMANCE 3.2 Swing period and angle

In the research, thousands of measurements and

In the research, swing period of two-sided loading is
observations are performed for the parameters
considered for filled and empty bucket. Swing angle
affecting loading performance. Major factors are
is effectual on the period. The angle between
work site organization factor, loading period, swing
excavator and nearby two trucks can cause a 15-18%
angle, dump period, particle size of material, fill
increase or decrease in the swing period (Table 5).
factor, swell factor, specific digging energy and
The optimal swing angle is 90°. However, trucks
digging time. Measurements are performed on two
may not succeed to maneuver just to fit 90°. As the
panels having different geological structure. Panel
angle deflects from 90°, the period becomes longer.
FC/2 is formed by gray colored marl with little
So, truck drivers should be well trained and
discontinuity and inter-bedded with thin siliceous
organized to fulfil this requirement of optimality.
layers. Average block particle size is 45x35x55 cm.
Panel 48-C includes decomposed material, clayey
and humid. 3.3 Crowding Period

3.1 Worksite Organization Factor Rock properties are strongly effective on crowding
properties if the ratio V / D ^ 3-4, where V is truck
capacity and D is bucket capacity of excavator
This factor points out the work loss due to work site
organization and application. Duration of active (Eskikaya, 1986). As a result of measurements it can
be said that as the ratio is decreased, crowding
work of an excavator is not equal to duration of
shift. Several reasons like waiting for truck, cleaning period takes longer. This means that the consistency
between truck capacity and excavator bucket volume
out environment of machine, personnel needs cause
should be regarded in the decision of equipment
pauses. Proportion of real-active work duration to
selection (Table 6).
work duration gives work site organization factor
(Eskikaya, 1986), (Tables 3-4). Table 5. Swing period and time.
No A B C D E F G H I
28 6.0 90 700 6.22 93 6.25 94 12.5 94
Exc. No 28 29 32 34 38 39 Aver. 29 5.5 90 1050 7.05 116 7.08 116 14.1 116
Work 1873 1943 1801 2281 2579 2139 12616 30 5.5 90 350 6.25 102 5.50 90 11.8 96
Dura" hrs hrs hrs hrs hrs hrs hrs 31 5.5 90 700 7.40 121 6.28 103 13.7 112
33 5.5 90 1050 6.80 111 5.90 97 12.7 104
Active 2348 2371 2682 2867 2691 2422 15381
34 6.5 90 1050 7.26 101 6.94 96 14.2 98
Dura" hrs hrs hrs hrs hrs hrs hrs
36 6.5 90 1400 7.50 104 7.03 97 14.5 101
WOF 80 82 67 80 96 88 82
38 6.5 90 1050 7.27 101 6.67 92 13.9 97
(%)
Av. 5.94 90 7350 6.97 106 6.46 98 13.4 102

The work conditions of all machines, but label no-32 A: Nominal swing period
and label no-33, are very good. The reason for long C: Number o f measurement
pauses of excavators with label no-32 and no-33 is E: Empty swing angle
found to be the siliceous hard base where they work. G: Filled swing angle
I: Average swing angle
B: Nominal swing angle
D: Empty swing period
F: Filled swing period
H: Average swing period

686
Table 6. Crowding Period (CP). 3.5 Particle Size and Fill Factor
No # meas- Panel Bucket Truck V/D CP
urements D yd^ V yd^ Ratio sec.
28 170 17 50 3 3.9 One of the most important factors affecting loading
29 135 FC/2 10 50 5 3.6 performance is the size of particle after blasting. As
32 170 10 50 5 3.8
it increases, bucket fill factor decreases and loading
34 245 20 100 5 3.6
38 350 20 100 5 3.7 period also increases. Bucket volume and particle
30 135 10 50 5 3.2 size should be consistent with each other for
31 170 10 50 5 3.5 optimality. Eskikaya (1986) finds an empirical
33 105 48-C 10 50 5 3.8 relation between bucket volume (V) and optimum
35 175 20 50 2.5 4.2
particle size (D) for GLE district such that;
36 140 20 50 2.5 4.0
37 105 20 50 2.5 4.1
0.127VF for 7.64 excavator
D=
o. m i VF for 15.28 excavator ( 1)
3.4 Loading Period
Fill factor is the ratio of nominal capacity of
Loading period is the total duration of previous bucket to filled and realized capacity. This factor
paces starting with touching of bucket to material, theoretically is dependent on particle size, operator
including filling, hoisting, swinging and crowding skill, blasting efficiency, material compacting power
steps, then returning to initial point. The major of machine and formation properties. During the
factors, affecting it are blasting efficiency, formation calculation of this factor, monthly work performance
properties and skill of operator. of each excavator and number of trucks loaded
According to Table 7, it can be interpreted that, the during this period are recorded. Topographical
more the bucket volume the longer is the loading instruments also give a report for the work done.
period. However, it is not the only factor that affects When the total excavation volume is divided to
the period. Formation to be dealt is also effectual. number of trucks loaded, a volume carried per each
Decomposed material enables the shortest periods tour can be calculated. The ratio between the two
while siliceous, medium hard material, longer. Here, gives the fill factor.
blasting efficiency is fairly crucial. A better blasting In Table 8, the relation between bucket volume,
yields shorter loading period. Increment in blasting fill factor and particle size are presented for GLE.
cost will probably be compensated. As particle size increases, fill factor decreases,
The same size machines, working in the same which means a decrease in capacity use, too. It is
conditions, have different periods, which are related clear that there must be a consistency between the
with the capability and skill o f operator. According particle size and bucket volume. The decomposed
to the results, it can be concluded operators should and dissociated geological formations favor
be well and re-trained. excellent fill factors while hard siliceous bases and
blasting resulted in blocky particles, causes low fill
percentages.
Table 7. Loading periods.
No Bucket Formation Blasting #of A ve r.
Volume definition and efficiency meas­ P eriod s.
Table 8. Effect o f particle size.
properties urement
No Bucki;t Particle Size (cm)
28 17 Medium hard Normal 1050 28.6
Vol. 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60
29 10 marl Block 700 31.2
m Bucket Fill Factor (%)
30 10 Decomposed, No 1200 26.3
28 17 - - - - 69.1 -
31 10 dump material blasting 975 27.0 29 10 - - - - 64.1 -
32 10 Med. hard marl 735 29.7 30 10 100.3 - - - - -
33 10 Calcareous marl Block 1270 28.3 31 10 -
100.5 - - - -
34 20 Med. hard marl 1200 33.1 32 10 - - - - 65.7 -
35 20 Decomposed, No 350 29.7 33 10 - - - 69.6 - -
36 20 loosened dump blasting 770 27.7 34 20 - - - - 80.7 -
37 20 material 1085 29.1 35 20 96.9 - - - - -

38 20 Medium hard Normal 1530 32.6 36 20 96.1 - - - - -

39 10 marl Block 375 31.0 37 20 99.4 - - - - -

38 20 - - - - 82.9 -

39 10 - - - - - 61.4

687
 Here, the effect of an efficient blasting can be seen Table 9. Specific energy.
once more. It is also clear that marginal cost of a No Bucket Particle Fill factor Specific energy
Vol., size, cm % kWh/m^
more effective blasting is probably compensated by 0.34
28 17 40-50 69.1
further utilities. 29 10 40-50 64.1 0.39
30 10 0-10 100.3 0.27
31 10 0-10 100.5 0.26
3.6 Specific Energy 32 10 40-50 65.7 0.40
33 10 30-40 69.6 0.33
34 20 40-50 80.7 0.28
Specific energy is the required energy to excavate 1 35 20 0-10 96.9 0.23
m^ of material. The unit of specific energy is 36 20 0-10 96.1 0.25
kWh/m^. Pa§amehmetoglu, et.al (1995) found for 37 20 0-10 99.4 0.25
GLE that a 10 yd^ excavator needs 0.35 kWb/m^ and 38 20 40-50 82.9 0.30
39 10 50-60 61.4 0.48
20 yd^ excavator, 0.25 kWh/m^ of specific energy.
41% of the energy is consumed by hoist engine,
38% by crowd engine and 21% by swing engine
(Pa§amehmetoglu, et.al, 1995). Specific energy is Gap ratio is;
found to be a fimction of hardness of the material,
hence, indirectly particle size, and bucket fill factor R = (G /V ) *100 (4)
(Table 9). As fill factor is increased, specific energy
is decreased. So, particle size resulted in an efficient where, R is gap ratio (%). Ratio of swelled volume
blasting, and qualified operator affect particle size can be found by proportioning in-situ volume of
directly, fill factor and specific energy indirectly. material to after blasting volume;

3.7 Swell Factor S = (I/B ) * 100 (5)

where, S is swell ratio (%), I in-situ volume of

Swell factor is dominantly dependent on formation
material before blasting (m^) and B is volume of
properties of material and blasting efficiency.
blasted material (m^). Swell factor is found as;
Average material amount per truck tour, fill factor
and production amount should be observed and
W = S /(1 0 0 -S ) *100 (6)
measured carefully and optimal amount of blasting
material should be determined. Swell factor is a
In Table 10, swell factor and related parameters are
crucial parameter to calculate annual production and
presented. If blasting result is blocky material then
dump area design and dump action (Kose, et.al.,
swell factor is increased. Hard formations may cause
1999).
inefficient blasting which increases swell factor and
In the GLE study, swell factor and other
particle size as well. Gap volume is proportional
parameters like average amount of hauled material
with swell factor. Here, the importance of blasting
per truck tour, gap volume, gap ratio and in-situ
should be underlined once more. It directly affects
volume of material have been calculated. Average
particle size and gap ratio.
amount of hauled material per truck tour is;

Table 10. Swell factor.

A =M/n (2) Truck Truck Ave. material Gap Swell
No Capacity vol. hauled ratio factor
where, A is average volume of material hauled in per tour m^ %
one tour (m^), M is monthly work done by one truck 28 38.23 27 30 42
(m^) and n is total number of tours a month. Gap 29 38.23 24 36 56
volume in truck case is simply; 30 38.23 31 20 25
31 38.23 31 20 24
32 38.23 25 34 52
33 38.23 27 30 44
G= V - A (3) 34 76.46 62 19 24
35 38.23 30 23 29
where, G is gap volume (m^), V is truck capacity 36 38.23 29 23 30
37 38.23 30 21 26
(m^) and A is average volume of hauled material.
38 76.46 66 13 15
39 38.23 24 39 63
Average 33

688
4 CONCLUSION

In this research, loading performance o f excavators

and effecting factors are investigated on a case
study. As a result o f a number o f measurements,
tests and observations, several interpretations,
comments and conclusions are brougth. Work site
organization, hoist, swing and crowd actions,
loading period, material properties like hardness,
swell factor and particle size, bucket fill factor are
examined as major factors affecting the loading
performance.
Test o f work site conditions has given the work
loss due to organization. Swing angle has found to
be effective on swinging and loading periods.
Particle size and ratio o f bucket volume to truck
capacity affect crowding efficiency, fill factor and
swell factor. Blasting efficiency and skill o f operator
are found to be effectual parameters. Especially, a
proper blasting is crucial for hard rock layers. The
measurements have revealed that each item should
be examined for mines to monitor and control the
system.

REFERENCES

Aiken, G.E. and Gunnett, J.W., 1990. "Overburden Removar,

Surface Mining, 2^^ ed., Kennedy ed., SME, Colorado, pp.
584-619.
Atkinson, T., 1992. "Selection and Sizing o f Excavating
Equipment", SME Mining Engineering Handbook, AIME,
pp. 1311-1333.
Kdse, H. et.al., 1999. "Seminars on Mine Equipment
Technology and Selection", Foundation o f Home Mining
Development, Nov. 25-27, p. 22-50.
Pa§amdimetoglu, et.al, 1995. "Development of Technologies
for Efficiency of Open Pit Mine Equipment", TKI Project,
Middle East Technical University, Ankara, pp. 72.
GLE, 1999. "Report of Annual Activities", Turkish Coal
Enterprise, GLE Report, Kutahya.
Eskikaya, §., 1986. "Productivity Analyses of Work
Machines", Technology And Application Development
Project, Istanbul Technical University, Project No: Ybyk-
Tki86.

689
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Equipment replacement considerations

RD.Tomlingson
Paul D.Tomlingson Associates Incorporated, Denver, Colo., USA

ABSTRACT: The decision to replace capital equipment comes after considerable experience operating and
maintaining it. Performance is well known and future production requirements are well established. While
economics identify realistic cost constraints and performance expectations identify candidate equipment, the best
results occur when equipment operators and maintainers are involved in selecting the best equipment for the job.

1 TEAM EFFORT See Table I.

Traditionally, management and accounting have Table I

made the principal decisions in replacing capital Replacement Considerations
equipment. Occasionally, they have called on Economic Performance
specialists within the organization for an opinion on
candidate equipment. But, mostly decisions have Operating cost Ease of operation
been made without the fiill participation o f those who Maintenance cost Ease of maintenance
would eventually have to use, maintain or support the Depreciation Safety needs
new equipment. Obsolescence Environmental considerations
Ultimately, management w ill require operating de­ Acquisition cost Status of replacement parts
partments to meet production and quality targets that Replacement cost Technical support
the company establishes. Thus, these departments Utilization Overhaul versus replacement
should have input to the selection process. They Inflation Productive capacity
must be an integral part o f the overall process of Cash - discounting Maintenance facilities
replacing capital equipment. Financing Operator training
This paper identifies the economic and per­ Taxes Maintenance training
formance considerations that must be addressed. Resale value New tools and procedures
Equipment replacement must be a team effort with
field personnel playing a prominent role along with
managers and financial personnel. A total picture or 2 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
requirements, capabilities, limitations and needs must
be weighed. Field personnel make the practical Economic considerations w ill remain a primary
equipment replacement recommendations that assure aspect o f decisions to replace capital equipment.
productive utilization, quality maintenance, reliability Either the company can afford to purchase the
and solid support to supply repair materials and equipment or they cannot. However, the following
consumables. points are the most significant aspects o f the initial
Replacement policies should state that the financial decision.
“replacement o f equipment w ill be preceded by a full Operating Cost - This is the total cost o f operating
justification o f the need for the new equipment based equipment. Mobile equipment operating costs
on an analysis o f the alternatives and their potential include consumables like fuel, oil, lubricants, tires
benefit in terms o f profitability and performance”. etc., plus the wages and benefits o f operators. Fixed
Invariably, the involvement o f personnel who w ill equipment operating cost include pro-rata power
operate and maintain the equipment or support these consumption and modifications required to meet
efforts w ill ensure that the equipment does the safety and environmental standards or improve
intended job. performance.

691
 Maintenance Cost - This is the total cost of labor,
repair parts or materials, replacement components
and the use o f support equipment required to keep
equipment in a safe, effective operating condition.
Depreciation - This is the loss in value o f equip­
ment over a period o f time.
Cost o f Obsolescence - This represents the
reduced market value o f equipment as the unit
becomes older in terms o f wear, dependability, in­
adequate productive capacity or less desirable
features like controls for ease o f operation.
Acquisition Cost - This is the cost to obtain
suitable replacement equipment.
Replacement Cost - The overall cost of
replacement includes removal o f old equipment and
the installation o f new equipment in a ready to
operate condition.
Utilization o f Equipment - This describes how the
new equipment w ill be utilized. New equipment may
be used in different ways. For example, haulage
roads in an open pit mine become steeper as the ore
body is mined. Thus, the new haulage trucks must be
power assisted to compensate for the additional fuel
consumption. New trucks may re-quire
reconfiguration.
Impact o f Inflation - This includes labor to
operate and maintain the equipment as well as repair
parts, fuel or power. A ll w ill be more expensive.
Cash discounting - Buyers may find that a lesser
amount paid at purchase is better than the agreed
upon amount paid over time. An immediate payment
could result in a cash discount.
Financing - The cost o f borrowing the money to
pay for new equipment is a serious consideration.
While banks are a primary source, equipment
manufacturers can also discount financing costs as a
result o f favorable warranties or income from
equipment installation or training.
Tax Considerations - Plant expansion often brings
new jobs to a region and local tax rebates could be
offered. Also, early compliance with environmental
standards might allow tax rebates.
Resale Value - This is the market value o f the old
equipment.
3 PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS
The ultimate performance o f the new equipment can
only be determined by those who w ill operate,
maintain and support these activities. Since they w ill
be held accountable for meeting the future production
and quality targets that assure profitability, new
capital equipment acquisition requires their input to
identify the best equipment for the job.
Ease o f Operation - Field personnel should be
given opportunity to operate new equipment being
considered and talk with operators already using the
equipment.
692
Often, there may be quirks that could prove difficult.
They could, for example, be enthusiastic about
certain new equipment and endorse it over com­
petitors.
Ease o f Maintenance - Modem equipment will
have greater productive capacity and inherent
reliability. It w ill also be more complex.
Maintenance might require new skills to apply
advanced techniques or acquire special tools before
they could maintain the equipment properly.
Similarly, critical components might have easier
access, be simpler to replace and designed to last
longer. Maintenance should be asked to help
evaluate the new equipment in this light.
Safety Needs - Operators, maintenance personnel
and safety specialists should examine the equipment
for possible hazards.
Environmental Considerations - W ill the new
equipment comply with environmental standards?
W ill it need extensive modification to meet the
standards?
Status of Replacement Parts - The equipment
investment can be a total loss if replacement parts are
not available or require unreasonable delivery time.
Standardization of parts, local duplication or
remanufacture, consignment stock, guaranteed
deliver time as well as instruction on parts
installation are all serious considerations.
Technical Support - New equipment brings new
problems and questions. Technical support quality
and availability o f technical personnel are important.
Overhaul versus Replacement - I f the general
utilization of the equipment w ill not be changed and
the current features are considered adequate, can a
few more years of utilization be secured by overhaul
rather than replacement ? The cost o f the overhaul
must be weighed against the performance of the unit
in terms o f satisfactory productive capacity,
reasonable repair and cost history. Accurate
information aids this decision.
Productive Capacity - Acquiring greater
productive capacity w ill impact the capability o f the
organization to meet future production targets and, in
turn, help achieve profitability.
Maintenance Facilities - W ill new or bigger
maintenance facilities and supporting utilities be
required to maintain the new equipment ? Can
existing cranes lift the bigger components, for
example ?
Operator Training - W ill retraining be required
for operators ? W ill new operator skills require that
labor agreements be renegotiated?
Maintenance Training - Modem equipment may
include complex devices like on - board computers.
This w ill require maintenance to download and
analyze data to solve complex technical problems.
Thus, the decision to acquire new equipment should
also examine the capabilities o f the maintenance
workforce.
 New tools and Procedures - Maintenance per­
sonnel may require new, sophisticated tools. More
training and additional capital outlay may be
required. New diagnostic procedures may be needed.
Some maintenance organizations may lack essential
information systems. Thus, an assessment of
maintenance management, their program and their
use o f information may be required.

4 CONCLUSIONS

Replacing equipment must involve the entire plant

team. This assures that the best equipment for the job
at the best price is obtained to effectively support the
productivity and profitability requirements of the
future.

693
 Mine Planning an d Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Rock cutting resistance prognosis at the Libous model mining site based
on newly developed method

J.Zdarsky
VUHU-Brown Coal Research Institute, Most, Czech Republic
V.Kremlacek
SD-North Bohemian Mines, Chomutov, Czech Republic

ABSTRACT: In order to apply technical improvements and innovations on mining equipment, a thorough
knowledge o f the rock cutting resitance prognosis is essential. The results of specific cutting forces
measurement executed on bucket-wheel excavators at Libous brown coal opencast mine (Czech Republic)
within selected physical/mechanical and petrographic properties of rock massive determinate possibilities of
such prognosis. The produced work represents results o f task granted by Czech Grant-in-Aid Agency
under registration number 105/98/0166.

1 INTRO DU CTIO N physical/mechanical parameters and petrographic

Libous opencast mine site (owned by SD-North
Bohemian Mines Company) is an important brown
coal producer (about 13 million tons in 1999).
Taking into consideration strict regulations and
limitations for environmental and territorial reasons
related to the Czech coal industry, the Libous site
has at disposal some 400 million tons o f mineable
brown coal reserves for power generation use in next
30-35 years. The respective brown coal extraction
represents total overburden stripping volume about
50 m illlion m^ per year. Overburden removal is done
using four mining and transporting equipment
complexes, constitued by bucket-wheel excavators,
belt conveyors and spreaders with capacity Qth =
about 5000 m^. h’^ (loose rock) - see Fig. 1.
It is comprehensible, that 32 or 33-year-old mining
equipment needs innovation or, sometimes,
replacement by new machines. Such renovation,
especially o f excavators, requires taking into account
the changes appearing during shift into a new mined
area like the site Libous II. A ll attention is paid to
the perfect knowledge o f overburden geological
structure and petrography o f the perspective mining
space, as well as to evaluation o f physical properties
o f overburden.
This all is secured by drilling exploration, by
systematic evaluation o f rock samples from
boreholes in the deep pre-field o f mine site, as well
as by evaluation o f rocks occuring in the open
working face. Thus we get a valuable data basis o f
properties o f rocks, which can be used for prognosis
o f overburden masses mineability during further
opencast site development. The most importnant is
the prognosis o f cutting resistances, which the rock
w ill put against the mining equipment devices on
particular working horizons in different opencast
mine depths.
2 UNIVERSAL CLASSIFICATION FOR
SEDIMENTS (JKS-CLASSIFICATION)
Universal classification JKS is the only in practice
used overburden sediment classification in the
Northbohemian brown coal basin.[1]. According the
principal idea o f this classification sediments are
placed into relevant classes on the base o f analogical
properties having far-reaching influence on cutting
process. The following properties are crucial:
Clay minerals content [% ], carbonates content [%],
crushing strenght [MPa], penetration resistance
[N.cm’^], volume weight [g.cm‘^], moisture in
volume [%].
Each o f above properties becomes on the base its
quantification partial JKS index. Total JKS index is
then assessed by normal statistical methods. Based
on calculed indexes, sediment classification is
shown in following table.

695
Table 1.
Classification Category Classification Index
A <95,0
B 95,1-100,0
C 100,1-110,0
D terrain surface (regelation zone). Most remarkable
110,1-125,0
E 125,1<
Fig. 1. Libous opencast mine - view of coal
extraction side
3 SHORT GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF OVERBURDEN STRATA
As a whole, the overburden strata series of the
opencast site Libous is a lithologically little
differenced complex of claystones (locally, in the
upper parts, even clays), differing from one another
by silt fraction and siderite contents. Pelosiderite
locations are developed in some parts. Claystones
are usually of gray-brown color and thin block desk
696
cutting properties. Contact with the main coal seam
is mostly formed by up to 3-meter-thick position of
hard dark-brown or black-gray coal claystones.
Claystone weathering influences can be traced
into approximately 20 m depth under the original
features are limonitezation, color and consistence
changes, etc. Overburden series reaches maximum
thickness of approx. 130 m in the central part of coal
basin.
4 METHOD AND CONTENT OF SOLUTION
Method of cutting resistance prognosis is based on
reasoning that physical/mechanical or petrographic
properties of rocks are decisive for cutting resistance
size. At the same time, it takes into account also
other factors influencing the rock cutting resistance,
such as properties of excavator cutting device and
mining technology. During the course of work it was
confirmed that the last-mentioned factors influence.
into a certain extent, the specific cutting resistance The device was put into operation on bucket wheel
put up by the rock against the cutting device, but in excavator KU 800/20 at the end of 1998. It has
practice this resistance makes only approx. 15 % of following qualities:
the total measured specific cutting resistance [6]. • It enables long-term determining of
Goal of solution is to find correlative dependence characteristics decisive for calculation of
of cutting resistances on physical/mechanical digging and cutting forces, or also of other
properties of sediments. This will be based on parameters;
measurement of in-situ specific cutting forces on • Universality of solution for all types of bucket
excavators TC 2 serie (continuously operating wheel excavators;
excavator- belt conveyor - spreader system with Qth • Practically unlimited recording length
= about 5000 m^.h'^). Finding of such correlative according to hard disc capacity;
dependence shall enable prognosis of cutting • Consequent computer-based evaluation of the
resistances in pre-operating fields of opencast mines, measured quantities/characteristics, for
this all on the basis of rock properties data found example by software like Quattro PRO or
during drilling exploration operations.
Excel etc.;
Because of aforementioned reasons, it was
• No intervention into technology or electric
necessary to accept some simplifying premises for
construction of the correlative relations, especially; equipment of the excavator is necessary;
a) for excavators with similar construction of • Evaluation follows the previous short-term
cutting device depend the excavation and measurement.
cutting forces basically on the physical and
petrographic rock properties;
b) a relatively homogeneous rock massive is
6 MINING OPERATION, MEASUREMENTS
estimated, at least in the thickness of one
AND SAMPLES COLLECTING DURING
mining bench;
THE APPLIED MEASUREMENTS
c) the same mining technology (with bucket
wheel excavators) is taking into account.
Overburden stripping is carried out by two SRs
1500 and two KU 800 excavators. Mining operation
is in progress mostly in altitude working faces of
four or five benches.
5 APPARATUS FOR CONTINUOUS
Between 1995 - 1999 the aforementioned
MEASURING OF CHARACTERISTICS
excavators went through eleven measurements of
DECISIVE FOR CALCULATION OF SPECIFIC
characteristics decisive for calculation of specific
DIGGING AND CUTTING FORCES
digging forces Fmp [kN.m'^] and specific cutting
An apparatus has been developed for solution of the forces Fmr [kN.m'^] in 31 benches. At the same
task to measure continuous the characteristics time 51 rock samples were taken. The measurements
decisive for the calculation of specific digging and were evaluated according to usual algorithms based
cutting forces. Its block-scheme is presented on the Czech standard CSN 27 7013.
in Fig. 2.

standard IH..' equ ip p ed \\'ith nnuaiiurmj^ eard anti softw are

Ifistan ce ineosurititi laser iiisirument IVh deptli u reu ts -elT iiieiasurenietu
T aehoiteneralu r for scannin{r o fs lc v u n y speed in .slewing g ear e lec tric m otors
C'otiverter o f ac tiv e ca|Micily lo t meusiiring o f bucket w h eel d rive input p ow er
rcnsrimuiur litr p ow er measuring in (tear b ox draw- bar
S treiigtliciiiiig b iid g e

Fig. 2. Block-scheme of measuring apparatus

697
7 STATISTICAL COMPILATION RESULTS

Target of statistical compilation was to find

dependence of the specific cutting force in a bench
pMRstr on the results of laboratory tests: carbonate
and clay minerals content, volume weight, moisture,
resistance in penetration, crushing strength and IKS
index.
Regression diagnostics method of program system
ADSTAT 2.0 and graphical tool and also basic
statistical calculations of EXCEL 97 program were
used for statistical compilation. Regression relation
between dependent and independent variable is
expressed by correlation and determination Pig. 3. Graph of a dependence between specific
coefficients. Issuing from the statistical compilation cutting force and JKS index
results of the tested dependences, it was possible to
determine linear regression models, for which the
statistical tests of regression triplet proved positive;
by means of t-test, we also accepted the linear
regression parameters and the correlation and
determination coefficients were quite positive. This
group shall contain the linear regression model of
specific cutting force pMRstr dependence on the JKS
index, further pMRstr dependence on simple crushing
strenght Oc and pMRstr dependence on porosity.
Their regression relations and statistical
characteristics of regression are shown in Table 2.

Table 2
Tested Regression Correlation Correlation Pig. 4. Graph of a dependence between specific
dependence relation coefficient coefficient cutting force and crushing strength.
R R^
pMRstr on Y=5.1x-404 0.79 0.624
JKS index
pMRstr on Y=10.7x + 0.70 0.486
crushing 78,5
strength
pMRstr on Y=-3.9x + 0.85 0.718
porosity 3415

Pigures 3, 4 and 5 represent the graphical

demonstration of individual regressive models .A
proposal of probable dependence range of specific
cutting force P mr on JKS classification, on simple
crushing strength G c and on porosity is worked out Pig. 5 Graph of a dependence between specific
on the basis of statistical testing. These dependences cutting force and porosity
are shown in the Pig. 6. The range of stated Explanatory note to Tables 3-5:
dependences is described in Tables 3, 4 and 5. X rationally mineable under precondition of
blasting
XX not mineable by continuously working
systems
XXX nonlinear dependence accepted (equation
of exponential trend gradient)

698
Table 3. The dependence between JKS Index and
^Mrstr

Class category Index JKS Probability zone Anticipated

JKS mean values
F » ,« (kNji)-’) Fm m (k N jn ')
up to 96 up to 89 up to 77
95,1 .100,0 3 -11 4 77-1 0 3
100,1 - 110,0 9 1 -1 6 5 103-153
110,1 -125,0
above 125,1

Fig.6. Graphical representation of a probable

Table 4. The dependence between simply crushing
dependence extent between FMRstr and JKS, Oc,
strenght Oc and FMrstr
porosity

Class category Simply Probability Anticipated Face development is transformed into the network
JKS crushing zone mean vaiues
strength
of geological and petrographic profiles guided
(MPa) (k N jn ') Fw«, (kN.m ') through overburden massive and perpendicularly or
in parallel oriented to the working face. Thge
A xxx up to 0,35 up to 91 up to 77
0 ,3 5 -2 ,2 5 6 4-1 1 6 7 7 -1 0 3
evaluated horizons are given a certain JKS index
B
C 2 ,2 5 -6 ,9 8 8 9-1 6 7 1 0 3 -1 5 3
range on the basis of the accepted evaluation
D X X X
according to valid sediment classification (JKS).
E XX XX XX
Then we use the founded correlative dependences
(Fig.6) and derive the range of probable specific
cutting resistances. Correlative relations - specific
Table 5. The dependence between porosity and FM^tr cutting resistance versus crushing strength and
porosity - are used as complementary information
for eventual correction of the prognosed cutting
Ciass category Porosity Probabiiity zone Anticipated force, which is necessary to overcome the cutting
JKS mean vaiues
(%) Fm ^ (kN.m ') F « r f (kN jn') resistance of the rock derived fi-om correlative
A XXX 47 and above up to 88 up to 77 dependence on JKS classification.
B 4 7 ,0 -4 0 ,5 6 7-1 1 3 7 7 -1 0 3 The reffered methodology is currently applied in
C 40,5 - 27,5 9 3 -1 6 4 103-153 evaluating of future northern development of Libous
D X X X opencast mine preoperating field. Similarly, we
E XX XX XX presuppose application of the knowledge issuing
from testing of operational output dependence on
cutting resistances.
8 USING THE GAINED KNOWLEDGE IN
CUTTING RESISTANCES PROGNOSIS

The helpful use of the gained knowledge is based on 9 CONCLUSION

sufficient information about petrographic and
physical/mechanical properties of rocks occuring in
the preoperating field of future working face
development.
For this we use all available and goal-aimed
sample evaluation of rocks occuring in the open
working face and its preoperating field, on the base
of overburden strata determination during drilling
operations.
The effected works proved the correlative
dependence of specific cutting force pMRstr [kN.m'^]
and JKS index, crushing strength Gc [MPa] and
porosity [%]. The determinated correlative relations
are used in pilot prognoses of rock cutting
resistances at the model mining site Libous. This
enables a rational attitude to the renovation and
innovation of main opencast mining equipment.

699
REFERENCES

[1] Brus,Z. 1989. Upfesnéní jednotné klasifikace

sedimentu z hlediska rozpojitelnosti. Vyzkumná
zp rá va . VÚHU Most.
[2] Gondek,H. 1989. Predikce vykonnosti
kolesovych r^ a d e l v závislosti na báñsko-
technickych ipoármvkkcKDoktorská dizertacní
práce. V§B Ostrava.
[3] Kukal, K. 1985. Návrh k pojmenování a
klasifikaci sedimentu. M etodická pfírucka. ÚÚG
Praha.
[4] Piatkowiak, N.& Scheffler, D. 1996. Das
Schneiden von verfestigten Gestein im
Tdí%éodi\xQn.Braunkohle Nr 5.
[5] Raaz, V. 1999. Grabkraftermittlung und
Optimierung der maschinen­ und
verfahrenstechnischen Parameter von
Schaufelradbaggern für einen energie­ und
verschleißgünstigen Abbau von Abraum, Kohle und
Zwischenmitteln im Tagebau. Braunkohle Nr 5.
[6] Zd’ársky, J. 1995-1998. Hodnoceni dobyvacich
podminek na lomu Libous vletech 1995-1998.
Odbomé posudky. VÚHU Most.
[7] Zd’ársky, J. & Basta, L. 1999. Zhodnoceni
hominového masivu lomu Libous ve vychodni cásti
porubni fi-onty IV. skryvkového fezu a méfení
mérnych rypnych a rozpojovacích sil na rypadle KU
800/20 pomocí nové méñcí soupravy. Odborny
posudek. VÚHU Most.
[8] CSN 277013. Stroje pro povrchovou tézbu -
Kolesová rypadla a zakladace. Termíny a defmice.

700
6 Innovative m ining system s - M achine autom ation
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A lternative access, m ining and hoisting for underground deposits

K.Biegaj
WMC Resources Limited andAusvac Mining Pty Limited, Norseman, WA, Australia

ABSTRACT: It is proposed to consider a new access, mining and hoisting system for underground deposits,
as an alternative to the commonly used decline or vertical shaft access. The proposed system offers funda­
mental improvements in gathering of exploration data, reduction of capital expenditure and significant savings
in mine operating costs. The cost reductions are achieved through: 1. Superior ore body definition by Super­
sucker winzing on ore prior to the commencement of capital development. 2. Considerable reduction of capi­
tal development in waste. 3. Full capitalisation on all benefits of a raisebored excavation. 4. Introduction of
rubber tyred skip and rubber tyred Mine Rapid Response Vehicle. 5. Introduction of simplified ore handling
system and reduction of underground mobile diesel fleet. 6. Introduction of minimum maintenance shaft con­
cept. The system is applicable to deposits ranging from shallow, low dip angle, narrow vein, high grade to
bigger, massive type vertical mineralisations accessed from the surface, preferably from the bottom of an open
pit. Also suitable as a down dip extension of an existing underground mine. The system is highly conducive to
mine automation and emerging trend aimed to increase the ratio of mined metal/mineral to mined waste. Also
offers substantial reduction in diesel exhaust gas emissions to the mine atmosphere.

1 INTRODUCTION raisebore(s) as mine access/haulage way, are the

The prevailing trend over the last decades in rela­
tively small and shallow Australian metalliferous
mines, has been to abandon vertical shaft capital ac­
cess and extensively use decline for “flexibility” and
easy underground access of rubber tyred mobile die­
sel equipment.
Generally, mining costs are governed by the ratio
of excavated tonnes of ore (metal/mineral) to tonnes
of excavated waste, including the waste resulted out
of a capital development.
With respect to recent rather liberal use of de­
clines as mine access, the ratio of capital waste de­
velopment tonnes to mined ore tonnes
(metal/mineral) has been in general excessive, espe­
cially in cases of narrow vein, high grade, smaller
deposits.
Unnecessary spending of capital in a climate of
declining commodity prices and the infamous repu­
tation of the mining industry for yielding poor re­
turns on capital is not viewed favourably by the in­
vestment community, and therefore capital for new
mining projects is hard to obtain.
Costs benefits resulting out of a reduction of
capital development in waste and use of an inclined
main focus of this paper.
1.1 Exploration
Any justification for capital funds to get a new min­
ing project off the ground is based on the accuracy of
exploration data.
There have been numerous examples of decisions
made on an incorrect geological interpretation,
which have resulted in an incorrect positioning of
mine capital access from the surface in relation to
the ore body or commencement of mining projects
based either on over-optimistic or over-conservative
resource model, which resulted in subsequent sub­
stantial financial losses or conversely, lost opportu­
nities.
Three dimensional aspects of an ore body like
shape, mineralised zone distribution and undulation,
have been widely and commonly neglected by ge­
ologists when producing resource models (and in the
resource/ore reserves reconciliation process in pro­
duction phase). Those parameters are almost solely
responsible for unplanned waste development,
poorly optimised level spacing, and subsequent ore
losses and excessive dilution when stoping.

703
Simply speaking, to reconcile only ore tonnes, grade
and metal/mineral mined against the original re-
source/ore body model, is far from being adequate.
1.2 Mine capital access
1.2.1 Decline access mines
Mine decline access provides flexibility but it comes
at a price, especially in view of the recent more
stringent safety requirements. Quite often the quoted
“flexibility” of a decline access is used to cover for
lack of or bad planning practices, in both feasibility
and operational stages.
Meshing of declines down to 3.5m from the floor
is now a normal practice, with an average cost of
AU$3,500/m in good ground conditions for a 5.3m
high X 5.3m wide excavation accommodating a typi­
cal 30 tonne truck.
In bad ground conditions the price per meter can
be substantially higher, often double, where special
support like shotcrete/fibrecrete is required.
With the increasing depths of mining and further
tightening on safety requirements, the price of a
typical decline excavation in Australia will more
than likely increase further, following the footsteps
of Canadian mines as an example.
1.2.1.1 Ore (metal/mineral) to capital waste ratio
As an extreme example, a typical, small Australian
narrow vein gold mine producing 100,000 tonnes of
ore per year and yielding 700 to 1,400 tonnes of ore
per vertical m, would have a ratio of ore tonnes to
capital development waste tonnes between 0.6 - 0.9,
whilst being accessed via a 5.3 m x 5.5 m decline.
Monthly production of ore on a 12 hour continu­
ous shift roster is typically around 8,000 tonnes (or
approximately 5 x 30 tonne trucks per shift), which
is less than 0.5 of an average trucking shift, or
speaking metaphorically, less than one lane of the
“decline highway” is being utilised. Another words,
we are excavating a big decline to efficiently hoist
capital development waste.
A poignant illustration of this point is to observe
a small 2 cubic yard bucket capacity LHD (1.5 m
wide by 1.85 m high) travelling up a 5.5 m wide by
5.3 m high decline. The situation described above is
not uncommon for small tonnage mines in Australia.
In response to safety concerns and in order to
meet current safety requirements, a number of
mines, even those relatively young (25 years of age
or less), have undergone a highly expensive and dis­
ruptive decline rehabilitation programme necessi­
tated mainly by deterioration of ground support
or/and less stringent ground support standards ap­
plied in the past.
704
1.2.2 Vertical shaft access mines
Modem mines utilising mbber tyred diesel equip­
ment underground and having a sole access to the
surface via a vertical shaft, face a major inconven­
ience of lowering the dismantled equipment through
the shaft for assembly in an underground workshop.
The operational inconvenience of shifting mining
mobile equipment between the levels is normally
addressed by an internal decline excavated in addi­
tion to the already existing shaft, which represents a
doubling up on capital waste development in often
financially unjustifiable manner.
1.2.2.1 Shaft ore handling system
Rock breakers, grizzlies, ore passes and loading
pockets are highly capital intensive and time con­
suming at their constmction stage, and very expen­
sive to maintain in operational order throughout the
mine life.
1.2.2.2 Shaft internal infrastructure
Maintenance of internal stmctures of shafts like steel
sets, guides, brattice sheets and stages, especially in
a highly corrosive wet environment is very expen­
sive and highly dismptive to production cycle.
1.3 Level ore development and stoping
Often due to lack of accurate geological information
on all critical parameters describing the mineralised
zone in three dimensions (referred to in paragraph
1.1 above) and subsequent lack of proper determina­
tion on what constitutes “ore”, it has been a common
occurrence to mismatch the “ore body” with the
mining method and selected mining equipment.
Selection of mining method and vertical level
spacing has often been based on intuition rather than
on engineering determination on what produces the
best Net Present Value (NPV) for a mining project
from exploration to rehabilitation stage. As a result,
either excessive dilution and/or ore losses have been
encountered, or mine has been over level-developed
(less common situation).
Equipment selection has been often based on
availability at a particular time and not on careful
planning aimed at matching the three dimensional
distribution of mineralised zone along the strike and
up/down dip, and producing the best NPV for the
project.
2 PROPOSED SYSTEM 12. Bigger and deeper deposits will require a sec­
ond, parallel raisebore to cater for higher tonnage of
The proposed system is shown in Figure 1 below. hoisted ore and down dip increase of haulage dis­
tance; adequate winder capacity and scheduling of
down dip extension work will ensure continuous and
undiminished level of ore production.

2.2 Main features

2.2.1 Exploration

2.2.1.1 Return to winzing

A re-instatement of an old concept, proven and

widely used in the past known as winzing, is
strongly advocated. Obviously the proposed “return
to winzing” has very little to do with a shovel, kib­
ble, hard manual labour and all the bad connotations
from the past. The winzing concept is outlined in
Figure 2 below.
Figure 1. Alternative access, mining and hoisting system. When used in combination with drilling and
modem exploration techniques currently on the mar­
2.1 Brief description o f the proposed system ket, winzing is the best known method of gaining an
advanced knowledge of all three dimensional pa­
Listed below is an outline of the proposed system in rameters of a mineralised zone and reducing the risk
sequence of construction: on investment capital on a mining project.
1. Excavation of winze on ore with a Supersucker Having many advantages, winzing as any other
for superior three dimensional (3D) definition of method has its limitations and those will be briefly
mineralised zone in conjunction with other geologi­ discussed in this paper.
cal data (down to 120 vertical meters).
2. Determination of mining method and equip­
ment selection for best NPV result.
3. Drilling of a raisebore pilot hole centrally to
the strike length and close to the ore body; in case of
a deeper deposit, a second parallel pilot hole needs
to be drilled; both pilot holes need to be over-drilled
to a final depth (600 meters down dip in this exam-
pie).
4. Transportation of dismantled raisebore head
down the winze.
5. Raiseboring of an inclined shaft excavation
and vacuum lifting of raisebore cuttings to the sur­
face with a Supersucker.
6. Installation of high tonnage capacity, low
speed transportable/semi-transportable winder.
7. Introduction of a rubber tyred hoisting
skip/Mine Rapid Response Vehicle to shift mining Invested Capital
equipment from the surface and between the levels.
8. Excavation of level plats and a sump with drill Figure 2. Winzing concept
and blast techniques and vacuum lifting of waste to
the surface. 2.2.1.2 Supersucker winzing
9. Excavation of shaft stockpiles/system surge
stockpiles with waste hoisted in a rubber tyred skip It is proposed to implement modem winzing tech­
directly loaded into it with a LHD. nique with a Supersucker, a giant vacuum cleaner.
10. Mining of ore with a direct loading into a skip Supersuckers have been widely in use in Australia
with a LHD in a semi-automated/automated mode. in shallow shaft sinking applications over the last 25
11. Down dip repetition of the above steps in 150 years or so. The technique originated from South
m stages as in any other development campaign. Australian opal fields, where they still remain the
main ore haulage system.

705
About 160 of them are currently in use in Coober
Pedy alone, transporting millions of tonnes of mate­
rial every year.
Shaft sinking depths commonly achieved in Aus­
tralia reach up to 180 m vertically, with a 300 mm
diameter suction pipe.
Winzing on ore with sub-levelling capabilities
allows a superior bulk knowledge of mineralised
zone in advance, and when used with drilling data
and latest radar techniques, gives the best possible
definition of all critical parameters of an ore body,
namely: grade distribution and continuity, shape and
undulation - all in 3D.
In addition, the benefits of bulk sampling ob­
tained by winzing for metallurgical purposes are ob-
2.2.1.3 Operational benefits o f winzing
Apart from exploration aspects of winzing, there are
a number of operational advantages of this method.
Costs of winzing, perceived by some as prohibi­
tive, need to be viewed in a much wider context with
all measurable benefits attached to it, namely: supe­
rior exploration data in advance, superior tool in
stope design, as an excavation nearly paid for if ex­
cavated on ore (with an immediate return) and as an
excavation of a multipurpose future use for either
second means of egress in advance, primary ventila­
tion in advance, longhole slot raise in advance etc.
2.2.2 Increase o f ore(metal/mineral) to capital de­
velopment waste ratio
By positioning the raisebore(s) underneath the ore
body as close as geotechnically advisable, a dramatic
reduction in volume of capital waste excavated is
achieved, which results in an increase of ratio of ore
tonnes to capital development tonnes from current
0.6 - 0.9 to 14 (again, typical small Australian gold
mine as an extreme example).
Although the ratio of ore (metal) tonnes to capital
waste development tonnes is not that low for higher
tonnage decline mines, capital waste development
tonnes can be reduced up to 100% (depending on a
vertical level spacing) when compared to the current
capital waste development required to access the ore
body.
2.2.3 Utilisation o f all benefits o f a raisebored exca­
vation
From author’s experience and to the best of his
knowledge, mining industry so far, has only taken
advantage of one feature of an opening excavated
with a raiseboring technique i.e. smooth surface area
and shape providing low resistance for ventilating
mine air (probably the least important).
706
It is proposed to fully capitalise on other as-
pects/advantages of a raisebored excavation:
1. Use an inclined raisebored excavation as a
main haulage and service access for ore hoisting and
transportation of mining mobile diesel equipment,
materials and personnel from the surface and be­
tween the levels.
2. Lack of damage to the excavation normally
caused by blasting and therefore excellent stability of
the main mine access(s).
3. Geotechnically perfect and long term stable
shape, requiring zero or close to zero ground support
- it is assumed from experience in typical Western
Australian gold mines, that a raisebore not exceeding
4.5m in diameter will be stable over a long period of
time without any support in good ground conditions.
Periodical check scaling of the raisebore will be re­
quired.
4. Excellent road surface requiring zero mainte­
nance if excavated in good ground conditions (which
is normally the case).
5. Close to zero maintenance access shaft due to
lack of infrastructure normally installed in a conven­
tional shaft (only winder rope rollers are installed on
the raisebore’s floor).
2.2.4 Introduction o f rubber tyred hoisting skip
It is proposed to introduce a simple in construction,
rubber tyred skip for ore hoisting activities.
The proposed skip, apart from winder rope rollers
on the floor, will not require any infrastructure to be
installed in a raisebore, which is normally an expen­
sive capital and maintenance item in a conventional
vertical or inclined shaft.
2.2.5 Direct loading o f ore into the skip
It is proposed to totally eliminate shaft loading pock­
ets and associated infrastructures (expensive and
time consuming capital and maintenance items) by
direct loading into a skip with a stope LHD.
A simple in construction, easily re-positioned
chute will be used to prevent spillage.
It is proposed to operate the skip in a semi-
automated mode (initially and later in a fully auto­
mated), directly linked with stope LHDs operating
on different levels to eliminate skip waiting time.
Capacity surge stockpiles located near the raisebore
on each level will ensure fast loading and selection
of an optimum level for loading (depending on the
positioning of a LHD within the stope mucking and
tramming cycle in relation to the empty skip).
Recent developments in Australia in the area of
laser guided autonomous LHD tramming will be
highly conducive to this application with an auto­
mated stope mucking as a next step to be imple­
mented in practical applications very soon.
2.2.6 Introduction o f rubber tyred Mine Rapid Re­
sponse Vehicle
To accomplish swift movement of personnel, mobile
diesel equipment and materials from/to the surface
and between the levels (which normally presents a
major inconvenience/cost in a traditional mine ac­
cessed via a shaft), it is proposed to use a simple in
construction, low maintenance, rubber tyred vehicle
capable of all those functions and called in this paper
Mine Rapid Response Vehicle (MRRV).
Since the mass of the biggest LHD to be shifted
between the levels necessitates high winder capacity,
functions of the rubber tyred skip and MRRV will be
combined in the shallow stage of mine life
When in service mode, it is proposed to operate
this vehicle in a push-button, automated mode.
2.2.7 Drastic reduction o f underground mobile die­
sel fleet
1. Total elimination of trucking fleet.
2. Elimination of other mobile equipment nor­
mally engaged in capital waste development activi­
ties in decline accessed mines.
3. Total elimination of underground light vehicles
fleet.
2.2.8 Utilisation o f shaft's cross sectional area
Due to lack of internal infrastructure/support, which
normally occupies a lot of shaft’s space, the pro­
posed system allows a superior utilisation of shaft’s
cross sectional area for hoisting and equipment
shifting,
2.2.9 Challenges and limitations o f the system
1. Reluctance of mine managers and mine plan­
ning engineers to accept a new concept departing
from a quite comfortable, “flexible” and now com­
monly adopted decline mine stereotype.
2. Perceived lack of flexibility when compared
with a decline access.
3. Perceived complications caused by unexpected
change in ore body direction, size or presence of ad­
ditional ore bodies.
4. Personnel access when excavating 150 m deep
winze.
5. Supersucker’s lifting capacity - 180 m vertical
lifting is the limit with Supersuckers currently avail­
able.
6. Ensuring that raisebores’ pilot holes are
straight, especially those drilled at lower angles.
7. Minimum angle of raisebore of 42^ to hori­
zontal to ensure trouble free rilling of cuttings for
supersucking.
8. Supporting/centralising raiseboring rods in the
top part of a raisebore while extending it down dip.
707
9. Maximum angle of raisebore of 75^ to hori­
zontal to ensure proper traction of the skip and
MRRV by gravity force.
10. The proposed dismantling of raisebore head
and transportation down the winze has not yet been
performed in practice to author’s knowledge.
11. Limited to good ground conditions only to
fully capitalise on all benefits of a raisebored exca­
vation.
12. Diameter of the raisebore is not to exceed
4.5m for local geotechnical stability.
13. Cross sectional area of the 4.5 m diameter
risebore limits the size of the biggest LHD to an 8
cubic yard bucket capacity, which restricts the
maximum tramming distance from the hoisting
raisebore to approximately 400 meters.
14. For mines deeper than 100 vertical meters, a
second parallel raisebore will need to be constructed
(and extended down dip), to cater for uninterrupted
ore hoist and increased haulage distance.
15. To author’s knowledge, rubber tyred skip and
rubber tyred Mine Rapid Response Vehicle have not
yet been constructed and trialed in practice in a
raisebore; stable travelling of those vehicles on the
floor of a risebore needs to be ensured.
2.2.10 Safety, health and environment
1. Fourteen (14) times reduction in exposure to
rockfalls in capital development headings alone due
to reduction of surface area of backs.
2. Smaller dimensions of shaft and level drives
are inherently more stable and rockfall hazards will
be easily identified and rectified by barring down
with no need for any additional equipment (due to
the lack of personnel carriers, the mine will be
walked through and inspected on each shift).
4. At least 10 times reduction in diesel equipment
kW installed underground and diesel exhaust gas
emissions to the mine atmosphere.
2.2.11 Costs savings compared to a decline access
The following assumptions have been made for the
purpose of this comparison:
1. A mine accessed from the bottom of an open
pit was considered as an example.
2. Cash flow analysis comparison was carried out
for a typical medium size Australian gold mine pro­
ducing 720,000 tonnes of ore at 6.0 g/t for 139,000
ounces per year, with 15m vertical level spacing and
utilising longhole mining method. A mine with a life
of eight years was considered with a year zero in­
cluded for the initial capital development.
3. Adopted mining and milling costs, type, num­
ber and size of equipment selected, practices, pro­
ductivities and personnel levels are based on current
experience in Australian metalliferous mines.
 4. Each 100 vertical meters of capital develop­ A conservative cost cut of 15% has been applied to
ment will provide two years of mine production. the mine operating costs in the proposed system. The
5. Assumed size of mined ore body: strike length savings are based on automation of winding, auto­
800 m, true ore thickness 4.0 m, dip 45^, grade 6.0g/t mation of LHD tramming and skip loading activities,
(in case of massive type ore bodies, 400 m tramming reduction of maintenance cost of mobile fleet, re­
distance to the haulage raisebore). duced primary ventilation power consumption and
reduction of number of mine personnel.
Table 1. Summary of capital development costs for a typical
decline access of 100 vertical m of ore body.
3 CONCLUSIONS
Decline 1 in 8 800m @ $3,500/m $2,800,000
Decline s/piles 6.7 X 25m @ $3,500/m 586.000 1. The proposed alternative access, mining and
Acesses * 6.7 X 70m @ $4,500/m 2 , 110,000 hoisting system offers significant safety, health and
Access s/piles 6.7 X 25m @ $3,500/m 586.000 environmental benefits over a decline accessed mine
Vent exhaust 6.7 X 55m @ $3,500/m 1,290,000 due to a drastic reduction of exposure to rockfalls
Second egress 40m @ $2,500/m 670.000 and reduction of underground mobile diesel fleet.
Other 100m @ $2,500/m 250.000 2. Supersucker winzing (in conjunction with other
Total $8,292,000 geological data) will deliver an unsurpassed defini­
tion of mineralised zone in three dimensions and
Table 2. Summary o f capital development costs o f the pro­ will enable informed mine design and planning.
posed system. 3. Capitalisation on all benefits of a raisebored
excavation and introduction of a rubber tyred ore
Supersucker winze 15 Om @ $6,000/m 900,000
hoisting skip and Mine Rapid Response Vehicle will
4.5m inclined risebore 150m @ $6,500/m 975,000
ensure most of the essential flexibilities of a decline
Vacuum lifting o f cuttings @ $ 750/m 112,500
with a drastic reduction of capital waste develop­
Plats * 6.7 X 25m @ $6,000/m 1,005,000
ment. It will also simplify ore handling system and
Plat s/piles 6.7 x 25m @ $3,500/m 586,000
eliminate all mobile diesel fleet involved in mining
Raisebore head access 25m @ $6,000/m 150,000
of capital development waste in a decline mine.
Other______________ 1 0 0 m @
_______________
$2,500/m 250,000
3. The proposed system offers 40% improvement
of mine’s pre-tax cash flow and 69% increase of af­
Total $3,978,500
ter tax NPV.
* Same mine parameters as listed rnider Table 1.
4. Financial comparison of the proposed system
against a traditional vertical shaft access for deeper
Table 3. Summary of cash flow for the two mine accesses con­
mines (where a decline access cannot be justified) is
sidered (in million o f Australian dollars).
yet to be conducted - it is expected costs benefits
will be substantial.
Proposed System Decline $ Diff. %
Capital:
Winder 10.7 0 REFERENCES
Surface inst. 1.0 2.6 1.6 -60
Capital dev. 23.7 35.1 11.4 -32 Personal communications:
U/g mobile eq. 11.2 26.0 14.8 -57 Maher, P. 1999. Director of Ausvac Mining Pty Ltd & Ma­
Winzing profit 1.9 0 her Mining Contractors Pty Ltd. Kalgoorlie, Western Australia.
Total capital 44.8 63.7 -18.9 -30 Jance, J. 1999. Principal Consulting Engineer, Western
Operating costs ($/t of ore): Australian Department of Minerals and Energy, Perth, Western
Total mining 34 40 -6 -15 Australia.
Milling and cart 16 14 2 14 Simpson, B. 1999. Director of Vacuum Mining Pty Ltd,
Non cash costs/year: 6.1 7.3 -2.3 -30 Perth, Western Australia.
Total cash flow (undiscounted): Jordan, A. 1999. Director o f Jordan Mining Pty Ltd, Perth,
Before tax 142.6 101.7 40.8 40 Western Australia.
After tax @ 30% 101.7 71.9 72.6 40 Newnham, L. 1999. Operations Manager o f Bymecut-Ruc,
NPV @ 12% discount rate: Kalgoorlie, Western Australia.
Before tax 76.5 46.9 29.6 63 Vanajek, I. 1999. Vanajek Mining Pty Ltd. Coober Pedy,
After tax 53.6 31.7 21.9 69 South Australia.
West, R. 2000. Manager o f WA Operations, Combined Re-
A re-sale value of the winder and headframe instal­ somces Engineering Pty Ltd, Perth, Western Australia.
lations has not been included in the cash flow analy­
ses, which represents a conservative approach.

708
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Evaluation o f m ining equipm ent automation including process considerations

and sensitivity analysis

R.A.HaU
Department of Mining and Mineral Process Engineering, University of British Columbia, Canada
L. K. Daneshmend
Department of Mining Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, Ont., Canada

ABSTRACT: This paper uses reliability modelling and discrete-event simulation to compare two levels of
automation on a diamond drill to the performance of the non-automated drill. Improvements in sub-system
life and drill-bit life are incorporated into the simulation to provide a truer comparison. Results show that in­
cluding such process improvements, which result from automation, is imperative for a comprehensive evalua­
tion of automation benefits. A sensitivity analysis, using a series of simulations, is then performed to inves­
tigate how changes in the failure characteristics of the various subsystems would affect the drill’s mechanical
availability. The sensitivity analysis is used to identify where efforts should be focused for reliability growth,
and what targets those efforts should have.

1 INTRODUCTION
The reliability of a piece of equipment is an indica­
tion of its dependability or trustworthiness. It is the
degree to which the equipment is available at its
rated capacity whenever it is needed. BS 4778
(1979) defines reliability as "the ability of an item to
perform a required function under stated conditions
for a stated period of time". O' Connor (1985) de­
fined reliability in probabilistic terms as: "the prob­
ability that an item will perform a required function
without failure under stated conditions for a stated
period of time".
This paper focuses on the use of reliability
modelling and simulation to investigate the impact
of equipment redesign. Specifically, it investigates
how diamond drill availability will be affected by
addition of an automation capability. In addition it
provides a basis for assessing the likelihood (or
"mission reliability") of completing a specific
footage of drilling without operator intervention.
Finally, specific areas for maintenance efforts to be
focused are identified via a sensitivity analysis using
discrete event simulation.
terested reader can find a thorough treatment of the
theory in Kececioglu (Kececioglu, 1991). The sta­
tistical analysis of the data presented in this paper
was performed using Weibull++^^.
To assess the impact of design changes on the
drill a baseline model of its subsystems was devel­
oped and i^ shown in Figure 1. This Figure shows
the Raptor™ model of the drill. (Raptor “ is a dis­
crete-event reliability simulator.) Each block in the
diagram contains the failure and repair distribution
information for the particular subsystem. Raptor
then performs a discrete event simulation of the en­
tire system to predict its mechanical availability
(MA). A Raptor simulation was built to represent
the drill before design changes were made to estab­
lish its inherent reliability and MA.

2 RELIABILITY MODELLING

Failure and repair data were analyzed for the period

January 1998 to June 1998, for a fleet of 10 diamond
drills. Details of reliability distribution fitting tech­
niques are beyond the scope of this paper. The in
Figure 1 Baseline model of a diamond drill

709
 The results from simulation of the drill, using ability of the drill, simulated observed behaviour,
empirical failure and repair distribution models for and two simulated automation cases: with the UDP
the subsystems, compared to the observed values added to the drill, and with both the UDP and Rod
from field data, are shown in Table 1. The fidelity of Handler added to the drill. From these curves the
the simulation appears to be quite good. The close­ probability of the drill achieving desired missions
ness of the MA reveals that the two methods are can be obtained.
providing similar productivity results. There is a The three mission scenarios considered were:
significant difference in the mean footage between A. Unattended Shift Change: assuming an ex­
failures (MFBF) with the simulated value being 30% tended core barrel of 30 feet is to be drilled
less than the observed. This is due to the fleet MFBF without an operator present.
being the average of the individual drills compared B. Unattended Shift (100 ft)
to the simulated being based on the distributions of C. Unattended Hole (600 ft)
each of the subsystems. The reliability corresponding to each of these
mission scenarios, based upon the simulated and ob­
served drill reliability models, the drill with the
Table 1 Simulation results for unmodified diamond drill unattended drilling package and the drill with both
Parameter Diamond drill Diamond drill the unattended drilling package and the rod handler
fleet (Simulated- fleet (observed)
Subsystem)
are shown in Table 2. This Table illustrates that the
Mechanical 89.9% 92.3 % probability of drilling a shift change is quite high.
availability Whether or not drilling a shift is feasible would be a
Mean footage be­ 698 Feet 1000 Feet management decision. Drilling a complete hole is
tween failures not feasible.
Mean footage to 78.5 Feet 84 Feet
repair
Number o f Fail­ 1000 108
ures

Having developed a baseline simulation model of

the diamond drill it is now possible to assess the im­
pacts of proposed automation on the drill’s MA and
reliability. This work is presented in another paper
(Hall et al, 1999). The remainder of this paper will
look at the automation that has been implemented,
its affects on the drill, and ways to improve the
automated drill's performance.

3 AUTOMATION AND MISSION SCENARIOS

The drill has had automation added to it in the form

of an Unattended Drilling Package (UDP) and a Rod
Handler. The UDP controls the actual drilling proc­ Figure 2 Simulation model with automation included
ess including parameters such as feed rate, torque
and water pressure. The Rod Handler feeds rods, Table 2 Mission scenario probabilities for automated drill
using actuators and gripper jaws, into the drill until M ission Scenario
the core needs to be extracted. Reliability Probability Probabil- Prob-
Data was collected for drills with the two stages Scenario of drilling ity of ability of
of automation complete and failure and repair distri­ 30 Ft drilling drilling
butions were determined to incorporate into the 100 Ft 600 Ft
simulation. Figure 2 shows the Raptor™ model for Observed 94.4 85.4 49.4
the drill with the UDP and Rod Handler. Using Rap­ Simulated 93.9 83.3 40
tor™, simulations were executed and the output data Observed
was fed into the Weibull-H-^^ statistical package. Baseline Drill 91.1 75.1 22
with UDP
Probability distributions were then fitted to the Baseline Drill 87.8 60.5 2.4
simulation results in Weibull++™ with UDP
Figure 3 shows the reliability curves for the dia­ and Rod
mond drill. This Figure includes the observed reli­ Handler

710
 Diamond Drill Reliability with Automation Data
Weibull
Observed
Simulated
Observed
With
Unattended
With
Unattended &
Rodhandler
Figure 3 Reliability curves for automated drill
In addition to the effect on reliability the addition
of the UDP and Rod Handler affects the drill’s MA.
Table 3 shows the MA for the diamond drill with the
different stages of automation. This Table illustrates
what would be expected from any system when
more complexity is added - the result is a decrease
in reliability and MA.
Table 3 Mechanical availabilities for automated drill
Scenario MA%
Observed 92.3
Simulated Observed 89.9
Drill with Unattended Drilling 82.6
Package only
Drill with Unattended Drilling 78.3
package and Rod Handler
4 PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS
The results presented so far have only considered the
effects of automation on the drill’s reliability and
mechanical availability. This does not provide the
complete picture. To fully assess the impact of
automation of the diamond drill a model of the drill­
ing and production process is required. For exam­
ple, the current analysis does not account for the fact
that relevant process variables, such as bit life and
muff life, have increased, nor does it consider the
productivity of the drill.
Figure 4 shows a simulation model of the drill
with the bit life included. Experience at the mine
has revealed that bit life has increased from an aver­
age of 265 ft when manually operated to 725 ft when
automated. Discussions with personnel at the mine
revealed that the change time for a bit consisted of a
fixed time of 15 minutes and a variable time of 10
minutes/100 ft of rod to be pulled and placed. Given
that the depth of hole drilled ranges from 100 ft to
711
2200 ft, this equates to footage to repair of 11 ft and
106 ft. Since no information was available for dis­
tribution fitting, the bit life was assumed to be expo­
nential and the bit repair time was assumed uniform
based on equal probability of the drill being any­
where in the hole.
Figure 4 Diamond drill with bit life model
In addition to improvements in bit life the mine
has also noticed a significant improvement in the life
of the rotation units. It was estimated that the rota­
tion unit’s life has increased by a factor of 2.5. This
information was modelled in the simulation with the
following assumptions:
• The type of failure distribution for the rota­
tion unit remained the same.
• The mean value of the failure distribution in­
creased by a factor of 2.5.
• With the more consistent operation afforded
by the unattended drilling package the vari­
ance of the footage between failures should
decrease. For the simulation it was reduced
by a factor of 2.5.
• No changes were made in the repair time
distribution.
Table 4 shows the mechanical availabilities ob­
tained for the baseline drill with incorporation of its
bit life and for the drill after it has been automated
with a subsequent improvement in rotation unit life
and bit life. This Table clearly shows how ignoring
process parameters affects the results. From Table 3
the difference in the MA of the automated and un­
automated drill is about 10% whereas with the inclu­
sion of only two aspects of the automation’s impacts
on the process and the machine, one process variable
and one machine variable, the difference reduces to
less than 1%. Obviously, this highlights the need to
include pertinent process variables and their changes
as a result of automation to better understand the
overall impact on the mining process.
Table 4 Diamond Drill Simulation with Bit Life and rotation Table 5 Simulations for Sensitivity Analysis with factor of 1.5
unit improvement incorporated Main Power Control Rotation MA
MA% 4990.5 3820.35 2942.25 2986.5 81.7031
Scenario 4990.5 3820.35 1961.5 2986.5 81.5132
Baseline MFBF X 3327 3820.35 2942.25 2986.5 81.1971
(no improve- 2.5
4990.5 2546.9 2942.25 2986.5 81.1929
ment)______ s.d./2.5
4990.5 2546.9 1961.5 2986.5 80.9681
Observed 92.3
Simulated Observed 89.9 3327 3820.35 1961.5 2986.5 80.9398
Simulated Observed 75.0 76.8 3327 2546.9 2942.25 2986.5 80.7392
with bit life of 265 ft 3327 2546.9 1961.5 2986.5 80.4301
Unattended and Rod 78.3 80.7 4990.5 3820.35 2942.25 1991 80.9954
Handler 4990.5 3820.35 1961.5 1991 80.7539
Unattended and Rod 68.3
4990.5 2546.9 2942.25 1991 80.506
Handler with bit life of
265 3327 3820.35 2942.25 1991 80.4809
Unattended and Rod 75.9 4990.5 2546.9 1961.5 1991 80.3915
Handler with bit life of 3327 3820.35 1961.5 1991 80.2434
725 ft 3327 2546.9 2942.25 1991 80.1228
3327 2546.9 1961.5 1991 79.6766

5 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF SUBSYSTEMS

Main Power Control Rotation MA
To understand how changes in the failure character­
3327 3820.35 1961.5 1991 80.2434
istics of the subsystems would affect the drill’s MA
3327 2546.9 2942.25 1991 80.1228
a series of simulations were performed. The objec­
4990.5 2546.9 1961.5 1991 80.3915
tive was to identify where efforts should be focused
for reliability growth, and what targets these efforts 3327 2546.9 1961.5 2986.5 80.4301
should have.
It was decided to look at cases where the MFBF Table 7 Effects on MA with Increasing Rotation Unit Life
of the subsystems increased by a factor of 1.5, 2, Main Power Control Rotation MA Change
2.5, and 5. For systems with an exponential or log­ 3327 2546.9 1961.5 2986.5 80.4301 1.5
normal distribution their mean was increased by the 3327 2546.9 1961.5 3982 80.727 2
multiplier. For systems with the Weibull distribu­ 3327 2546.9 1961.5 4977.5 81.0007 2.5
tion the p parameter was increased by the multiplier. 3327 2546.9 1961.5 9955 81.4601 5
With the 4 subsystems in the drill the combinations
for one increase, say 1.5 times, equal 16 simulations.
If this were expanded to include the combinations Table 8 shows the MA obtained by varying the
amongst subsystems the number of simulations re­ three other systems with the rotation unit life fixed
quired would increase to 256. Instead of performing at 5 times it original value. For this Table it was de­
all 256 simulations, 16 simulations were executed cided that the power unit would be the next best sys­
for each of the multipliers. tem to focus on. Table 9 shows the MA obtained for
Table 5 shows the values obtained for a factor of the various scenarios of lives for the power unit.
1.5. Using all of the simulations a ranking of the ef­ From this Table it can be seen that an increase in the
fect on MA when only one subsystem was changed power unit’s life of 2 times should be selected.
was obtained and is shown in Table 6. From this Ta­ Table 10 through Table 12 show the same ap­
ble it can be seen that the changes in the rotation proach for the remaining two systems. A summary
unit life have the most impact on the drills MA. of the results is as follows,
Table 7 shows the effect on MA of increasing the • Efforts should be made to increase the rota­
rotation unit life. The information in this Table en­ tion head’s life by a factor of 5 times.
ables assessment of when the gain in MA is not • The next system to focus on is the power unit
worth the effort to attain it. For this work, since the and its life should be increased by 2 times.
rotation unit life has already increased by a factor of • The third system to focus on is the main
2.5 times it was decided to use 5 times as the opti­ frame and its life should be increased by 1.5
mum level. Having selected the rotation unit as the times.
first system to improve and having determined by • The last unit to focus on is the control unit
how much to improve it, the next step is to deter­ and its life should be increased by 2 times.
mine which system has the most effect on MA after
the rotation head.

712
Table 8 Effects on MA with Rotation Head Life at 5 Times and This Table clearly shows how ignoring process
Changes in Other systems____________________________ parameters affects the results. The difference in
Main Power Control Rotation MA the MA of the automated and un-automated drill
4990.5 2546.9 1961.5 2986.5 80.9681 is about 10%. In contrast, with the inclusion of
3327 3820.35 1961.5 2986.5 80.9398 only two aspects of the automation’s impacts on
3327 2546.9 2942.25 2986.5 80.7392 the process and the machine, bit life and rotation
unit life, the difference reduces to less than 1%.
Obviously, this highlights the need to include
Table 9 Effects on MA with 5 Times Increase in Rotation Head pertinent process variables and their changes as a
Life and Increase in Power Unit result of automation to better understand the
Main Power Control Rotation MA Change overall impact on the mining process.
3327 3820.35 1961.5 9955 81.4601 1.5 Finally, with such a discrete event simulation
3327 5093.8 1961.5 9955 82.3255 2 available, it is fairly straightforward to perform a
3327 6367.25 1961.5 9955 82.6186 2.5 sensitivity analysis to identify where efforts
3327 12734.5 1961.5 9955 82.7185 5 should be focused for reliability growth, and
what targets those efforts should have.
Table 10 Effects on MA With Rotation and Power unit Con-
stant and Other Systems Varied_______________________
Main Power Control Rotation MA
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
3327 3820.35 1961.5 9955 81.4601
4990.5 3820.35 1961.5 9955 82.4493 The authors wish to acknowledge the support and
3327 3820.35 2942.25 9955 82.2307 funding of Mines Research, INCO Ltd., for this re­
search. In particular, we would like to thank Dr.
Greg Baiden, Mr. Tom Flynn, and Mr. Eric Loney at
Mines Research. Support of this work by the Natural
Main Power Control Rotation MA Change Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Can­
3327 5093.8 1961.5 9955 82.3255 1 ada (NSERC) is also acknowledged, in the form of a
4990.5 5093.8 1961.5 9955 82.8739 1.5 Research Grant to Dr. Daneshmend, and a doctoral
6654 5093.8 1961.5 9955 83.1854 2 scholarship to Dr. Hall.
8317.5 5093.8 1961.5 9955 83.3527 2.5
16635 5093.8 1961.5 9955 83.754 5
REFERENCES
Table 12 Effects on MA with Changing Control Unit Life BS 4778, 1979, Glossary of Terms Used in Qualib^ Assurance
Main Power Control Rotation MA Change (Includes Reliability and Maintainability), British Standards
4990.5 5093.8 1961.5 9955 82.8739 1 Institution, London.
4990.5 5093.8 2942.25 9955 83.3007 1.5 Kececioglu, D 1991. Reliability Engineering Handbook Vol­
4990.5 5093.8 3923 9955 83.62289 2 ume 1. Prentice Hall,.
O' Connor, P.D.T 1985. Practical Reliability Engineering,
4990.5 5093.8 4903.75 9955 83.8156 2.5 ed. John Wiley and Sons, West Sussex, England.
4990.5 5093.8 9807.5 9955 84.1724 5 Hall, R.A., Daneshmend, L.K., Baiden, G., Flynn, T., Loney
E., (1999) Investigation of Equipment Automation Using
Maintenance Data Analysis, Reliability Modelling and
6 CONCLUSIONS Simulation 5^* ISMMA and Telemin I Conference, Sudbury
Ontario, 14-16 1999.
• Through incorporation of the failure and repair
distribution data into a discrete event simulation
it is possible to assess the effects of changes to
the drill design, or to the maintenance process, in
terms of mechanical availability and to estimate
the probability of achieving specified missions.
• Comparison of the simulated distribution with
the original data revealed that the simulation
provided a conservative estimate.
• The importance of looking at the whole process
when considering design changes has been quan­
titatively illustrated and simulation has been
shown to be a valuable mechanism for ascertain­
ing proposed and actual changes to the drill.

713
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

I-SiT E - Laser scanning revolutionises site survey

I.K.Kapageridis
MaptekIKRJA Systems Limited, Nottingham, UK

ABSTRACT: MAPTEK's revolutionary I-SiTE 3D Laser Imaging System, presented in this paper, is a new
means of collecting 3D information quickly and directly from any large scale environment. The system
records accurately the location of features and surfaces in areas such as urban and industrial settings and mine
sites, both surface and underground. Points sampled from the scene are used to build a data set which is a
complete 3D rendering of the scene. By interactively viewing the data using the built-in software, it is
possible to see the scene in ways that would not usually be possible. While laser scanning systems have been
available for some time for small scale engineering tasks, their use in larger scale environments is not
widespread.

1 INTRODUCTION scanner from the surface and detected. The time

taken between the emission of the pulse and its
Maptek began work on 3D laser imaging in a detection is used to calculate the range. The amount
Strategic Alliance with the Defence Science and of energy reflected depends on the characteristics of
Technology Organisation in Adelaide, Australia. the surface, such as colour and roughness. The
VULCAN’S 3D capability was crucial in the amplitude of the returned pulse is recorded, giving
decision to build a high performance laser scanner an intensity or brightness value. No reflectors or
for defence purposes - a project still under other infrastructure in the scene are required.
development.
The I-SiTE System is a spin-off from that work.
It is an eye-safe, robust and easy-to-use package for
mining and other commercial applications. The
software developed to handle the massive cloud of
data points is the culmination of three years of
intensive R&D effort.

2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

The I-SiTE System is a combined hardware and

software package. The hardware includes a laser
scanning device, a laptop computer with which to
control the device and support data acquisition and a
3D workstation (Fig. 1). Combined with MAPTEK’s
VULCAN 3D software, the graphics environment
represents the ultimate desktop system for post
processing, data management and manipulation.
The laser scanning device is a pulsed laser range
finder and a mechanical scanning system, able to
measure a set of 3D points in any scene.
The laser range finder emits a laser pulse,
illuminating the point on the surface to be measured.
A portion of the pulse energy is returned to the
Figure 1. Parts o f the I-SiTE 3D laser imaging system used in
the field - the laser scanner (left) and a laptop (right).
The laser source and the detector are both solid
state devices. The laser operates in the near infrared
region at 0.9 pm. The imaging system is a Class 1
Laser product and thus eye safe. Depending on
ambient lighting, the scan range is up 350 m - the
minimum range is 2 m. Measurements are accurate
to 2.5 cm over the entire range. The beam width of

715
the range finder is 0.17 degree, or 30 cm at a
distance of 100 m, allowing even small features to
be captured in coarser scans.
A rotating polygonal mirror directs the beam in a
vertical direction (fast scan), while the entire head
rotates to move the beam in a horizontal direction
(slow scan). Angle encoders record the orientation
of the mirror and head for each range measurement,
creating a raster pattern of range and intensity values
with each point uniquely positioned in 3D. The
vertical range is 80 degrees centered on the
horizontal and the horizontal scan covers 340
degrees (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. Acquisition of 3D points from a slope at varying
horizontal and vertical angles using the laser scanner of the I-
SiTE system.
With the laser capable of pulsing at up to 20 kHz,
point data can be acquired at up to 6000
measurements per second. Data can be acquired at
various angle resolutions, from very fine spacing to
coarser measurements. A small angle increment
results in more points being acquired in a given
angular extent.
The entire laser scanning device with the range
finder, scanning mechanism and associated
processing electronics fits into a cylindrical package
with a diameter of 21 cm, hei^it of 44 cm and
weighing 13.5 kg.
The laser scanning device is controlled frilly via a
laptop PC connected to the device through serial and
parallel cables. The operator sets the scanner
parameters and downloads the data onto the PC in
real time. The data acquisition process can be
monitored on the screen in 3D.
3 OPERATION
The system can be set up in the field by a single
person (Fig. 3). The laser scanner is mounted on a
standard surveyor's tripod and connected to the
716
laptop computer. It requires a 12 V DC power
supply - connected either to a supplied 12 V lead
acid rechargable battery or to the batteiy of a car via
a cigarette lighter adapter. The laptop computer
relies on its internal battery supply.
Figure 3. Setting up o f the I-SiTE system is easy under any
conditions.
The operator can select the angles of the scan or
use the system defaults. The left and right angle
extents of the horizontal scan and the top and bottom
of the vertical scan are shown on the screen. For
example, where the angle extents are 80 degrees
vertically and 180 degrees horizontally, at a coarse
angle resolution of say 0.43 degrees (equating to a
point separation of 75 cm at a distance of 100 m),
about 75 000 points would be measured in around 15
seconds. If the resolution was increased to 0.1
degrees ( approximately 19 cm at 100 m), about 1
200 000 points would be collected in less than 4
minutes. The system acquires data quickly and
easily.
The data is immediately viewable in 3D using the
I-SiTE software. It can be interactively viewed from
any location, including from the point of view of the
scanner. Any point can be queried for its distance
from the scanner; distances between pairs of points
can be measured. The 3D view enables the operator
to quickly evaluate the quality of the data and if
necessary change the parameter settings and make
further measurements. It also highlights missing
areas of the scene. Since the scanner can only
measure what is directly in its line of sight, occluded
parts of the surface can be captured by moving the
scanner to a more optimal position or merging data
from several locations.
Each point in the data set is coloured according to
the reflected intensity. Looking at the data from the
point of view of the scanner is equivalent to looking
at a monochrome photograph of the scene (Fig. 4).
The data can be coloured by mapping various colour
ranges to intensity values, thus highlighting small
intensity variations in the data.
Figure 4. Perspective view o f an I-SiTE scan from a m ine’s
surface infrastructure.
If the location of the scanner in the scene is
known, the data can be positioned relative to that
point. Thus every point will have an absolute
location in the measured coordinate system. While it
is not necessary to have reflectors in the scene to
acquire data, they can be useful to assist in merging
scans. Reflectors show up as bright points in the
data.
Because initially each point is measured relative
to the scanner position, by selecting identifiable
points common to a pair of scans, or nominating
known location points, the operator can merge all
the data into a common coordinate system. This
process means the scanning device does not have to
be levelled for use. In fact it can be tilted to ensure
parts of the scene are visible for scanning.
Figure 5. Laser scan o f Sydney’s opera house coloured by
point distance from the laser scanner.
717
Once the data has been collected in the field, it
can be transferred to the more powerful 3D graphics
workstation for further processing and development
and integration with existing spatial data.
4 DATA MANIPULATION
While some of the data manipulation can be done in
the field, the ideal environment is Maptek’s
VULCAN 3D software on the graphics workstation.
Within VULCAN, the points can be edited and
filtered to remove extraneous data. Using
VULCAN'S modelling options, data can be
triangulated to create surfaces, which are used to
built up more comprehensive models. Because the
data is recorded in the correct spatial location, it can
be compared to related data, such as GIS or CAD
models.
5 APPLICATIONS AND BENEFITS
Applications for the I-SiTE include:
• face survey of mines and quarries for
structural and geotechnical analysis
• measurement of tailings and waste dumps
• slope stability and cavity monitoring
• stockpile and dump monitoring
• volumetric measurements (planned versus
achieved)
• site analysis, as-planned versus as-built sites,
plants and machines
• spatial equipment monitoring, change
detection and bucket positioning
• accurate mapping of dangerous and imstable
slopes
• civil engineering works
• rail, road and infrastructure mapping and
modelling
• industrial infrastructure modelling - as-built
versus as-planned geometry
• urban planning and mapping of buildings
(Fig. 5)
The system is ideal for hazardous environments
where it would be otherwise impossible to make
measurements, such as unstable rock faces, or in
areas where access is unavailable.
The rapid acquisition of data makes it useful in
applications where the environment is changing,
such as in stockpile management. Time is not wasted
in post processing becuase of the immediate
availability of the data. The speed of the system also
means more accurate data can be obtained in a given
time.
In construction areas, immediate access to 3D
data in a common coordinate system makes it a
simple task to compare as-built scenes to existing
designs. Features that may not have been measured
in a manual survey will also be captured.
Unlike photogrammetric techniques I-SiTE
provides direct measurement and does not rely on
the location of specific features in the scene to match
image pairs.
The association of intensity data with each point
adds additional information. For example in mining
applications, while the location of the rock is
important it is also usefiil to be able to locate
different rock types, if they are visually distinct.
6 CASE STUDY-SHAMVA GOLD MINE
Shamva Gold Mine in Zimbabwe was the focus for
the most challenging survey yet undertaken using
the I-SiTE 3D Laser Imaging System (Gribble and
McCallum 1999).
Underground production is only the most recent
phase of mining at Shamva; its known history dates
back more than 100 years. Between 1910 and 1930,
a steep sided subvertical excavation was created
using underhand stoping methods. It reached some
170m in depth, and now breaks into the existing
underground workings. The final excavation
comprises an elongate slot of some 700m in length
and runs 120m across at its widest point.
This is one of the largest open stopes in the
world. Such is the size of the excavation, it is said
that some local people do not believe it could have
been created by men! Records show, however, that
the mine milled some 8.5 Mt of ore producing 43
350 kg of gold during its 20 years of production.
VULCAN is used at Shamva for modelling and
mine plaiming of the current underground operation.
An active exploration program is now being
undertaken to identify the full potential of the mine
area. The main requirement was to model the
excavation to give accurate tonnages of the
remaining hill for resource and reserve estimations.
The I-SiTE survey represents a key part of this
procedure (McCallum 1999).
6.1 Preparation & Reconnaissance
Thorough preparation is vital for a project of this
magnitude. Because of the known difficulty of
gaining access to vantage points for the I-SiTE laser
scanning, significant time was spent in
reconnaissance and planning. This included walking
all accessible areas of the pits, locating and
establishing access to old adits, and entry to the
underground workings which potrholed into the
large open stopes.
Sites were chosen for the laser scans, and also for
the registration markers. Registrations markers were
used for this project so that in each scanned ‘scene’
718
known points could be located and transformed to
real world co-ordinates.
Experimentation showed that 5.5 cm balls coated
with reflective tape worked best as they were
symmetrical, easy to place and could be detected at
ranges up to 265 m. About 150 balls were deployed,
and surveyed by total station to give real world co­
ordinates - a time consuming part of the program.
6.2 Laser Scanning
Scanning and processing were divided into areas
based on access and natural division (Fig. 6). For
each of the 95 scans a systematic methodology
ensured that reflectors could be identified in each
scene, their scanned co-ordinates documented, and
the image verified before moving the the next
location. Dense levels of scanned data were
acquired, as excess data could be filtered out during
processing, rather than having to go back and repeat
the scanning process.
Figure 6. Main scanning areas o f the Shamva gold mine.
6.3 Processing
Processing the scanned data was divided into
transformation and model generation.
Transformation was achieved using a three-point
algorithm, in two phases. Firstly the reflectors only
were transformed for the scenes to be combined.
After checking for accuracy, the actual scanned data
was transformed.
In order to generate models, the transformed data
was first loaded into a sample database where it
could be displayed using appropriate colour
schemes, for validation and filtering to remove
excess data. Actually building the models had to
overcome two problems - the large number of trees
in the pit and producing a model of ‘manageable’
size for the graphics capabilities of the computers
from the huge amount of scanned data.
6.4 Modelling
Contours of the pit shapes were digitised at vertical
intervals using a viewing plane which showed data
above and below the level of interest. By this
method, trees could be eliminated, and any obscured
areas readily interpreted.
utilisation of both equipment and ore resources can
increase, and human safety can be greatly improved.
I-SiTE delivers dynamic data capture and
visualisation to instantly build 3D models with
accurate coordinate placement and analysis. This
technology offers significant benefits in a wide
range of mining, civil and defence applications.

REFERENCES

Gribble, P. & McCallum, K. 1999. Shamva I-SiTE - the

clifflianger experience. In V U LCA N Forge, N o. 3, 1999.
Adelaide: Maptek Pty Ltd.
McCallum, K. 1999. I-SiTE Laser Imaging Survey at Shamva
M ine, Zimbabwe. In Proceedings o f the V U LCA N
Regional Conference. Nice: Maptek/KRJA Systems Ltd.

Figure 7. Photograph (top) and m odel in VULCAN (bottom) o f

a slope. The amount o f detail in the model is immense.

The resultant contours were then adjusted to fit

the existing surface topography, and triangulated.
The models can be easily handled on a PC (Fig. 7),
and of course the original dense data is still available
in VULCAN format for detailed studies.
The final models were combined with models of
existing underground excavations, and could be used
to constrain the block models in the resource
estimation process, together with accurate stope
outlines on the survey plans in areas where
‘unknown’ would more likely have been written
only a few weeks previously.

7 CONCLUSIONS

The I-SiTE 3D Laser Imaging System provides real­

time, fully coordinated spatial data. The precision
and accuracy which is achieved leads into the
automation of the targeted process (e.g. mining),
with all the efficiencies that mechanical
manufacturing operations enjoy. Costs can fall.

719
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The com bined pow er is the technology o f the 21 st century

O.V.Kolokolov & N.M.Tabachenko

National Mining University o f Ukraine, Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine

ABSTRACT; The combined principle of (co-generation) provides a joint generation of electrical, mechanical
and heat energy on the basis of the gas from them the hole underground gasification of coal seams and
accumulation systems with the intermediate liquid and solid heat-transfer agents.

Nowadays great attention is paid to then processes of system of power generation. The residual heat of the
co-generation which provide combined (joint) leaving gases is reutilized in two heat accumulators:
generation of electrical, mechanical and heat energy both in an independent peaking circuit for power
from one source of fuel (for example, coal, fuel oil, generation and in an underground accumulator for
natural gas, etc.) and to the creation of then systems heat utilization for the needs of heat supply.
of energy accumulation on their basis. We propose to The steam-generators built-in into the SPYu
use artificial generator gas, which is formed during holes, utilize the heat of the leaving gases, and the
the process of underground gasification of brown and steam, formed there, is directed into steam-water
black coal seams, as one of these teat-transfer agents cycle of the combined electric power station and,
[1], Fundamentally new, economically efficient partially, into an underground accumulator. 30 % of
combined technological system, which includes the fuel is saved during the process in comparison with
usage of free-piston units and accumulator of heat power generation at the heat power station.
energy, is designed on its basis, as common heat-
transfer agent, at the National Mining University of
Ukraine (Figure 1). The system is wasteless and its
usage will provide both maximal usage of raw
materials, fuel and minimal ejection info the
environment.
Co-generation production consists of three
technological cycles for energy generation. These
cycles complement each other and promote full
usage of power resources. Energy-biological cycle
operates on the hear of the wastewaters from the
combined gas-steam-turbine electric power station.
The initial heat-transfer agent (gas SPYu) in the
combined power system can be generated by the
geotechnological method of the exploitation of coal
deposits, by whole underground gasification (Figure
2). The essence of the SPYu is in the drilling of holes
(inclined or vertical-horizontal), in the lighting of a
coal seam, and in the generating of artificial
generator gas. Figure 1. Diagram of the combined gas-steam-
The group of free-piston units uses the SPYu gas turbine power system of the basis of the SPYu and
to generate power energy (or heat energy). The gases the accumulation systems: a - steam-turbine
from the units enter the waste-heat boilers for steam installation; b - independent peaking circuit; v -
generation. This steam is meant for the steam-water underground accumulator of the heat power: 1 -

721
electric generators; 2 - group of free-piston units; 3 -
SPYu gas; 4 - waste-heat boiler; 5 - steam super
heater; 6 - evaporator; 7 - economizer; 8 - escape of
the gases into the heat accumulators; 9 - coil of the
evaporator of the underpressure of the waste- heat
boiler; 10 - section of high pressure of the waste-heat
boiler; 11 - heat-transfer agent from the coil 9 and
section 10; 12 - heat-transfer agent to the coil 9 and
section 10; 13 - deaerator (reservoir of the feed
water); 14 - steam from the hole steam-generator; 15
- steam-turbine group; 16 - condenser; 17'(17") -
heat exchangers of the intermediate heat-transfer
agent; 19 - heat accumulator; 20 - the peaking two-
cascade turbine; 21 - circulating pump; 22 - inlet of
the heat-transfer agent (gases from economizer and
steam from hole steam-generator); 23 - thermal
insulation; 24 - exit (outlet) of the heat-transfer
agent; 25 - solid accumulating material; 26 -
horizontal heat channels.
Modem highly productive free-piston units are
produced in Ukraine and have the following
advantages in comparison with obsolete technical
equipment [2]:
- absence of crank mechanism and the means
of valve distribution;
Figure 2. Principal scheme of borehole
underground gasification of coal seams.
- availability of variable automation,
regulating the compression ration;
- availability to burn any gaseous and liquid
fuel;
- 2-2,5 times less in specific mass (don't need
powerful base) and 4-5 times more in
service life.
Exhausted gases from free-piston units enter the
waste boiler (picture la) where the water and the
steam are heated up to the temperature of 300-400 K.
Hot exhausted gases of free-piston units from the
utilization boilers and steam-turbine group are used
722
for the additional power generation. This
combination provides high efficiency, about 50 %.
Past of the heat power, which is contained in gases,
is extracted in the boiler and is passed into the
steam-water cycle before the gases are released into
the heat accumulators.
The waste-heat boiler consists of there heat
exchange sections. The water of high pressure
(figure 1 with black arrow) enters the economizer
through the warm end of the boiler, where it is
heated up to the temperature of saturation and then
it is transformed into the steam in the coil of the
evaporator. Then the saturated steam is heated in the
super-heater and enters the steam-turbine group. It
is expanded in the blade rows and the heat energy is
transformed into mechanical one. The steam
turbines are connected with generators which
generate electric current.
The waste steam from the steam turbines enters
the condenser, where it is transformed into the water
by the removal of the latent heat through the
cooling system. The condensate is directed into the
deaerator of the feed water, where it is cleaned from
gases CO2, O2 with the help of the steam heating
from the waste-heat boiler. The deaerator also
receives the volume oscillations of the steam-water
cycle. The water leaves the deaerator through the
feed pumps which feed the water into the waste-
heat boiler under the pressure.
The residual heat of the leaving gases is
reutilized in the accumulator of the independent
peaking cireuit for power generation of two-cascade
turbine and in an underground accumulator (figure
1).
Accumulators are the units, providing the
reversible processes of accumulation, storage and
generation of heat energy in accordance with the
requirements of the customer. The heat
accumulation takes place under the change of
physical properties of the heat accumulating
material. The following processes take place,
depending upon technical realization:
- direct heat accumulation, when the
transformed material is the heat-transfer
agent at the same time;
- indirect accumulation under the different
heat accumulating and heat transferring
media;
- different kinds of symbiosis of the
mentioned processes.
The system of heat accumulation with the
intermediate heat-transfer agent (for example,
technical oil) gives the possibility to increase the
power of the combined power station by 60 % at the
peaking operation. The peaking circuit, using only
the energy of heat accumulator, is meant for this
purpose.
The charge of the heat accumulator of the
peaking circuit is made with the help of the waste
gases from-free-piston units. The heating gases from
the waste-heat boiler are directed into the charge heat
exchanger 17 (figure 1), and they heat the oil in the
heat accumulator 19. Under the discharge of the heat
accumulator the hot oil is used to generate the steam
in the heat exchanger 17" of the peaking circuit.
Electric power is generated by the two-cascade
turbine 20. The accumulation system of the heat
energy gives the possibility for the power station to
work in the peaking operation during 3-5 hours.
The heat accumulator, charged during the period
of minimal demand in energy and discharged during
maximal one, provides operation of the greater part
of the equipment of the power station at the base load
operation, and that raises its reliability and efficiency
significantly.
An underground accumulator of heat energy is
an independent circuit with the hard immovable
accumulating matrix. Different materials can be used
as the heat accumulating matrix; crushed rock,
chamotte, pig iron, magnesite, graphite, sand, etc.
There underground accumulators of heat energy are
designed with the minimal pressure loss and that
gives the possibility to use the principle of the free-
convection transfer.
Under the charge, the hot gase and steam (water)
are fed into the underground accumulator of heat
energy and heat the accumulating material.
Accumulators, as a rule, are used to accumulate the
heat. The seasonal discharge of an underground
accumulator of heat energy (for example, in winter)
is for the needs of the heat supply. Such system of
energy co-generation decreases the cost of the
supplied power and heat energy in a number of
factors. Those are the following factors;
- decrease in capital outlays in the result of
the refusal from the building of the special
traditional peaking power units;
- increase in the charging of the equipment;
- generation of power and heat energy from
the cheaper fuel with more efficiency;
- refusal from the traditional kinds of fuel
(coal, natural gas, fuel oil, ets.) due to the
manoeuvrable peaking circuits.
Underground gasification of coal is considered
one of the energy generation sources, as notall
sensible heat of the waste gases is transformed in the
hole steam-generators. The significant potential of
heat energy (300-600 ^C) can be transformed on the
surface in the special modem heat-utilizers on the
heat pipes. This gives the possibility to separate the
723
zones of the exchanging media, to improve the
operating characteristics, as the cleaning of the
exchange surfaces is not difficult, and that is
important during the pass of the uncleaned gas
SPYu. The constmction of the heat exchanger
foresees the possibility of the independent operation
of each element and provides the reliable operation
in the corrosive media, as the breakdown of the
thermosiphones practically doesn't influence the
efficiency of the whole apparatus.
A powerful heat boiler is formed in the circuit
of the degassed underground space after finishing of
the process of coal gasification. After gasification
high potential (800-100 ^C) of heat energy is
formed in the gob hot rocks, and that energy is lost
irretrievably. Therefore, the accumulation of the
heat energy is provided in the hot gob rocks on the
basis of SPYu in co-generation power system by
injecting the heat-transfer agents into the holes
removed from operation (former exploited ones).
The cold heat-transfer agent (air, water, inert
gas, ets.), which passes through the gob hot rocks, is
heated (water transforms into steam) and is
accumulated in the space of the former underground
gas generator. The injection and evacuation holes
can be made tight concurrently, and the heat will be
preserved for a long time and will be used
repeatedly (seasonally).
It that way, the heat energy accumulated in an
underground gas generator, which served its term,
predetermines both high intensiveness of the usage
of the lost heat in the depths of the earth for a long
period of time (10-12 years) and low operating costs
for heat regeneration.
Under the work of a combined power system
the significant part of heat energy is transferred with
water into the environment. The main reason,
restraining the usage of the heat wastes at the
existing power stations is their relatively low
temperature potential (16-21 in winter and 25-45
in summer). The pond-cooler with the area of the
water table of 400-700 hectares is necessary for the
cooling of the waste heat waters of the power
installations with the power of 0,5-1 min kwt; with
that the amount of the evaporating water is 20-25
min m^ a year. Deficit of water and land resources
forces to look for the alternative ways for the
cooling of the circulating waters and utilization of
the waste heat.
In our opinion, the significant economic effect
can be obtained while using the heat of the
wastewaters of the combined power station in the
power-biological complex. The following structural
elements can be included into the structure of the
power-biological complex; the unit of the open
heating of the ground; fishery unit; the unit of the
microbiological processing, utilization of wastes and
biological reclamation of pond-coolers.
The unit of the open heating of the ground
includes the heat-hydro-reclamation system-subsoil
water-cooling tower. It consists of multi-row
polyethylene pipelines, placed into the ground, and a
pumping plant, feeding warm wastewater into the
system. Favourable conditions are created here to
develop the root system, and the cooling of water by
10-13 takes place concurrently. At the expense of
the ground heating it is possible to:
- get no less than two crops of agricultural
ecologically clean products a year;
- reduce the water consumption for technical
needs (at the expense of the decrease in
evaporation or elimination of that);
- improve ecological indices of the
installation and ecological situation in the
region;
- use the waste warm waters in the traditional
methods of vegetable growing. It is known
from foreign experience that in the areas
with the subsoil water-cooling towers the
crop capacity of the corn for the green mass
can be increased by 54 %, tomatoes - by 29
%, cucumbers - by 97 %, potatoes - by 64
%.
The fishery unit consists of the full-system-
industrial plant with the fishing-crib facilities. It is
possible to grow the delicatessen fishes in the fishery
unit: sturgeon, salmons, Japanese carps "Coia",
Russian golden crucians, etc.
The unit of the microbiological processing,
utilization of the wastes and biological reclamation is
meant for the wastes of the fish farming and plant­
growing. The processing consists of the fermentation
in the methane tanks, and, as a result, the biogas-
methane is formed. It serves as the initial product to
obtain the protein of the microbiological origin. The
protein can be used as an addition for the feed of the
fishes and agricultural animals. The fermented mass
is a stabilized and ecologically clean organic
fertilizer for the greenhouses and open ground.
The unit of the biological reclamation of the
pond-cooler serves for the installation of the plant
eating and detritus eating fishes into it, and that
provides an increase in the productivity up to 3-6
centner/hectare. For the localization and utilization of
the organic discharge the purification system can be
used. This system includes fish filters, animal
plankton and floating vegetation installations, where
the plants are cultivated. Besides, the bioplatean is
created for the removal of the organic substances
along the coastline. As a result, the sanitary condition
724
of the pond-cooler is improved and the operation
efficiency of the co-generation power station is
increased.
In the power-biological-complex the wastes of
one unit serve as the raw material for another, and,
as a result, the varied production becomes low
waste one (and in the ideal case-wasteless), which
operates according to the common, resources-saving
and ecologically and ecologically clean technology.
The following productions can be included into the
power-biological complex:
- winter and film greenhouses;
- mushrooms growing;
- warehouses for the storage of vegetables;
and fish production;
- shops for the processing of the agricultural
wastes, ets. The period for the payback of
the power-biological complex is 4-5 years.
Co-generation system for the production of the
heat-transfer agents on the basis of the SPYu,
accumulation system, and power-biological
processing have the following advantages.
Application of the common source increases the
efficiency in the generation of power resources;
provides the continuity, low operationality, the
saving of the material, power, and labour resources;
improves ecological condition in the region. The
steam is the derivative of the primary power-
transfer agent. It is more suitable for the heating;
has high heat transfer capability, temperature
constancy during condensation, great amount of
latent heat in the steam formation, low cost, and is
comfortable for transportation along the pipelines
without pumping devices.
High temperature accumulators of power,
which have relatively low temperature of melting
and high boiling point (about several hundreds of
degrees), are used as intermediate heat-transfer
agents. They are the following: mineral oils, silicon-
organic compounds, melted metals, and salts. These
heat-transfer agents give the possibility to work
under the atmospheric pressure.
The following secondary power resources are
widely used in the combined power system:
- chemical energy of the generator gas;
- its sensible heat in the hole steam-
generators and thermosiphon heat exchangers;
- the waste and secondary steams;
- hot water in the accumulators;
- heat from the cooling devices in the
power-biological complex.
Under the co-generation system the
consumption of coal is decreased at the expense of
its complete burn-out in the SPYu process, and the
amount of the oxides of carbon, sulphur, mitrogen.
and soot, ash, slag, ejected into the environment, is REFERENCES
decreased in comparison with the traditional fuel and
energy complexes. With that, the damage to the 1. The theory and practice of thermochemical
environment (areas under the dumps of the mines, technology of extracting and processing coal. Under
opencast collieries, dressing plants, power stations) prof O.V.Kolokolov reduction. - Dniepropetrovsk,
and transportation are significantly decreased. the National Mining University of Ukraine. - 2000.
Introduction of the waste-heat boilers and heat - P. 281.
exchangers in the heat pipes (double-phase 2. Kolokolov O.V., Khesin A.Ya. The
transformers), as the surfaces for the heating, is one application of the free-piston units is the effective
of the most prospective trends in the perfection of the trend in the development of resource-saving
power systems. This is stipulated by: technologies / M: MMSU, Mining, inf - analgt.
- high efficiency of the heatexchange Bulletin. - 1997, JV2 3. - p. 103-106.
processes in them;
- possibility of deep utilization of the leaving
gases;
- small mass and clearance;
- simplicity of theconstruction and
technology of production;
comfort in operation.
The mentioned advantages of the utilization
installations in the heat pipes predetermine the
possibility and expediency not only for the
replacement or common economizers, but their
installation on the exit gas conduits of the boilers
with low power (for example, industrial and heating
boiler-room).
It gas-generator installation for gas generation,
working in the complex with free-piston units, could
be reequipped with the waste-heat boilers, steam
turbines with electrical generators and accumulators
of energy, then 28,2 mvt of electric energy would be
additionally obtained only at one hole gas generator.
And the period of the payback is 3-3,5 years. This
will provide the best usage of coal energy while
receiving the generator gas by the SPYu method.
Introduction of the free-piston units, which are
generator gas fired and are used in the systems of
accumulation with power-biological complexes,
corresponds the strategic trends in the development
of fuel and energy complex in Ukraine, as there are
no plants in Ukraine to manufacture the boiler-
rooms' equipment for the common power stations/
The creation of the network of small and middle in
power co-generation power systems on the basis of
the hole underground gasification of coal is a
prospective way to solve economic and ecological
problems.
Nowadays, the preparation for the designing of
the technical and economic production of the
power-transfer agents on the basis of the hole
underground gasification of coal, together with one
of the Japanese firms, is carried out.

725
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Truck driver assisting devices to increase safety and productivity

V. A. Kononov
CSIR Division o f Mining Technology, Johannesburg, South Africa

ABSTRACT; The monotonous heavy duty trucks driver working conditions at open mines could lead to a
situation where the driver relaxes and falls asleep. In order to prevent such accidents a Sleep Detector that activates
an alarm when the truck driver falls asleep has been developed. The detector monitors the driver’s eye status using
an infrared scanner.
Very often these trucks use a dual source of energy: a Diesel to drive in the loading area and an overhead
electrical power line for the load haulage. The steering of the truck under the line should be performed fairly
accurately otherwise the pantograph could be damaged. A Steering Monitor provides the driver with information
on the true position of the truck under the line and warns him when the truck goes out of alignment. The monitor
uses the magnetic field created by the load current in the overhead line to determine the truck’s orientation. The
use of the monitor increases electrical line availability time and provides a significant saving on diesel fuel.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. SLEEP DETECTOR

Heavy duty trucks operate at opencast mines to
transport minerals from the bottom of the pit to the
surface. The working environment of truck drivers
could be described as a strict sequence of monotonous
operations in the same noisy and dusty environment,
and unchanging landscape. Such a monotonous job,
together with a low speed and a relatively passive role
required of the driver in the process, could easily
distract a driver and finally lead to a situation where
the driver relaxes and falls asleep. Should the driver
lose control of the truck, a severe accident could occur.
In order to prevent this potentially dangerous
situation from occurring, a decision has been taken to
develop a “Sleep detector” which is able to monitor
the physiological status of the driver and detect the
moment when he loses control.
When dual power trucks carry a load using
electrical power, it is important to keep a truck directly
under the overhead power line to avoid damage to the
pantograph, particularly during night shifts. A device
which assists a driver to steer a truck under the line
and warn him when the truck is out of alignment could
also play a role of a back-up sleep detector.
The introduction of these devices to the
mining operation increases mine safety and
productivity.
It was proposed that direct optical monitoring of a
driver's eye status (open/closed) should be used to
detect the moment when a driver's eyes remain closed
beyond a specific period of time and he loses control
of his truck. It makes no difference whether the driver
closes his eyes deliberately or has fallen asleep, or is
unconscious.
2.1 Optical scanner and infrared characteristics
The optical scanner is based on the premise
that different levels of Infrared (IR) light are reflected
by the eye’s pupil and the skin. The pupil acts as a
"black body" and almost fully absorbs incident IR
lights whereas skin reflects it. The sensor comprises of
an array of low power IR LEDs which scan the drivers'
eye and a photoreceiver which detects the level of
reflected light.
Only one IR LED emits at a time, illuminating
a spot of about 6-7 mm in diameter. During a full
cycle, all areas of an eye will be illuminated or
scanned. At any moment, one of the LEDs will
illuminate the pupil and the reflected amount of energy
from this area will be lower than from other areas.
In order to prove the concept, the main optical
parameters associated with human skin, the eye pupil
and the optical scanner were determined. Information
on IR radiation absorption by different types of skin
was presented in Clark & Edholm (1985).
About 40 representatives from different

727
population groups were tested in order to obtain a
coefficient of IR light reflection from human skin. The
obtained results demonstrated that at a wavelength of
0,95 pm, all types of skin reflects about 40-45 % of
incident light with no practical difference between skin
colours. These results confirmed that only the infrared
spectrum could be used for the sensor, as it excludes
the influence of skin colour in the detector operation.
Depending on eye colour and the presence of
contact lenses, the difference between skin and pupil
reflection was between 6 dB and 13 dB for a 6 mm IR
beam.
As it is impracticable to position the IR scanner
just in front of an eye, a special optical splitter which
reflects IR light and is transparent in a visual spectrum
is positioned in front of the driver's eye (Figure 1).
IR Scanner
Light adaptive
coating
IR reflective coating
Transparent lense
Figure 1 Optical arrangement
IR light from the scanner reflects from the IR
reflective surface of the lens and incidents on the
driver’s eye. This light partly reflects back and its level
is detected by photodiodes. When the driver's eye is
open, a low level of reflected energy should be
detected in the pupil area, but, when the driver closes
his eye, a higher level of reflected IR energy should be
detected by a receiver from the same area.
The special coating of the inner surface of the
lens provides about 85 % reflection of IR light and is
90 % transparent in the visibility range. This means
that the driver can see clearly through the lens when IR
light from the scanner, and the reflected portion from
an eye, is reflected back to the scanner.
At a high level of background illumination, for
example bright sunlight, the eye’s pupil reduces its
diameter from about 5 mm to 2 mm. This means that
the total pupil surface area reduces by six, which in
turns reduces the difference in IR reflected signals
from the skin and the pupil. It was, therefore, decided
to coat the external side of the lens with a light
adaptive coating to provide a sunglass effect and, thus,
the eye’s pupil size variation should be reduced. Such
a design of the optical splitter also facilitates the
device's acceptance, as it makes the driver’s working
728
conditions more comfortable during sunny days.
2.2 Eye - safety considerations
The eye media are fairly transparent to IR radiation.
Comparison of the density of IR radiation flux incident
into a human eye during a sunny day with the radiation
flux density from the scanner has been made.
A typical solar spectrum radiation gives a flux
of 900 W/m^ in all atmospheric windows (Hudson
1969). About 35 % of this radiation lies in the IR
spectriun. Taking into account an average albedo, the
IR radiation flux density, or an eye IR density load in
a sunny day, is about 0,2 mW/mm^.
The peak current through the scanner’s IR
LEDs is 28 mA which gives an IR radiation power of
4 mW per diode. As the scanner provides a practically
parallel light beam at a distance of 60 mm, assumed
that all this power is spread over 26 mm^ of the light
sport, the IR flux density from the scanner is 0,14
mW/mm^. During the scanning cycle only one beam
falls on the pupil area or on any other part of the eye’s
surface; therefore, a duty cycle of 11 should be
applied. Thus, the scanner’s radiation flux density is
0,013 mW/mm^. Due to the ability of the lenses also to
reflect 85 % of the outside IR sun radiation, the
resulting IR eye load will be reduced even further
when using the device than when not using it.
2.3 Design o f the sleep detector
The IR scanner scans the eye with IR beams, receiving
a reflected portion of the IR light. The scanner itself is
the most complicated part of the device. In order to
obtain parallel scanning beams of modulated IR light
with a diameter of about 5-6 mm at a distance of 50
mm, a panel of integrated lenses was developed. The
panel consists of 11 individual lenses positioned in
front of each IR LED which provides the required IR
scanning beam parameters. In addition to the IR LEDs,
four red LEDs are positioned in the centre of the
scanner to provide a reference point for device
alignment. Four red dots are visible in the driver’s
view during the calibration process.
A photoreceiver is a part of the scanner and
consists of four wide angle IR photodiodes which are
mounted on the scanners’ comers and an log receiver.
The received signal is fed in the form of 11 step analog
voltages to a control and processing unit.
The control and processing unit provides IR
scanner control, processing of received reflected
signals, monitoring of the input button and sending of
instructions through a serial communication link, to
the communication unit. The microcontroller evaluates
the different levels from the photoreceiver and makes
a conclusion on the eye status. Three simple routines
compare the received values against an eye open/eye
closed template. The template is also drawn from
calibration. Each routine has a weighted vote,
automatically customised to each driver at the time of
calibration, which increments a 16bit counter
whenever a decision is made that the eye is open and
decrements the counter whenever a decision is made
that the eye is closed. Each routine votes about 100
times a second enabling a reliable and fast reaction
time to be achieved. When the counter reaches zero, a
command is sent to the communications unit to warn
the driver. The microcontroller is a PIC16C715.
The communication unit provides voltage for
the IR sensor, voice instructions to the driver during
the calibration process and a warning “Wake up”
command via a loudspeaker. Simultaneously with the
wake-up command, an alarm circuit is triggered to
warn a dispatcher via an existing communication
channel between a truck and a control room. The
communication unit consists of a voltage regulator, a
microcontroller, a speech processor and a loudspeaker.
When the driver closes his eyes for more than
two seconds a voice shouts “Wake up! Wake up” and
an alarm signal could be triggered (Kononov 1999).
The second generation of the detector which
employs flat lenses is under development (Figure 2).
The new design should improve appearance and
acceptance of the product.
3. GUIDANCE SYSTEM CONCEPT
Very often these trucks use a dual source of energy:
Diesel to drive in the loading area and an overhead
electrical power line for the load haulage. In the latter
a pantograph is used for connection to the power line.
The steering of the truck under the line should be
performed fairly accurately otherwise the pantograph
could be damaged. A prototype Steering Monitor has
been developed to provide the driver with information
on the true the position of the truck under the line and
to warn him when the truck drifts out of alignment.
The monitor uses the magnetic field created by the
729
load current in the overhead line to determine the
truck’s orientation. The use of the monitor increases
electrical line availability time and provides a
significant saving in diesel fuel.
3.1 The system design
The device consists of three FGM-1 magnetic sensors
(SCL 1999). Two of them are spatially displaced for
1,5 m along the truck axis and are positioned about
1,5-2 m vertically below the overheard power line
(Figure 3). The distance between conductors of the line
is 4 m.
The DC current of 1600 A which represents a
truck load, creates magnetic fields of about 1,0 G
around both conductors at the distance where both
sensors are positioned. This local magnetic field is
cancelled when both sensors are just in the middle
between conductors, meaning that the truck is properly
aligned under the power line.
When the truck starts tunning left or right, each
sensor will be exposed to an opposite magnetic field
and the differential output voltage and polarity from
both sensors will be proportional to the truck
misalignment and its direction respectively. A monitor
displays the truck position and an audio signal warns
the driver of a misalignment and required corrective
action.
Both sensors are affected by the earths
magnetic field, particularly when they are in the central
position between conductors where local magnetic
field is cancelled. The earth’s magnetic field is about
0,4 G in a place of the test. Therefore, a reference
sensor is installed on the truck as far as possible
(lower) from the power line. The information from the
reference sensor is used to compensate the influence
of the earth’s magnetic field on both measuring
sensors. All three sensors are compensated (zeroed) for
truck body upon installation on a truck. The accuracy
of the device increases when more then one truck is
connected to a line and the load current is higher.
The initial magnetic field measurements under
the loaded and idling power line have confirmed the
concept and this data was used for the design of a
prototype. At present, the prototype is being tested at
Grootegeluk coal mine.

4. CONCLUSION

At Grootegeluk Mine 32 trucks are equipped with the

Sleep Detector . Other open cast mines are intending
to introduce the device and a few underground mines
have expressed their interest in using the device for
LHD drivers. The second generation of the device
which employs lenses positioned vertically (like an
ordinary sunglasses) and not angled is under
development.
A prototype of the guidance device is presently
under field test at the same mine. Practically, the
guidance monitor serves dual goals: a steering aid for
the driver during night shifts and a back-up sleep
detector while driving under the power line.

REFERENCES:

Clark, R.P. & Edholm, O.G. 1985. Man and his

thermal environment. Edward Arnold
Hudson, R.D. 1969. Infrared system engineering.
Wiley-Interscience, John Wiley & Sons, New
York/London/Sydney/Toronto.
Kononov, V.A. 1999. Automatic monitoring of
vehicle drivers wakefulness. Proceeding o f the
28-th International Conference o f Safety in
Mines Research Institutes, Sinaia, Romania, 1-
10 June.
SCL. 1999.Application Notes, FGM series. Speake
&Co, Elvicta Estate, Crickhowell, Powys NP8
IDF, UK.

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 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Steep angle conveying for material transportation in open cut m ines

M.D.Kuruppu
Curtin University o f Technology, Kalgoorlie, W.A, Australia
T.G.Golosinski
Mining Engineering, University o f Missouri-Rolla, Mo., USA

ABSTRACT: The conveying angle of a standard belt conveyor is restricted to less than 18-21 degrees. How­
ever, a steep angle conveyor can move material up any slope, including vertical lift. This paper describes the
design of a bucket-type steep angle conveyor that was developed as a joint research project between the
Western Australian School of Mines and the Maanshan Institute of Mining Research in China. The steep an­
gle conveyor can be successfully used for transporting blocky ore from open pit mines. A pilot conveyor was
constructed and tested to determine its technical and operational feasibility. Furthermore, a computer model
based on MATLAB mathematical modelling software was developed to simulate the performance of the pilot
conveyor. It enables to determine the design parameters of industry-scale conveyors that will give satisfactory
performance. The model analyses the dynamic mechanical behaviour of a conveyor and yields results such as
the speed, the acceleration, the structural forces and the braking characteristics.

1 INTRODUCTION ous restrictions imposed by in-pit haulage ramps.

Since the mid-1980s, the worldwide availability of
mining resources and commodities has been running
ahead of demand. This has resulted in a downward
pressure on their prices. The only way for the pro­
ducers to stay competitive is to find means to cut
down the cost of production. In the case of open pit
mining, truck transport has been the preferred option
by many of the operators. The relative advantage de­
rived by employing large trucks is often lost by the
high diesel prices and the increasing cost of hauling
as the mines get deeper. Alternative methods of ma­
terial transport that have been tried in open pit mines
are rail transport, trolley-assisted trucks, and steep
angle conveyors (SAC). Except for the last option,
the other methods have been fairly widely used and
they have their advantages under the conditions pre­
vailing in a particular part of the world. The steep
angle conveying technology, although about 50
years old, is still not widely spread. It has found
limited applications in mining despite its enormous
potential specially for open pit ore haulage. The op­
erational cost of a SAC is expected to be much
lower than the cost of haulage by trucks (Dos Santos
1998; Golosinski et al. 1999). However, the use of
an in-pit crusher to reduce the size of the blasted
rock before loading on to the conveyor cannot in
general be eliminated altogether.
If feasible, the use of SAC may allow for signifi­
cant steepening of pit walls by elimination of vari­
Also the absence of wide ramps simplifies the layout
of the mine floor. The main objectives of this re­
search are (a) to determine an appropriate design of
a steep angle conveyor, which can be successfully
used for transporting blocky ore from open pit
mines, (b) to develop the operating parameters for
conveyors suitable for industrial applications.
2 TYPES OF STEEP ANGLE CONVEYORS
USED FOR BULK MATERIAL HANDLING
Several types of steep angle conveyors have been
tried in surface mines over the past decades. Systems
other than belt/bucket conveying have been proven
inefficient and unreliable. The two conveying sys­
tems that appear to offer most promise of successful
open pit mining applications in the past were the
sandwich belts and formed belts.
Sandwich belt type steep angle conveyors devel­
oped by the Continental Conveyor Company and
Dos Santos International of the United States shown
schematically in Figure 1 employ two endless rubber
belts one of which applies pressure on the other
containing the conveyed material. The cover belt
makes operative proximate contact with the carrying
belt via a system of hugging idlers except in the
material loading zone and the discharge zone where
the belts are moved out of contact. The additional
force on the belts provides hugging pressure to the

731
conveyed material in order to develop sufficient
friction at the material-to-belt and material-to-
material interfaces to prevent sliding back at the de­
sign conveyance angle (Dos Santos 1990, 1998).
The formed belt conveyor shown in Figure 2 was
developed by Conrad Scholtz Company of Germany
and is also available commercially. The belt consists
of three components: a flat cross-rigid base belt, cor­
rugated flexible side walls, and cross cleats to pre­
vent slide back of material. The belt is designed with
sufficient strength and flexibility to hold and trans­
port the conveyed material at any angle (Paelke and
Germany 1988, 1990).
Figure 1. Profiles o f Continental High Angle Conveyor.
fromJOOES yp to 600ES wrth TCS-deols
Figure 2. Close up view o f formed belt conveyor.
732
3 DESIGN OF A STEEP ANGLE CONVEYOR
SUITABLE FOR OPEN-PIT HARD ROCK
MINING
A joint research project between the Western Aus­
tralian School of Mines of the Curtin University and,
the Maanshan Institute of Mining Research of China
began in 1995 to develop an economical and practi­
cal steep angle conveyor for hard rock open pit
mining. The Western Australian Government pro­
vided the funding. The Australian team completed
the first phase, which involved the literature survey
of existing designs in 1996 (Kuruppu & Golosinski
1998). The investigators paid special attention to the
sandwich belt high angle conveyors and the formed
belt conveyors mentioned earlier. However, bucket
type conveyors with well-designed buckets can be
used for hard rock mining applications producing
relatively large lumps of ore. The two research
teams jointly decided to develop a pilot bucket con­
veyor for testing and analysing the performance. The
pilot conveyor shown in Figure 3 was subsequently
constructed at the Maanshan Mining Research In­
stitute. The design specifications of the pilot con­
veyor are as follows.
. Minimum material lift of 5 m.
. Buckets made of welded steel, are 500 mm wide
and have a capacity of 0.025 m^. They are de­
signed for strength and resistance to cutting and
abrasion caused by conveying rocks. The shape is
designed to be compatible with the high conveying
angle and to have a high filling ratio. The buckets
are supported and guided by a set of rails. The
buckets are driven by a set of drive wheels through
a chain of ratchet links.
. Conveying angle of 50 degrees.
. A variable conveying speed with a maximum value
of not less than 2 m/s.
Figure 3. Pilot conveyor design.
The pilot conveyor has 53 buckets each of that
can carry chunks of ore up to 0.2 m in length. The
conveyor consists of feeding section, middle section,
discharge section, intermediate drive gear, brakes,
and controlling mechanism. The conveyor is driven
by a hydraulic motor that is directly coupled to the
main driving wheel through a shaft and a clutch. The
prime mover of the hydraulic power supply is a 12
kW electric motor. The drive gear consists of a hy­
draulic motor, clutch, shaft, two pairs of wheels that
drive the ratchet links on either side of the buckets,
and a brake. It is mounted at the central part of the
conveyor. The central transmission features linking
the conveyor with other similar units without leaving
transfer points. This facilitates the extension of the
conveyor length as the mining pit extends to deeper
depths. The ability to eliminate transfer points im­
proves the efficiency of operation and reduces costs.
Spillage protection devices have been implemented
between buckets. They prevent leakage of ore parti­
cles during conveying. Whenever the application
demands bucket clearing devices can be installed at
the material unloading end.
The Maanshan research team in consultation with
the Curtin University team did the overall design of
the pilot steep angle conveyor. Subsequently engi­
neers at the Maanshan Institute of Mining Research
did the construction. They were also responsible for
instrumentation and testing.
4 TESTING OF THE PILOT CONVEYOR
A series of tests involving the technical perform­
ance, throughput, and the range of lump sizes that
can be conveyed were carried out. The tests were
further intended to determine the economic feasibil­
ity of the concept, the performance and operational
characteristics of the installation under full load
conditions, and to provide the performance parame­
ters that can be used to develop field prototypes.
Usually, a mathematical model must be employed to
translate the performance parameters between con­
veyors of different scales.
The construction of the pilot conveyor was com­
pleted in August 1999 followed by the performance
testing. A vibrating type conveyor was installed in
order to bring the conveyed material back into the
input chute to facilitate continuous testing. The en­
tire conveyor system was housed inside the labora­
tory. Full load tests were done following the no load
tests and the following parameters were recorded
using a computer-aided data acquisition system.
. clock time
. driving wheel speed (revolutions per minute)
. driving torque (kg-m)
. conveyor speed (metres per second)
A typical test cycle is to start the conveyor and
run it at approximately 2 m/s under no load. The
loading chute is then opened and the conveyor is
brought to the full load conditions. Finally the con­
veyor is gradually unloaded by controlling the feed­
ing chute before stopping. Tests revealed that the
conveyor runs smoothly and exceeds the expected
maximum speed of 2 m/s under full load conditions.
733
Particle sizes up to 200 mm can be easily conveyed
although the conveyor was found to be able to carry
particles up to 400 mm in size. Also there is no ef­
fect on the environment as the conveyor is powered
by an electro-hydraulic drive.
5 SIMULATION OF THE CONVEYOR
PERFORMANCE
MATLAB (1984-1999) mathematical modelling
software was used to develop a mathematical model
to simulate the conveyor mechanism. This com­
prised simulating the mechanics of the conveyor and
the analysis of its dynamic performance. The soft­
ware can be used to answer ‘what-if scenarios and
is useful for optimising the performance at almost no
cost in comparison with that required for experi­
menting with a mechanical plant. The mathematical
model was validated by comparing with the per­
formance of the pilot plant. The model will be used
to select the design parameters of the field proto­
types. For example the sizes and the performance
parameters of a SAC required for a given throughput
can be determined using the validated model. The
only constraint is that the conveyors must be geo­
metrically similar to the model. The mathematical
model developed using the MATLAB and its associ­
ated module SIMULINK incorporates the following
features:
. Geometry of the pilot conveyor represents the
loading zone, steep angle zone, discharge zone,
and the return path of the buckets as shown in Fig­
ure 4. Buckets are represented by point masses and
it is quite a valid assumption considering the size
of a bucket in comparison with the conveyor. The
point masses are joined in series by springs (with
backlash) and constrained to move around the
guide. The two driving wheels on each side of the
conveyor are connected by a chain, which in turn
drives the conveyor. The model assumes flexible
links between buckets, and a flexible driving-
spindle connects the wheels to the motor. The
flexibility of links is modelled by springs.
. User-friendly, windows based input and output
interfaces have been provided. The model input
parameters such as the geometry, desired convey­
ing speed, and the loadings are specified in the in­
put interface. The output data of the model con­
sists of displacements, velocities, accelerations and
forces of the major structural components. The
output interface can be used to display the model
results (i.e. the output parameters) in a graphical
form. With the help of this model ‘what-if sce­
narios can be readily analysed.
The steep angle conveyors do not present many
problems during their normal operation. However, if
a sudden power failure occurs under load the conse­
quences can be quite serious unless the conveyor is
equipped with an efficient and effective braking
system. In extreme cases the dynamic transient
loading resulting from a sudden loss of power and
the subsequent braking under load can lead to cata­
strophic failures. Mathematical modelling helps de­
sign the conveyor to minimize such possibility.
The major benefits arising from this research will
be continued development of mine transport meth­
ods for the cost-effective use of conveyors in place
of truck transport, and further development of re­
lated equipment that will improve the economics of
mining operations. Furthermore, the development of
a practical steep angle conveying technology gives
the open pit mine operators an attractive alternative
to costly truck transportation.
As the conveyor design was novel, it was pat­
ented in China with the provision to extend it to
other countries.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The contributions of Professor S. Zhao and his re­

search team of the Maanshan Institute of Mining Re­
search for the design and construction of pilot con­
veyor are gratefully acknowledged. Financial
support for this research was provided by the De­
Figure 4. Simulation o f conveyor using M ATLAB.
partment of Resources Development, Government of
Western Australia.

6 CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS

REFERENCES
A laboratory scale prototype of a bucket steep angle
Dos Santos, J.A. 1998. The cost/value o f high angle conveying.
conveyor was designed and built as a joint research
Bulk Solids H andling. 18(2):253-260.
program between the Western Australian School of
Dos Santos, J.A. 1990. High angle conveyors - HAC. Bulk
Mines of the Curtin University and the Maanshan
Solids H andling. 10(3):357-360.
Institute of Mining Research in China. The conveyor
Golosinski, T.S., M.D. Kuruppu & S. Zhao 1999. Development
was designed to suit open pit hard rock mining con­
o f a steep angle conveyor for surface mining applications.
ditions. A drive gear attached to it at its central part
In Heping Xie & Tad Golosinski (eds.). M ining Science and
powers it. As the mining progresses deeper, more
Technology’99; Proc. ’99 Int. Symp. M in. Sci. Tech, B ei­
stages of similar conveyors can be joined together
jin g , 2 1 -3 1 August 1999. Rotterdam: Balkema.
without leaving transfer points. Moreover this ar­
Kuruppu, M.D. & T.S. Golosinski 1998. Maintenance practices
rangement eliminates any increases in structural
o f mining machinery - A Western Australian perspective.
forces. The pilot conveyor proved to be reliable and
Proc. M ine Planning and Equipment Selection 1998.601-
performed exceedingly well. Also it can be scaled up
612. Balkema:Rotterdam.
to handle large volumes. A mathematical simulation
MATLAB User Manual 1984-1999. The MathWorks In c.. N a­
model was developed to facilitate the design and de­
tick, M A 01760, USA.
velopment of industry prototypes based on the per­
Paelke, J.W. & F.R.Germany 1988. FLEXOWELL vertical lift
formance parameters of the pilot conveyor. For ex­
systems in underground mining and construction industries.
ample, the simulation model can be readily used to
Bulk Solids Handling. 8(3):327:342.
determine the design parameters for a steep angle
Paelke, J.W. & F.R. Germany 1990. 25 years o f experience in
conveyor of a given throughput, conveyor height,
steep angle and vertical conveying. Bulk Solids H andling.
angle of inclination and the maximum particle size.
10(3):319:326.
This conveyor can be constructed with the tech­
nologies available in most countries. Cost of manu­
facturing is relatively low compared to most other
available steep angle conveyors. The angle of incli­
nation can be increased up to 50 degrees so that the
distance of conveying can be substantially reduced
in comparison with material transport using trucks or
belt conveyors. Also any danger of belt tearing,
which is not uncommon in belt conveying, is non­
existent.

734
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

R eflective seism ic tom ography to identify anom alies im pacting

underground developm ents

D. M. Neil, M. J. DeMarco, A. D. Rock & X M. Descour

NSA Engineering Incorporated, Golden, Colo., USA

ABSTRACT: Seismic tomographic imaging, based on the same principles as a medical CAT Scan (Computer-
Aided-Tomography), has been used for many years in the oil industry for large-scale subsurface stratigraphic
characterization, and has most recently been applied to various structure- ai^ stress-related problems in
mining. New developments in signal processing have greatly enhanced the speed, resolution, and range of
applications of tomographic imaging in underground settings, and recent innovations in data acquisition
hardware have further increased data reliability and repeatability. Whereas past structure mapping applications
relied on seismic velocity and/or attenuation tomography within an enclosed seismic source and receiver array,
recent developments in “True Reflective Tomography” (TRT^^) have expanded the application of this
technology considerably.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 TOMOGRAPHIC IMAGING

Geotechnical engineers have struggled for years with

the difficult task of characterizing geologic and past
mining conditions that affect the design, stability,
and safety of both civil and mining
constructions/operations. Commonly, underground
developments (mines, tunnels, foundations, etc.) are
based on surface or underground investigative
drilling programs that may not characterize the true
character or three-dimensional continuity of the
materials/strata present, and may also not detect the
presence of localized structural discontinuities
(faults, shear zones, etc.) or prior excavations (old
mine works). Geophysical techniques such as
seismic reflection, seismic refraction, and ground
penetrating radar have been used with some success
to expand the knowledge of subsurface conditions
prior to excavation; however, these techniques often
interfere with the construction process and are time­
intensive in terms of data collection and
interpretation.
To improve the quality, continuity, and
timeliness of geotechnical data for site
characterization, NSA Engineering, Inc., has
developed a true, three-dimensional tomographic
imaging system known as RockVisionSD^’^.
2.1 Background and Theory
The underlying principle of tomographic imaging is
that the interior of a volume may be reconstructed by
interrogating the region with an arbitrary energy
source (be it acoustic, seismic, or electromagnetic)
and examining the transmitted and scattered
wavefields detected at the boundary of the region.
Direct arrival seismic tomography exploits the fact
that seismic energy travels through different material
types with different velocities. Seismic waves will
travel faster and with less attenuation through
competent or highly stressed rock than through
broken rock or voids (Nur, 1987; Shea-Albin, et al.,
1991; Yu, 1992). Geologic ^ d /o r structural
anomalies, such as faults, karstic voids, hard
depositional inclusions, etc., can be tomographically
imaged when surveyed using the proper techniques
and instrumentation.
Seismic energy sources may be dedicated
seismo-acoustic sources, such as detonations or air
gun discharges, or sounds produced as part of the
construction/mining process resulting from drilling,
scaling, rock cutting, etc. Analysis of the seismic
waveforms may be performed with either shear (S-
wave) or compressional (P-wave) energy. In
practice, data sets are collected as full waveform

735
signals that are captured with a sampling rate and
duration appropriate for the signal source, the earth
materials anticipated, and the physical scale of the
imaging application.
The inversion algorithm models seismic energy
transmission and dispersion using a variation of the
eikonal equation, a finite-difference approximation
to the wave equation. Waves are propagated through
a finite-difference mesh to model energy
transmission through the medium. Mesh properties
are iteratively adjusted until simulated energy
transmission measurements match field
measurements, using a variation of SIRT
(Simultaneous Iterative Reconstruction Technique).
SIRT uses the concept of a “ray packet,” the region
through the mesh corresponding to the highest
probability of energy transmission. In the case of
direct arrival transmission velocity, the ray path
region through the mesh must satisfy:
^dL
R ay y
where tL is the computed travel time from the energy
source to receiver, L is the path length, and V is the
velocity of the medium along the ray path. This ray
path is not normally straight but, rather, undergoes
significant refraction from velocity contrasts
between lithologic units. The ray path is used to
adjust the velocity model according to:
5 ,.,= 5 ,+ X ^ a u s s j^ (M irij^ [P^, L]),
L.
where Si is the slowness (inverse of velocity) at a
given mesh node point for iteration /, tm is the time
measurement from the field, tc is the time computed
from the simulation, Lc is the length of the simulated
ray path, GaussR is the Gaussian probability
distribution as a function of resolution and
transmission frequency, and Mine is the minimum
distance from mesh node point Pn to ray path L.
The reconstruction technique described here has
several advantages over alternative methods.
Standard eikonal wave propagation introduces error
by approximating a circular wavefront as an
octagon. In fact, under certain conditions, it has
been shown that causality can be violated in some
finite-difference propagation algorithms (Qin, et al.,
1992). This error is reduced by using higher order
regular polygon approximations. Standard SIRT
algorithms often require numerous iterations and
slowly converge to a solution in a stable manner.
736
The algorithm applied in the studies presented in this
report uses a non-linear geometric convergence
technique combined with a ray-density probability
function to rapidly converge to a solution with no
instabilities. An inversion scheme has been
implemented based on a proprietary application of a
B-Spline Interpolation Network (BIN) that has been
found to rapidly converge to the most probable
statistical solution without extensive memory
requirements.
In the RockVisionSD'’^^ approach, a curved-ray
technique is utilized that computes the ray path
location using steepest descent on the travel time
mesh, nearly matching the computational efficiency
of straight-line techniques. Curved-ray techniques
also occasionally suffer from problems such as
instabilities or shadow-zones. Use of a node-based
mesh, rather than a pixel-based mesh, eliminates
these inconsistencies.
Tomographic inversion techniques that use a
single pixel or mesh size for multiple iterations
occasionally introduce “artifacts” when run at
smaller pixel sizes or higher resolutions, and
numerous iterations are required to reduce these
effects. This becomes a much more significant
problem in three dimensions. Velocities are
controlled only at node points that intersect rays. All
other grid points have extrapolated values. If a very
fine resolution is used for all the iterations, the node
points not controlled by ray paths may be assigned
an erroneous velocity from a starting model. Since
these points have no effect on errors between
observed and computed travel times, they are not
changed during the iteration process. Thus, short
spatial wavelength artifacts may be introduced into
final inversion results. With the RockVisionSD™
system, the problem is minimized through a two­
pronged approach. First, for each iteration, an
independent pixel size can be assigned.
Progressively finer meshes provide improved
resolution while avoiding most problems associated
with the short wavelength artifacts. Secondly,
between points, a proprietary BIN algorithm is used
to contour three-dimensional points. The software
iterative process for producing velocity tomograms
is illustrated in Table 1.
2.2 Reflection Tomography/Holography: Basic
Principles
In addition to the more commonly applied refraction
tomography described above, the RockVisionSD^^
system is also capable of creating ground images

Each pixel is assigned a velocity value
i --------
Model wavefront is propagated through pixels
Travel time is calculated for each source-receiver ray
path using assigned pixel values
Calculated travel times compared to measured travel
times for each ray path to discover error
i
Errors are evaluated simultaneously and optimum
corrections are calculated for each pixel
Table 1. Iterative process for velocity tomography.
using the principles of reflective tomography/
holography (described as “true reflection
tomography,” or TRT'*’^). This technique has been
applied successfully on multiple tunneling projects
since its development in early 1999 (including
fractured and jointed andesites, karstic limestones
and graywackes, to a melange sequence of fissile
shale, sandstone, slate, and chert to hard basal
granites and schists.
The basis for the seismic reflection lies in the
existence of acoustical impedance contrasts (the
product of density and seismic velocity) in the
subsurface rock mass matrix. Acoustical impedance
contrasts exist at the boundaries between geologic
layers or along discontinuities. These discontinuities
then act as imperfect mirrors reflecting energy to a
detector. This returned energy is then analyzed to
determine the location and nature of the reflecting
boundary. The equation defining the reflection
coefficient for normal incidence to a boundary
between media 1 and 2 is given by:
p Pi Vi - py ,
where R is the reflection coefficient, p is the rock
mass density, and V equals the seismic wave
propagation velocity of the materials. A transition
from a material with lower acoustic impedance to
one with a higher value results in a positive
reflection coefficient, and vice versa. Thus, an echo
produced from a transition from a soft claystone to a
very hard dolomite would have the same polarity as
the incident pulse. Features such as fractured zones
within a more solid rock mass will also give rise to
reflections. The larger the acoustic impedance
contrast, the larger the reflection coefficient, and the
larger and easier to detect is the echo.
737
The concept for using seismic reflections for
imaging ground conditions in three-dimensions is
illustrated in Figure 1. For each source and receiver
of known location, the locus of all possible reflector
positions defines an ellipsoid. For a sufficient
number of sources and receivers forming three-
dimensional array, each boundary/reflecting horizon
can be identified as an area where a majority of the
ellipsoids intersect.
Figure 1. Principle of using seismic reflection for
imaging ground conditions in 3-D space.
As implemented here, a discrete image of
reflective boundaries is calculated for each point of a
3-D grid within a selected block of the rock space
that includes all sources and receivers. A discrete
value for the image of each point of the grid is
calculated by stacking all seismic waveforms, with
each waveform migrated in time proportionally to
the total distance from the source through a grid
point to the receiver. The shift is calculated using
the velocity model defined for the volume of the
survey block. Thus, the technique may be thought
of as a combination of both tomography and
holography. The images produced present a
calculated reflection value at each grid point. Grid
spacing and frequency content of the transmitted
signal determine the resolution of the image. The
shortest wavelength of recorded seismic waves
determines the minimum target size that will be
detectable.
Several general guidelines on the application of
this method have been recognized from the
theoretical considerations outlined above and
heuristic observations in the field:
1. The resolution of ground images is inversely
proportional to the distance from the array and
directly proportional to the shortest detectable
wavelength. In general, the resolution is the
highest (3 ft or better) for the first 10 ft to 20 ft (in
the case of a tunnel face), deteriorating with
distance.
 Figure 2. Instrumentation plan for seismic reflection tomography along a tunnel alignment.
2. An absolute error of distance measurement is
determined by the precision of the velocity model
used for reconstruction or reflective anomalies in
the rock. The velocity model can be improved by
using geological and mechanical properties of
rock that are detected as the tunnel advances as
feedback for velocity calibration.
3. The velocity models are different for blasting and
rock breaking/splitting action. Seismic energy
generated by blasting is dominated by P-waves,
whereas drilling and mechanically breaking the
rock typically radiates significant levels of S-
waves. Also, the images generated from blasting
sources appear to miss smaller anomalies
associated with fractures in the rock, while being
more effective in detecting contacts between
different rock types.
4. Data have been collected with one-component
accelerometers whose major sensitivity axis have
been aligned parallel to the tunnel axis. This
improves sensitivity to features that lie ahead of
the tunnel face, but reduces sensitivity to
anomalies that lie off the sensor axis.
5. Reasonably precise location of the receivers and
sources is required to ensure accuracy of the
images.
Seismic tomography is quickly becoming a
standard ground imaging technology for site
characterization. Areas where NSA Engineering has
applied tomographic imaging to assess site
conditions include:
738
Location of shallow structures (old mines,
foundations, karst voids, etc.) that directly
impact construction operations;
Location of old works from surface and
underground source-receiver arrays (cross-hole
and in-seam refraction/reflection methods);
Tunnel and substation alignment evaluation and
characterization for anomalous conditions,
ground pre-conditioning requirements, change of
conditions, etc.;
Major mine-to-surface collapse zones over large
underground hard rock operations;
Major fault and shear zone locations in mining,
tunneling, and heavy civil applications;
Slope, embankment, and impoundment stability
assessments for pre- and post-construction; and
Pre- and post-grouting of weak rock and soil
structures, karstic tunnel alignments, and
proposed urban area excavations.
3 APPLICATIONS IN TUNNELING
Applications involving tunneling use a three-
dimensional array of single-component receivers
placed around the tunnel perimeter at some distance
behind the tunnel face—determined by the tunnel
geometry (Figure 2). Two specially designed probes
are placed in approximate 2-in-diameter holes, 10 ft
deep, drilled approximately 60 ft behind the face.
Up to 10 accelerometers with preamplifiers are
placed in a specifically designed pattern on the rock
surface in the vicinity of the probes. The seismic

signal produced by drilling, cutting, or setting off
explosive caps at the tunnel face is detected by the
receiver array and recorded. These data include the
direct waves (first arrivals) and the waves reflected
from geological anomalies ahead of and around the
tunnel. These data are then analyzed and processed
to build the direct velocity model and produce a 3-D
image of ground anomalies along the tunnel
alignment. A 3-D reflection image of conditions up
to 200 ft to 300 ft ahead of the tunnel face may be
produced within a few hours. As the tunnel
excavation advances, the array is reinstalled, with
data acquired during the active tunneling cycle.
In this example, a twin gallery highway tunnel is
being excavated near Kamaishi, Japan, using NATM
and drill-and-blast techniques. The left gallery is
being excavated as a pilot tunnel with reduced
dimensions to examine ground conditions along the
tunnel alignment. The galleries are on approximate
100-ft centers, with the pilot tunnel carried some
600-1- ft in advance of the main tunnel. The tunnels
cut through fractured, weathered, karstic limestone
with inserts of mudstone with occasional granitic
dikes. The tunnels routinely cut karst cavities of
various sizes, and many are partially filled with
water and/or mud.
Caverr^«
•40m
Pilot
Tunne'
20 m - , .
^ o \ i fmpacti)reaker Predicted intercept
M «Seismic a,,aee of main granitic intrusion
g »ray as source
Figure 3. Plan view of reflection tomogram.
Figure 3 shows a 2-D plan-view image built
from signals generated by a track hoe-mounted
impact breaker in the main tunnel. The impact
breaker used in the main tunnel was used for
excavation within a mudstone at the tunnel face.
The mapped geology was superimposed on the
image after excavation as a comparison to the
imaged conditions. In general, the mapped geology
matches the image generated from reflection signals.
In particular, a granitic dike that intersected the
tunnel alignment some 260 ft ahead of the main
tunnel face was detected in the correct position.
In the pilot tunnel, a single drill boom on an
Atlas Copco Rocket Boomer was used as the seismic
source to image approximately 300 ft ahead of the
face (Figure 4). As shown, a series of geologic
739
SefsmU: array Weaker rock
. 20 m
4
'■'# t I» # »' 1
om Spring - - 1 - - .
point Fault
Strongir roc^ ^
anomaly 3 ,
encountered
3 days later
Figure 4. Plan-view of reflection tomogram for the
pilot tunnel adjacent to main drivage.
features were detected on the reflection image,
including both water-bearing fractures and faults.
As excavation of the pilot tunnel proceeded, these
anomalies were intersected at the mapped
coordinates. Specifically, a water-bearing fracture
system and a fault structure were detected and
subsequently intersected (as shown) along the tunnel
alignment.
To facilitate the spatial representation of the
imaged ground structures, the TRT™ system is
capable of rapidly providing any number of image
perspectives. Figure 5 illustrates some of the
various perspectives possible to aid in the
interpretation and ground-truthing of generated
images during development. This same capability
may be applied to all types of three-dimensional
images generated by the RockVision3D^^ and
TRTtm systems—including mining and non­
tunneling civil constructions.
Figure 5. Perspective visualization of TRT^^
results with 3-D contours of low velocity zones to
locate fracture zones and geologic anomalies ahead
of tunnel faces.
4 CHARACTERIZING OLD WORKS
Old mine workings impact both civil
constructions and mining operations on almost a
daily basis in the United States. Many communities
have suffered (and are suffering) the effects of
sudden and/or gradual subsidence over mined-out
regions of unknown extent, and a large percentage of
underground mine developments are confronted with
mining in close-proximity to past workings of
questionable location, stability, and water/gas
content.
4.1 Determination of Old Works Extent into a
Mineable Reserve
In this example, an eastern Kentucky operation
suspected that old works existed between active
mine workings and the seam outcrop. To assist in
this determinination, NSA developed a ground
imaging plan utilizing the RockVision3D™
refraction tomographic system involving a
combination of boreholes and underground mounted
geophones.
Figure 6 illustrates the location of mine main
entry developments relative to the seam outcrop. As
shown, a drill road is located above the elevation of
the coal seam outcrop from which vertical holes
were drilled through the seam horizon on 50- to 175-
ft centers to explore for potential mine openings. To
image the coal seam reserve area between the active
mine workings and the approximate seam outcrop,
NSA utilized the surface holes for seismic source
locations (shots) and the closest main entry
developments for the receiver array (geophones).
The geophones were attached with special adapters
to the heads of pre-existing, fully grouted, 4-ft resin
roof bolts. Phones were deployed along the mains as
shown in Figure 6, utilizing the roof bolts closest to
the centerline of each crosscut and next to the solid
coal ribline.
Figure 6. Project layout drawing.
Seismic events in each borehole were initiated by
detonating a single one pound primer at the coal
seam elevation. Each hole was detonated separately.
740
with seismic signals recorded on a 24-channel
seismograph. For each array, multiple shots were set
off in various holes to ensure adequate ray path
coverage of the entire area. Data collection took
place over a four-day period.
Figure 7 illustrates the two-dimensional, plan-
view tomogram characterizing the block of coal
imaged. As can be seen in the tomogram, old works
only extended a short distance from the outcrop, and
did not impact the reserve in question. Due to the
high quality of the data collected and the excellent
coverage afforded by the numerous outcrop holes
that had been drilled prior to the tomography survey,
the results were considered conclusive and were
used to justify dropping the probe hole drilling
requirement to the 200-ft minimum required by law.
Figure 7. Tomographic image of the surveyed area
for a velocity range between 3,000 and 16,500 ft/s.
4.2 Location of Old Works In-Seam
In this example, an Appalachian room-and-pillar
operation imaged a moderately complex geometry of
known (surveyed) workings using the TRT™
system. Two lines of accelerometers were installed
along the entry; half of the array was oriented toward
the old workings across the barrier pillar, and the
other half was facing the undisturbed seam (out of
the illustration to the left). A digital high-resolution
seismograph was employed to record both direct and
reflected seismic waves generated by two types of
sources: blasting caps and hammer blows. In order
to test the best possible combination of
source/receiver locations, both sources and receivers
were deployed along the exposed barrier pillar
ribline and along the immediate shale roofline. A
total of eight test configurations were used,
employing two different source types, two different
source locations, and two different accelerometer
locations.

': 1 source/receiver array
mined out areas
i . i
Figure 8. In-seam reflection survey across barrier
pillar toward old works using blasting source and
receiver array installed in the ribline.
Figure 9. In-seam reflection survey across barrier
pillar toward old works using the blasting source
in the roof at various locations across the entry
and receiver array installed in the ribline.
Figure 8 illustrates the best results obtained
when caps were detonated within the coal rib and
accelerometers were also mounted on the rib. The
region halfway through the barrier is largely washed
out by first arrivals; however, a faint reflection can
be seen along the outline of the workings, along with
two multiple reflection echoes. Figure 9 illustrates
the problems with blasting in the roof when the
receivers are mounted in the ribline. Almost the
entire region across the barrier is washed out from
first arrivals, and very weak double echoes are
identified for the reflected energy. This indicates
that a majority of the energy projected into the roof
stays in the roof and very little is transmitted to the
coal seam in the form of reflective channel waves.
Although not shown, the hammer surveys indicated
that a higher energy source was necessary to develop
a significant reflected signal.
741
5 SUMMARY
With the development of faster algorithms and data
acquisition systems, seismic tomography is now
capable of providing the geotechnical engineer, mine
operator, geologist, and tunneling contractor with a
rapid and cost-effective means of assessing ground
conditions. To optimize site surveys, careful
planning of survey layouts and data acquisition
procedures is imperative to best evaluate the
probability of detecting the target (geologic
structure, mine opening, etc.). Proper survey
planning is best facilitated by performing forward
modeling studies that allow an evaluation of optimal
array geometry and ray path coverage prior to field
deployment of the system. Following this
procedure, direct-arrival seismic velocity
tomography has been shown to be effective in
locating old mine workings in both civil and mining
settings, and have greatly reduced costs associated
with surface and in-seam detection drilling
programs. Refraction tomography has many other
applications related to structure/void mapping, and
requires surrounding the area of interest with a
source/receiver array.
6 REFERENCES
Nur, A., 1987. Seismic rock properties for reservoir
descriptions and monitoring. In G. Nolet, (ed.).
Seismic tomography with applications in global
seismology and exploration geophysics:203-237.
D. Reidel Publishing Co.
Qin, F., Y. Luo, K. Olsen, W. Cai, & G. Schuster,
1992. Finite-difference solution of the eikonal
equation along expanding wavefronts. Geophy,
57(3):478-487.
Shea-Albin, V., D. Hanson, D., & R. Gerlick, 1991.
Elastic wave velocity and attenuation as used to
define phases of loading and failure in coal.
USBM RI9355, 43 pp.
Yu, G., 1992. Elastic properties of coals. Ph.D.
Thesis, MacQuarie University, Sydney, Australia,
133 pp.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The pow erful excavator-dragline’s control for automatic accurate

bucket positioning

L.D.Pevzner
State Mining University, Moscow, Russia

Abstract: The problem of the powerfiil excavator - draglane automation is becoming actual in conjunction with
creation of the new progressive opencast mining technology. Technological schemes for opencast mining suppose to
use a pair "draglane - truck". The effective work of pairs operation of pairs "draglane - truck", "draglane - bunker" or
"draglane - railway wagon" may be done only in the case if draglain control system allows accurate bucket position­
ing for unloading without fluctuations
Draglane bucket does movement like a physical pendulum. Available mechanical devices allow to unload the
bucket only in the case if the fluctuations are absented. Operator itself can eliminate the fluctuations but it takes him lot
of time.

1 INTRODUCTION of management by time of positioning T=max (minTi,2,

The problem of automation of process of management of
powerful dragline excavators again appears urgent in con­
nection with development of new technologies of conducting
of open moimtain works, in which technological links «
powerful dragline - vehicle or terminal» are used.
The ladle of dragline is suspended in bifiliar way and conse­
quently makes fluctuation of a physical pendulum during
transport movings. The various mechanical devices allow to
precisely unload a ladle only in case of absence of fluctua­
tions, and fluctuations can be removed by an operator of a
dredge only by significant losses of technological time.
The decision of a problem of fast and exact positioning of a
dragline ladle with elimination of angular fluctuations is
possible only by means of automatic control.
The mathematical model of transport moving of a ladle
of a dragline - excavator is made under the settlement circuit
submitted in a fig. 1. Object of controlled process of trans­
port moving of a ladle are two subsystems: « a platform with
arrow - a ladle on bifiliar rope attach» and « the mechanism
of rising - ladle - mechanism of draft ». In conditions of dy­
namic independence of these two subsystems the controlled
process of moving unites by their general purposes of
movement to move a ladle from the given index point to the
given final point of three-dimensional geometrical space.
This purpose of movement determines for each subsystem
the item task. It is obvious to estimate the quality of process
minTs),
Where
min Ti 2- Duration of moving of a ladle in an arrow plane
by mechanisms of rise and draft,
min Ts - duration of moving of a ladle by the turn
mechanism.
Thus, the task of transport moving of a dragline ladle ap­
pears to be an optimisation task of a class Min max. In our
case, when the dynamic independence of movements of two
subsystems the decision of this task takes place, it is neces­
sary to decide two kinds of tasks: an optimum and terminal
task of item management.
The task of management of movement in a arrow plane,
which is formed by mechanisms of rise and draft, is a task of
coherent item management with geometrical and kinetik re­
strictions. The task of management of portable movement of
a ladle, which is formed by a rotary platform, concerns to a
class of tasks of management of oscillatory systems such as
a pendulum with a variable attach point.
In the given research the results of the decision of a task
of angular moving of a shaken dragline ladle on the techno­
logically given comer are resulted so that to the moment of
the ending of movement the ladle was in a condition of rest.
Mathematical model of movement of a subsystem: « the
platform - ladle on bifiliar attach » is found in the assump­
tion, that: arrow is absolutely rigid and makes a single unit
with a platform; a ladle - material point; ropes - absolute
flexible, weightless and non extensible; wind and other in-

743
dignation are absent; the lengths of ropes change under the
known laws. The position of a ladle in motionless cylindrical
system of coordinates is determined by two variables: a -
angular rule(situation) of a platform and cp - angular devia­
tion of a ladle from
a vertical plane and two variable parameters: ll(t), 12(t) -
length of ropes of rise and draft accordingly. For analytical
researches the mathematical model received in the assump­
tion of insignificant angular deviations of a ladle was linear.
J cp”+mr^(t)v^(t)a =M(t),
ct”+ 2n(t)a’+v^(t)(1+ mr^(t)/J)a-2^(t)(p■ = M(t)/J,
( 1)
X(0) =(Q, 0, a(0), a’(0))' to a rest situation X(T)=0. For
the decision of this task of optimum fast positioning some
methods constmcted on the basis of a principle of a maxi­
mum are investigated: a method of direct synthesis of man­
agement with use of predicting models of movement; a
method of construction of surfaces of simple structure, ap­
proximating a surface of optimumal switching and method
of the repeated direct account of management as functions of
time.
In the first method, as predicting model of controlled
system (I) stationary, shortened on order, model was used,
(2) got out:
Y(x)=(y V3 V 4 /
2

y 2’(x)=w(x), y3’(x)=y4(x), y4’(x)= -V^y 3 (x)+w(x), X>t

In which the management was selected in such a way that to
WHERE carry out optimum fast calming of fluctuations of a pendu­
lum.
J,m - moment of inertia of a platform and weight of a la­ y3’(x)=y4(x), y4’(x)= V y 3 (x)+W(x).

dle accordingly, starting with current meanings: y3’('*^)=Y4W.

y4’(x)= - vY3(x)+W(x),
M(y - driving moment, The trajectory of predicting model appears future x > t
r(t)= a+C(t)cosa+T|(t)sina, |x(t)= r’(t)/r(t), v^(t)=g trajectory of controlled system, in which, since the current
moment, optimum maneuver of calming of fluctuations of a
COSa/ri(t), ladle is carried out. After performance of this maneuver the
l,'(t)= ri'(t) +(L- l2^(t)= Ti^(t) < (t), trajectory is stabilized at a level, to which there corresponds
the future meaning of speed of turn of a platform after ma­
T|, auxiliary variable, L,a, a - geometrical pa- neuver of calming of a ladle P2. Thus, optimum braking of a
rameters. platform with calm of a ladle in predicting model is neces­
sary to define as
The vector of a condition of system is taken as X=( cp, w (t)=- b sgn P2 (4)
(p’, a, a ’)^, control u=M(t)/J, therefore matrix representation The required optimum control of a platform allows to define
of model of movement of a dragline ladle is defined in pair predicting model of complete controlled system
of matrixes of a kind: yi’(x)=y (x), y ’(x)=w(x),
2 2
A= B=( 0 1 0 1 f, (2)
y3’(x)=y4(x), y4’(x)= -v^y (x)+w(x), x>t
3
0 1 0 0 With the entry conditions, which conterminous with real
0 0 V(t)mr^(t)/J 0 current coordinates of system X(t). In this model the man­
agement is chosen as (4), that allows to execute maneuver of
0 0 0 1 optimum calming of fluctuations of a ladle. The established
0 2|i(t) V (t)(1+ r^(t)/J) -2n(t) modelling meaning yi(r) corresponds to the future angular
position of a platform Pi(t) after execution, since current
moment t, maneuver of calming and rest of a platform. Re­
For analytical researches the linear stationary model of quired optimum control of a platform is calculated as
movement with a vector of condition X=( x=(p - X " U*(t)=- b sgn Pi(X(t)). (5)
a ’, Y=v^a, )^, which characterizes absolute ladle The movement of real controlled system « the electric drive
movement in immobile coordinate system. Such model is of turn - platform - ladle on variable bifiliar attach » is more
described by a relatively simple structure and transfer func­ complex than movement of model (1). The real indignation
tions: cannot be compensated by management (5). Regulation of
WyM=v^/( s^+v^(1+ mt^/J)), this control is carried out by additive components propor­
tional to a deviation of phase movement of a ladle from a
WxM=v^/(s^( s=^+v^(1 + mr^/J))) (3) surface of switching and meaning of expected speed of ro­
The task of management of movement of a dragline ladle tation of a platform.
is to extreme quickly to move the ladle, filled with mountain U*(t)=- b sgn (Pi(X(t)+kiN(X(t)) +k P (X(t))) (6)
2 2
weight, on a known comer so that to the moment of end of Regulated control (6) sets required algorithm of man­
movement a ladle was not shakening. It is clear, that for this agement of a dragline platform for realization suboptimum
time mechanisms of rise and the drafts will execute their on time moving of a varying ladle for the given angle. For
tasks independently and will move a ladle to a zone, where check of the found algorithm, selection of regulating coeffi­
unloading takes place and mountain weight gets in capacity. cients and estimation of quality of movement modelling of
Formally, the purpose of controlled movement is the maxi­ controlled movement of a ladle was carried out. The model
mum fast translation of system (1) from an initial condition

744
of movement accepted for the analysis, included nonlinear
model of relative and portable movement of a ladle and plat­
form, model of a power part of the electric drive and model
of a control system of a drive.
The computing experiment of modeling of movement of
a ladle at optimum control by non-regulated algorithm (5)
has shown, that target set a vicinity of a point of rest
{0<Xf<0,02 rad, -0,02<X2<0,01sec'^ , X3=0 rad, -
0,03<X4<0,12sec‘^}, system reaches at the moment of 29,3
sec. with and leaves it through 1,5 sec. Research has shown,
that to keep system in target set for a long time is impossible
in general and, that is characteristic for systems close to op­
timum, the significant sensitivity of system to change of the
entry conditions and task for turn takes place.
A characteristics of movement of a ladle during control
with regulated algorithm (6). is first of all high accuracy of
achievement of the pmpose. The phase trajectory of move­
ment, as it is visible fi-om oscillogram, has passed on dis­
tance 0,06 from the purpose. Such precision and ability is
long to be kept in set of the purpose is achieved by loss of
speed. Really, in example target set is achieved for 31,0 sec,
but for given task limiting time makes 30,2 sec.
The system with regulated suboptimum algorithm ap­
pears asymptotic steady by Lyapunov in large enough area
of the entry conditions and tasks. Other remarkable feature
of regulated suboptimum algorithm is the reduction of num­
ber of switchings of algorithm up to minimally necessary -
three, practically without loss of accuracy and speed. At last,
the system with regulated suboptimum algorithm appears
robust to change of parameters of movement.
The physical realization of the developed algorithms is
possible only under condition of complete availability of
measurement of all component sof a vector of a condition of
system. However, if the coordinates of movement of a plat­
form can be measured rather easily, the phase coordinates of
movement of a ladle by virtue of design features of the
working equipment of dragline or do not suppose direct
measurement or their measurement is rather inconvenient.
For definition of an angular deviation of a dragline ladle,
suspended as the pendulum, asymptotic Lunberger observer
is used, which analytical synthesis is carried out on linear
quite observable model (3) systems.
The synthesized structure of the analytical observer looks
like dynamic system of the third order
® ’l = P3®3+ P 1 P 3 9 + 3 li . ventional use of powerful draglines, for loading in the termi­
ffl’2=Wi-p2®3+ (Plp2+p3)iP ) (7)
C0*3=C02“PlC03+ ( P l ^ + P 2 " 8 2 ) 9 + 33* >
CT=®2+p29, 5 ” ®i+P3(p ,
Where pi, p , p - factors characteristic polynom of the
2 3
observer,
3ii 32i 33 - parameters of the electric drive and
mechanism of turn.
In this structure input signals are a current of an anchor
circuit of a drive and frequency of rotation of a platform, and
745
output signals - the estimations a(t), g’(Q of an angular de­
viation of a ladle from a vertical plane and its derivative on
time.
The dynamic properties and character of asymptotic con­
vergence of estimations of the observer (7) are determined
by its own numbers. The selection of these numbers, limited
by the requirement of interference protection of estimations
of the observer, is executed by modeling. Best in sense of
integral from a square of a mistake and its derivative tran­
sients in the observer are found. The duration of transients in
the observer does not exceed 1,2 sec. For achievement of
10%of a deviation of estimations from real signals of an an­
gular deviation. The established frequency of rotation of a
rotary platform of a dragline is determined by asymptotic
observer with a relative error no more than 3%. The devel­
oped system of gauges and calculators of coordinates of a
condition was used at creation of system of automatic con­
trol of the mechanism of turn of a platform of a dragline
platform for item unloading of a ladle. The interface and
regulator of system is build on the microprocessor controller,
onboard variant. The system has passed computing tests on
model of a walking dragline with ladle of twenty cubes and
ninety meter arrow. The developed control system is in­
tended for powerful walking draglines, working in heavy
conditions of operation of Siberia and Far East of Russia.
2. Conclusion
The movement of a dragline ladle is accompanied by cross
fluctuations, which can be so significant, that for their calm,
operator has to increase up to 30 % time of a cycle. Noncon-
nal, is possible only at automatic control of movement of a
ladle of a dredge. The algorithm of management of move­
ment of a dragline ladle is found which is formed on the ba­
sis of the information on all coordinates of movement. How­
ever not all coordinates can be measured. The algorithm of
asymptotic Lunberger observer for calculation of angular
deviations of a ladle and its derivative on time is offered,
and also fi-equency of turn of a platform of a dredge, the
fourth coordinate - angle of turn of a platform is measured
directly on the shaft of one of electric motors of turn. The
computing experiment by modeling has allowed to pick up
parameters of a regulator, for realization of adaptive regu­
lated algorithm of control of movement of a dragline ladle,
with the purpose of extreme fast moving of it on the given
angle. The test in laboratory and industrial conditions of a
test sample of system executed with use of microprocessor
controller, has shown serviceability, acceptable speed and
accuracy of positioning of system.

3. REFERENCES

Pevzner, L.D. 1989. Automated control of techno logi­

cal process of a walking dredge -dragline.- In book: Prob­
lems of complex extraction of deposits of firm minerals.
Moscow:Nedra.

Pevzner, L.D & Komsky, M.J. 1990 Physical-technical

methods, SO AN USSR.

746
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Autom atic control interface for underground atmosphere parameters

A. Poanta & D. Dojcsar

University ofPetrosani, Romania

ABSTRACT: The paper presents the architecture of an interface meant to connect the transducers controlling
the underground atmosphere parameters to a computer system based on a microprocessor or a microcontroller.
The interface is conceived so as to ensure compatibility with the existing telemeasurement lines and transduc­
ers, giving the possibility to connect other transducer types. After stating the technical and functional specifi­
cations, the paper synthesized architecture of the interface allows the achievement of a computerized acquisi­
tion system, controlled either by a PC or by a PLC., with possibilities of use in other industries where there are
hazardous gas emission.

1 THE SYNTHESIS OF THE INTERFACE
CIRCUIT
For the interface circuit synthesis it was taken
into consideration the existing transducers and their
connecting mode.
The transducers are connected to a telemeasure­
ment line of telephone pair type through it is trans­
mitted the measure signal from the transducers to
system, the transducers interrogation command
transmitted from system to transducer and the com­
mand signal used for the power shout down in case
of exceeding a pre-established levels.
This connecting mode ensure the transducers tele-
supplying too, which make possible the service in
case of power disconnecting as a result of overtaking
the dangerous concentrations of gas emission.
On the ground of the process specifications it can
be established the require conditions of the interface
circuit which have to achieve : the charging of the
transducers battery, the transmission of the interro­
gation command to the transducer, the transmission
of the damage signal to the affected aria, the trans­
mission of the measurement result to the computing
system through the transducer telemeasurement line.
Depending on the code transmitted by the com­
puting system, the interface have to ensure : the line
selection and the interrogation command, the selec­
tion of the line which follows to transmit the alarm
signal, the control of the telemeasurement integrity,
the analog-numerical conversion of the signal deliv­
ered by te transducer, the verification and the valida­
tion of the signal delivered by the transducer, the
transmission of the damage signals, the information
of the computing system about the end of the con­
version cycle, the galvanic isolation of the comput­
ing system from the telemeasurement line, the con­
sistence of the signals with the computing system.
On the ground of the technical specifications it
was synthesized the block diagram of the process in­
terface (Fig.l).
The interface is composed by the consistence
block with the computing system (BCSC) and the
process interface (IP). The process interface (IP)
contains : the command and selection block (BCS),
the lines block (BE), the amplifier filter and im­
pulses former block (AFFI), the level detector (DN)
and the analog-numerical conveyor (CAN).
The consistence block with the computing system
(BCSC) ensures its communication with the inter­
face. Its architecture differs in function of the used
computing system type. In case of using a PC, it is
represented by a board with 16 inputs and 10 nu­
merical outputs, either with a simple structure or
with a micro-controller. In case of using a PLC, this
block is represented by an adaptive circuit to the
level of the input / output signals of the automate
used like a computing system.
The modules, which achieves the logic of the in­
terface working, are implemented with circuits with
low consumption and high noise immunity.

747
Figure 1. The block diagram of the interface.

THE SYNTHESIS OF THE PROCESS

INTERFACE BLOCKS
The functional block synthesis afferent to the
process interface was achieved on the ground of the
functions which it has to achieved.
The lines block (BL) is modulate conceive and it
is compose by a lot of line modules (ML) their num­
ber depending on the capacity of the acquisition sys­
tem.
The line module architecture (ML) was synthe­
sized (Fig.2) on the ground of the technical and
functional specifications.
lAFFI
The ML block contains : line circuits (CLo ^
CLis), the block of the line selection (BSL), the
block of the line state verification (BVSL) and the
block of the alarm transmission (BTA).
The line circuits (CLi) ensures the telemeasure­
ment line effective connection to the interface circuit
(Fig. 3). This connection ensure the galvanic isola­
tion of the interface to the telemeasurement line.
The optic couplers ensures the interrogate com­
mand (Oi), the verification of the line state (O2) and
the command transmission (O3) to the underground
in case of the pre-established levels overtaking
For the implementation of the others blocks it
was synthesized the functions which have to
achieved. On the ground of this functions it was
conceived the principle diagram. The BSL get the
Ao, Ai, A2, addresses like inputs and the Si, Sj+i sig­
nals. On the ground of this addresses and signals it is
synthesized the ILq IL15 signals which achieves the
optic coupler command. The syntheses is on the
ground of the general table of the line command
achievement.

Table 1. Command line table

Si Si+1 Ao Ai A2 OUTPUTS
IMPOSSIB
0 0 X X X
LE
0 1 X X X 1 L0 - 1 L7
1 0 X X X ILs -i- ILi5
Figure 2. The architecture of the line module. 1 1 X X X —

748
 Figure 3. The structure of the line command.

, where Si is the result signal for the line state and it

In the base of the general table, the results func­ is in the function of the VLi signals which are sup­
tions w ill be in this form : plied by the optic couplers which determines the
state and by the addresses Ai (i = 0..3) which selects
ILo = Ao* Ai* A2* Si* Si+i the line and the selection signal of the module.
The function implementation was achieved using
IL7 = Ao* A i* A2* Si*_Si+i a 16:1 multiplexes.
IL8 = A o* A i* A2* Si* Si+i The amplifier filter and impulses former block
(Fig.5) achieves the signal filtration, the amplifica­
tion and the transformation of the sinus signal
VILi5 = A o* A i* A2* Si* S^i
transmitted from the transducer in a periodical rec­
The functions implementation was achieved using tangular signal which has the same frequency and it
some decoder circuits and open drain gate for the op­ is transmitted to the analog-numerical conveyors
tic coupler command (Fig. 4). (CAN) and the level detector (D N). The filter is an
active filter of Butterworth type.

IL 7

ILg

Figure 5. The AFFI structure

Figure 4. Line selection block
The analog-numerical conveyor has the function
to convert the periodical rectangular signal of vari­
For the BVSL, the synthesized function have the
able frequency in a numerical value.
following form :
In the point o f view o f the delivered signal nature
it was synthesized a conveyor with intermediate
SL =^V ^(A 7* A i* A 2* A 3* VLo+ ... +Ao* A i* A 2*
conversion (Fig. 6).
A 3* VLo)
The conveyor structure contains two blocks rep­
resented by the logic command circuit (CLC) and the

749
programmable counter (NP), interconnected by the REFERENCES
Pi, ?2 and P3 gates.
The CLC ensures the logic of the working and it Poanta, A. 1996. Computer dispatching for the ven­
is commanded by the FCONV signal with 100 Hz tilation process. THETA-10-Sim pozion, C luj
frequency. Besides the mentioned signal, the CLC N apoca
contains, like inputs, the start conversion signal
(SOC), the initialization signal (RESET) and the VS * * * Programmable automates PS 306. Instruc­
signal delivered by the level detector. tions.
The circuit generates the command signals for the
achievement of the internal functions and the state Poanta, A. & Patrascoiu, N. 1997. Circiute si
information : end of conversion (EOC) and overflow echipamente electronice in industria miniera. Ed.
(DP). D idáctica si P edagogica, Bucuresti
The programmable counter (NP) is achieved by
three BCD programmable counters.
This implementation was achieved using the
CMOS integrated circuits.
The command and selection block (BCS) is or­
ganized in modular form and it is implemented with
CMOS integrated circuits.
The process interface was implemented and tested
using a central unit with microprocessor of 8 bits
and, like transducers, it was used the existing trans­
ducers which are in operation.

Figure 6. The AFFI structure

3 CONCLUSIONS

The interface, which was conceived and achieved,

has a modular structure which allows the administra­
tion of 128 maximum number of measurement
points, in (16 - 128) domain, with a lot of extension
possibilities.
The interface can be connected, through proper
circuits, with a varied computing systems, achieved
by a general using microprocessor or by a microcon­
troller or a PLC.
It allows the achievement of a local or general (on
the underground level) acquisition system or a com­
plex command system with a lot of number of meas­
urement points.
The interface is implemented with CMOS circuits
which ensures a reduced consumption and a good
noise immunity.

750
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Softw are control for a drilling m ining robot

E.Pop, M .Pop & M.Leba

D epartm en t o f Inform atics and System Control, University ofP etrosani, Romania

ABSTRACT: In this paper, a drilling machine was considered. This was modified into a six grades o f mobility
robot with rotation joints. Each joint is driven by AC or stepper drives with power electronics. To control the
movement elements o f robot the hierarchically hardware is assumed. Control software is implemented m two
parts o f system, one at high level in PC-memoiy^ and the second at intermediar}^ level in microcontroller ROM-
memor\^ as local BIOS. The mathematical model is determined as twelve transcendental equations written by
Khalil-Klemfinger methods The moA ement o f robot arm is determined using a cinematic inverted model, and
the graphic simulation program is written. Inverting the equations by software, six 0i components o f position
vector are determined. So, for each given position and orientation is possible to find the coordinates o f robot's
elements. On the other hand, a digital signal is outputted at the output port, m order to control the robot
dm es. m real time. A package o f programs written in assembly language is implemented to a PC microcom­
puter at high level and to microcontrollers at intermedian' level.

1 INTRODUCTION To increase the flexibilit}. we propose a hier­

In this paper a six grades o f mobilit}’ robot, with ro­
tation joints. IS considered. Three o f these joints are
for positioning and the next three are for orientation
mechanism
This robot can be used as programmed drill­
ing machine for excavations in tunnel construction or
in mining area to protect the personnel from explo­
sion risk. (fig. 1)
Most o f the robot's controllers use a dedi­
cated PLC for joint's drives to generate the move­
ment trajectories, according to some control algo­
rithms.
archical structure: a PC at high level, microcontrol­
lers at mtermediars' leAel and power electronics at
execution level.
The software has two parts, which are linked
together in bi-directional flow.
First part gets the rotation angles from
mathematical model. The second part finds the new
position o f joint, the rotation direction, converts the
angles in pulses and sends them to execution level.
To simulate the robot working, a cinematic
model b}’ Khalil-Klemfmger method is written and a
simulation program in Windows Visual C++ is de­
veloped To control the joints o f robot the cinematic
inverse problem is solved using assembly language
which permit a fast and good precision o f manipula­
tion.
The programs run in real time, and ensure a
high flexibilit}' o f robot

2 HARDWARE PROTOCOL

The hardware consists o f PC to strategical!}’ level, six

microcontrollers, one for each joint at tactically level
Fig.l
(pC) and power electronics at execution level (PE).
(fig-2.)

751
 Fig.2.

The protocol diagram is o f handshaking and sin0 1 COS05 •sm0(,+cos01-cos(02+ 03+

poling principle The poling process begins with first 04)*sm05•sm06+cos0 1 sin(02+ 03+ 04)-
pC identifies itself than asks for data from PC, by =On
COS06
response at this request, the PC sends back the ad­
dress o f one pC to enable it. At this moment the pC
COS0i-COS(02+03+04)COS0s-
becomes active and is read}' to receive the movement
sin0ism03 =aii
vector, after which the process continues until all the
pCs become inactive. At the other hand, each pC
processes the movement vector to find the minimum cos0 iCos(02+03+04)cos 0 vd-
angle and direction o f dm e rotation after that sends Sin0rsin05-d+cos0rcos(02+03)*d3+c
the equivalent signals to power electronics. The os0i*cos02d2 -d „
power electronics converts the received signals into
electrical pulses for joint drives (JDi). COS0i-COS0vCOS0(,-
sin0rCOs(02+03+04)-sm05Cos06+
sin0i •sm(02+ 03+04)sm 0 (, ^21
3 MATHEMATICAL MODEL
-COS0rCOS0vSin0f,+
Mathematical model o f six grades mobility robot is
sin0 1 cos( 02+ 03+ 04)-sin0 vsin0(,+
determined by the following conditions: first group
sin0 ]•sm(02+ 03+ 04)c o s 0 (, =021
o f three rotations joints is for positioning mechanism
and the last two o f this are parallel axis. Second
sin01•cos(02+ 03+ 04)c o s 0 s+
group o f three rotation joints is for orientation
cos0rsm0s =a2i
mechanism only had the crossing point axis to rotate
the gripper. ___
sin0iCOs(02+03+04)cos03d+
We consider the rotations angles 0i (i=l,6),
cos0rsin03*d+sm0rcos(02+03)d3+s
the dimensions o f positioning elements di (i=l,2,3)
m0rcos02d2 -d2i
and d the last element containing the gripper. The
movement matrix T„.6 is as follows:
sin(02+03+04)sm0sCos0(ty
n,, ‘’ll dll cos( 02+03+ 04)-sm0 „
n,, o,j a^j ‘l:i -sin(02+03+04)-sm0vSin06+
To0 =
^31 ‘’.31 ‘‘.31 ‘1.31 cos(02+03+04)sm06 =031
0 {) 0 1
-sin(02+03+04)cos05 =a3i
Using Khalil-Klemfinger method the 12
movement equations are: -sm(02+ 03+ 04)-cos05*d+di-
COS01- sin(02+0 ;,+04) sin0,- sin(02+03)-d3-sm02-d2 -d3,
cos0rCOs(02+03+04)sm0s-cos0(,- Inverting these transcendental equations we
Sin0]COS0sCOS0r, =nn get the angles 0i:

752
 Va -+B- 4 CONTROL ALGORITHM
tg‘p =
The control algorithm for real simulation and digital
A” + B” + C +d-, ~
sin(0. +cp) control o f robot consist o f the steps: Given the input
2 -d . -V a '+ B " +C - data (coordinates x, y, z and angular position a , p, y
A” + B~ + C” ~ do ~ d3~ o f object face to fixed platform) we determine the
cosB
2-dod3 movement matrix To 6. then calculate the angles 0i
0,1 -0 ,1 -tge, (i= l....... 6), after that we calibrate the six movement
tgf^6 n ,i - t g e i- n ,, equations and determine the 9 bits o f movement an­
gles for each joint. All these steps are executed by
■y/(iii|~ +n,i~)-tg-e„ +(0|i~ + 0 ;i') PC, which displays robot position to the screen.
tg (e ,+ e ,+ H ,)
(0 ,1 + n „ - t g e j The next steps will be executed by microcontrollers
a:i-a|i-tgH| as follows: taking from PC the 9 bits o f specific an­
sin 03 : gles this will be saved m corresponding microcontrol­
o/l + tg’^ lers RAM memories. Then will be found the rotation
where; A=dii-d an; B=d 2i-d a2i; C=d]-(d 3i-d a3i). direction, the timing pulses corresponding to specific
These six equations represent the mathemati­ equation o f angles, after that sent the pulses to the
cal inverse model to determine the rotation angles. power electronics. As well, the microcontroller sends
to PC the feedback information related to position
and other parameters o f movement, (fig. 3.)

Fig.3.

753
5 SOFTWARE CONTROL FOR ROBOT
call InversSursa ; calculates the mverse matrix call
scrieVal
The software has two parts: at high level there is a
call InversDestinatia
program written in Visual C++ for graphic simula­
call desen
tion and m 1-80X86 assembly language to solve the
call buton ; polls the buttons
inverse model, at intermediaiy^ level there is a pro­
call TestButtonPress
gram written m 80C51 assembly language for micro­
cmp restart, 1
controller.
je redo : reinitializes the robot
The PC software solves the inverting model
mov ah.O; wait for a key to be stroke
o f the robot and determines the movement angles,
mt 16h
which are transmitted to the next level. Although,
mov al,3 ; clear display
displays a windows graphical simulation and control
mov ah,0
o f the robot, (fig.4 )
mov bh,0
The microcontroller software for each joint
mt lOh
analyzes the angle, comparing it with the last posi­
mov ax,4c00h : exit to O.S
tion, and establishes the direction o f movement ac­
m t21h
cording to the new position. Then, the microcontrol­
end start
ler outputs the string o f pulses to the execution level
(power electronics).
The PC software was written in 1-80X86 as­ 6CONCLUSIONS
sembly language. It consists o f over 3000 statements
from which the mam program is: 1. Usmg a hierarchical control, at the high level
real time software can be written to solve the com­
start: call getcar plex cmematic model o f a six grades o f mobilit}^ ar­
mov ax,0a000h ticulated robot.
mov es.ax ; initialize es=video address 2. At the mtermediaiy- level the jomts are
mov ax,^i/]data driven by an imposed optimal speed diagram like:
mov ds.ax rmnimum timing, constant shock, sinusoidal shock.
mov ah,0: puts VIDEO mode 3. This method ensures sophisticated software
mov a ll2 h ; MODE=12h, 640x480 with high flexibility and friendly graphical support.
mt lOh
call EnableMouse
redo: call HideMousePomter 7 REFERENCES
call desenlmt
call ShowMousePomter Pop E., Robotic control systems, Petrosani,1998
Pop E.. Pop M., Assembly lanyuoge programming
call init
fo r 1-80x86 microprocessors, EDP, 1999
Mark H.Lee, Inteligente roboter, VCH verlagsge-
sellschaft mbH. 1991

754
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Innovative solutions for the overburden handling system

o f P.T Freeport Indonesia

Detlev L. Schröder
K R U P P Foerdertechnik, Essen, Germ any

ABSTRACT: Freeport McMoRan Copper & Gold is running one of the biggest and most difficult mining
operations in the world. Located at about 4000 m above sea level in a remote mountain region o f Irian Jaja,
the mine requires always new and advanced equipment tailored to handle the steadily growing material
masses of the operation. Mining of ore was started by Freeport at 16,000 t/d to reach now 250,000 t/d. Based
on a ratio of 3.1 between overburden and pay mineral, this means a huge volume of overburden to be handled
per day, with simultaneous increase of the hauling distances and higher lifts for the burden.
In 1997 Freeport decided therefore to install an In - Pit Crushing System for the overburden handling.
Comprehensive tasks were specified for the system. It had to be designed for a max. handling rate of 12,000
t/h, while the spreader was requested to fill up a lake situated 400 m below the upper dump crest.
The development o f the complete system took nearly one year and is described in this paper. Special
emphasis was given to the design of both the crusher and the spreader. The crusher is presently the largest
semi-mobile gyratory unit in the world and the semi-mobile design of the spreader is unique.
Both plants are relocated using the same transport crawler.

1. INTRO DUCTION Taking into consideration the extreme climatic and

geographic problems which this operation
The official web-page of Freeport McMoran encountered at an elevation of more than 4000 m,
(http://www.fcx.com/ ) gives a nice overview it is really a success story presented here.
about the history o f one o f the largest and most
profitable Copper-Gold projects of our world. The
following data has been taken from this page :

Table 1. Brief History o f Freeport Indonesia.

1936 The Colijin expedition is the first outside

group to reach the Jayawijaya Mountain
glacier, and discovers the Ertsberg.
1960 The Freeport expedition, led by Forbes
Wilson and Del Flint, rediscovers the
Ertsberg
1966 Draft Contract o f work for the Ertsberg
initialed
1987 Average daily production increased to
more than 16, 000 tons p e r d a y
1993 Production averages 62,3000 TPD
1995 118,000 TPD expansion was completed The operation at Freeport today comprises o f the
ahead o f schedule Grasberg open-pit and an underground section
1997 Approval from Indonesia’s Minister of with nearly 90% o f the production coming from
Environment for a Regional AM DAL the open-pit. In the last years the open pit has
study, which w ill permit the further changed from a hillside operation to a deep pit
expansion o f the milling rate up to a mine (see picture 1) from which all the overburden
maximum o f 3 0 0,000 tons o f ore p e r day has to be hauled upwards to an outside dump.

755

Picture 2. Grasberg mine and outside dump area.
With increasing depth of the mine and longer haul
distances economic considerations normally call
for implementation of an In-Pit Crushing system.
At Freeport it was decided in 1997 to install such a
system. The task formulated was : “ build a
crusher -conveyor - spreader system with a
capacity o f more than 10.000 t/h and use this
system to fill up the lake shown on picture 2”. The
lake area was already used as a truck dump at this
time and trucks where discharging overburden
from a height of more than 400 m into the lake.
Picture 3. Truck dumping operation.
Picture 3 shows that this dump was very unstable
and often cracks developed some 40 - 50 m behind
the crest. A normal spreader would therefore
always be in danger if positioned close to the edge
o f the dump. Only a spreader with a very long
boom which could be positioned on stable ground
during operation could be implemented in this
situation.
756
The other components of the system had also to be
extreme - the semimobile crushing plant having a
size 63” X 114” and belonging to the class of the
largest gyratory crushers ever built - three high
capacity conveyor sections - and a transport
crawler T 1250 with a capacity exceeding Krupp's
largest unit built so far by 50 %.
The following picture gives an overview about the
complete system:
Picture 4. The complete In-Pit Crushing - Conveying -
Spreading system.
2. LOCATION, ACCESS AND GEOLOGY
2.1 L ocation
Tembagapura, the mining town central to the
operations is located at approximately 1800m
above sea level and is accessed by road from
Timika in the lowlands approximately 70km away.
Timika is the nearest township outside the Mine
Lease area. The m ill and power station servicing
the mine are located at approximately 2700m
above sea level between Tembagapura and the
mine.
The project area is located on the southern slope of
the Sudirman Mountains of New Guinea, in the
Indonesian province of Irian Jaya, at about 4°08’
south latitude and 137°05 east longitude.
The mine work areas range in elevations from m ill
site 2800 meters (approximately 9000 feet) to the
mine 4100m (approximately 13,400 feet) above
sea level.
2.2 A ccess
Access to the townsite and the millsite is by a
gravel-surfaced road with many grades in excess of
25%. The physical size o f loads which may be
transported to the millsite is limited by existing
tunnels.
Access to the minesite for personnel and materials
from the millsite is by aerial tram.
Picture 5. Tunnel dimensions on access road.
Picture 6. Aerial tram.
2.3 G eology
- Composition
The mountains o f the Central Irian Jaya Range are
composed of sedimentary rocks ranging in age
from Silurian to Eocene. The environment of
deposition o f these rocks ranges from deep Ocean
Sediments to arid terrestrial Sediments.
These rocks have been slightly metamorphosed in
some locations, and intrusive bodies are found in
many areas. The folding and overthrusting which
formed the range is middle to late Quaternary in
age. Much o f the existing topographic
development is glacial origin. Existing glaciers in
the area are confined to the very high elevations
northeast o f the mine.
- Tectonics and seismicity
The tectonics o f these mountains are related to
collision o f the north-moving Australian plate with
757
the west-moving Pacific plate. The major structural
trends are east-west trending folds and thrust faults
and northwest trending shear faults. The general
area is a very active seismic zone. There have
been earthquakes o f Richter magnitude 8+
recorded within 300km o f the site, and other
earthquakes of 7+.
3. BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
- Capacity:
Freeport required an IPC-system which should
deliver approx. 7500 t/h of overburden as average
capacity throughout the year. Taking into
consideration all operational stoppages and delays
( e.g. truck shortage, bad weather etc.) as well as
possible unforeseen breakdowns, the crusher had
to be capable of handling 10,000 t/h ( 5,500 m3/h).
Even this 10,000 t/h could not be taken as design
capacity for the rest o f the system, as a possible
overload has always to be considered during
normal operation. Therefore the conveyors and the
spreader had to be designed for a maximum
handling rate of 12,000 t/h and 5900 m^/h.
- Drives:
Because of the high elevation in which the
equipment has to operate the electric drives are not
able to produce the same power as at sea level.
Therefore they have to be oversized by approx.
15% compared to standard power requirement
calculations.
Weather:
while climatic conditions are generally moderate
with temperatures ranging from -2 to + 44 degrees
Celsius and wind speeds o f max 36 m/s (80 mph),
rainfalls of more than 3200 mm/a are normal.
Because o f the mountain terrain, wind and rain
may come very often from the side and, specially
at the discharge boom o f the spreader, from below.
The design has to take care of this.
4. THE EQUIPMENT
4.1 The sem im obile g yra to ry crushing p la n t
A schematic drawing and a picture of the crushing
plant are shovm on the following pictures .
The crushing plant houses one o f the largest
gyratory crushers in the world, a KS 63 - 114 with
a feed opening of 6 3'' and a cone diameter of
114". It is designed for loading by 300 t trucks,
the receiving hopper having a life capacity o f 720 t
and the discharge bin a capacity o f 8001.
 - a rock breaker ( hydraulic hammer)
- an elevator for transport of parts and personnel
- a HVAC ( heating, ventilation. A ir
conditioning) system
- an apron feeder 3 m x 10 m for material
discharge from underneath the discharge bin

The following table lists some additional technical

data of the plant:

Total height approx. 45 m

Total weight approx. 1465 t
Main drive approx. 900 kW
Product size 80% < O S S

Picture 7. Schematic drawing of crushing plant.

4.2 The con veyor system

The main layout of the conveyor system is shown

in picture 4.
The following table lists the main technical data of
the system:

Table 3. Technical data of conveyor system.

Handing Capacity: 10,000 t/h; Bulk Density; 1.8 t/m’

Conveyor U ft Instalted Bett Width B«K Speed Belt Quality

No. Distance
m m kW mm m/s
200 44 5 447 2,134 3.81 Plylon Plus 1000/5
201 789 136 4x1,566 2,134 3.81 St 5400
202 530 29 2x1,118 2,134 3.81 St 1600

It was a special requirement from PTFI to elevate

the conveyors above the ground to get good access
for cleaning purposes. Rock boxes and impact feed
tables at the transfer points assure a safe transition
of the material from one belt to the next.
Some additional safety features in the conveyors
are:

- Pull-cord switches : Pull-cord switches w ill trip

Picture 8. Crushing plant during erection.
The trucks can approach the hopper via three
loading points o f which two are in regular use and
one point is a reserve point.
As in all modem semimobile cmshing plants from
Kmpp the service tower with the operator's cabin
and the cmsher tower are separated during normal
operation, minimising vibrations in the cabin and
the other installations in the service tower.
Some additional technical features o f the plant are
a hydraulic service crane for 140 t load at 9 m
reach
the associated and upstream conveyors with no
time delay.
- Belt tracking switches: Belt tracking switches
have a first contact for warning.
- Audible warning signals : A while before the
conveyor is started, horns are sounded to warn
the personnel.
Conveyor speed monitoring : The conveyor
speed is monitored by MILLTRONICS motion
sensors. If the conveyor doesn’t start within a
set period of time, the monitoring device is
tripped.
- Conveyor belt slip monitoring : The conveyor
is shut down in case of substantial slip.
- Belt rip detection : As a special safety feature
all belts on the conveyor system and on the

758
 spreader are delivered with the “Sensor Guard
2000” system. Sensor Guard works on the
premises of closed-circuit sensor loops
embedded in the belt, monitored by
electromagnetic detectors placed at high
potential damage points. As the conveyor belt
moves, these loops pass over the detectors
which generate output pulses. If the belt begins
to rip, a sensor loop is also cut. As this cut loop
passes over a detector, no pulse is generated.
The lack o f pulse is recognised by the central
unit and the belt automatically shuts down to
minimise further damage.
Brake monitoring : The micro switches
monitor the brakes and provide warning in case Picture 10. The semimobile spreader on the dump.
o f excessive wear.
Conveyor chute monitoring : The conveyor Basic considerations for design o f the spreader
chutes are equipped with level detectors. In have been to built a machine with a long boom,
case a chute is blocked, the conveyor is shut able to discharge material as far as possible into
down. In case o f overflow the chutes can be the lake while operating from a safe position either
emptied by pressing the by-pass buttons. on natural stable ground or far behind the dump
Magnetic separator : A magnetic separator is crest. As the spreader is used at a very high dump
provided above conveyor C 200. The location o f more than 400 m it is not necessary to relocate
is above the head pulley o f conveyor C 200, the machine often. This means an own crawler
separation being carried out in conveying drive is not required and the spreader does not
direction o f the belt. Any material separated is need a slewing possibility for the discharge boom.
discharged into a floor-mounted container The effective capacity of the spreader depends on
carriage moved by hand. the material characteristics and the effective
operating time. Specially the material
characteristics are changing with various
4.3 The sem im obile sp rea d er overburden types, from small, brittle “pokerchip”
to hard and lumpy blocks.
The semimobile spreader comprises of following
main components The material is loaded onto the spreader via a
chute equipped with a rock box and an adjustable
(1) Undercarriage impact table. From there it is transported over the
(2) Upper structure belt of the receiving boom to the discharge boom.
During operation the discharge boom w ill be
(3) Receiving boom
lowered below dump crest level, by this allowing
(4) Discharge boom
the material to flow downwards and creating
(5) Counterweight boom
power which can be used in the rest of the system
(6) Pylon 1
(7) Pylon 2 to save energy.
Additional technical data of the spreader is listed
(8) vertical rope suspension
in following table :
(9) horizontal rope suspension

Table 4. Technical data of spreader.

Length of receiving boom 34 m
Belt width receiving boom 1829 mm
Belt speed receiving boom 4,8 m/s
Length of discharge boom 127 m
Belt width discharge boom 1400 mm
Belt speed discharge boom 8,6 m/s
Possible dumping height 30 m
Total installed power 3190 HP ASL
Average ground pressure 125 kPa

Picture 9. Schematic drawing of spreader.

759
For maintenance purposes the discharge boom of transverse simultaneously (ramp travel) - or
the spreader is equipped with a service car which inclination in random direction 3% with spreader
runs on the conveyor structure within the boom. and 5 % with crusher.

Additional technical data of the crawler are listed

in following table :

Table 5. Technical data o f transport crawler.

Overall length 14m

Width 8,6 m
Average ground pressure ( loaded) 456 kPa
Average ground pressure ( empty) 119kPa
Picture 11. Service car on discharge boom. Main diesel engine 656 kW

4.4 The Transport craw ler

The transport crawler is an integral part o f the total

IPC - system. It is used for relocation of the
crushers and conveyors in the pit and for moving
o f the semimobile spreader. The crawler consists
of following main groups :
- the chassis (12) with slewing gear (13), lifting
cylinders (9) and the centre column with
rotation joint (17);
- the crawler track assembly (4) with the two
single-track crawlers, crawler motors (14) and
planetary gearboxes (15), transverse bogie (11)
and crawler axles (10);
- the lifting platform (1) with hydraulic clamping
device (2) ;
- the component bed (7) with Diesel engine (8),
pump distributor gear unit (16), driver’s cab
(3),
- electrical equipment and central lubrication Picture 12. Main groups o f transport crawler.
system (6);
- the hydraulic system with, hydraulic power unit
(5) and tank integrated in the chassis.

The lifting platform is the most important part of

the machine. It is used to raise the loads to be
transported by the transport crawler. The platform
is a welded structure consisting o f an upper and a
lower plate vvith intermediate webs. The upper
plate has a rubber lagging.
A mount for the centre column (4) with rotation
joint (5) is provided in the middle.
The platform is lifted/lowered by means o f 4
lifting cylinders (4).
The lifting platform is equipped with a clamping
device (2) to secure the load to be transported to Picture 13. The transport crawler.
the platform.
The transport crawler allows to handle a nominal
load o f 1250 t with a centre o f gravity at 11m 5, PERFORMANCE TEST
height.
Permissible slope o f terrain with crusher/spreader After completion of erection and commissioning a
loaded on platform is 15% longitudinal and 2% performance test had to proof the capacities of
system. For this test following limits had been set

760
by P T F I:
A total nominal output o f 128,000 t in a twenty-
four (24) hour operating period and 24,600 t in a
three (3) hour period within the 24 hour test.
The test itself was performed successfully in April
1999 with following results :

Picture 14. Hourly results o f performance test.

The diagram shows that a total o f 182,000 t had

been handled within 24 hours and more than
8200t/h over a period o f 3 hours.

6. SUM M ARY

Between 1997 and 1999 one o f the largest IPC -

systems in the world has been installed in the
rough mountains o f Irian Jaya - Indonesia. With
this system P.T. Freeport Indonesia has set a new
milestone in the development o f the Grasberg
mine. KRUPP Foerdertechnik has done the
complete job as a turn-key project.
The geologic and climatic circumstances, the
terrestrial restrictions and the details o f the
equipment o f the complete IPC- system have been
described.
The results o f the performance test done in April
1999 have been presented.

761
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Tests o f experim ental specim en o f robotized unit for continuous blasting

o f hard ores

A.M.Tkatchenko, V.K. Voronenko, O.G.Kremer & A.T.Buneyev

The K unaev's Institute o f Mining, National A cadem y o f Sciences, Almaty, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT: The paper presents the results o f tests o f experimental specimen o f drill-charge-blasting unit
(DCBU). The tests showed that continuous blasting (without breaking aggregate removing from a face when
blasting) was carried out for the first time in mining practice with remotely operated control by this aggregate.

1 INTRODUCTION quick-hardening mixture is conveyed into behind-

At the Kunaev's Institute o f Mining during many
years investigations and experimental-design works
are carrying out for creation o f underground
robotized complex for flow mining o f hard ores
(Editor D.A.Kunaev 1985; S.S.Muzgin,
A.M.Tkatchenko & O.G.Kremer 1991;
A.M.Tkatchenko, B.N.Zemskov & V.G.Varlamov
1995; A.M.Tkatchenko, O.G.Kremer,
V.K.Voronenko & Pryanik 1996). Continuity o f this
process it is provided to carry out by using o f
method o f continuous blasting and drill-charge-
blasting unit (DCBU) which were worked out in the
Institute.
Technological process o f continuous flow mining
o f hard ores with using o f the robotized complex
proposed by the Kunaev's Institute o f Mining (fig .l)
begins from pre-starting operations. Then after
putting face conveyor 9, breaking robot 7, loading­
cleaning robot 8 and concrete pump 12 on stream,
drilling begins o f vertical row o f blast holes, their
charging and blasting are carrying out. When
blasting face aggregates are protected by blast-
localizator, broken ore is re-loaded on face conveyor
by loading robot. After that ore arrives at drift
conveyor 14. DCBU moves by face conveyor for
one step, which is equal to burden. So the first
working micro-cycle is carried out, then a process o f
mining is repeated up to an end o f the longwall.
Duration o f one micro-cycle for 3 m^ ore mining is
1-1.2 minutes.
As ore mining and after pass o f loading-cleaning
robot sections o f support-forms 10 are moved step-
by-step in proportion o f worked-out space, and
shuttering space by concrete pump. When coming to
the end o f longwall DCBU is gone out to an air
roadway, where its inspection is carried out, and if it
is necessary change o f empty boxes o f explosive
cartridges for full boxes and renewal o f drilling bits
are carried out.
When a process o f broken ore loading is finished,
movement o f DCBU and loading-cleaning robot is
carried out to haulage drift and then movement o f
longwall conveyor is carried out to front o f face.
This is the end o f the cycle o f ore mining along all
the length o f a longwall - working cycle.
Experimental specimen o f the DCBU was tested at
the testing ground at a full-size face.
2 RESULTS OF TESTS OF EXPERIMENTAL
SPECIMEN OF DRILL-CHARGE-BLASTING
UNIT
Tests o f DCBU were carried out at the Institute's
testing ground at the experimental face simulating a
longwall with a height o f 3 m.
The purpose o f the tests was to show o f principle
possibility o f continuous blasting (that is drilling,
charging and blasting o f blast holes without removal
o f the unit from a face when blasting) and to
elucidate original data for design the following
experimental specimen for testing in underground
conditions.
When testing in all 29 working cycles were carried
out (every cycle includes: movement o f the unit,
drilling o f a kit o f 4 breaking blast holes, their
charging and blasting). When testing continuous
breaking was achieved during 8 and 6 cycles under

763
Fig. 1 Layer long-face mining with the help of a robotized complex (plan)
1-inclined downway; 2 - level- drift upways; 3 haulage drift; 4 - filling air way; 5 filling-air raise; 6- ore
chute; 7 - breaking robot; 8 - loading-cleaning robot; 9 - face conveyor; 10 - support-forms; 11- filling
pipeline; 12- concrete pump; 13 - central movable control station of the complex; 14 - drift conveyor

conditions of remotely operated control without
malfunctions. Tests have not brought to light injuries
of the aggregates of this complex, except 37 mm
deflection of localizer of blast (protective shield)
which had no an effect on normal operation of the
DCBU aggregates, and there were some
malfunctions of control switches which are not adapt
to low temperatures (-5®C) - the tests were carried
out in November, 1993. In real face under
underground conditions the temperature w ill be
always above zero.
3 CONCLUSIONS
As a result of carried out tests it is possible to
establish a fact that for the first time in mining
practice (we didn't find other publications) the
experimental specimen of the drill-charge-blasting
unit has just demonstrated principle possibility of
continuous blasting with remotely operated control
(without removal o f the unit from a face when
blasting). This allows to begin design work of the
second improved specimen of the DCBU for testing
in underground conditions.
flow mining of hard ores' deposits: Mechanisation
and automation in mining. Poland. No. 9-10
(259).
S.S.Muzgin, A.M.Tkatchenko & T.Beksyrgayev.
1992: News of Kazakhstan's Science. Catalogue.
Issue 3. p. 21-24.
A.M.Tkatchenko, B.N.Zemskov & V.G.Varlamov.
1995. Simulation of operation of the complex for
flow mining of hard ores: Comprehensive
exploitation of mineral resources. No. P.30-39.
A.M.Tkatchenko, O.G.BCremer, V.K.Voronenko &
Pryanik. 1996. Underground-robotized complex for
flow mining of ore deposits: Proceedings of the 5^*^
International Symposium on Mine Planning and
Equipment selection. Sao Paulo, Brazil.

4 REFERENCES

Scientific-technical principles of electrification of

mining machines at ore mines. 1985. Editor
Academician D.A.Kunayev. 248 p.
S.S.Muzgin, A.M.Tkatchenko & O.G.Kremer. 1991.
Conception of creation of robotized complex for

764
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 178 3

N ew type o f transport for deep open pits

Ye.K.Yedygenov
The Kunaev’s Institute o f Mining, N ational Academ y o f Sciences, Almaty, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT: The paper presents new type o f transport - conveyor train, which is the vehicle including
flexible system o f running trucks with freight-carrying belt for large-sized rock mass moving which
continuously move between points o f loading and discharge. This vehicle is very promising for useful
minerals mining from deep open pits.

On the basis o f mineral resources in the Republic o f
Kazakhstan multi-branch mining-and-metallurgical
complex (MMC) was formed with mining,
processing and metallurgical enterprises and also
with scientific-research and design institutions,
having high qualified scientific and engineering
specialists. Today MMC ensures production o f a
quarter o f marketable products o f all industry o f
Kazakhstan and more than a half o f its export. For
enough long outlook this complex will keep up its
importance as a key sector o f the Republic's
industry.
Modem tendency o f mining industry development
is extend o f useful minerals mining by surface
mining method. When deposits o f ferrous and non-
ferrous metals mining the surface mining method has
priority: 87% o f iron ore output and 58% o f non-
ferrous metals output are mined by surface mining
method.
At the same time with increase o f number o f open
pits an increase in output o f useful minerals is
connected with ore mining at deep levels. During
last 10-15 years open pits' depth from day surface
was reached 200-300 m. Designs are scheduled open
pits' level up to 500-600 m.
With an increase o f depth o f deposit mining
expenses for transportation o f rock mass and ore
prime cost increase too. Part o f expenses for open-
cut transport in total cost o f useful minerals mining
today is 50%, reaching 70% at deep open pits.
The increase o f a depth o f mining operations
imposes new requirements for mining-and-transport
equipment. Using o f traditional types o f open-cut
transport - rail transport and automobile transport -
when deep levels mining is connected with necessity
o f transport descents driving, which causes to
increasing o f open-pit field dimensions, increasing
o f volume o f stripping operations, and in the case o f
automobile transport using - with creation o f
additional ventilation system. Effectiveness o f these
types o f transport using decreases abruptly when
depth o f mining operations will being more than 200
m.
In connection with using powerful means o f
mechanisation, increasing o f volume o f operations
and substantial deepening o f open pits, a problem o f
dust and gases control become very important
because its timely decision will have a strong impact
on the health o f the workers at open pits.
Improvement o f labour conditions when deep open
pits exploiting, ensuring designed productivity o f
mine and at the same time decreasing o f expenses
for useful minerals transportation is possible only by
the way o f creation and using new types o f transport
which have more productivity, not depend on an
angle o f transportation and are not a source o f gas
emission.
A number o f investigators (see References from
Aleksandrov and the others, 1972, up to
Dzhkupbayev and the others, 1988) regard that
promising direction in increase o f transport process
effectiveness is using o f apron conveyors, pneumo-
electromagnetic container transport and conveyor
trains.
An advantage o f these types o f transport in
comparison with existing ones is in possibility o f full

765
automation of transport process, carrying out
movement of large volumes of large-sized rock
mass.
A pron conveyors are able to transport large-sized
rock mass without additional crushing, however only
for short distance and they have large radius of
curvature in vertical and horizontal planes. These
disadvantages lim it substantially their field of
application.
When pneumo-container transport operating
electric energy takes part in a process of
transportation only mediate, transforming into
kinetic energy of compressed air. That is why a part
of useful energy is not used and this substantially
decrease coefficient of efficiency of pneumo­
container transport. Besides this type of transport is
used for transportation of small-sized rock mass.
When exploiting deformation of pipeline takes place
under action o f weight of loaded containers. This
requires regular control and renewal of failed
directing pipes.
In electromagnetic container transport, which was
worked out at the Kunaev's Institute of Mining,
tractive motors, which were made in a form of
solenoid type electromagnets, are placed within
some distance of each other. They in turn by means
of commutating device act on freight-carrying
working head and it, when interacting with tractive
motor, accumulates mechanical energy and moves
from one motor to the other, spending accumulated
energy.
Electromagnetic container transport is based on a
principle of attraction of electromagnet of
ferromagnetic body - container by magnetic field and
has the following advantages:
- transport process may be completely automated,
which w ill be the cause of increase of labour
productivity and decrease of operating costs;
- it may be used for rock mass transport by a way
with any angle of transportation, because tractive
motors, placing stationary relative to guides, act on
all volume of container and give it kinetic energy
irrespective o f coefficient of adhesion of running
part of container with guides;
- making of containers from a material with enough
high mechanical properties allows to carry out of
transportation different kinds of freight;
- there are no stringent requirements to roadbed,
that is advantageously when electromagnetic
transport using in mining industry, where as
excavation front movement as it possible to move
and to extend transport way.
766
Conveyor or truck train is a vehicle, including a
row of running trucks with freight-carrying belt for
large-sized rock mass moving, which continuously
move under action of tractive motors, placing
stationary along a train way from point of loading up
to discharge station.
Experience of exploitation abroad (Bacon, 1968)
and investigations carrying out in the
A.A.Skotchinskii Institute of Mining (Potapov,
Komrakov & Melikhov, 1976), IG TM A M Ukraina
(Solodovnik, 1989), in the Kunaev's Institute of
Mining (Yedygenov & Sagimbayev, 1988,
Yedygenov, 1997) and in the other institutes show
that to advantages of conveyor trains we may
concern high productivity, rhythm in materials
arriving into intake bin, possibility in rock mass
transport immediately from place of extraction
without re-loading for long distance and when radius
of curvature is minimal (up to 25 m). In comparison
with railway transport conveyor trains allow to
decrease distance of transport in 3...5 times and
ensure speed of movement up to 5... 10 m/s. It is easy
to put additional working trains on transport system
"conveyor train", and this allows to control the
system's productivity in a wide range.
Conveyor trains advantage is also their
accumulating ability, possibility of selective freight-
transportation.
In the Kunaev's Institute of Mining conveyor train,
electromagnetic motor for its movement, loading-
discharge devices, where corresponding operations
are carried out during a process of train's movement,
brake-devices and mechanisms for freight-carrying
belt cleaning were worked out.
Tractive motors, carrying out conveyor train
movement, were made in a form of electromagnets
with internal magnetic conductor. They are located
at the stationary points along trains' way and distance
between them is equal or a little bit lower than train's
length. This ensures semi-steep transportation of
rock mass because magnetic field of the motor acts
on the conveyer train as a rope of a winder. Tests of
this electromagnetic motor showed that
electromagnets with internal magnetic conductor are
more effective than asynchronous electric motors,
which are used now when carrying out of design
works of conveyer trains.
In tractive motors with internal magnetic conductor
(fig. 1) armature 2 is made as like-S longitudinal
slots 3, in which support rollers 4 are mounted.
Winding 7 and conductor 8 with flanges 9 on the
both ends are placed inside the armature. Inductor
with winding is enclosed by dia-magnetic housing

Figure 1. Scheme of linear electric motor with
internal magnetic conductor.
I- longitudinal section; II- section by A-A.
10 and is suspended by springs 11 from base-support
12. For amplification of magnetic flow Ferro­
magnetic bars 13 with high magnetic permeability
are placed in longitudinal slots (Yedygenov and
others, 1980).
The operation of tractive motor includes the
following. When the winding 7 switching into circuit
magnetic field arises in inductor 8. Magnetic field,
amplified by Ferro-magnetic bars 13, creates tractive
effort for armature movement. Armature with freight
container 5 moves by means of rollers 6 by guides 1.
Support rollers 4 and springs 11 allow preventing
seizure of armature when possible skewnesses take
place.
There is no device for taking o ff a current in this
tractive motor and this simplifies its structure and
allows to use its in blast-hazard conditions.
On the basis o f experimental investigations with
theory o f similarity using type-sized row of
electromagnetic tractive motors was worked out for
different values of weight-carrying capacity of
conveyor trains. This allows carrying out design
work of transport system "conveyor train" for broad
range of exploiting and planning to exploitation
open pits.
Substantial advantage of conveyor trains is their
relatively simple modular structure. Every module
includes tractive motor, running trucks, guides, and
767
system for control by motors. Varying by a number
of modules it is possible to change productivity of
transport system and distance of transportation.
Failed motors or running trucks it is possible to
change quickly and easily for new ones, and repair
operations have not practically an effect on
continuity of transport process.
Freight traffic in the system "conveyor trains" is
regulated by the way of putting into operation or
removal of trains from transport communications.
Laying of conveyor trains' way is possible by an area
with any relief and by pit walls with angles of
inclination up to 30-40. Conveyor train is
ecologically safe, because electromagnetic linear
motors are used as a motor of its functional
functional units.
At the largest open pit of the Republic, belonging
to SSGPO Join-Stock Company ore mining today is
carried out at a depth of 360 m at Sarbaiskii and 370
m at Sokolovskii open pits. Their designing depth is
correnspodingly 650 m and 468 m.
Growth of open pits' depth and increase of height of
rock mass hoisting are the cause of complication of
transport operations, connecting with building of
elements of track's development, crossing of rail
tracks and road, decreasing of working space of open
pit, limiting of its parameters at low levels when
substantial moving of working front of open pit. In
this connection at SSGPO a proposition was worked
out to use inclined rail tunnels for opening-up of
deep levels of Sokolovskii open pit (Vypolzov and
the others, 1995). By this proposition a part of
railway track carries out from the final contour of the
open pit by the means of inclined tunnels. This
allows to save existing in the open pit constant
scheme of descents of railway tracks at constant pit
walls and to create new ones at low levels, ensuring
approach immediately to re-loading storage and
excavators' faces.
However, operating automobile-railway transport
scheme with tunnel transportation doesn't solve a
problem of deep levels mining and has substantial
disadvantages:
- limited allowable angle of inclination of railway
tracks (up to 30 % q) which is the cause of their long
extent, exceeding depth of mining in several times;
- limited individual capacity and weight-carrying
capacity of lorries, long extent of roads within open
pit and high height of ore hoisting are the cause of
presence at the same time substantial number of
lorries in open pit, and this decreases abruptly
economic and ecological indexes of mining;
 - railway transport becomes very capital intensive
because of necessity of additional building of tunnels
and development mine workings driving.
This is the cause of exploration of new methods of
rock mass hoisting from deep levels which w ill
ensure saving of both achieved productivity and
level of mined ore cost.
Let's study schemes of Sarbaiskii open pit's mining
with conveyor trains using which present below.
Conveyor train track's construction, as is the case
with recommendations for inclined haulage
(Vypolzov and the others, 1995) is planned in three
phases by height of hoisting from 80 up to 100 m
each with the following extending of every phase of
cascade relatively to preceding. A place of marking
of train's track is tunnel mouth at a level -120 m of
south-east open pit wall.
In correspondence with calendar schedule of
mining operations at Sarbaiskii open pit in 2000-
2010 years maximum volume of rock mass is
planned to transport from a level -280 m (II level of
mining). Development of mining operations at
Sarbaiskii open pit shows intensive lowering of
mining operations, making exploiting space of open
pit narrower and decreasing of volume of rock mass
at lower levels. In these conditions only 5-6 levels by
the height may be exploit in the same time and the
height of hoisting w ill be in average 80-100 m.
Complex of conveyor train is designed for rock
mass hoisting from deep part of Sarbaiskii open pit
without re-loading into railway transport with tunnel
transportation from open pit. Technological scheme
of the complex includes rock mass haulage from
faces to intake bins by lorries and its loading on
freight-carrying part of conveyor train by feeder.
Conveyor train moves by inclined track up to a level
where open re-loading storage with approach railway
tracks is placed. Then rock mass from a bin is re­
loaded into railway wagons and is transported from
the open pit by tunnels of the I and II phases from
levels correspondingly -80 and -120 m. This variant
has substantial advantage because conveyor train's
pressure on guides per 1 m^ is less than railway
train. That is why as guides sections iron (I-beam,
channel and so on) may be used, which are
substantially cheaper and more lightweights than
rail. Disadvantage is presence of repeat discharge­
loading operations.
Let's study a variant of rock mass transportation
without re-loading from lower levels by the means of
conveyor trains, taking account of fact that running
part of conveyor train is designed for parameters of
railway gauge.
768
Conveyor trains' loading may be carried out
similarly with the above-cited variant or immediately
in a face. Loaded train goes up by inclined track by
the means electromagnetic tractive motors up to a
level, where mouth of tunnels and shutting railway
tracks are placed. When arriving on transport level
conveyor train pass to railway track. Then one
conveyor train or group of joint trains are couple
with tractive aggregate or electric locomotive, which
transports this train by tunnel to destination. After
conveyor trains discharge this aggregate transports
the same train to transport level, and from it
conveyor trains moves to a point of loading by
means of electromagnetic motors (fig.2).
1
Figure 2. Technical scheme of rock mass
winding by conveyor trains
1- months of railway tunnels; 2- railway track; 4-
tractive motors; 5- points of loading of conveyor
trains; 6- change - over of conveyor trains way to
railway; 7- embanted way; 8- trench.
In this variant transportation of rock mass is carried
out without re-loading by the shortest way at the
expense of increasing of an angle o f transportation.
This ensures high productivity of transport complex,
decreasing of volume o f rock mass, which is
subjected to repeated many times re-loading,
decreasing of number of lorries, which are at the
same time found at lower levels, and improvement
of ecological situation in open pit.
By indexes per 1 ton of rock mass conveyor trains
using for rock mass transportation from deep levels
is more profitable than inclined haulage using, which
are recommended for exploitation at Sarbaiskii open
pit. So, by per unit consumption of metals advantage Yedigenov, Ye.K., 1997. Effectiveness of conveyor
of conveyor trains is 10 times as many and by per trains using for open-pit mining. Processing of the
unit power-consumption is 1.1 times as many over Republic conference on Comprehensive Exploiting
railway trains. And at the same time conveyor trains of Mineral resources of Kazakhstan. Almaty, p 23-
using ensures ore transportation without re-loading 34.
and allows to decrease operating lorry fleet. Yedygenov, Ye.K., Kolesnik, G.A. 1998.
Besides when building of tunnel for conveyor train Effectiveness of conveyor trains with
volume of mining-drivage operations decreases in 4 electromagnetic motor using when deep open pits
times at the expense only of increase of an angle of mining. Preceding of International Conference on
inclination in 5 times. Comprehensive Exploiting of Mineral Resources of
Kazakhstan, p 95.
Yedygenov, Ye.K., Kalashnikov, A.A. and the
CONCLUSIONS others. Inventor's certificate No. 723731 (USSR).
1980. Linear electric motor.
So, conveyor trains using for mining of deep levels Vypolzov, B.M ., Satybaldin, O.B., Isatchenko, O.S.
of Sarbaiskii open pit is effective because they and others. 1995. Theory and practice of
ensure necessary productivity, carrying out selective development of deep open pits with advanced
semi-steep transportation o f rock mass without re­ equipment of Sokolovskii and Sarbaiskii deposits.
loading. Almaty: Gylym. 176 p.

REFERENCES

Aleksandrov, A .M ., Aglitskii, V.E., and others.

1972. New profession of a pipeline. Industrial
transport. No. 3 p 11-15.
The beginning of magnetic transport. 1996. Nedra:
176 p.
Nikolaev, Yu. A. New type of transport - to mining
branches of industry. 1999. Mining industry. No 3. p
14-17.
Baikonurov, O.A. & Zarubinskii, A.A. 1970. Apron
conveyor for hard rocks and ores. Almaty, Nauka:
192 p.
Potapov, M .G ., Komrakov, A .N., Melikhov, L.V.,
1976. Conveyor trains using at open-pit mining
(review): Moscow. 52 p.
Conveyor trains in mining. Editor Polyakov N.S.
1974. Kiev. 208 p.
Yedygenov, Ye.K., Sagimbayev, D.T. 1988.
Prospects of conveyor trains using when open-pit
mining of useful minerals. Analytic review: Alma-
Ata. 45 p.
Dzhakupbayev , A .N ., Yedygenov, Ye.K., Matov,
Zh.M. Electromagnetic transport and prospects of its
development. 1988. Analytic review. Alma-Ata:
K azN IIN TI. 45 p.
Bacon, R.C.A. 1968. New automated transportation
system for open pit mines. Skilling's Mining Rev.,
51,34.
Solodovnik, L.M . 1989. Scientific basis of
technology of open-pit mining of deposits with
conveyor trains using: Abstract o f thesis for degree
of doctor. 34 p.

769
7 Information technologies in m ining
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

3D m odeling and reserve estim ation o f a coal deposit using neural networks

H.Akcakoca & K.Erarslan

Mining Engineering Departm ent, D um lupinar University, KUtahya, Turkey

N.gelebi
Mining Engineering Departm ent, M iddle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey

A.G. Pasamehmetoglu
Engineering Faculty, Atilim University, Ankara, Turkey

ABSTRACT: Neural network systems are powerful tools for data analysis, data structure learning and inter­
preting. This ability o f them provides their use in extension o f drill hole values and reserve estimation. In this
study, a neural network system developed for data extension and its application to a coal deposit is intro­
duced. The system has training and estimation capabilities. Out o f 119 drill holes, 107 drill holes are used for
training and 12 drill holes for testing. After obtaining an acceptable estimation error for the level o f learning,
the system extends the sample data to 3D-block model. The results and tests show that the system is a reliable
extension tool.

1 INTRODUCTION NNs have been successfully applied to data exten­

Computer aided mine design methods such as pit
limit analysis and production planning are based on
3D models o f the ore bodies. 3D models numerically
express the ore body in order to quantify the size,
shape and the distribution o f the valuable component
in the deposit in 3D essence.
Any attempt to model the grade distribution in 2D
or 3D with conventional methods usually requires
simplifications and assumptions for the spatial
variation. On the other hand, the neural network
(NN) technique requires no assumptions, no compli­
cated mathematical modeling, except simple calcu­
lations performed internally by the network to reach
at its conclusions. It is a mapping process in which
the network was trained to recognize the pattern in
the ore grade distribution, in much the same way
human beings would if they actually could visualize
the spatial distribution. With this approach, no as­
sumptions are needed to be made about any factors
or relationships concerning the spatial variation in
the vicinity o f survey points. Given sufficient data
and appropriate training, the network can be taught
to recognize the relationship between patterns o f in­
put and patterns o f output and then generalize for ar­
eas in the neighborhood o f survey points (Wu and
Zhou, 1993).
sion and ore reserve estimation ( Clarici et. al. ,1993;
Denby & Burnett, 1993; Wu & Zhou ,1993; Pa-
pageridis & Denby ,1998).
In this paper, a NN system called Three Dimen­
sional Artificial Neural Network (3D-ANN) coded
for modeling ore bodies with its application to a coal
deposit is presented. Different than the previous
NNs, 3D-ANN ore grade variability in 3D, even
with insufficient data. 3D-ANN is a multi-layer
feadforward NN and also has the capability o f ore
reserve estimation.
2 NEURAL NETWORK SYSTEM
DEVELOPMENT
2.1 N eural netw ork architecture an d specifications
Learning method or rule is one o f the most important
parts o f a N N system. This is a fundamental differ­
ence between artificial NNs and conventional algo­
rithms. It is also a difference between neural net­
work systems. The most frequently used learning
lule is the Delta Rule, which is also known as the
Least Mean Squared (LMS) error rule (Rao & Rao,
1995). This rule, which is also the first rule used by
Widrow and Hoff, is a gradient-descent learning
rule, which incrementally adjust the connection
weights to minimize the error. In order to do this it

773
needs to know the correct answer, and is thus a su­
pervised learning rule. The most popular supervised
learning network, backpropagation is robust and is a
reassuringly flexible tool.
In the developed system, the multi-layer feed
forward NN and modified form of a supervised
learning scheme backpropagation learning algorithm
have been used to analyse the spatial distribution of
the ore body by training the network with sample
data from logging.
In this system, the objective is to model the 3D
structural form of the ore body. The application
stages of the approach can be seen in Figure 1.
DRILLHOLE DATA
COMPOSITED DATABASE
NN-TRAINING
NN-TESTING
3D MODEL FORMATION
Figure 1. Structure o f the 3D modeling system
In these structural steps, the first procedure is to
prepare the related data structures for the different
samples. The second procedure is to estimate the
values at the desired points. The last procedure is the
evaluation of these estimated values with the statisti­
cal analysis to compare the estimation sensitivity
and 3D ore body model formation and reserve cal­
culations.
The architecture o f the model w ill be explained
based on its application to a coal deposit. For mod­
eling the coal deposit, the network is given an input
of spatial form (x, y, z coordinates) and ask to esti­
mate the calorific value and coal thickness values for
that location as output. The architecture of the NN
model is given in Figure 2.
774
Figure 2. Architecture of the 3D-ANN model.
The first main phase of the system is training. The
feedforward backpropagation network undergoes
supervised training, with a finite number of pattern
pairs consisting of an input pattern and a desired
output pattern. The outputs of the hidden layer neu­
rons are obtained by using a threshold function with
the activations determined by the weights and in­
puts. The final output of the network is determined
by the activations from the output layer. As the acti­
vation function, sigmoid logistic function, which has
values between 0 and 1, is used in the model.
The backpropagation algorithm requires the set­
ting of certain network parameters prior to com­
mencement of the training phase. These include the
number of layers, number of nodes in each layer,
learning rate and momentum. Numerous research
works (Scarselli, & Tsoi, 1998; Fujita, 1998; Qian,
1999) have been devoted to the selection of the
Tight’ parameters, but in actual applications, most
researchers adopt a trial and error approach.
2.2 D ata se t p re p a ra tio n an d p ro c essin g
In this study, assay and survey data belonging to
Buyukduz coal deposit, which belongs to Western
Lignite Establishment (G LI), Kutahya-Turkey, are
used for showing the development and testing of the
3D-ANN model.
The coal thickness of the main seam ranges in
between 4 to 12 m. and contains thin waste inter­
layers. The bedding is almost horizontal toward
8-10° NE.
There are 119 drill holes of various depths drilled
in the region. 107 drill holes are used for training
and 12 drill holes are used for testing.
D rill hole data is composite into benches. Divid­
ing the deposit into benches is advantageous for de­
tailed investigation. This is also necessary for the
applicability of the 3D-ANN system for 3D-block
modeling of the ore body. To use the bench data in­
creases the learning capacity of the network and is
effective with handling insufficient data problem.
2.3 Training a n d testin g network. There is a high correlation between real
and predicted values.
The database for the training o f the network contains
X, y, z coordinates, calorific value and coal thickness
values which have a very large range. The range 2.4 3D - block m odel
should be normalized before the training the net­
After the training and testing, the network is used to
work. A ll the input and output data are scaled line­
estimate the spatial distribution of calorific value
arly into the range o f (0.0, 1.0). It is important to pay
attention to the number of input values in the data within the area of investigation. Levels in 3D for­
set that are close to zero. Since the weight change mation are combined and 3D block model and re­
law is proportional to the input value, then an input serve calculation is completed.
close to zero w ill mean that that weight w ill not
contribute to in learning (Rao & Rao, 1995). To The 3D block model (rendered) can be seen in
avoid such situations, a constant bias is added to the Figure 4.
data to move the data closer to 0.5, where the neu­
rons respond very well.
To determine the optimum parameter values for
training, trial-and-error studies are done. For the de­
posit, optimum training parameters are set as it can
be seen on Table 1.

Table 1. The training parameters for the model

PARAMETERS Values
Number o f layers 3
Number o f patterns 107
Number o f input nodes 3
Number o f output nodes 2
Learning rate s 0.9
Momentum a 0.5
Number o f hidden nodes 10

The training phase is run until the network

reaches at an error value smaller than a predefined
root mean squared error. For this network, an error
of 0.01 is defined.
After the completion of training, the trained net­
work is tested and results from the NN model have
been evaluated with basic statistical measures and
correlation analysis.
Figure 4. 3D block model
In the legend, there are 7 tones representing 7
ranges of calorific value. The minimum calorific
value is taken as 1000 kcal/kg. The reserve of the
deposit is computed as 15,750,000 tons.

3 CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, a 3-D ore body modelling system de­

Figure 3. Actual grade values vs. values predicted by NN
with composited drill hole’s data.
The results of data fit performed during testing are
represented in Figure 3. In the figure the sample val­
ues are compared against the predicted values by the
veloped to interpret and extend the drill hole data, to
form 3D block model and reserve estimation is pre­
sented. The system as an A I technique using NN, di­
rectly trains the network with field assay data at
borehole locations and extends this information to
drilling region. Even the drill hole number is limited,
NN system can be trained and this trained network
can evaluate the drilling region.
Neural network system development and applica­
tion of it on Buyukduz coal deposit shows how the
3D-ANN model creates 3D model of a deposit.

775
 The obtained results and tests on different types of
mineral deposits have validated the developed
model.

REFERENCES

Clarici, E. & Owen, D. & Durucan, S. & Ravencroft P.,

1993. Recoverable reserve estimation using a neural
network. In J. Elbrond & X. Tang, (eds), 24 th. Inter­
national Symposium on the Application o f computers
and operations research in the minerals industries
(APCOM), 145-152, Montreal, Quebec
Denby, B. & Burnett, C., 1993. A neural network based
tool for grade estimation. . In J. Elbrond & X. Tang,
(eds), 24 th. International Symposium on the Applica­
tion o f computers and operations research in the min­
erals industries (APCOM), 153-160, Montreal, Quebec
Fujita, O. 1998. Statistical estimation o f the number o f
hidden units for feedforward neural networks. Neural
Networks, Vol. 11, pp.851-859.
Kapageridis, I.& Denby B. 1998.Ore grade estimation
with modular neural network systems-a case study. In
G. Panagiotou (ed.). Information technology in the
minerals industry (MineIT’97). Rotterdam; Balkema.
Qian, N. 1999. On the momentum term in gradient de­
scent learning algorithms. Neural Networks, Vol. 12,
pp.145-151.
Rao, V. & Rao H. 1995. Neural Networks and Fuzzy
Logic. New York: MIS Press.
Scarselli, F. & Tsoi, A.C. 1998. Universal approximation
using feedforward neural networks: A survey o f some
existing methods and some new results. Neural Net­
works. N o \.\\, no. \, pp. 15-37.
Wu, X. & Zhou Y. 1993. Reserve estimation using neural
network techniques. Computers and Geosciences.
V ol.l9, No.4, pp.567-575.

776
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

V isual B asic im plem entation o f the M a xim u m Value N eighbourhood

algorithm to optim ise stope boundaries

M. Ataee-pour & E. Y. Baafi

Faculty o f Engineering, University o f Wollongong, N. S.W., Australia

ABSTRACT: A heuristic algorithm, referred to as the “Maximum Value N eigh bou rh ood” (MVN) algorithm,
has been developed to optimise stope geometries of underground mines. The method uses economic model of
a given deposit to search for the best combination of mining blocks that results in the maximum profit while
imposing geo-technical and practical mining constraints. The algorithm has been implemented using Excel
Visual B asic modules. The search algorithm is executed row by row, column by column and section by sec­
tion to provide a 3D result. The A/TTVof each block provides an island of blocks, which grows gradually as the
optimisation progresses over the deposit. The optimised stope is displayed on Excel worksheets, with the cells
corresponding to the optimum blocks are identified by distinct colours and borders. A step by step explanation
of how the M V N algorithm was implemented is presented with an example block model.

1 INTRO DUCTION the size of the model blocks. A neighbourhood of a

A limited number of algorithms has been developed
for optimisation of the ultimate stope boundaries.
The existing algorithms include:
• Dynamic Programming Algorithm (Riddle,
1977),
• Downstream Geostatistical Approach (Deraisme
et a l , 1984),
• Octree Division Approach (Cheimanoff, Deliac
and Mallet, 1989),
• Floating Stope Algorithm (Alford, 1995) and
• Branch and Bound Technique (Ovanic and
Young, 1995).
The newly developed heuristic M V N algorithm
(Ataee-pour, 1997), benefits from its generality and
simplicity. This paper discusses how the M V N algo­
rithm has been implemented using the Visual Basic
for Applications (VBA) modules provided by Excel.
block is a set of all the sequential blocks, including
the block of interest, which could be mined to satisfy
the minimum stope size requirement. There are sev­
eral possible combinations of blocks that define a
n eighbourhood for a given block. The number of
possible neighbourhoods for a given block defines
the order o f neighbourhood (Onb) of that block. The
Onb, therefore, defines the size of the n eighbourhood
set. A ll the possible neighbourhoods of a block are
collected in a set, called the set of neighbourhoods
(NBS). Each NB is assigned a net value that repre­
sents the total value of its elements (blocks). The
M V N concept constructs the set of possible neigh­
bourhoods (NBS) for a block, then evaluates each
NB and locates the neighbourhood with the maxi­
mum value for inclusion in the final stope (Ataee-
pour and Baafi, 1999).

3 MODEL FORMULATION
2 THE M T V CONCEPT
For a given 3D economic block model of an ore-
The Maximum Value Neighbourhood {MVN) algo­ body, the problem of finding the best combination of
rithm uses a 3D economic block model of an ore- desirable and non-desirable blocks that w ill result in
body and searches for the best combination of blocks the net maximum profit may be expressed by Equa­
to maximise the stope net value subject to stope ge­ tion (1):
ometry constraints. The minimum acceptable size of
a stope plays the key role in its geometry optimisa­
tion. The method currently ignores the maximum
stope size. The n eigh bourh ood (NB) concept defines
the minimum allowable sizes of the stope in terms of

777

Objective function:
M axim ise S E V = Y ,F ijk.BEV ijk
ijk
subject to :
stope g eo m etry con straint
where
SEV\ total stope economic value,
BEVijk'. economic value of Block Byk,
Fyk : an indicator function showing whether Byk is
mined or not and is defined by Equation (2).
1 if Bjjj^ is mined,
- |Q
otherwise.
The M V N algorithm examines blocks one at a
time, in the order of rows, columns and sections. For
each block:
(i) the set of possible neighbourhoods (NBS) is con­
structed;
(ii) the economic value of each neighbourhood
(NBV) is calculated;
(iii) the maximum neighbourhood value (MNBV) is
obtained;
(iv) the M V N is located;
(v) contribution of the M V N in the stope value is as­
sessed; and
(vi) finally the stope geometry is updated.
Following four checkpoints are used to exclude
unnecessary blocks. A block is ignored:
(1) if the block has a negative value;
(2) if the block has been flagged already;
(3) if the maximum neighbourhood value (MNBV)
of the block is negative; and
(4) if the marginal value provided by the M V N is
negative.
A generalised pseudo code for the optimisation
procedure is illustrated in Figure 1.
The following variables have been used in the
pseudo code:
L: order of neighbourhood;
NI: maximum No. of blocks in the X direction;
NJ: maximum No. of blocks in the Y direction;
NK: maximum No. of blocks in the Z direction;
MVNykf. Maximum Value Neighbourhood (a set);
//: the index of the neighbourhood with maxi­
mum value;
FF\ An indicator function;
BEV mvn'-BEV of all blocks in M VNyku
FMVN- F of all blocks in MVNyk,L\ and
FFMVN- F F o f all blocks in MVNy^i-
START
Step 1: Initialise variables
-Set F ij k = 0 , {i= l,2 , ...,NI; j= l,2, ..., NJ; k =1,2, . . . , NK}
(1) -Set = 0, {/n =1,2, ...,L} / Set SEV = 0
Step 2: Examine the first block
-Read BEV and F of the first block
Step 3: Check the negativity and flag of the block
-If BEVijk < 0 or Fijk = 1, Go to Step 9
Step 4: Locate the maximum neighbourhood value (MNBV)
-Construct the set of neighbourhoods of order "L"
(NBSijk,L)
-Check the feasibility of neighbourhoods
-Construct the set of neighbourhood values (NBVSijk,L)
-Set MNBVijk,L = Max. NBVSijk,L
Step 5: Check the negativity of MNBV
-If MNBV < 0 , Go to Step 9
(2)
Step 6: Calculate the marginal value
-Given MNBVijk,L = NBV^, then
set MVNijk,L = NBf,,ijk,L [H =1,2,...,L};
set FFmvn = - { F mvn ~1)
-Set Marginal value = [BEVmvn] [FFpivs] ixi
Step 7: Check the negativity of the marginal value
-If Marginal value < 0, Go to Step 9
Step 8: Update the stope
-Set SEV = SEV + Marginal value
-Set Fmvn ~1
Step 9: Check the end of the model
-If no more block. Go to Step 11
Step 10: Examine the next block
-Read BEV and F of the next block
-Go to Step 3
Step 11: Output the results
-List the elements of the final stope
-STOP
END
Figure 1. A simplified pseudo code for the M V N algorithm
4 IM PLEM ENTATION OF 3D tW W
ALGORITHM USING VBA CODE
The 3D M V N algorithm was coded using the Visual
B asic f o r A pplications (VBA) modules (Walkenbach,
1994). The advantage of the VBA software is its ca­
pability to provide easy access to the object model­
ling in Excel. The structure of the spreadsheet used
in Excel is highly suitable to the storage and the dis­
play of the economic block model. The different
cross-sections of the economic model may be de­
fined by the Excel worksheets. Each block within a
section of the model may be represented by a cell in
the corresponding worksheet. The cell values may
define the respective block economic values.
The VBA main module first reads the economic
values of the blocks, BEVyk, from either a data file,
or Excel worksheet, and stores the information in a
3D array. The subroutine “M a x N b o r” is used to lo­
cate the maximum neighbourhood value (MNBV)
and maximum value neighbourhood (MVN) of each
block. The subroutines, “S electB lo ck ” and “Sto-
p e V a l”, are then “called” to update the stope
778
boundaries and net values, respectively.
“W riteR esu lts” module is used at various stages of
the optimisation process to write the results to speci­
fied worksheets. After evaluating all of the blocks,
the “F la g ” module is used to display those cells de­
fining the optimum stope boundaries. This is
achieved using distinct cell colours and borders.
The main menu of the “STOPE BOUNDARY
O PTIM ISATIO N” is shown in Figure 2. There are
six options on the main menu which allow: the defi­
nition o f the model specifications; the definition of
the stope geometry constraints; the economic value
data input; the optimisation algorithm to be per­
formed; viewing of the results; and a return to the
previous page to exit from the program.
The An example economic model is shown in Figure
4, which consists of six rows, eight columns and six
sections, ie
{Bijk \ i = 1 , 2 , 6 ; j = 1, 2, 8; k = l , 2 , 6}
The number of blocks in X , Y and Z directions
are 6, 8 and 6, respectively. These are input, directly,
to the corresponding fields of the dialog box, and
saved in three integer variables (Figure 3). The VBA
code to read the model’s specifications, is as fol­
lows:
T h i s W o r k b o o k .D i a l o g S h e e t s ( " D i a l o g s " ) . S h o w
N I = D i a l o g S h e e t s ( " D i a l o g S " ) .E d i t B o x e s ( " N B X E d i t " ) . Text
N J = D i a l o g S h e e t s ("DialogS") .EditBoxes ("NBYEdit") . Text
N K = D i a l o g S h e e t s ( " D i a l o g s " ) . E d i t B o x e s ( " N B Z E d i t " ) .Text

i liiie
..6----- ^
STOPE BOUNDARY OPTli/liSATiON
using
' Maximum Value Neighbourhood Method”

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ y ' y ' ^

5 6 -2 1 7 -5 1 3

4 -1 -7 2 -1 -2 -4 I

-6 -5 2 -1 6 3 -6 -2

2 -1 3 5 1 4 -1 -5

Figure 2: The main menu of the VBA program to implement the 3 3 -1 4 -6 -1 -2

MVN algorithm
-1 2 4 2 -3 -5 4 1

When the model specification button is clicked,

the user is provided with a window to define specifi­
cations o f the block model, such as the 3D co­
ordinates o f the origin of the model plus the size of
the model and blocks. Figure 3 shows the dialog box
for entering the parameters of the model.
Figure 4: A small 3D economic model example
The next step is the definition of the mining con­
straints, ie the minimum stope size. Selecting the
second option from the main menu (clicking the
"Define M ining Constraints" button) provides a new
dialog box for entering the mining constraint data
(Figure 5). This dialog box is used to define the "or­
der o f neighbourhood" (Ont)- The required data may
be in terms of either the dimensions of the minimum
stope and the fixed blocks, or the minimum allow­
able number of blocks in the stope, in the X , Y and Z
directions. In Figure 5, a 3D order of neighbourhood
requires a minimum of two blocks in either of X , Y
and Z directions, ie = (2, 2, 2). The related
VBA code to read the order of neighbourhood is as
follows:

T h i s W o r k b o o k .D i a l o g S h e e t s ( " D i a l o g 4 ").Sh o w
O N B i = D i a l o g S h e e t s ( " D i a l o g 4 ")._
Edit B o x e s ("MinNBXEdit") . Text
ONBj=DialogS h e e t s ( " D i a l o g 4 " ) ._
E d i t B o x e s ("MinNBYEdit") . Text
O N B k = D i a l o g S h e e t s ("Dia l o g 4 " ) . _
Figure 3: The dialog box used to input specifications of the
E d i t B o x e s ("MinNBZEdit") . Text
model

779
 where ONBi, ONBj and ONBk are orders of determine the relative location of the neighbourhood.
neighbourhood in the X , Y and Z directions, respec­ The following VBA code is used to locate the address
tively. of the first block in the m^^ neighbourhood.
• J t l » 'ilk' fpmit"liKk 5«* ij**>

— — ¡g -ISir r
.....------------------ a = Int(m / (ONBi * ONBj))
be = m M o d ONBi * ONBj
STORE BOUNDARY OPTIMISATION b = Int (be / ONBi)
ei "MINING CONSTRAINTS" e = be M o d ONBi

If e <> 0 Then
FBI = i - b: _
F B J = j - (e - 1) : _
FBK = k - a

E l s e l f b <> 0 Then
FB I = i - (b - 1) : _
F B J = j - (ONBi - 1):
FBK = k - a

Else
FBI = i - (ONBj - 1):
FBJ = j - (ONBi - 1):
FBK = k - (a - 1)

straints
where FBI, FB J and F B K are the i , j and k addresses
Selecting the third option from the main menu (ie of the first block of the neighbourhood, respectively.
clicking on the "Read E conom ic (Assay) D ata" but­ Each neighbourhood is examined to check if it lies
ton) allows the program to read the block data. The within the block model limits, ie whether or not the
program can read the economic values of blocks neighbourhood is feasible.
from an A SCII data format, or an Excel worksheet. It The total net values of the neighbourhoods
is also possible to enter these data manually, which (neighbourhood value, NBV) are then obtained for
may be time consuming. The following lines of VBA the feasible neighbourhoods while the non-feasible
code are used to read data from Excel worksheets: neighbourhoods are ignored. This is determined by
the summation of the block economic values inside
F o r k = 1 To N K
the neighbourhood using the following VBA code.
F or j = 1 To N J
For i = 1 To N T
NBV(m) = 0
F(i, j , k) = 0
For Seetion = F B K To L B K
B E V(i,j ,k) ==Workbooks (EFName) .
For Column = F B J To L B J
W o r k s h e e t s (k) .C ells (i, j)
For R o w = FBI To LBI
Ne x t i
NBV(m) = NBV(m) + BEV(Row, Column, Seetion)
N ext j
Next R o w
N ext k
Next Column
Next Seetion

where EFNam e is the name of the Excel file with the

economic block model data. The process is repeated for all neighbourhoods of
Selecting the fourth option from the main menu the block and finally the maximum neighbourhood
(ie selecting the "Perform O ptim isation" option), value (MNBV) is obtained and returned to the main
provides another window which allows the user to program.
enter an output file name and to start the optimisa­ If the obtained M N B V is non-negative, another
tion. The first subroutine that is “called” by the main subroutine, "SelectBlock", is called to determine
program is "MaxNbor", which evaluates a block and which of those blocks of the maximum value neigh­
defines the maximum value neighbourhood (MVN) bourhood, MVN, are new to the stope and contribute
o f that block. positively to the final stope value. The following
The "MaxNbor" subroutine assigns a large nega­ lines of the VBA code perform such a task:
tive value to the M N B V variable. It then determines
the size of the neighbourhood set, based on the 3D Fo r e = F B K To L B K
order o f neighbourhood. The size of the neighbour­ Fo r b = F B J To L B J
For a = F BI To L BI
hood set defines the number of repetitions of the If F(a, b, e) = 1 Then FF(a, b, e) = 0
process that evaluates each neighbourhood. The sub­ If F(a, b, e) = 0 Then F(a, b, e) = 1:_
FF(a, b, e) = 1
routine determines the relative location of each Next
neighbourhood. The initial and the last blocks of the Next b
set (blocks with the lowest "i, j, k" address and the Next e

highest one within a neighbourhood, respectively)

780
 The blocks with an FF value o f " 1" are new to the
stope and provide a marginal value if the obtained
MVN is included in the stope. Next subroutine, ”Sto-
peVal”, is then used to update the net value of the
stope with the following lines of the VBA code:
F o r c = FBK To LBK
F or b = FBJ To LBJ
F o r a = FBI To LBI
SEV = SEV + F F ( a , b , c) * BE V( a, b ,
Next a
Next b
Next c
A summary of the optimisation results is provided
in Figure 6. As the optimisation progresses, the (i, j,
k) address of the block under consideration is dis­
played, instantly, and the stope value variation is in­
stantly displayed with the stope value variation.
When the optimisation is completed, the address of
the last block within the economic model, Bese, is
displayed as well as the optimum stope value ($390).
STOPE BOUNDARY OPTIMISATION
••OPTIMISATION**
Tlw Block under Process is $ 8 $
The Stope Economic Vakie Is S390
Ceicuiations CompicSed.
Mow, KIs Ragging dM Selected Blodts.
Mo. Vidue
Included Nega&re ^ c k s : 80 ^
Ejtcloded Non-Wegrtiwe Blocks:
Rsg^ng CompkHed.
Opt«mis*t>oo Completed. To View the Results. Beck to Main Memi.
...
I *
Mamef Perfonn
;
Ootinssahan
' I
to,|the
Figure 6: The " Optimisation" window
Finally, the 'Flag” subroutine is executed. The
subroutine examines the flag indicator, F, of each
block to check whether the flag is "1" or "0". If a
block has an F value of 'T ', the corresponding cell
in the Excel worksheets is filled with yellow colour,
the font colour of the cell value, the BEV, is changed
to red and a border is drawn around the cell. The
stope value is also recalculated for double-checking.
In addition, the number of negative valued blocks
included in the final stope and the number of non­
negative valued blocks excluded from the final stope
along with their associated values, are obtained. In
Figure 6 a total of 60 negative valued blocks with a
total cost of $84 have been included in the optimum
stope. No positive valued block was missed from the
final stope. The example model consists of 288
blocks, including 150 non-negatively valued blocks,
with the maximum recoverable value of $474 plus
138 negative blocks with the total cost of $414.
However, the optimised stope includes 210 (out of
288) blocks of the block model with a total value of
$390. The stope recovery by the algorithm, R, is de­
fined as:
Stope Economic Value {SEV) 390
R= = 82%
Total Stope Worth 474
The optimum blocks may be viewed by selecting
c) the "View the Results” button from the main menu.
Figure 7 illustrates the second section {k = 2) with
shaded optimum blocks.
Changing the order of neighbourhood results in
different ultimate stope boundaries being obtained.
A neighbourhood of order (3, 3, 3) makes 27 possi­
ble neighbourhoods for each block. For the same
block model, the optimised stope contains 156
blocks out of a possible 288 with a total stope value
of $228. However, the neighbourhood order of (2, 3,
4) with 24 possible neighbourhoods, causes the op­
timum stope to include 192 blocks with a total value
o f $222.
l<»k ll^« ilfkt
• ' Kt i l l 4 I I t ^ ,13:
.............l U r • » ^ U » « « 83 » '5» * A ’
' 5Ni*t! •S h w t J J J ±jr
»IF
Figure 7: The optimised stope geometry of Section 2 (Sheet 2,
of Excel worksheets)
5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
The maximum value neighbourhood algorithm uses
a 3D fixed economic block model to optimise stope
boundaries. The algorithm uses the minimum stope
size to determine the order of neighbourhood. For
each block, it locates the neighbourhood with the
maximum value for inclusion in the final stope. The
VBA modules were found to be useful to test the al­
gorithm. The Excel spreadsheet was useful in dis­
playing the 3D optimum stope. Each cell represented
a block while sheets represented sections.
REFERENCES
Alford, C (1995), Optimisation in Underground Mine Design,
25^*' International Symposium on the Application of Com­
puters and Operations Research in the Mineral Industry,
The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Mel­
bourne, pp 213-218.
781
Ataee-pour, M (1997), A New H eu ristic Algorithm to Optimise
Stope Boundaries, Proceedings of the Second Regional
APCOM Symposium on Computer Applications and Op­
erations Research in the Mineral Industry, 6 p.
Ataee-pour, M and Baafi E Y (1999), Stope Optim isation Us­
ing the Maximum Value Neighbourhood (M VN) Concept,
Proceedings o f the 28* International Symposium on Com­
puters Applications in the Minerals Industries, K Dagdelen
(ed.), Colorado, pp. 493-501.
Cheimanoff, N M, Deliac, E P and Mallet, J L (1989),
G E O C A D : An Alternative C A D A rtificia l Inteligence Tool
that H elps M oving from G eo lo gical Resources to M ineable
Reserves, 21®‘ International Symposium on the Application
o f Computers and Operations Research in the Mineral In­
dustry, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration,
Inc., Colorado, pp. 471-478.
Deraisme, J, de Fouquent, C and Fraisse, H (1984), Geostatis-
tical Ore-body M odel fo r Computer Optim isation o f Profits
from Different Underground M ining Methods, 18* Interna­
tional Symposium on the Application of Computers and
Operations Research in the Mineral Industry, The Institu­
tion of Mining and Metallurgy, pp. 583-590.
Ovanic, J and Young, D S (1995), Econom ic Optimisation of
Stope Geom etry U sing Separable Program m ing with Spe­
c ia l Branch and Bound Techniques, Third Canadian Con­
ference on Computer Applications in the Mineral Industry,
H S Mitri (ed.), Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 129-135.
Riddle, J M (1977), A Dynam ic Program m ing Solution o f a
B lo ck-Cavin g M ine Layout, 14* International Symposium
on the Application o f Computers and Operations Research
in the Mineral Industry, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and
Exploration, Inc., Colorado, pp. 767-780.
Walkenbach, J (1994), Ex cel 5 fo r Windows Power Program ­
ming Techniques, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc., Foster City,
CA, 726 p.

782
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

M ulticriteria choice o f a lignite field for m ine developm ent

and pow er plant construction

EA.Batzias
Department o f Industrial Management, University of Piraeus, Greece
C.RRoumpos
Mines Development Department, Public Power Corporation, Greece

ABSTRACT; The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the application of multicriteria analysis to the optimal
choice of a lignite field for (i) mine development and (ii) the corresponding power plant construction. These
two activities are considered within the same project and cannot be separated.
The alternatives used are the following six sites of lignite deposits, with their possible maximum power
plant capacity quoted in parenthesis,considered as projects: Elassona (1 x 500 MW or 2 x 250 MW), Komnina
(1 X 300 MW), loannina ( l x 125MW), Filippi - Drama (4 x 300 MW), Karitena (1 x 125 MW), Servia ( l x
300 MW). The criteria used cover a variety of aspects concerning that kind of projects.
Two of the PROMETHEE methods were adopted to satisfy the needs of this study. The application of
PROMETHEE II gave the following absolute ordering, in terms of diminishing preference: Elassona, Drama,
Komnina, Karitena, Servia, and loannina. This order is very near to another one, which was obtained by a
simpler method. The application of an algorithmic procedure in accordance with the more refined techniques
of PROMETHEE I revealed a more complicated partial order where incomparabilities between lignite fields
also coexist. Nevertheless, all methods used confirm the order of the first two fields, which form a stable
solution for the problem of choosing the most proper lignite fields for mine development.

1 INTRODUCTION of the mines which are under exploitation today,

Lignite is the most important and safest domestic
energy source for Greece. Its contribution to the
country’s electric power output in the interconnected
network is about 70 %.
Considering Europe’s current energy production
map, the geopolitical instability in the areas of large
energy reserves and the long standing trend of fuel
prices to increase, lignite is expected to keep its
competitive position for the electricity production in
Greece.
The comparative advantage of the lignite related
to the large amounts and to its cost competitiveness
is expected to be continued in the future.
Today, the exploitation of the lignite deposits in
Greece is curried by Public Power Corporation
(PPC) with surface mining, feeding lignite fired
power plant units in the two lignite centers: Lignite
Center of Ptolemais-Amynteon (LCP-A) and Lignite
Center of Megalopolis (LCM). A new power plant in
Fiorina is under construction, which will be supplied
with lignite excavated from Fiorina’s opencast
mines.
Taking into account an increasing trend in
electricity consumption and the gradual exhaustion
probably a decision about the development of a new
mining field supplying with lignite a new
corresponding power plant will arise in the near
future.
Decision making about the development of the
new opencast lignite mine and the construction of a
corresponding power plant is not based only on
objective quantifiable criteria, but a variety of
aspects should be taken into account The
evaluation process of some possible alternatives
should always adress some key aspects that can be
classified in three general and fundamental
“dimensions”(Vale 1998):geological assurance,
engineering conception and economic-financial
modelling. In the latter, the social dimension should
be included.
Multicriteria choice has proved to be an
important method for decision making both by
considering the wide variety of aspects inherent in
any decision problem and by offering an operational
framework for an interdisciplinary approach to
practical choice problems.In this paper the
implementation of that methodology to the optimal
choice of a lignite field for mine development and
the corresponding power plant construction is

783
presented. These two activities are considered within
the same project and cannot be separated. Therefore,
the alternatives as well as the criteria used refer to
such integrated projects. The same holds for
technological parameters, like planning of mine
exploitation and selection of production equipment,
which influence the values assigned for each
alternative-criteria combination within the choice
matrix.
2 DESCRIPTION OF THE LIGNITE FIELDS
For the application of the method we selected six
lignite fields (alternatives Xj, j=l,2,...,6) for mine
development and power plant construction (Figure
1). According to the lignite reserves and the
corresponding quality (Koukouzas 1998), the
Alternatives present the following characteristics:
Figure 1. Position of the lignite fields under examination
Xi Elassona: there are two lignite deposits (one
big near Domenico Village and a smaller in
Ammourio Village) that can support a power plant
of 500 MW (or 2x250MW) for 35-40 years. It can
contribute to the balance of the mainland electricity
grid of Greece. Also it can contribute to the local
development (the area is not industrialized), with
very small environmental damage.
X2 Komnina: the deposit is located near to
Amynteon power plant (3 km distance), can feed a
new power plant unit of 1 x300 Mw (which will be
784
installed in the Amynteon Power Plant) for at least
35years. There is land availability in the area and
social acceptance.
X 3 loannina; the deposit (44 Mtn) can supply
only a unit of 125 Mw for about 25 years. It can
contribute to the balance of the electricity grid but
there are a lot of problems because the lignite
deposit is in close proximity to loannina City and to
the airport. Also hydrological problems will be
encountered.
X4 Drama: in this area a big lignite-peat deposit
of 900 Mtn is located, which can supply with lignite
a power plant of 5x300Mw for 40 years. In the past
there were problems with social acceptance for a
mine and a power plant, but now this doesn’t hold.
In the lignite deposit area there are profitable
agricultural activities and with the mine
development a loss of cultivation land is expected.
Taking into consideration the global economies and
liberalization of electricity markets, the lignite
deposit is located in a strategic position (near the
boundaries between Greece and other countries).
X5 Karitena: this deposit is not sufficient to
supply a power plant for an economical period of
time (very small). As it has a very small exploitation
ratio and, consequently, the cost of lignite
production is estimated to be very low, it could
supply the already operate power plants in LCM.
Xe Servia (Kozani): There is a deposit of about
140 Mtn, located not so far from Kozani City, that
can feed a power plant of 300 MW for 30 years.
3 DESCRIPTION OF THE CRITERIA USED FOR
EVALUATION
The criteria fi (i=l,2,... .,10) used in this study are:
fi Estimated cost including transportation of
lignite from the field to the bunker of the power
plant: this cost depends on the annual lignite
production, on the exploitation ratio, on the lifetime
of the mine (and of the corresponding power plant)
and on the mine characteristics (geological
conditions, mine area etc). It consists of the
investment cost for new equipment and of the
operational cost (which is a linear function of the
exploitation ratio).
f2 Increase of income of the community in the
vicinity: some alternatives contribute more to the
increase of income of the community in the vicinity
of the mining and power plant activities. Especially
in undeveloped or de-industrialized districts.
fs Job creation in the locality: when lignite
mining and electricity production take place in less
developed areas, ensure employment for a large
number of scientific and labor personnel, reducing
urban attraction.
 f4 Environmental impacts: in most of energy
production methods, environmental impacts arise,
almost inevitably,which may include: land use,
visual impacts, noise, water pollution and a range of
gaseous or other emissions. Concerning the
alternatives under examination, the problems are
more serious in the areas that mining and power
plant activities already exist, due to the cumulative
effect. In all cases all measures will be applied,
according to the best available techniques, following
the international standards and the environmental
legislation, in such way, that the impacts will be
minimized
fs Loss of cultivated land: mine development in
an area with agricultural activities and extended
cultivated land implies corresponding loss of
cultivated land (land use for mine excavations and
for mine waste and combustion byproducts dumps).
fe Technology transfer: this criterion has two
dimensions: a) dissemination of new technologies
related to mining and power plant operation in the
community contributes to the technical development
of the community using new equipment or dealing
with mechanical, electrical or civil engineering
works, and b) experience acquired from the
company by using the new equipment or applying
new excavation techniques or new technologies for
better lignite combustion or for environmental
impact reduction that can be transferred to the other
activities of the company (e.g. for the replacement of
obsolete equipment in already operating power
plants).
fj Priority, according to a master plan: this
criterion is related to the geopolitical position of a
lignite deposit, which may be strategic referring to
open and global markets or to the balance of the
electricity grid.
fg Extendibility: taking into account that an
economical capacity of a power plant is 1x1300
MW for the lifetime of 40 years, some alternatives
can support more power units for that period of time,
according to the lignite reserves and to the
corresponding quality. Such an extension implies a
lower cost of electric energy produced, due to scale
economies.
f9 Land availability: in several cases there is not
adequate area available for mine development and
for the power plant facilities; in such cases, building,
villages or roads should be resettled, implying waste
of time and money in negotiation / legal redresses
and compensations.
fio Social acceptance: the operation of a new
mine and power plant will be successful if there is
social acceptance. Otherwise, people react to such
activities and cause problems. The reasons for such
behavior may be : (i) the big number of industries in
the area,(ii) the environmental problems that people
anticipate,(iii)that the people are not well informed.
785
4 METHODOLOGY OF MULTICRITERIA
RANKING
Two of the PROMETHEE methods (Preference
Ranking Organization METHod for Enrichment
Evaluations) were adopted in this study:
PROMETEEE I to obtain partial preorder ranking
and PROMETHEE II to obtain total or final ranking.
(Brans et al. 1986) The grades Xij of examination of
each alternative Xj according to each criterion fi are
properly normalized within the 10-90 range to give
optimal as a maximum. The preference function P
(Xj, Xk) is used as a measure of intensity of
preference of alternative Xj over Xk, kG(l,2,..,m).
The following extreme values of this function depict
the corresponding domain.
P (Xj, Xk)=0 represents indifference or no preference
of Xj over Xk
P (Xj, Xk)~0 represents weak preference of Xj over
Xk
P (Xj, Xk)~l represents strong preference of Xj over
Xk
P (Xj, Xk)=l represents absolute preference of Xj
over Xk.
The evaluation of P (Xj, Xk) is achieved through a
generalized criterion function H (djk), where
djk=Xij-Xik (1)
The H-function used herein is of the Gaussian
type:
H (djk)=l-exp(-dyof/2) (2)
where
ai=maxXij-minXij (3)
This type of H-function has nodiscontinuities
and contributes to the stability of solution.
The multicriteria preference index I is defined as
the weighted mean of the P-flmction values:
I(Xj,Xk)= ± W,P{X^, X ,), ( V i ^ djK>0) (4)
I(Xk,Xj)=^ i f , P ( X , , X ^ ) , ( V i ^ d j k < 0 ) (5)
1=1
Each alternative Xj, considered as a node in an
oriented graph network, exhibits its total superiority
by the outflow
o ; = Z i( x ,,x ,) (6 )
k=\
and its total inferiority by the inflow

(7)
Obviously, the total net superiority of alternative j
is expressed by
which gives absolute ranking according to
PROMETHEE II reasoning. In addition, the
combined relative ranking of each alternative j
within the subsets of
and O “ , j= l,2,...,m
gives partial order as an hierarchical network,
according to PROMETHEE I reasoning.
5 IMPLEMENTATION AND RESULTS
The multicriteria data matrix together with the
weights vector is shown in Table 1,where a
preliminary treatment of data through the simplistic
expression
The results of absolute ranking are given in Table
3 and presented in Figure 2. The results of partial
ranking are presented in Figure 3;the relative
position of alternatives in this hierarchical network
is found by means of the signs mxm matrix of Table
4-.the first sign of each couple shows relative
superiority in outflow when it is (+) and the couple
lies above the diagonal while the second sign of the
same couple shows relative superiority in inflow
when it is (+) and the couple lies above the
diagonal. The same meaning holds when the sign is
(-) and the couple lies under the diagonal; as a
matter of fact the diagonal is a mirror reflecting a
negative image. Consequently, a couple exhibiting
(+-) or (-+) indicates relative incomparability. E.g.
alternative X3 is preferred against Xe in the domain
of outflows
(0 3 ><I)g or 0.07573>0.05576) but the inverse
preference is valid in the domain of inflows
(O 3>0) ¡ or 0.47986>0.43 884).

( 8) 6 INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS AND

gives the order Xi,X4,X2,Xs,X3,X6 as a rough
ranking. Obviously, the sum Sj of the weighted
values Xij for each alternative Xj is meaningful to the
extent that the assumption of additivity or
superposition is valid.
The intermediate PROMETHEE results obtained
by means of the multicriteria preference matrix are.
shown in Table2. As an example, the calculation of
two elements of this matrix is presented:
I(Xi,X2)=0.24(l-exp(-(50-20) V80^/2))+..
+0.1 l(l-exp (-(70-60) ^80^/2))=0.08210,
I(X2,X 1)=(0.05+0.03+0.16)(1 -exp(-10^/80^/2))=
=0.00187.
DISCUSSION
Alternative Xi (Elassona), as it was anticipated
according to the evaluation matrix, is the preferable
solution and the alternative X4 follows as the second
best (Drama). Elassona mine presents high grades in
most of the criteria. The mine deposit characteristics
are such, that the estimated cost is not so high. The
area is not industrialized and people have not many
profitable activities .So the social acceptance for
mining and power plant activities is expected.
Although alternative X5 (Karitena) cannot supply
a new PP in Megalopolis Lignite Center and
presents low grades in almost all criteria except cost
(it is low because of the small exploitation ratio),
social acceptance and land availability, it is not the

Alternatives
criteria Xi X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 Wi
fi 50 20 30 65 90 10 0.24
fi 90 70 30 50 10 40 0.06
f3 90 80 60 50 10 40 0.05
f4 90 30 10 50 20 20 0.12
{5 80 90 60 10 50 50 0.05
fe 90 30 40 80 10 20 0.02
f? 70 20 50 90 10 30 0.16
fg 70 60 40 90 10 60 0.11
f9 80 90 10 50 70 30 0.03
fio 80 90 10 50 80 40 0.16
_s^______ 72.6 48.6 31.3 63 45.4 30.8 SWi-1

786
 0;
0.00000 0.08210 0.15061 0.05598 0.15914 0.13942 0.58726
0.00187 0.00000 0.09382 0.04724 0.06097 0.05452 0.25842
0.00000 0.01289 0.00000 0.00926 0.03873 0.01485 0.07573
0.01249 0.10072 0.10084 0.00000 0.13367 0.11328 0.46100
0.02820 0.07633 0.11802 0.02910 0.00000 0.11676 0.36841
0.00000 0.00125 0.01657 0.00588 0.03206 0.00000 0.05576
0.04256 0.27328 0.47986 0.14746 0.42457 0.43884 0.00000

Table 3. The results of PROMETHEEII, showing the alternatives (a) unsorted, as given in data input, and
(b) sorted, in decreasing order of preference.

(a) (b)
Alternatives j j Alternatives J J
X, 0.5446981 X, 0.5446981
X2 -1.49E-02 X4 0.3135442
X3 -0.4041344 X2 -1.49E-02
X4 0.3135442 Xs -5.62E-02
X5 -5.62E-02 Xs -0.3830803
X6 -0.3830803 X3 -0.4041344

Table 4.Signs matrix for the hierarchical

arrangement of alternatives according to X4
the results obtained by PROMETHEE I

0 ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ^ \ _ / \
— 0 ++ — “+ ++
- — 0 — - +-
— ++ ++ 0 ++ ++
- +- ++ - 0 ++
— — -+ — —
Figure 2. Total absolute ranking of alternatives (lignite
0
fields) according to PROMETHEE II reasoning

Figures Partial ranking of alternatives (lignite fields) according to PROMETHEE I

reasoning

last in the rank, as was expected by empirical According to the first pair, alternative X2
examination, because of the higher weight (0,24) (Komnina) presents higher cost in relation with the
that is given to the cost alternative X5 (Karitena) which is the best according
There are two pairs of incomparable alternatives: to this criterion. In all other criteria alternative X2
X2 (Komnina), X5 (Karitena) and X3 (loannina), X6 dominates against alternative X5. The
(Servia). incomparability arises here because, on one hand the

787
cost is weighted more and, on the other hand, the
domination of X2 against X5 is not so strong in all
other criteria. E.g. in the criterion £4 (environmental
damage) where the difference in grades is not so big,
the relative weight of the criterion (0.12) is higher
comparing with the weights of the criteria fz (0.06)
and f3(0.05) where the alternative X2 presents a
strong preferable against the alternative X5.
A similar explanation can be given for the
incomparability of the second pair of alternatives X3
(loannina), X6 (Servia). These two alternatives
present almost the same sums of weighted grades
and in the half of the criteria dominates the one
against the other.
It is worthwhile noting that the multicriteria
analysis used herein does not take into account the
uncertainty of the elements which consist the initial
matrix of grades of evaluation of alternatives and the
vector of weights. In the case that the grades Xij are
given separately by different experts, a stochastic
version of PROMETHEE can be used (Mareschal
1986). In addition, the deterministic version
PROMETHEE III or its stochastic extension may
provide further insight when interval are consider
instead of the flows in order to emphasize the role of
relative indifference or incomparability in ranking of
alternatives (Brans et al. 1986).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors kindly acknowledge the contribution of
Dr. Leontidis, head of mine planning section in
Mines Development Department/PPC, to the
evaluation of the alternatives. In addition, the first of
the authors acknowledges financial support provided
by the Research Centre of the University of Piraeus.
REFERENCES
Brans, J.P., Ph. Vincle & B. Mareschal 1986. How to select
and how to rank projects: The PROMETHEE method. Eur.
J. Oper Res. 24: 228-238.
Koukouzas, N. 1988. Distribution of lignite deposits in Greece,
based on the age, the type, and the reserves. Mineral Wealth
106: 53-68.
Mareschal, B. 1986. Stochastic multicriteria decision making
and uncertainty. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 26:58-64.
Vale, E. 1998. Evaluation of mineral properties. Mining
magazine A ug. 1998:80-84

7 CONCLUSIONS

Multicriteria analysis of six greek lignite fields,

candidates for mine development and power plant
construction, revealed the following order in terms
of diminishing preference: Elassona, Drama,
Komnina, Karitena, Servia, loannina. This absolute
order, obtained by means of PROMETHEE II, is
near the rough approximation achieved by using a
simplistic approach of comparing sums of weighted
grades of evaluation of lignite fields, under the
assumption of additivity or superposition. But when
the more refined techniques of PROMETHEE I were
used, two pairs of incomparable lignite fields came
into light to prove the inadequacy of simple
techniques based on sums of weighted grades.
Nevertheless, all methods used confirm the order of
the first two fields, which form a stable solution of
the problem under consideration.

Note: The opinions / proposals / results expressed /

reached herein do not necessarily reflect the way
PPC is looking at the issues related to the choice of a
lignite field for mine development.

788
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Pattern recognition software for quality evaluation o f m ining m achines

V.Cokorilo & VM ilisavljevic

Faculty of Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade, Yugoslavia

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the software for quality evaluation of mining machines based on the distinct
functions and theory of pattern recognition. Evaluation is based on the technical characteristics of the mining
machines thus eliminating subjectivity. Mining machines characteristics are organized in data base tables
meaning that new tables can be added and new types of machines could be easily evaluated. Software is devel­
oped using Microsoft Visual Basic 6.

1 INTRODUCTION contains values of one characteristic (parameter)

form one column.
Every working medium has a verity of specific fea­
tures, therefore the problem of selection of appropri­
ate machine is particularly outstanding one. Every
important world manufacturer designed and devel­ A=
oped machines primarily adjusted to the conditions
of working medium in his domestic mineral depos­
its. Thus, today we have a great number of similar
Where aij (i = 1, 2, ...,m; j = 1, 2, ..., n) is the value
machines for the same purpose. For this reason,
when selecting mining machines it is necessary to of j-th parameter for i-th machine. Let us assume
evaluate their quality as well, in order to obtain a that the values of technical parameters are selected
so that the maximum value is the best one in the
choice as adequate as possible.
same time. For this reason let us find the maximum
The quality of mining machines depends on many
factors. Those factors could be defined by means of value bj = max (aq, a2j, ..., anj) (j = 1, 2, ... n) in
every column of A matrix.
economic, technical, ergonomic and other parame­
Let as now find the ratio (quotient) of the greatest
ters. The purpose of selection of a mining machines
element of each column and of all elements of that
is to ensure that it will attain the maximum effec­
column, i. e.:
tiveness in a given working medium. Comparison of
mining machines based on their technical character­
—— (i = 1, 2,.. n ;i= 1, 2,
istics can be conducted only for the machines that
work in equal conditions.
The goal of any mining machine operation is to and let us form the matrix:
achieve maximum efficiency in corresponding con­
ditions. The methods of quality evaluation should 'q ii ^12 • • Tin"
exclude subjective judgment, should be applicable to
T21 ^22 • • q 2n
any number of machines, and should take into con­
sideration any number of parameters, etc.
_qml Tm2 • • • qmn_
2 EVALUATION OF MINING MACHINES Of course, q > 1 for each i = 1,2, ..., m; j = 1,2,
..., n. Matrix Q we shall call the matrix of compara­
Let us suppose that it is necessary to evaluate the tive values of parameters.
quality of m machines and that for each of them are From this point on the quality evaluation of ma­
known n technical parameters. Let us form matrix A chines can be carried out in several ways.
with m X n format so that each row of A matrix

789
 We could compare the considered machines with
machine that we call The Theoretical Model in such
way that we shall calculate the “distance” of each
machine to machine - The Theoretical Model in one
of the following ways:
R. = ......m )
R'i = j - ' É q , , (qu - O'
V” j='
For the comparison, instead of The Theoretical
Model, we could take one of the considered ma­
chines, which on the grounds of experience can be
considered to be of the best quality. If this machine
is represented by i-th row in matrixes A and Q, for
each machine we could calculate:
D, ,(i= l,2,...,m)
D', = j - ' X q « (qij
If we assume that among the considered machines
there are s machines (1 < s < m) which surely can be
considered as the best quality ones, and if these ma­
chines are represented by ii, i2, is rows of ma­
trixes A and Q then for each machine we could find:
I s • n k=i j=]
V s •n pi
Let us assume that matrix A includes two classes
of machines: the class of machines which are suit­
able for work in a specific working environment
(class 1) and a class of machines which are not suit­
able for work in that working environment (class 2).
If the minimum and maximum ordinal number of the
row which describe a machine belonging to class k
( 1) (k = 1, 2) are marked by mi(k) and m2(k) for each
machine the following is established:
1 n
(2) yk(q,) = £ £ ( q , j - q , i f (j=l,2,..m)(7)
n-m(k)
The obtained values of Ri, R’i, Di, D ’i, Si and S’i
we call General Machine Quality Parameters. The
criterion for evaluating the machine quality is as
follows: the smaller general parameter the better
machine. Considering expression (7), the conclusion
whether a machine belongs to one or another class
can be drawn in the following manner: the machine
(3) belongs to class k if:
y k(q,) = min{y, (qj), y2(qi)}, (i=l,2,..,m); (k=l,2)
More detailed description about expressions (1)
(4) through (6) can be found in [1] and [2], while the
details about expression (7) can be found in [3].
3 DESCRIPTION OF THE APPLICATION
Data, i.e. the technical characteristics of the ma­
chines, are stored in the tables of the Microsoft Ac­
cess 2000 data base. After starting the application
first identifies available tables and presents them in
(5) list box of the starting form (Fig. 1). Example shown
at figure 1 have tables containing technical charac­
teristics of Wheel Loaders and Bucket Shovels. After
( 6) selecting the type of the machine all available models
of the selected type are shown, allowing the user to
see technical characteristics of a single machine.

Mining Machinery Evatuation > AvaUable Equipment T3)>pes & Models

Selci Type; Wheel Loadeis Machine: CAT 338F Tehnical Charaderislics:
El
Wheel Loadefs CASE 721B
Buckel Shovels Engine power 104 H
VOLVO L90C
Bucket 2,4
KOMATSU WA320-3
CASE 821B Mass 13310
FURUKAWA 345 Max Foivard Sp<^d 37,9
FIAT FR160 2 Max Reverse Speed 22:
LIEBHERR L5418
Working Range 30
Ouief Turning Radius 6,06
Tipcxng Load Straight 10507^
Tippsrg Load 40deg turn 9244
Break Out Force 1 29 5 0 Ld

Nexl Step

Exit

Figure 1 Starting form of the application

790
 Next step is the selection of the group of technical Characteristic favor ability, as a property of a
characteristics on which evaluation is calculated characteristic, is stored in the data base meaning that
(Fig. 2). User can define the favor ability of the se­ in every future evaluation the default value of the
lected characteristic, meaning that “bigger the bet­ favor ability would be the last selected one.
ter” is favorable characteristic and “smaller the bet­
ter” is unfavorable characteristic.
i i . Mining Machinety Evaluation - Technical Characteristics
W heel Loaders

Bucket Engine power

Max Reverse Speed Mass
Tipping Load 40deg turn Max Forvard Speed
Break Out Force Working Range
.W heel Base Outer T urning R ^ rjs
Tipping Load Straight
Height Clearance
- d

- Characteristic Favorabffity^
Calculate
Ç Bigger the Better
Length
<♦ Smaller the Better Step ia c k

Figure 2 Selection of the group of technical characteristics

The ranking of the machines is shown on the fin­ All the above mentioned expressions, i.e. formu­
ishing form (Fig. 3) together with values of the las (1) through (7), can be used for evaluation of the
quality parameter used for ranking. The group of machines with minimal changes in the code of the
technical characteristics on which the evaluation is application.
based is also presented.
ii . W heel Loaders Results m i
Man&Model Tipping Load Straighl
1 Clearance
1 LIEBHERR L5418 1 04
Engine power
2 KOMATSU WA320-3 0409 Mass
3 VOLVO L30C 0426 Max Forvard Speed
4 FIAT FR160.2 0431 Working Range
5 CASE 721B Outer Turning Radius
0431
6 FURUKAWA 345 0441
? CASE 8218 0445
8 CAT 938F 04 49
■"i

Figure 3 Final form of the application

New tables can be easily added to the existing
data base, meaning that there is no need for addi­
tional changes in the code and reinstallation of the
application. Running the application for the first
time, after adding new tables, new types of the ma­
chines are available for evaluation in the left list box data base.
at the first form (Fig. 1).
It should be mentioned that data in tables can not
changed „through“ this application but only using
data base editor such as Microsoft Access. In an­
other words, when creating new tables great care
should be taken about accuracy of the data and com­
parability of the machines (e.g. Wheel Loaders
shown at figure 1 have the bucket volume ranging
from 2,4 to 2,8 m'^ and Bucket Shovels have bucket
volume ranging from 7,2 to 9,9 m^).
Microsoft Windows 95 or later operating system
is the only hardware requirements for running de­
scribed application and Microsoft Access for editing
4 CONCLUSION
Presented methods and the application can be
utilized for the evaluation of mining machines for
various uses.
From the point of view of technical characteris­
tics described evaluation techniques can be useful

791
for the final evaluation in selecting mining machin­
ery and also for designing and rebuilding of mining
mechanization.
Basic advantage of presented techniques is ob­
jectivity meaning that user is unable to affect the
ranking of the machines. The equal influence of all
the parameters to the quality of the evaluation can be
specified as only disadvantage.

REFERENCES
1. Milicic M., Cokorilo V., 1995.: "The functions of distinct
application for comparative evaluation of mining machines
quality based on their technical characteristics", Interna­
tional Scientific Conference, Technical University, Os­
trava, Czech Republic.
2. Miliöic M, Cokorilo V., Patrucco M., 1997.:" Un metodo
di valutazione del la qualità per maccine da minerà", Qarry
and Construction magazine. No 9, September, Italy.
3. Cokorilo V., Miliöic M., 1997.: "An application of recog­
nition methods in quality evaluation of mining machines",
9^*^ International Mining Conference, Technical University
of Kosice, Slovak Republic.

792
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A sim ulation algorithm for material flow from open pit m ine to power plant:
A case study

K.Erarslan
Department of Mining Engineering, Dumlupinar University, Kutahya, Turkey

ABSTRACT: Inconsistency between mining and plant activities causes serious technical and economical
problems. This is mostly due to the difference between planned and realized events. Production, stockpile
organization and material flow should be organized such that the deflection from the objective is minimized.
In this research, a simulation model is developed for the material flow from a coal mine to nearby power plant
in Kutahya, Turkey. The problem is that, coal supplied from the mine does not satisfy the quality
requirements of the plant. Such a material feeding causes destruction in plant boilers. The mine is obliged to
pay penalty. In the study, stages that excavated material can go through are simulated. The system is based on
a real problem and built to satisfy plant requirements. A stockpile organization and management approach is
proposed to minimize problems. The simulation system is developed to integrate with a production
scheduling system.

1 INTRODUCTION Another problem is lived on the reverse case.

The main objective of simulation is to imitate or
realize an event in computer platform. This ability of
simulation concept provides reliable and successful
planning (Law and Kelton, 1991).
In mining, simulation models are mostly used for
surface and underground production scheduling,
truck haulage system, belt conveying and processing
(Yingling, 1992, Ramani, 1990, Albert, 1989,
Beckett, Haycocks and Lucas, 1979).
Open pit mine and nearby plant may also be
considered as a system which can be simulated by a
discrete-event dynamic model (Yingling, 1992,
Banks, Carson and Nelson 1996, Fishman, 1978).
Production sequence in a mine has extended impacts
on integrated systems like mine-processing plant or
mine-power plant. So, production system is crucial
since it feeds the other system elements (Yingling,
1992). It is a fact that, in such systems,
inconsistency causes serious technical and
economical problems. Plant activity is strictly
dependent on material that is sent from mine.
Required material should satisfy quantity and quality
conditions of plant. Otherwise, output of plant is
also affected. Besides, mechanical problems may
occur in the plant system, either.
Produced material in mine may exceed the needed,
which means stocking problems and necessity to
slow down production, etc.
Here, the importance of stockpile management
becomes obvious. Stockpiles do not only store
material but also regulate its flow (Ramani, 1990).
Objective of mine-plant dual system is to optimize
material flow. The aim can be realized by
minimizing deflection between material provided
and needed in quantity and quality. Minimization of
penalty cost may point out the same objective.
In this study, a mathematical model for the
simulation of material flow from Seyitomer Lignite
Mine to nearby power plant is developed. The
algorithm of the simulation system is aims at
minimizing the penalty cost.
2 THE COAL MINE AND POWER PLANT
Seyitomer Lignite Mine (SLM) is a district of
Turkish Coal Enterprises in the western part of the
Anatoha (Fig. 1).
Mining activity has been continued since 1960.
The quantity and quality of reserves are presented in
Table 1.

793
 2.1. The problem o f the System

The power plant requires a regular coal feeding to

produce electricity. Coal specifications are
determined in the agreement and its supply is
undertaken by the coal mine. However, although the
quantity requirement can be fulfilled, the quality
requirements may not be. Every year, the mine is
obliged to pay a charged amount of penalty cost.
In order to overcome above problem, a new
stockpile organization is necessary. The developed
simulation model is based on this new proposed
structure.

3 THE SIMULATION MODEL OF PROPOSED

MATERIAL FLOW
Figure 1. Location o f Seyitòmer lignite district.
First, the system requires a revision such that
Table 1. Gaieral diaracteristics of lignite coai. stockpile is a crucial part of it and a new structure
should be built. Coal for plant should be categorized
Property (Average) Value into three classes according to calorific value. Three
Thickness 33.4 m calorific value ranges are; cr/, cr^ and crj;
Organic Carbon 19.8%
Calorific Value 1865 kCal/kg
Moisture 35.1 % qco<cri<qp ( 1)
Volatile Matter 58.2 %
Sulphur 1.6 % qp‘<cr2<qp" ( 2)
Ash 50.4 %
Unit Weight 1.45 t/m^ qp" < crs (3)
Reserve 250 X 10^ ton
where cri is the range between minimum acceptable
calorific value (minability), qco and lower limit of
The nearby power plant having an electrical
calory range required by the plant, qj. CV2 is the
production capacity of 4x150 MW, has been
range between lower and upper level of plant calory
working since 1972. In the district, stripping and
range, qf*. crs is the one above upper level of plant
coal production activities are performed by dragline
calory range. Such a classification should be applied
and excavator+truck methods. Daily requirement of
in the mine and is useful for especially blending
the power plant is 6500 ton of lignite coal having
purpose (Fig. 3).
average quality o f 1660 kCal/kg. The scheme of
Let prod (a,q) be daily material produced in the
present material flow, is given in Figure 2.
coal mine, where I is life of mine in
There are two stockpiles in the mine. Coal having a
terms of days. Produced material is the function of
calorific value above 2000 kCal/kg is stocked in one
amount a and quality q (calorific value) and given in
of them and below this quality, in the other. Coal
below relation;
with higher calorific value is evaluated in public
heating while the other is utilized in the power plant.
prod(a,q) =f(a,q) (4)

Mine Plant Mine Plant

Stockpile Stockpile Stockpiles Stockpile
Power Power
Plant Plant

Figure 2. The present material flow structure. Figure 3. The pr(q)osed material flow structure.

794
 Calorific value is accepted to be an adequate
criterion itself for deciding where produced coal
should be sent to. This is because other
specifications like sulfur and ash content are
determined as directly proportional to calorific
value.
Three mine stockpiles can be represented as
smV(a,q), sm2^(a,q) and sm3^(a,q) for calorific value
ranges of cn, cr2 and crs, respectively. They are
function of amount a and quantity q. Accumulated
amount of material in mine stockpiles, are ai\ a2
and as'. Similarly, quality (average calorific value)
parameters are q /, q2 and qs'. a' is amount of
material produced in ith day and q' is quality
(calorific value) of it. The system can be understood
better if travel of a daily-excavated coal a' having
quality of q' is followed through mine-plant route.
Material information is given by an integrated
production scheduling system.
3.1. Flow Between Mine and Mine Stockpiles
Let fi(a \q ') be flow between mine and mine
stockpiles (Fig. 4). Most crucial part of the flow is
mine stockpile. Material classification, recording,
blending processes take place here.
Material sent from mine with a' amount and q'
quality, is classified such that;
qco^'<qp => 3i/= a /+ a ' (5)
q p ^ ^ p ^ => 02=02+a' ( 6)
qp <4 => a/=a/+a* (7)
where,
qco = cut-off quality (kCal/kg)
qp = lower limit of quality range of plant
requirement (kCal/kg)
qp'' = upper limit of quality range of plant
requirement (kCal/kg)
smr(a,q)
sm2'(a,q)
sm3^(a,q)
Figure 4. Flow between mine and mine stockpiles.
795
Even though all stockpiles represent a quality
range, average qualities should be known for
blending purpose, especially for stockpiles 1 and 3.
This requires recording quantity and quality of daily
material. Average quality (calorific value) of
stockpiles can be calculated by taking weighted
averages;
( 8)
2,01
i -g2
<h (9)
V. ^3 ■?3
«3 =
( 10)
3.2. Flow Between Mine Stockpiles and Plant
Stockpile
The power plant stockpile is represented by sp(a,q).
Op and qp are amount and quality of accumulated
material, respectively. Daily flow between the mine
stockpiles and the plant stockpile \sf 2 (d,q) (Fig. 5).
Material sent from the mine stockpiles may be
directly from 2°^ stockpile which satisfies the plant
requirements or from 1®^ and 3^^^ ones in a blended
form. As a result of blending, minimum quality and
quantity requirement of the plant should be satisfied.
Daily coal amount required by the plant is Op and
quality is qpK Amounts that are supplied by 2“^^
and 3^^^ stockpiles are Osh cls2 and Oss with quality of
qsh qs2 and qss respectively. Both amount and
qualities are recorded continuously using Equations
4 to 6. Blending process for a mixture of material
from 1^ and 3”^^^ stockpiles should satisfy the
following equations;
Mine
Stoclqiiles
Plant
smV(a,q) Stockpile
sm2'(a,q) tiM , /y y v A
sm3'(a,q)
sp'(a,q)
Figure 5. Flow between mine stockpiles and plant stockpile.
d s lQ s l ^ / ( I\
1 ~ (11) Q s3 - Qp
(2 3 )
^ s\ ■ *" ^53 Qp -Qsi

^ s lQ s l dg^Qs'i ^ (12) Amount to be sent from 2“^ stockpile is

as2 = dp - dsl -ds3 which is identical with Equation
17. Daily material supply and its quality should
dsl + d s3 = dp (13) satisfy,

From equations 11 to 13, asi and as3 can be dsl + d s 2 + d s3 ^ d p (24)

calculated such that;

i 1 ^ I ^ ^s lQ s l ^ 53^53 ^ u
(25)
Q.S?) Qp Qp — — Hp
d sl dp (14) d sl +d ,2 + d ,2
y Q s3 ~ Q si ^

Annual production in amount should be equal or

hence, a s 3 is. greater than the one sent to plant.

d s3 — d p — d s l (15) Amine —Ams-ps (26)

A decrease in 1^ and 3”* stockpiles by asi and Us3

can be shown as; where.
Amine = unnual coal amount produced in mine
d l = d l — dsl (16) Ams-ps = annual coal amount sent from mine
stockpiles to plant stockpile
d 3 = d 3 - ds3 (17)
The mine stockpile warns mine and interferes its
Material from 2°^ stockpile already satisfies plant production schedule by a message.
requirements. Feeding policy of the system is that if
there is enough material in 2“^^ stockpile, feeding is = g {d l\ d l\ d 3 ) (27)
provided from this one.
Message that stockpile sends to mine, b\ is function
(^s2 —ds2 ~ dp (18) of amounts in all stockpiles. Let wj be capacity of 7th
stockpile and zj be risky amount for jth stockpile,
Otherwise material accumulated in other two j=l,2,3. Risky level is the coal amount below which
stockpiles should be blended. stock is critical for further feeding and the mine
If amount to be sent from 1®‘ stockpile is not totally should send material immediately for jih stockpile.
available {aiKUsi), daily need should be provided by Messages are produced in such cases;

a/ > Wi ^ 5* = +7 (28)
Clsl — Cll (19)
(32* > W2 = +2 (29)
( I\
Qs2 Qp
(20) U3 = +3 (30)
\ p -Qsi /
dl < Zi =>h^ = -1 (31)
Cls2 — d p — dsl —d s 3 (21)
d2 < Z2 S* = -2 (32)
If amount to be sent ! not
totally available {dsKdss), d3 < Zi 6* = -3 (33)

d s3 = d 3 (22) b^ = 0 (34)

All (+)’ve messages warn the mine not to send

coal for 7th stockpile, (-)’ve messages indicates mine

796
to send coal to 7th stockpile immediately. If there is
no problem 6^= 0.
3.3. Flow from Plant Stockpile to Power Plant
The plant stockpile has an insurance order in flow
structure rather than a regulator like mine stockpiles.
For days in which coal is insufficient in amount or
improper in quality, a reasonable amount of coal is
stocked (Fig. 6).
Plant cons\a,q)
Stockpile
h \d 4 )
Power
Plant
sp(a,q)
Figure 6. Flow from Plant Stockpile to Power Plant.
Flow is function of amount a and quality (calorific
value) q. The power plant is represented as
consfa,q) and amount of material coming to the
plant is app with quality qpf which are identical with
ap and qp.
In the case study; amount required by the power
plant is ct=6500 ton/day and ;U=1660 kCal/kg. The
mine pays y/ for each ton of coal, which does not
satisfy quality condition. Hence, the aim is to
minimize c - apf difference.
mm z = I ( a - „ )-d ‘
where, d' is a Boolean variable getting 0 or 1 value,
d' is 0 if daily requirement of the plant is satisfied iih
day, otherwise 1. In economical terms;
The above algorithm has been coded in C++
regarding the case of the Garp Lignite Enterprise
coal mine in Kutahya, Turkey. The government
enterprise has limited permission for data
declarations. However, the system has already been
applied to metal mines successfully (Erarslan, 1996).
4 CONCLUSION
In this study, the real problem of a coal mine and
nearby power plant is investigated. The coal mine
undertakes supplying daily coal having a certain
amount and quality. Unfortunately, sometimes, this
obligation is not fulfilled. After studying the
problem a revised system is advised. The flow
scheme of the system is developed. Stockpiles of
mine are accepted as regulator. If data assurance
problem is overcome, in further study, the developed
algorithm can be applied in a real case. A very
similar algorithm, coded in C++, had been applied to
metal mines and reasonable and encouraging results
had been obtained.
REFERENCES
Albert, E.K., 1989. "A New General Purpose Surface
Mining Simulator", Proceedings 21th APCOM
Symposium, SME, Littleton, pp. 366-374.
Banks, J., Carson, J.S. and Nelson, B, 1996. Discrete-
event System Simulation, 2°^ ed., Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey.
Beckett, L.A., Haycocks, C. and Lucas, J.R., 1979.
"LHDSIM-A Load-Haul-Dump Simulator for Room
and Pillar Mining Operations", ", Proceedings 21th
APCOM Symposium, SME-AIME, New York, pp.
408-413.
Erarslan, K., 1996. “Development of a Model for Open
Pit Limits Optimization Integrated with a Sequencing
System”, Ph.D. Dissertation, METU, Ankara, 163 p.
Fishman, G.S., 1978. Principles o f Discrete Event
Simulation, John Wiley, Englewood Cliffs, New
York
Law, AM. and Kelton W.D., 1991. Simulation Modeling
(35) and Analysis, 2'"'^ed., McGraw Hill Inti. Ed., 759 p.
Ramani, R.V., 1990. "Haulage Systems Simulation
Analysis", Surface Mining, 2°'^ ed., Kennedy ed.,
SME-AIME, pp. 724-742.
Yingling, J.C., 1992. "Cycles and Systems", SME Mining
Handbook, 2°"^ ed. Vol. 1, Hartman ed., AIME, pp.
783-805.
(36)
797
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Computer design and operation o f quarries for non-m etallic mineral

industries: C ase study at Lafarge Lim estone D eposit in Turkey

H. Elgin
Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
M.Basaran
Lafarge-Entegre Lime Plant, Istanbul, Turkey

ABSTRACT: The use of computer assisted system in the planning and operation in non-metallic mineral
industry offers a variety of opportunities for rationalisation of work specifically in cement and lime industries.
The practical use of new modelling techniques such as Digital Terrain modelling (DTM), Solid Modelling,
Block Modelling and Geostatistical modelling, allow to evaluate deposit and to plan quarry effectively which
result in finding best technical and economical solution from various alternatives taking into account any
constrains specific to the operation. This paper explains these computer techniques used by commercial
software and the self-developed systems. A description of the subsidiary aspects of the use of computer
simulations of deposits is also given for simulation of excavation, simulation of loading and transport
equipment and primary crushers. The results of the application in a limestone deposit in Turkey where
production is planned to serve a lime plant are illustrated.

1 INTRODUCTION uses such as lime and cement production. In lime

The principal carbonate rocks used by industry are
limestone and dolomite. Limestone are sedimentary
rocks composed mostly of the mineral calcite
(CaC03) and dolomites are sedimentary rocks
composed mostly of the mineral dolomite
(CaCOs.MgCOs). Because of their similar physical
properties, the carbonate minerals are not easily
distinguished one from the other. Specific gravity,
colour, crystal form and other physical properties are
used to identify the mineral if the deposit is
relatively monominalic and compact. The further
information of a specific deposit can also be
obtained through chemical analysis .
Impurities in carbonate rocks are very important
from economic points if they affect the usefulness of
the rock. The amount of impurities and their
distributions are considered in the evaluation of
deposits. Since carbonate rocks are rarely
monomineralic in nature; a mineralogical
classification of these rocks needs to take into
consideration; the variation of the amount of calcite,
dolomite and noncarbonate materials (Carr&Rooney
1988). Although limestone and dolomite can be used
equally well for a large number of uses, special
chemical requirements have to be ensured in some
production, the chemical requirements are stated in
terms of the quantity of CaCOs and MgCOs or both
in the rock along with the maximum percentage of
impurities that can be tolerated in the production. In
cement production, compositional target may be
expressed in terms of the ratios (or moduli) of the
percentages of the oxides in raw material or desired
clinker (Ergin 1999, Bye 1983).
The development in computer technology and
mining software has allowed using some techniques
to produce more reliable and rapid methods of
evaluating non-metallic mineral deposits. This is
achieved by the better use of data obtained various
sources such as drill hole data, geological mapping,
soil and stream sediment samples, trench and
chaimel data which leads to achieve the most
profitable quarry plans. The classified reserves of
the deposits can also be calculated accurately
according to the desired uses.
The capabilities of the sophisticated mining
software provide an opportunity for the non-metallic
mineral industries involved in excavating raw
materials to rationalise work, which has largely been
performed manually in the past. When using
simulations for deposits, excavation, loading and
transport equipment and primary crusher, only a

799
short planning time is sufficient to find the best
technical and economic solutions from various
alternatives, taking into account any constraints
specific to the operation. Short planning preparation
times and the use of simulations means that they can
deal effectively with problem situations by using the
approach of alternative solutions. In this way, it is
possible to developed cost effective plans which are
matched to the individual operating conditions and
to optimise the operational sequences and the use of
equipment.
This sophisticated software also includes a suite of
specialised modules for specifically environmental
applications such as tailing deposition, surface
reprofiling and atmospheric modelling
(Ergin&Ercelebi 1999, Ferguson 1992).

2 COMPUTER MODELLING AND

SIMULATION TECHNIQUES USED IN THE
QUARRY DESIGN AND OPERATION

2.1 Design parameters o f quarry operations

Figure 1 The criteria taken into account in quarry
operation.
The items given in Figure 1 contain the most
important criteria for modem quarry operation (Stoll
et al. 1994). The use of computer assisted systems
2.2 Modeling o f Raw Material Deposits and
provide to develop cost-effective plans and
Optimization o f Production
operating conditions. In the following areas such
systems are concentrated;
Geological Database: The current geological
1. Obtaining, sorting, evaluating and displaying
databases are capable of storing data from the
data by the aid of geological database
following sources:
2. Using various modelling methods to obtain
1. Drill hole data (Chemical Analysis, Geological
three-dimensional model (3D) of a deposit
Logging, Geotechnical Logging, Geophysical Data)
3. Establishing the current quarry situation by
2. Geological Mapping
direct data transfer from surveying equipment or by
3. Soil and Stream Sediment Samples
digitising the existing maps
4. Time Dependent data (Pump Test Data, Water
4. Processing and displaying all data in 3D
analysis)
5. Carrying out the environmental management
5. Trench and Channel Data
specific to the deposit and operation
Data obtained in the exploration activities is stored
6. Planning quarry by setting design parameters
Geological Database. The database allows
and close integration of created models
classifying data, carrying out basic statistical
7. Planning the use of excavation, loading and
analysis and reporting. Collars can be also viewed
transport equipment for individual machines and the
graphically and sections be extracted at any
whole system by using technical and economic
directions and plotted as the database is closely
parameters
integrates with the central graphics system. A range
8. Determining an optimum primary cmsher and its
of popular database formats that are (Microsoft
location that is specific to the operation
Access, Paradox, and Oracle - on Unix, Informix -on
9. Reporting the results both as maps (mining
Unix) directly supported. Database is a vitally
plans) and text form for the intended use.
important module for this kind of software as other
modules of software utilises this module intensively.
Surveying and Topographical Modelling by DTM:
The surrounding of quarry is considerably important
for planning works. Surveying module and other

800
tools can be used to input contours and
topographical points in three-dimensional form from
existing maps via a digitizer. If a digital data is
already available utilizing surveying module with
DXF file extension can transfer this.
All data points, drillhole designations, benches,
haul roads and surrounding infrastructures are
loaded to the survey database. This is necessary to
check whether it was technically and economically
possible to develop a new operation within the
existing quarry. After the current situation and the
topographical conditions have been input three
dimensional (3D) models are calculated by Digital
Terrain Model (DTM) module. In Surpac2000,
DTM module creates 3D model with the aid of a
triangular network according to user defined criteria
e.g. elevation, geological formations, chemical
analysis and so on.
These models can be used to obtain the distribution
maps in which the step size and the indicating colors
may be arbitrary chosen. The volume between the
two DTM surfaces (i.e. two benches) can be
calculated precisely.
Modelling of Raw Material Deposits: Block
Model: Block modelling divides the resources into
blocks within the wireframed geological models.
The block size is defined by the user depending on
the data intensity (i.e. x=10, y=I0 and z=5 m.).
Attributes for each block can be numerical or
descriptive and there is no theoretical limit to the
number, or name of the attributes stored in the block
model. These attributes may include such things as
the chemical analysis, geological formations defined
by different colours etc. The " Block Modelling "
module allows rapid creation of user defined reports
within the any constrained model. There are
numbers of methods for interpolating values into the
block model, including; BCriging, Inverse Distance to
"nth power. Nearest Neighbour, Direct Assignment,
Assign from String.
If the orebodies are narrow or require higher
definition for production optimisation, the user can
perform sub-blocking.
Solid and Geological Modelling: It is necessary to
extract sections to build the solid and geological
models by the aid of geological database module.
Interpolating the geological codes and the borehole
chemical analysis values between the cross sections
can then create three-dimensional geological and
solid models. The resulting models are used to
calculate the reserves and to perform the production
planning.
Figure 2 shows an example view for solid model
and block model of a deposit.
801
Figure 2. Typical view of solid and block model.
Geostatistical Model: The Geostatistics Module of
such software offers an extensive range of technique
that allows users to interpolate sample data loaded in
database. The first level of statistics known Basic
Statistics includes the analysis of data such as
finding minimum and maximum value constraints,
histogram/cumulative frequency plot and
distribution of raw and transformed values and
examination of the variables to determine the
advanced Geostatistical technique.
Once it has been decided that the data is suitable to
perform further processing then the advanced
statistics tools incorporate Variogram Calculation,
Variogram Modelling and Variogram Validation.
Modelling the variogram involves setting the nugget,
sill and range values for each structure present. The
results of the statistical analysis may be used to
interpolate data into block models and to create
descriptive quality maps of a deposit. The attributes
for each block can be numerical and descriptive or
both such as chemical analysis values of each
element, quality or other defining features of the
deposits.
Reserve Calculation: The reserves can be
calculated extremely fast and accurate by various
ways such as using solid model, constrained blocks
from a block model, DTM and end area sections.
Masses of the different formations and overburden
can be separately calculated according to the defined
parameters, hence, the production rate can be easily
controlled.
Quarry Design, Production Planning: The open pit
and quarries can be interactively designed and
optimised by close integration of block, solid or
Geostatistical modelling modules and pit design and
scheduler modules. The pit design tool allows the
user to interactively design the pit while specifying
and viewing pit in graphics system including
different wall slopes and bench widths, haul roads as
design parameters.
Upon completion of the design; grade and tonnage
calculations of each bench may be generated. The
numerical and descriptive attributes can be stored to
the designed benches and graphical or numerical
reports may be generated within minutes.
The combination of the use of the pit design model
and 3-D topographic model provides the optimal raw
material production in term of considering the
change in the surface features and short/long term
scheduling of quarry production. This leads to apply
the varying economical and technical parameters in
order to attain the optimal production for new
condition and requirements.
2. J. Simulation o f excavation; loading and transport
equipment
Simulation of excavation: The detailed planning
pattern prepared by the use of computer assisted
system leads to simulate the various excavation
systems for a quarry. The plan describes the
development of the quarry in order to provide a
short-term and long-term information about
quarrying the raw material and the resulting costs. A
variety of tools are available in the planning
software which serve to design the quarry with
different set of parameters such as bench widths,
face heights, embankment slopes, ramp alignment,
etc. It is possible to examine the quarry with these
predetermined parameters at any time during the
simulation.
Assuring to produce the material having the
previously specified quality and quantity of the
material completes the excavation simulation. The
use of computer is an aid to simplify the design and
calculations and thereby greatly reduces the time for
working out alternatives to find the optimum.
Simulation of loading and transportation: In
addition to excavation and predetermined detailed
planning pattern, the computer assisted systems offer
to optimise the operations through the simulation of
transport system and primary crushers in non-
metallic mineral productions. Various simulation
programs developed for optimising the transport
systems and for determining the primary crusher
location (Stoll et al. 1994). These programs serve to
plan new system and check the existing ones from
the technical and economic points of view.
These optimisation programs of the transportation
system offer to compare the costs of the present
802
system and the calculated cost of alternative
systems. The main points are based on the utilisation
of loading and transport equipments both taking into
account of individual equipment and the equipment
combinations. The utilisation of individual
equipment and the organisation of the equipments
within a system determine the efficiency of the
whole system, which can be calculated in the frame
of the reliability theory (Kumar&Gramholm 1988,
Bergman&Klefsjo 1984) and queuing theory
(Kumar et al. 1987, Sense 1968). The failure of the
machine and the lack of organisation would affect
the utilisation rate of individual equipment as well as
the whole system. The machines are connected to
each other either serial or parallel. If the serial
connection is employed then the failure of one
machine would affect the whole system e.g.
excavator-crusher organisation. However, the failure
of a machine in the parallel connection may cause to
decrease the production rate e.g., excavator or loader
- truck combinations.
The reliability of serial connections is; if the unit i
has the reliability of Rt then;
R f = X ^ ' " ^ n ( 1)
The reliability of parallel connection is
Rj = l - ( l - i ^ i ) x a - ^ 2 ) x - - - x ( l - ^ J (2)
The reliability of a unit, R(t) at a time of t is;
00
R{t)= f { t ) d t (3)
/ (t) = Defines the failure distribution fimction.
The other important parameter, which affects the
utilisation rate of the machines, is the organisation of
the system employed in a quarry. The latter is
extremely affected by the evaluation of deposit and
the production planning which can be optimised by
the use of the computer assisted system.
Planning the utilisation of loading and transport
equipment is realised by the simulation of individual
items of equipment and the combination of the
equipment chains in which it is possible to simulate
excavators, loading and transport machines,
crushers.
In the simulation of individual equipment used in a
quarry it is needed to determine some operating
parameters, which are specific to each equipment
Table 1. Simulation parameters of equipments.
Equipment Simulation parameters
Excavator : Type, truck allocation, loading cycle
time, output, cost calculation
Wheeled : Type, truck allocation, loading
Loader cycle time, output, cost calculation
Truck : Type, speed, haulage cycle time,
capacity, number of trucks, cost
Belt Conveyor: Haulage capacity, dimensions,
relocatability, cost
Crusher_____ : Mobility, cost___________________
and the quarry itself The simulation parameters of
the equipments are given in Table 1.
In the individual equipment simulation the different
items of loading and transport equipments are
considered separately in the order of use. The size of
the equipments is determined by using previously
defined data, which are annual capacity, and running
hours in most cases. It is also considered that
optimum equipment should be allocated for the
existing equipment. For example, for the loading
equipment with the allocation of existing trucks, the
loading cycle time, the average operating output and
the capital and operating costs are determined as
simulation parameters. Similarly, trucks can be
allocated to the existing loading equipment. If the
distance is an operating parameter of equipment,
then, speeds, cycle times and required number of
machines, transport capacity and costs are
considered. Belt conveyor system can be
dimensioned for the appropriate capacity and
Figure 3. Typical equipment combinations in quarry
operations.
803
running hours. Performance and cost calculations are
carried out for the installed system. In the same
manner, the selection of primary crusher is carried
out on the basis of technical criteria (stationary,
semi-mobile and fully mobile) and cost criteria. Cost
calculation includes the capital cost, operating cost,
labour cost and other costs.
The simulation of whole system provide an
opportunity to make comparison among the different
plant combinations. For example, the comparison
can be made between the use of stationary primary
crusher with appropriate loading- intermediate
transport system and the use of mobile crusher
system which does not require an itermediate
transport. In Figure 3, various tpycial alternative
equipment combinations are illustrated.
3 CASE STUDY AT LAFARGE LIMESTONE
DEPOSIT IN TURKEY
Limestone deposits which belong to Lafarge Corp.
near Istanbul, in Turkey was undertaken to design
and optimise the quarry where the production is
planned to serve a Lime plant. Production of lime
involves three main processes that are raw material
production, calcination and hydration
Lime is usually made from high-calcium or high-
magnesium limestone; generally having a maximum
of 97% combined carbonate contents. Normally,
high calcium limes contain less than 5% MgO. The
value of the lime for most purposes is depended
upon its available lime content (CaO), or in the case
of dolomitic lime its total oxide content. The purity
of lime is influenced primarily by the purity of the
limestone, and secondarily by its manufacture.
Corresponding to their usage in the building
industry the lime are separated on the basis of their
hardening characteristics into 2 basic groups; air
limes and hydraulic limes. The different forms of
dolomitic limes as well as shell limes, carbite limes
and lime putties are also defined. The chemical
composition is fundamental to the hardening
characteristics of building limes. Certain minimum
contents for the most important oxides, CaO+MgO,
as well as MgO, are therefore specified for the
building lime classes. The contents of CO2, SO3 and
available lime are also restricted. The chemical
requirements listed in Table 2 apply to all types of
building lime.
To achieve the optimal raw material production in
the Lafarge’s limestone deposit; 41 drillholes having
1736.2 m were drilled and the analysis of CaCOs
and MgCOs were carried out. SURPAC2000
Software was used to evaluate and plan the quarry.
Table 2. Chemical requirements for lime. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Type o f CaO Available Acknowledgements is given to Lafarge-Entegre

building +M gO MgO CO 2 SO 3 lime Lime Company for their financial support and
lime % % % % % SURPAC Software International for the technical
CL90 >90 <5 <4 <2 support.
CL80 >80 <5 <7 <2
CL70 >70 <5 <12 <2
DL85 >85 >30 <7 <2 REFERENCES
DL80 >80 >5 <7 <2
HL2 <3 >8 Bergman, B.&B., Klefsjd 1984. The total time on
HL3.5 <3 >6 test concept and its use in Reliability Theory.
HL5 <3 >3 Operations Research 32: 597-606.
Bye, G.C. 1983. Portland Cement-Composition,
Production and Properties. Pergamon Press.
In order to perform the necessary w^orks; Carr, D.D.&L.F. Rooney 1988. Limestone and
topographical, geological and borehole data were dolomite. Industrial Minerals and Rocks: 833-
stored the database of SURPAC2000. Then the data 867
was extracted from the database in a form which Ergin, H. 1999. Optimisation of cement raw material
lends itself to the modelling chosen either geological production by computer aided design. Cement
and solid modelling or geostatistical and block and Concrete World 16:33-44
modelling to create the 3D model of deposit. In the Ergin, H.&S. Ercelebi 1999. Integrated mining
model; the limestone, dolomitic limestone, dolomite software and applications. Geosound 34: 33-42.
and overburden are indicated separately. The Ergin, H., C.Akbulut, M.Basaran&T.Erdogan 1997.
distribution maps of MgO and CaO were also Evaluation of Entegre limestone deposit, reserves
created for the existing and planned benches as well calculation - quarry design and production
as whole deposit. The classified reserves were optimisation. Technical Project: 87
calculated according to desired chemical (unpublished). ITU Mining Engineering, Istanbul.
specifications. Total limestone reserve of the deposit Ferguson, G.A. 1992. Mining design software - a
suitable for carbide lime production is 4.5 Mt, critical review. Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. Sect. A
having 2.85% MgCOs and 95.89% CaCOs. There is 101: 127-134.
also 9.5 Mt reserve for producing different types of Kumar, U., S., Granholm&J. Elbrond 1988, Mine
dolomitic limes. Full results are documented system availability concepts. Int.J.of Surface
elsewhere (Ergin et al. 1997). Mining 1:209-213.
Kumar, U.&S. Granholmet 1987. Reliability
Techniques: A powerful tool for mine operators.
4 CONCLUSIONS Mineral Resources Engineering 1:13-28.
Sense, J.J 1968. Equipment availability. In P.E.
The sophisticated computer-assisted systems provide Pfleider (ed.), Surface Mining :663-668. AIME
to calculate reserves according to chemical publications. New York.
specifications and create 3D view of the deposit. All Stoll, R.D., F. Rese&R. Zuehllsdorff 1994. The use
the planning alternatives can be compared to reach of EDP-assisted systems in the planning and
the most appropriate quarry plan and product operation of quarries in the non-metallic minerals
specification within a short time. This includes industries. ZKG Int. 11: 287-291.
generating section in any directions, topographical
and geological maps in desired scale. The
environmental plan of a quarry can also be realised
in the most effective way.
The use of simulation leads to optimise the
excavation, loading and transport equipment
selection and operations. The increase of utilisation
rate of the equipment allows operating quarry
effectively both technical and economical points of

804
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

D evelopm ent o f m ining m anagem ent inform ation system

for Som a Open Pit M ines

M . Ersoy
Planning, Project Department, Turkish Coal Enterprises, Ankara, Turkey
N. gelebi
Mining Engineering Department, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey

ABSTRACT; Management Information System (MIS) is the combination of human and computer based re­
sources that result in the collection, storage, retrieval, communication and use of data for the purpose of effi­
cient management operation and for business planning. MIS facilitates management by producing structured
and summarised reports on a regular and recurring basis. They are used in decision making. Today, without
the application of computer, and MIS based on computer network, it is impossible to modernise mining enter­
prise management.

In this study, a Mining Management Information System (M M IS) named SOMMIS developed for Soma
Open Pit Mines is described. The development life cycle approach of MIS is followed and each of the pre­
liminary investigation, the detailed investigation, the logical design, the physical design and the implementa­
tion phases are explained for SOMMIS. The system is tested using real and artificial data and it is found as
suitable for application.

1 INTRODUCTION 1995), "Endako Mine" (Jedrzejczak and McDowell,

Computers have been used in the mineral industry
for about 40 years. In recent years, there is an in­
creasing movement away from software which is
mine specific, to systems which provide an inte­
grated approach and provide modules that relates to
all phases of a mine's development, from the initial
exploration such as geophysical and geochemical
survey; through to mine closure. Much management
and optimisation software are also provided.
The Mining Management Information System
(M M IS) based on computer network is an important
standard to evaluate a mining enterprise with mod­
ernised management. Here the so-called Manage­
ment Information System (M IS) is viewed as a mean
of collecting, storing and processing data, ie. the
routine facts and figures of the organisation, into in­
formation with is then used for decision making.
Nowadays, all the large mining enterprises in the
world have been developing toward fully modern­
ised MIS. Statistics show that the benefits produced
using M M IS have enhanced three to five percent
(Liqun et al, 1994).
Some mining companies applying M M IS are
"British Coal Mining"(Hartley, 1991), "Brunswick
Mining and Smelting"(MacPherson and Stothant,
1993) , "Kennecott Copper Corporate" (Liqun et al,
1994) , "Newmont Gold Company"(Flye, 1988),
"Nan Fen Open Pit Mine", and "Ben X i Iron and
Steel Company "(Liqun et al, 1994).
A MM IS named SOMMIS is developed for Soma
Open Pit Mines (Ersoy, 1998). These mines belong
to Aegean Lignite Establishment (ELI), Turkey. For
better management of Soma Open Pit Lignite Mines
M M IS is started to develop. In the existing system,
managerial use of computers is limited. Most of the
information is produced manually; there exist dupli­
cations in generated reports and problems in data­
flows. Hence, with the use of a computer network
and with the application of an M M IS, it is possible
to modernise the establishment.
Starting with M M IS development life cycle, con­
tinuing with the description Soma Open Pit Mines
and the development of the system, SOMMIS for
Soma Open Pit Mines is explained below
2 M M IS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
As the design strategy of SOMMIS the system de­
velopment life cycle was selected. The development

805
life cycle is generally accepted as having five
phases:
- The preliminary investigation,
- The detailed investigation,
- The logical design,
- The physical design,
~ The implementation.
2.1 The Preliminary Investigation Phase
The preliminary investigation phase determines the
scope of the study and consists of four steps; namely
recognition of the problems, definition of the prob­
lems, setting the system objectives and identifying
system constraints.
2.2 The Detailed Investigation Phase
The purpose of the detail investigation is to deter­
mine the status of the current system. This phase
consists of three main activities that are data gath­
ering, data flow/or decision analysis and proposal
preparation (Kendall & Kendall, 1992). To gather
data about manager's information requirements, fact­
finding techniques that are interview, questionnaire,
record review and observation are used.
When studying the current business system to find
out how it works and where improvements should be
made, the basic requirements by the aid of answers
of the following questions are determined;
- What is the basic business process?
- What data are used and produced during the pro­
cess?
- What are timing, frequency and volume of ac­
tivities?
- What performance controls are used?
A useful framework for examining system facts
and establishing general user requirements includes
the areas of capacity, control and access to informa­
tion and complexity.
Lastly, the strength of the proposed system is
tested by meeting technical, economical and opera­
tional feasibility requirements and a proposal is pre­
pared (Saldarini, 1989).
2.3 The Logical Design Phase
In the logical design phase; while specifying the
features of the system, data flows, data stores, proc­
esses, procedures and controls are designed. The role
of all people who will involve with the new system
is described. Output, input and database interactions
and files are also designed (Stone & Kaas, 1982).
Hardware and software selection may be included in
806
some systems if additional equipment must be ac­
quired or packaged programs are used.
2.4 The Physical Design Phase
The physical design phase produces software, files
and a working system. It can be done as a batch
processing and on-line processing systems. Al­
though batch processing is low in cost, on-line sys­
tem allow the user to receive a response immedi­
ately.
The objectives of the physical design of the on­
line processing systems include identifying the pro­
cedures necessary to implement input/output con­
trols, determining specific data communications
between computer and terminal, creating detailed
screen formats, determining the appropriate record
image necessary for processing, determining the
specific file or database requirements and preparing
program specifications or purchasing required soft-
2.5 The Implementation Phase
The implementation phase consists of two primary
activities, which are training and conversion. Train­
ing involves users who will use the new system ei­
ther by provided data, receiving information or actu­
ally operating equipment. Conversion, the process of
changing from the old system to new one, must be
carefully planned and executed.
3 SOMA OPEN PIT MINES
Turkish Coal Enterprises (TKI), a state owned and
operated coal mining company, is the largest lignite
producer of Turkey. Aegean Lignite Establishment
(ELI) is one of its most establishments and has many
open and underground mines. There are three mine
areas named as Deni , Soma andEynez under man­
agement of ELL
Within the border of Soma area there are many
open pits mines grouped under four main open pit
mines operated for the same purposes. The subject
of this study is bounded by the Soma area and these
four open pit mines namely Elmal ,Sar kaya,I klar
and K srakdere. Soma area has about 10 km south of
the town of Soma in the Manisa Province of Western
Turkey.
By the end of 1999, remaining reserves and yearly
saleable production are around 62.5 million tons and
5.7 million tons respectively. Produced coal is used
in three main sectors; power stations in the region,
industry and domestic use. The quality of coal
changes in between 2500-4600 Kcal/kg from mine
to mine.
4 DEVELOPMENT OF SOMMIS
In the preliminary investigation phase, the problems
in the present system were identified. Some of them
are given as follows: Incomplete reports in terms of
format, content etc., data-flow problems, no con­
venient task and responsibility definition, weak
communication between departments.
The objectives of the system to tackle with these
problems were defined through interviews with per­
son, groups, and departments.
The system is developed assuming the available
equipment and manpower of the establishment will
not change.
In the detailed investigation phase, in order to
clarify the existing system, the basic business proc­
ess was determined by identifying purpose and steps
of the process, place, staff, duration, frequency of
these steps and usage of resulting information.
The purpose of this activity is to provide or guar­
antee a coal supply at the lowest possible cost to the
enterprise that is stable both in quantity and quality
with the available equipment and man-power and is
to utilise the enterprise more efficiently and produce
more coal using the same equipment and man-power
as it does now.
The steps performed in the process are explora­
tion, production scheduling, material requirement
planning, overburden removal, coal production, coal
processing, maintenance, and marketing.
After determining the basic business process, data
used and information produced were defined. In or­
der to do this; the tasks those managers did, neces­
sary data to do these tasks, processes used and in­
formation produced were examined. Lastly, timing
and frequency of activities were fixed.
To determine user requirements and to make deci­
sion analysis, representative samples from each
managerial level were selected. The results of ques­
tionnaire, interviews and observations were evalu­
ated.
Although the lower, the middle and the top-level
managers' requirements are different, in the present
system, it was observed that information was more
related to day-to-day activities which are usually
followed by lower level managers. For example, it
was seen that the information flow up to the top
managers, were dispersed and too much detailed, so
was inconvenient for analysis and had repetitive in­
formation for the same purpose.
Improvements of the existing system were deter­
mined by evaluating questionnaire. Improvements
807
are ranked in-groups from maximum in number to
minimum. Highest three of them are enhancing
communication, restructuring and securing motiva­
tion.
The final step in the detailed investigation phase is
preparation of a project proposal.
In logical design phase, firstly functions of or­
ganisation were determined based on the organisa­
tion chart.
A hierarchical approach in systems design was
used. Using the technique of functional decomposi­
tion, Soma Open Pit Mines Information System
(SOMMIS) was decomposed into two major func­
tional modules as Production System (PS) and Pro­
duction Support System (PSS) and further decom­
position of these modules was performed as shown
in Figure 1. This diagram provides the global view
of functional areas in which the DBMS were con­
structed. Using the system decomposition in Figure
1 a more detailed analysis of basic systems and data
flow between them were established.
4.1 System Description
The Mine System is the major system, which has
three primary functions; monitoring of coal produc­
tion, overburden removal and transportation. These
functions are divided into the sub-functions. To re­
alise the functions, the system gets related data from
other systems.
The Processing System has two primary functions,
monitoring of all plants and processing activities. By
monitoring plants, it is possible to get information
about reasons and duration of inactivates of plants.
The second function provides information about
washing densities and coal amount comes to plants
for processing. These values are combined with the
results of analysis values of processed coal to get
more reasonable information.
The Exploration System is a data entry and editing
DBMS for the processing of exploration drill-hole
logging. It has three modules- Bore-Hole Informa­
tion, Geology and Survey. Within the same database
all drill-holes for all exploration projects can be
stored. The system calculates average thickness,
moisture, ash, sulphur and calorific values which are
required for reserve evaluation.
The Equipment and Maintenance System which
provides comprehensive monitoring of equipment
usage by the aid of breakdown analysis and other
related data has three modules- Equipment Inven­
tory, Equipment Breakdown Duration and Equip­
ment Status. Equipment Inventory module provides
technical information about equipment. Equipment
Breakdown Duration module concerns with reasons
Figure 1. System hierarchy as a result o f functional decom position-
and duration of breakdowns of equipment. Informa­
tion about where and when the equipment is active
and status of equipment like on revision, at mainte­
nance etc. are all related with Equipment Status
Module.
The Marketing and Sales System has four mod­
ules- Customers, Orders, Order Details and Ship­
ment. Customers’ module includes customer infor­
mation like name, surname, company name etc.
Orders module is related with date information like
order date, required date of customer orders. Order
Details include detailed information about each or­
der like amount, size, production place, and price.
Shipment concerns with sold or shipped amount,
date etc. All has data entry function.
The Personnel System aids to manpower sched­
uling by updating continuously personnel inventory
and organising yearly holiday programs of workers.
The Laboratory System has the functions based on
borehole analysis, drill-hole analysis and processed
(washed and screened) coal analysis.
It is anticipated that the Material System will pro­
vide a base for future Material Requirement Plan­
ning by monitoring consumption of materials.
The Accounting System only calculates run of
mine and saleable coal production unit cost. Thus,
monitoring of cost will be possible.
The Safety System concerns with accidents. As al!
other systems, it has data entry module. By statisti­
cal evaluation of reasons of accidents, especially
evaluation of mortal accidents may help to decrease
the number of the accidents.
808
4.2 Design o f System
During design of files, 62 files such as Orders,
Equipment Inventory, Personnel Inventory, Material
Consumption were designed. In designing interac­
tion of files three kinds of relationships- one to one,
one to many and many to many were used. Among
these, one to many is used most commonly.
During the output design, questions of “who will
receive”, “its planned use”, “required detail”, “fre­
quency” and “method-displayed or printed” were
answered.
The input design specifies how data enter the
system for the processing. It also includes methods
for capturing data and validating its accuracy. The
overall objectives of input design stress minimising
the quantity of data for input while controlling errors
and delay.
Microsoft Access package, which is Microsoft
Relational Database Management System for Win­
dows (Microsoft Access ®, 1996) was used as the
software in the development of SOMMIS. Microsoft
Access package has features of designing tables,
queries, form, report, macros and modules.
Since Soma Open Pit Mines are distributed at
various geographic locations, computers should be
located at certain points for data entry and updating
facilities. Computer requirements depend on number
of the users who will use the new system at each lo­
cation.
The physical design phase covers the program­
ming facilities. On-line system was selected to de­
velop the software.
 EQUIPMENT STATUS

MAIN MENU [DATA ENTRY MENU \ \PROD.SUP:ByS.MENU \ {EOÖIPMENTMENLT

EQUiP-ID
E ENTERING HOUR 8:00
EQ UIP-M ODEL I191M -II B R E-D W N REASON Electrical

PR O D -U N IT IS A R IK AYA " EQUIP-STATUS Completely Revision

PROD -C A TEGOR Y iO/B/Rem ovai PLANNED EXIT DATE 01.Aug.00

EQUiP-PLACE [Ginge W orkshop PLANNED EXIT HOUR 13:00

DRIVE-SYSTEM I Electrical R EM O V ED B R E-D W N

B R E-D W N DATE t18-M ay-00 EXIT DATE

B R E-D W N SH IFT EXIT HOUR

ENTERING DATE |19-M ay-00

Figure 2. An example for data entry screen.

SALEABLE COAL PRODUCTION BASED ON

PRODUCTION PLACE REPORT

PRODUCTION PLACE: P IKLAR

1JUÄL SALEABLE INTERNAL STOCK
D ATE C A TE G O R Y SIZE(mm) PROD, (tons) CONS, (tons) (tons)
20. May.00 Washed TiTfB TTTnOD 0 0
■30'Ma’y’ötr WasTied +13 ■3 5 .DUS 0 3
1^ IKLAR TOTAL: 45.003 0 3

PRODUCTION PLACE: SARIKAYA

UUÄL SALEABLE INTERNAL S IO C K
DATE CATEGORY SIZE(mm) PROD, (tons) CONS.(tons) (tons)
15.May.00 Washed 15.250 0 200
"^STMay.OCi “ ScreerTed +3Ü T0.4U1 TfOU 1
SARIKAYA TOTAL: 25.651 TOD 201

OtNbRAL l UI AL : 70.654 400 254

0 7 June 2 0 0 0 W ed n esd ay P a g e :1

Figure 3. An example report.

Files were generally designed by using a unique
primary key, which prevents double data entry. 125
data entry screens were created. Figure 2 shows an
example to data entry. User responsibilities for data
entry and updating facilities were determined.
To meet requirements of each managerial level,
111 reports were generated using 255 queries. An
example report is given in Figure 3.
In the implementation phase, the processes and
operations of the system were verified. The devel­
oped system was tested using real and artificial test
data to detect errors. It is found as suitable for appli­
cation. In development of SOMMIS, modular and
standard design method is applied to improve main­
tainability. Each module is made stand alone to re­
duce maintenance and lengthen software life.

809
5 CONCLUSION

The described system SOMMIS will add value to

Soma mines by allowing rapid access of data, by
providing effective analytic capabilities and by per­
mitting flexible display of information to meet the
manager's own requirements.
The new system will allow single data entry on an
operations wide basis, automating manual proce­
dures, hence reducing data entry errors, speeding up
data input process and shortening data-processing
time.
It enables the users to get source data from any
level in the system. Better record retrieving results in
superior analysis and allows the managers to get
only the necessary reports faster than before. Infor­
mation flow between departments will be timely,
conducive to improved decision making.

REFERENCES

Ersoy, M., 1998.77ze Development o f mining management

information system fo r Soma open p it mines, Unpub­
lished M .Sc. Thesis, The M iddle East Technical U ni­
versity, Ankara: Turkey.
Flye , G .,1988. A Fully integrated production informa­
tion system at N ew m ont gold, Fytas, Collins and
Singhal, (eds). Computer Applications in the Mineral
Industry, 503-509, Rotterdam: Belkema.
Hartley, D .,1991. Information T echnology- The State o f
Art at Pits, Mining Technology, May, 152-156.
Jedrzejczak, R. & M acD ow ell, M., 1993. Evaluation o f a
Mine Information System at the Endako Mine, Mining
Engineering, April, 355-358.
Kendall, K.E., Kendall, J.E., 1992. System Analysis and
Design (Second Edition), Prentice Hall.
Liqun, Z., Liyan, D. & Shihui, L. 1994. The development
o f M ining M anagement Information System (MMIS),
Pa am ehm eto lu et al.(eds), Mme Planning and
Equipment Selection, 269-272, Rotterdam: Belkama,.
MacPherson G.E. & Stothart, P.G., 1995. Computerised
Mine Planning at Brunswick M ining and Smelting,
Singhal et al.(eds). Mine Planning and Equipment
Selection, 137-140, Rotterdam : Belkama.
M icrosoft A ccess (r) 97, 1996. Version 7.0, Copyright(c)
1 989-1 9 9 6 .
Saldarini, R.A., 1989. Analysis and Design o f Business
Information Systems, M acMillan Publishing Com­
pany.
Stone, J.P. & Kaas, M., 1982. Automated Minerals
Information System - AM IS, International
Symposium on APCOM (17), 740-753, Newyork.

810
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

O bject m odelling o f a belt conveyor

L.Gladysiewicz & W.Kawalec

Institute o f Mining Engineering, Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland

ABSTRACT: Object methods have been implemented into the modelling of a belt conveyor. Elements of a
conveyor (belt segments, roller idlers, pulleys etc.) are considered as objects. The different types of a chosen
object (e.g. an idler) are then considered as descendant objects. Virtual methods for calculation the needed
quantities (e.g. minimum allowed belt tension, the resistance to motion, etc.) are applied to a specific object.
Using the object modelling method together with the in-house developed set of algorithms for identification of
the resistance to motion of a belt conveyor enables to model the new layout of a belt conveyor. The method
has been applied for the analysis of standard belt conveyors and the all-new belt conveyor with the innovative
bottom to top belt drive transfer layout. Digital experiments have been performed on the basis of the labora­
tory measurements.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 THE ALGORITHM OF DETERMINING THE

Object modelling is widely known and used mostly
in informatics but also for machine and systems
analysis. It allows new concepts to be quickly and
effectively investigated due to the possibility of de­
fining the inheritance of objects and virtual methods.
In this paper an object approach applied to belt con­
veyor modelling is presented.
Commonly used and well established standards
for calculation belt conveyors (ISOS048, DIN22101)
employ the concept of rolling resistance of the belt
on idlers. Determining the coefficient of the main re­
sistance /b a se d upon indications provided by stan­
dards is more a matter of experience than of a cal­
culation supported by theoretical and experimental
scientific research. To ensure the safe work of a con­
veyor the conservative factors of safety near 7:1 are
applied for obtaining peak tensions and belt strength
requirements. Such methods, though regarded as out
of date, can be successfully applied to typical belt
conveyors only, for which they have been developed
and proven. But they fail when a new concept of a
conveyor (e.g. pipe conveyor, conveyor with booster
drives) is considered and no previous operational
experience is available.
To deal with the problem of calculation any non­
standard conveyors, the algorithms for computation
the main resistance derived from the analysis of
physical phenomena that occur in the running con­
veyor have been developed (Gladysiewicz 1990,
Spaans 1991).
MAIN RESISTANCE OF A BELT CONVEYOR
AND AN OBJECT APPROACH
The calculation method for the main resistance of
belt conveyor has been developed in the Institute of
Mining Engineering of the Wroclaw University of
Technology (Gladysiewicz 1990). The method bases
on the analysis of the energy dissipation processes in
a conveyor belt and in the material load stream, as
well as the analysis of the interaction between the
belt and idlers. Physical properties of the belt and
bulk material and the geometry of the conveyor have
been employed in the algorithm to identify main re­
sistance of a belt conveyor: resistance of the bearings
of the rolls, indentation resistance, flexure resistance
of a belt and bulk material and sliding resistance of a
belt on the idlers.
Based on the algorithm, a computer structural
program was developed. Verified against measure­
ment results and standard methods of calculation, the
program has confirmed itself as a practical tool for
calculation various belt conveyors working under
any operational conditions (Gladysiewicz 1994).
As the structural program has lacked the desired
flexibility to be easily used for calculations the non­
standard conveyors, the object approach (Martin,
1994) has been then applied to build the new model.
Two basic objects are considered: a belt and an
object o f a conveyor route, on which - due to inter­
action with the running belt - resistance to motion
can be identified.

811
 Particular objects of the route: loading point, top belt is uniform and the belt strength is deter­
pulley, idler, cleaning device are considered as de­ mined by the return belt tension (fig.3).
scendant objects of the object o f a conveyor route.
Various types of idler sets (for top belt, bottom belt)
are then the descendants of the object idler, etc. The y-
resistance to motion is calculated for each object,
with regard to the actual belt tension and all avail­
able parameters of object with the use of virtual
methods. The methods are programmed on the basis
of the developed algorithm (Gladysiewicz 1990).
This object model is ready to tackle with any con­
cept of a conveyor. A given conveyor type is mod­
elled with the use of composition of objects and
definition of triggers. The composition rules and
triggers have to be defined for each conveyor type.

Figure 2. The idea of interaction between bottom and top belt

3 NEW CONCEPT OF BOOSTED CONVEYOR

In a standard belt conveyor drive units are located

near the head pulley (fig.l) . Increasing capacity re­ I 1
quirements combined with demands to convey over
long distances result in the need for stronger belts
and bigger drive units. These can be problems in an
underground mine, where available drive unit di­
mensions are constrained and the high strength belt
joints are difficult to make. As a solution booster
conveyors are applied, which bring some disadvan­ Figure 3. Ideal belt tension distribution in a new concept con­
tages connected with their more complicated layout. veyor with drive units in return belt and transferring rollers.

The obtained decreased peak belt tension means

the decreased necessary belt strength which also re­
sults in lightweight conveyor elements. Smaller
drive units can also be lighter and more compact.
The uniform belt tension in top belt allows a con­
veyor to be easily lengthened just by adding another
segment with drive unit in the bottom belt.
A special test rig (fig. 4) was built to investigate
the phenomena of the drive transfer from bottom to
top belt through middle roller (Gladysiewicz, 2000).
Obtained results have been used for modelling the
interaction between transferring roller and both belts.

A new concept of a booster drive has been devel­

oped in the Institute of Mining Engineering. The
main drive unit is replaced by several smaller drive
^ — rf t 'ti') ('if ^
units located in the bottom (return) belt
(Gladysiewicz 2000). The drive is transferred from
bottom to top belt through the middle (drive transfer­
ring) roller of the upper idler set as shown on the
figure 2. Top belt (7) is supported by troughing, Figure 4. The scheme of the test rig for investigation the drive
staggered idler sets. The middle roller (5) is sus­ transfer through middle rollers.
pended on the articulated arms (5) in order to main­
tain the contact between the top and bottom (2) belt.
The bottom idler sets {4) are flat. The general composition of objects building the
If the friction between the transferring roller and complex object model of the new belt conveyor is
both belts is greater than the resistance to motion oc­ shown on fig. 5.
curring on the top idler, then the belt tension in the

812
 Sections A represent the standard layout, while
section B is a model of the new concept conveyor.
On the figure: 1 denotes the loading point, 2 and 5
are top and return belt, 3 and 6 are idler sets in top
and bottom belt, 4, 7, 9 and 10 are tail, drive, take-up
and head pulley respectively. The special meaning is
connected with „virtual” rollers (8) - objects gener­
ated for representation the interaction between the
middle transferring roller and the bottom belt.
Figure 5. The composition o f objects in the model of a new
conveyor with the drive transfer through middle rollers.
The configuration of idler sets, loading points and
pulleys (allocated in sections of bottom belt) as well
as the conveyor route are user defined. The compo­
sition of objects and predefined rules (e.g. drive
factor on drive drums and belt sag control) build the
system of triggers of virtual methods used for com­
puting the resistance to motion and belt tension.
They are calculated for each object from each belt
separately starting from the tail pulley {4). In sec­
tions with drive transfer (B) the methods for virtual
rollers (8) are used for computing the additional re­
sistance to motion and transfer of forces between
belts. The forces are identified on the basis of test re­
sults obtained on the test rig (fig. 4). If there are no
sections with drive transfer (standard conveyor) then
virtual rollers are not included and built triggers do
not initialize methods for them. The computation of
the conveyor is repeated until the required accuracy
measured by the allowed percentage error of the dif­
ference between the result top and bottom belt ten­
sion at the head pulley (10) is obtained.
4 COMPUTATIONS
The new object model has been tested for standard
and the new concept conveyors. Results obtained for
standard conveyors were successfully compared with
results obtained from the previous, structural model
(Gladysiewicz 1994). The model allows various in­
vestigations, especially the sensitivity analysis of
813
chosen parameters of conveyor objects and bulk
material on the resistance to motion to be performed.
A prototype conveyor is being built on the basis
of the new concept. Its route and the route of an as­
cending conveyor are described in table 1.
Section Length Vertical lift [m] Bottom to top
belt
[m] prototype ascending drive transfer
1 100 -6 0 NO
2 295 -15 10 YES
3 295 -11 10 YES
4 295 -9 10 YES
The other technical specifications of the conveyor
are typical for underground ore mines: width of belt
1 m, belt strength 1000 kN/m, belt velocity 2.5 m/s,
troughing idler data: angle 35 deg, spacing 1 m.
Three drive units are allocated at the beginning of
section 2, 3 and 4 in the bottom belt. Transported
bulk is copper ore (density 2000 kg/m^) loaded at the
tail pulley.
The calculations of the conveyor have been done
for various loading stream and - for a comparison -
for a standard conveyor with the main drive unit at
the head pulley. The comparison of belt tension in
standard the new concept prototype conveyor is
shown on figure 6. As the analyzed conveyor is a
downhill one, it has to be driven or braked which
depends on the actual output.
The comparison of belt tensions on figure 6
points that the peak tensions are significantly de­
creased in the new concept conveyor. To compare
the results for standard and new concept conveyors
for driven (not downhill) conveyors, the second ex­
ample has been computed for the same route but as­
cending sections 2, 3 and 4 (see table 1).
For the ascending route (fig.7) the allowable belt
tension of the used belt is exceeded by 50% for the
standard conveyor while it is still below the limit for
the new one.
The analysis of the new conveyor results shows
that the top belt tension is rising - not uniform like
for the ideal conveyor (fig. 3). This is because the re­
sistance to motion of top belt together with forces
for lifting the top belt and bulk are greater than fric­
tion between belts and transferring roller. For any
ascending conveyor an exact analysis of the optimal
length of sections with drive transfer has to be done.
The detailed guidelines for designers are being pre­
pared with the use of the digital experiments per­
formed in the new model.
 Top belt (new)

— Bottom belt (new)

— Top belt (standard)

— Bottom belt (standard)

Fig. 6. Belt tension computed for the peak output (2000t/h); the comparison between a standard conveyor (braked, upper loop) and
the prototype conveyor with sections 2, 3 and 4 with drive transfer through middle rollers (driven, lower loop)

— Top belt (new)

— Bottom belt (new)

— Top belt (standard)

— Bottom belt (standard)

Fig. 7. Belt tension conq)uted for the 1500t/h output; the comparison between a standard ascending conveyor and the new ascending
conveyor with sections 2, 3 and 4 with drive transfer through middle rollers

CONCLUDING REMARKS The full suitability of the new concept of

1 Test results have proved that drive transfer
through middle rollers is sufficient for compen­
sation the resistance to motion. Thus a conveyor
with drive imits located in the bottom belt and
advantageous distribution of belt tension can be
built.
2 The mathematical model of a conveyor based
upon the test results and build with the use of
object modelling tools (inheritance of objects,
virtual methods) is capable to perform alterna­
tive analysis of resistance to motion and belt
tensions for various bulk stream.
3 The analysis of friction forces on a single roller
and the sliding resistance involved (not de­
scribed in the paper) has proved that the pro­
posed drive transfer is advantageous if the
length of the sections with drive units is tailored
for the specific conveyor route. The exact analy­
sis of the optimal section length, especially im­
portant for ascending conveyors, can be done
with the use of the object model of a conveyor.
boosted conveyor will be proved after the in-situ
tests of the prototype conveyor with the special
focus on non-steady operating conditions.
REFERENCES
Gladysiewicz L. 1990, Methode zur Ermittlung der Haupt-
widerstaende unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der
Gurteigenschaften. Thesis. Bergakademie Freiberg
Gladysiewicz L., Kawalec W., Hardygora M., 1994, Methods
of calculation o f belt conveyors. Mine Planning and
Equipment Selection, Rotterdam: Balkema
Gladysiewicz L., Kawalec W., Janisiow T., 2000, Simula­
tions of a new concept belt conveyor with the use of ob­
ject modelling, V International Conference „Computer
Aided Engineering Design”, Wroclaw 2000 (in Polish)
Martin J., Odell J.J., 1994, Object-oriented methods: a Foun­
dation, Prentice Hall
Spaans C., 1991, The calculation of the main resistance of
belt conveyors. Bulk Solids Handling, Vol.l 1, No.4

814
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A m ine planning and inform ation system m erging specialized planning data
w ith conventional office-files and process data via a three-dim ensional m odel
o f underground m ines

G .K .H eim & R .H unefeld

Institute o f Mining and Metallurgical Machine Engineering, Aachen, Germany

ABSTRACT: Although specialized planning, monitoring and diagnosis programmes are vital tools much in use
on mines today, they do not usually make up the bulk of most people‘s working day. Most office work such as
communication and documentation is dominated by using standard programmes.

At the authors‘ institute, a number of programmes for generating data have been developed and implemented
at various underground and open-cast mines. Amongst those products are routines for the design of belt-
conveyors, shearers and ventilation systems.

The maiin focus of the paper lies with a newly developed information-system, merging data from the sources
mentioned above with office- and HTML-documents. Using a single interface, the user can access any type of
data via navigating through a three-dimensional presentation of the mine.

The information system presented aims at making data produced by specialized programmes accessible to non
specialists, who prefer the use of standardized software.

COMMUNICATION: A MATTER OF JARGON?
Placed in the middle of a planning team on any mine
in the world, even a highly competent and senior
engineer would probably not understand much of what
is being discussed:
1. Have the WLGs not supported by SAP been
discussed with TB?
2. 334 is 354,4m long.
3. Who is responsible for supplying the „bones“ for
347?
4. Is BH987 on schedule?
5. Could you please retrieve „the coal“ from GRU-
BE?
Like it or not, such cryptic jargon is a common feature
with most specialists and it helps to streamline
communication with other specialists to the point. Who
would ever dream of talking like this:
„Has the department concerned with technical planning
in our headquarters, I mean TB, been informed that
not all the equipment we need to order in a few months
is sufficiently classified by SAP and that something
must be done about immediatetely? And if so, can we
be sure, that the solution will be produced in time?
Would you please see to it that I need not worry about
this topic any more?“
However efficient jargon may be amongst specialists,
it has two major drawbacks that can make its use
dangerous: Firstly, the exact definition of each symbolic
word must be known to all. With example 2 above,
the person adressed must know that „334“ is the
colliery number of a longwall. And in the case of an
inclined longwall, it must be clearly understood
whether length is measured through the three-dimen­
sional space or along a horizontal projection of the
longwall. Secondly, the context, i. e. some background
information, must be known to all. With example 4,
the speaker takes for granted that the recipient of his
questions knows the time-schedule for the working-
panel BH987.
Anyone with some experience of working-life knows,
that both assumptions with the use of jargon can lead
to much confusion or even serious mistakes.

815
If used indiscriminately with specialists from different
departments, the simple phrase „date of delivery“ in
conjunction with a support-shield may mean very dif­
ferent things:
Delivery of support
JN
Physical delivefy via road
May 1st.
shield and three
definitions thereof
Official a c c ep tan ce
and registration
May, 13th
Underground installation
June 25th
Figure 1: three definitions of „date of delivery“
To avoid misunderstandings, ordinary organisations
usually develop a large number of more or less
standardized forms, protocols, tables and maps where
each word has a clearly defined meaning. Figure 2 is
an example taken from a German hard coal mine. These
documents are used for both inter-departmental and
inter-hierarchical communication.
Such documents are a sort of hybrid between
specialists^ jargon and descriptive illustration. The use
of standard-office applications gives the author much
freedom in style and content. Constantly changing
information demands make it difficult to rigidly
formalize these documents. Their „standard“ is rather
guarded by a lived convention than by programmable
data-base rules.
Figure 2: example of standardized document: layout of belt-conveyor on German hard coal mine
816
THE RIGHT POINT OF VIEW
Even when stripped off its jargon, information need
not necessarily be meaningful to others. A second
prerequistite must be fulfilled: Information must be
reduced to the recipients sphere of interest.
Figure 3 gives an example. An electrical engineer is
not interested in the mechanical intricacies of a belt-
conveyor design. He simply needs to know some facts
about its power consumption and electrical
installations. The logistics department, on the other
hand, need not know anything about technical data at
all. They need to know the dates of delivery and certain
specifications to identify the wanted equipment.
Generating a certain view intelligible to department
S out of data produced by department R can rest with
either sender or with recipient. Evolutionary principles
seem to favour the former.
As a result, many technical planners are concerned
with documenting one and the same planning object -
like a belt-conveyor - more than once. Each
documentation is specifically tailored to the needs of
the recipient and gives a different view of the same
thing.
To avoid redundant work, many mines of the German
hard coal industry have developed standardized folders
to which all departments concerned with the planning
of a working contribute their results in a generally
intelligible form.
MERGING DATA-BASES AND FILE-SYSTEMS
A number of computer systems have tried - and mostly
failed - to successfully support the kind of information
flow described above. The leading idea was to store
information in a database and then create different
views on the data, according to the users‘ needs. The
main problem is the discrepancy between the highly
 Electrical
Engineering
Logistics

^Mechanical layout of a belt conveyor'

man-riding on beit-conveyor
bulk flow for heat and specifications of
methane production discharge into bunker

moterioi of belt need for instoilotion

(in cose of fire) of fum e-detector

V entiiation C onstruction
Figure 3: different views of a belt-conveyor system reflect different information needs

standardized and regulated modes of storing In addition, the widespread use of office applications
information in a structured database on the one hand that do not support the retrieval of logical data out of
and the need for descriptive, informal and flexible data- their documents must be taken as a fact that cannot be
presentation on the other hand. altered without a dramatic loss of user-acceptance.

817
 Over the past 12 years, the authors ‘ institute has been
involved in the development of both specialized
calculating routines as well as global information
systems. The philosophy that evolved during that time
was to give each piece of information its due form of
storage and then see to it that these pieces of
information can complement each other in the best
possible way.
This led to the creation of „virtual planning objects“
as illustrated in figure 4. To start witii, they are empty
containers, or information-carriers, only consisting of
a symbolic representation and a few compulsory
annotations. Shearers, shield support, dinting
machines, ventilators and belt-conveyors are some
examples. A „planning object“ should be an identifiable
object of reality on which standard planning activities
are focussed. With a virtual planning object, any
number of any file-type can be attached as well as pre­
defined data-base contents.
The Human-Computer Interface designed for the
German hard-coal industry provides two modes for
accessing virtual planning objects: graphically via a
3D model of the mine and via a text-based dialogue
box.
Figure 6, overleaf, shows the typical lay-out of a
working of a German hard-coal mine as presented in
the 3D information navigator. About 2km in diameter,
the view shows a blind-shaft at the right end and some
parallalel roadways. Symbolic representations of real
objects such as dinting-machines, support-shields or
roadway cross-sections indicate the presence of furt­
her information.
Figure 4: concept of virtual planning objects
818
The symbols have been placed by planners who wish
to draw public attention to their planning results. The
view can be opened by anyone on the mine involved
in technical planning. Some easy-to-use mouse
operations can expand the view of tiie mine to other
workings or areas. The angle of view can be changed
interactively, revealing three-dimensional structures of
the roadway system.
Double-clicking on a graphic symbol opens a
browser-like window as shown in figure 5. Each line
is identical with a virtual planning object i. e. with a
symbol in the graphic 3D model of the mine. Laying
the focus (dark line) on a planning object in the table
above immediately reveals office-files (bottom left)
attached to the object by different users as well as a
textual annotation-file used for communication
between users (bottom right). The annotation file can
be edited by anyone. Anyone who wishes to make
comments on a certain calculation can therefore write
his comment into this box. Clicking on a planning
object below the one marked at the moment shown
above, will show different attached files and a diffe­
rent annotation.
If a data-based calculation is connected with the
planning object it can be opened with the „Öffnen“
button. This action then starts the application adressed
just the way the office-explorer opens a word-document
with MS-word. Without even having to know about it,
the user browses through and manipulates both file-
documents and data-base information.
Experience has shown that a mine implementing the
above system will soon have to manage hundreds or
even thousands of different planning objects. A number
of filtering mechanisms can quickly reduce these to a
manageable number of about 5 to 20 objects. The white
boxes above the table in figure 5 serve to define filtering
criteria. The user can decide to only see „belt-
conveyors“. If these should be too many, he can furt­
her limit the results to those belonging to „working
2441“, created „on April 4^*^, 2000“, by „MT“ etc.
It is up to the customer, i. e. the mining company, to
decide which information should best be stored in
which way. At present, it is decided that geometrical
and geological data about the mine, SAP-style
equipment information and calculations of belt-
conveyors and longwall-equipment are stored in a pro­
fessional Oracle data-base. All other information is
handled via file-systems. Accessing the information
via the system described above, the front-end user,
however, cannot tell the difference.
STATE-OF-THE-ART IN THE PRODUCTION
ENVIRONMENT
Operating 15 large scale mines, the German hard-coal
industry put about 30 longwalls into operation during
the last year. The planning of longwalls is a continuous
process on all mines.
Figure 5: text based information-navigator showing info-carriers, attached files and comments

Figure 6: graphical information navigator, 3D-presentation of virtual planning objects (information carriers)

819
Computers are in widespread use for communication,
documentation and calculation purposes. Although
there has been a strong urge for standardization during
the last decade, calculation and documentation
applications still represent a variety of different
technologies and producers. XGraphic, an IT-company
based at Aachen, Germany is one of them. In close
cooperation with Aachen Technical University, a couple
of applications have so far been implemented and are
in active use today, such as:
■ Belt-conveyor calculation
■ Ventilation planning
■ Longwall calculation
■ Generation of 3D-underground plans
■ Material management
■ Calculation of roof-support systems
■ Pipe-system planning
■ Information management

CONCLUSION

The focus of future developments will be mainly with

customizing the products in use today. An aspect
constantly gaining in importance is the preservation
of knowledge. With high fluctuation of employees and
much organisational restructuring knowledge about
where knowledge can be found can become vital. The
system presented here will both help to retrieve and
store this sort of meta-information and to streamline
communication without making it too cryptic for non­
specialists.

820
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Production inform ation system o f the Pljevlja coal m ine

B. Kolonja & R. Stankovic

Faculty of Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade, Yugoslavia
F. Vukovic Filip
Coal Mine ‘Pljevlja*, Yugoslavia

ABSTRACT: Mine equipment production availability and maintenance performance costs are becoming an
increasingly significant component of the total mining operations cost. Because of the inter-dependence of
equipment utilization and other functional areas of the minesite, an integrated approach to the monitoring and
control of production costs is essential.
To achieve this goal, the information system must provide information to support the mine management
in reaching the following objectives: (1) establishing the best truck fleet, equipment, and component
configuration; (2) monitoring equipment production effects; (3) establishing the best maintenance program;
and (4) monitoring equipment availability.
These objectives can be reached trough several groups of reports. Each of these groups should provide:
regular and periodic reports to support the planing and monitoring trends; exception reports for identification
of problems; on-request reports for production analysis.
The outlined system is designed to provide information for decision making personal on minesite.

1 INTRODUCTION information about production, truck-fleet effects,

Information technology, after its integrating into an
organization infrastructure, make it possible not only
to improve work in the organization but also to react
on the organization itself. The challenge information
system technologists fill face during the next decade
is to bring computer capability to people in a useful
and simple manner.
Our goal was to give informatic support to
process of coal exploitation. To make maximum use
of computers within company structures and to
produce cost effective management information
systems, it is required to have input from both of the
IS professionals and the end users, and the education
of both. This is needed because of very significant
investments in software, hardware, and
communications needed.
The main objective for the mine is to keep the
equipment in production, which needs to be
accomplished at a reasonable cost. Since the loading
and hauling cost of mining operations sometimes
exceed 50% of the total mine’s budget, control of
this costs is an important aspect of mine managment.
Eficient program for controling production expenses
includes: up-to-date data, real-time feed-back
information, daily analysis of real-time expenses of
production process, as well as up-to-date
shovel effects, etc.
A work order system is the most common means
of capturing the various costs as they are incurred.
Combined with production data, various analyses
can be performed or standard reports can be
produced on a regular (periodic) basis, showing
operating costs per unit of material moved, or per
operating hour. These data can be also used to
compare equipment within a fleet or compare fleets
of equipment of the same type for planning
purposes.
While traditional cost systems provide cost
summaries at the end of each month, a modem
integrated information system will make up-to-date
production cost information available on demand.
Since all details as: production rate of each showel
and truck, efective working hours (equipment and
workers), consumption of fuels, oil and tires, issued
parts, production expences information (shovel,
tmck and worker) and equipment delays and
feailures etc, are available at a touch of a computer
button, such a system is a very powerfull
informatica! tool for monitoring of real-time
equipement utilization, which provides: eficient
monitoring, analysis and planning.

821
Figure 1. Business system o f an open pit mine
2 SYSTEM OVERVIEW
The system analysis, having been carried out at the
Faculty of Mining and Geology and the open pit
“Pljevlja” represents the basis of the integral
management information system (MIS) of a mine.
Fully integrated system such as this is almost
impossible to run without computerization. The
return on that investment, however, has been
verified.
The Production information system (PIS) is a set
of integrated computer modules which comprise a
comprehensive methodology for control of
production, maintenance and materials management
activities, and for collecting, processing and
displaying day-to-day mine management
information. The modules are integrated, so that the
information maintained by any of the application
area is accessible as required by all other
applications.
The mine system is grouped into eleven business
functions (Figure 1). The PIS provides the
informatic support to some of the function
processes: Exploitation and preparation of the coal
and Maintenance of mining equipment, which is
displayed in Figure 1. by shaded rectangles.
Figure 2. Coal exploitation process monitoring
822
3 SYSTEM ANALYSIS
Modeling of the complex business processes
requires the use of CASE tools, which support the
complete development cycle: process modeling,
conceptual data modeling, designing of the logical
data structure, forms of input and report, and also
verification of the entire system consistency. For the
requirements of this work we chose CASE tool
Oracle Designer, which contains the set of tools that
fullfill the user's needs and automate fast designing
of flexible graphic applications.
The analysis phase is oriented towards the user:
his demands, the documents he uses at work, the
way he conducts business etc., in addition to which
the system users take an active part at this stage. In
this phase, the Process Modeler was used, which
enables defining the organizational structure of the
company, process identification, defining: which
processes are carried out in which part of the
organization, what are the data flows between
processes and which events act as triggers for the
development of a process.
Considering that this is a question of rather
complex business dealings, the model consists of
several diagrams, everyone of them representing
different part of the business. Figure 2. shows a
diagram which presents an overview of the
processes of coal exploitation monitoring at the
highest level of decomposition, where every
displayed process can be decomposed even further.
4 DATA MODEL
On the basis of carried out analysis of a
technological process, it is necessary to propose a
correspondent method by which data should be
gathered, stored, processed and presented. Thus a
proposed system can be called the data model of
technological process.
Figure 3. Data model
Entity Relationship Diagrammer was used for the
purposes of data modeling. Figure 3. displays a data
model for the basic factors of transport and loading
coal process. The basic business factors are
represented by entities, their identification and
classification is performed, and relationships
between them are defined. For reasons of clarity
only specific attributes of every entity are displayed
in the diagram on figure 3.
Based on the conceptual data model presented in
Figure 3, logical and physical structure of the
database was designed and implemented in MS
Access-u. Figure 4. represents a pannel called
»Relationships« which shows a rough structure of
the database: tables with primary keys and attributes,
and in addition, the relationships between certain
tables.
These data sources contain descriptions of all
equipment items in the current inventories of both
facilities and operating equipment. They also contain
<Vi r r a x ©
Figure 4. Pannel „Relationships“ o f the database
823
descriptive data on all items in the maintenance
storerooms or available from suppliers, and they
support developing the equipment parts list which
are vital to planning and executing maintenance
work. When jobs are completed, they are recorded in
the work history and the materials database is
updated to reflect items dispensed from inventory
and used in production process. From recorded
history comes report of completed work by week,
month and as compilations of maintenance work
performed on specific equipment items.
5 SOFTWARE REVIEW
Very often is difficult to design this kind of program
system in one program environment. The system
needs functions for 3D graphics for description of
topology location of each stored entity and powerful
database fiinctions for storing information about
each entity.
■ -la lx i
-laixil
 mastntt u imeni: UT vrtfetm
T" Oij^kops
^ PcirSc«
i C' 0crcwca
Figure 5. Pannel o f the user interface
PIS was devised as a multi-user program system
with centralized relational database that supports the
concurrent work, with the graphical user interface
that enables simple utilization to the final user. Due
to all these requirements Visual Studio 6.0. was
chosen as a development tool.
For any kind of business monitoring, it is
necessary to form complete records of the basic,
matrix data, about: shovels, trucks, in-pit systems,
spare parts and other elements, workers, disposable
materials, etc.
Shift registration module registers: equipment and
worker engagement, planning of truck-shovel
systems, spare parts and other materials, delays and
failures, equipment utilization and equipment
working expenses. In-shift records of resources
engaged (Machine and worker engagement in a
shift. Schedule of loading-transportation systems;
ro rx i| Records of requisition; Records of delays and
Records of efficiency) are updated on-line.
The production report module evaluates mining
results of the day, it compares the planned and actual
production per day, month and year, both total and
according to individual sorts.
Figure 5. presents an example of the user
interface, on-line processing which is being used for
designing the loading-transportation equipment
schedule.
The third group of the data consists of Reports
and Statistics, which show separate, analytical,
detailed data about every recorded events and
summary, aggregated, synthetic data deduced from
the previous. High-quality, clear and well-devised
reports per shift, day and period play an important
role in the process of the production monitoring and
should act as a support for mine management.
Based on the production data: effective work,
production rates, delays, machine and disposable
material consumption, form day-to-day reports and
processing, make possible to perfonn plamied and
routine transfonnation of data into aggregated
information which should be used as a support to
mine management. Figure 6 shows an example of a
daily report that contains the data about the
production rates and equipment delays.
Also, PIS includes the basic statistics for:
production rates, transportation costs, equipment
delays and failures, dispensed items and other
materials. The production rate reports are
statistically processed for each machine type (shovel
and truck), either for coal or waste (Figure 7).
Regarding the consumption of material and fuel, it is
possible to obtain an overview of them by quantities
or values. Also, it is possible to see the consumption
in lit/ton of coal, din/ton of coal, lit/m^ of waste
material or din/m^ of waste material. The equipment

liil
Izvjestaj 0 zastojima transportno-utovame mehanizacije

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WS 504 ± ± « 05 2 0 ! T 1 « o .i
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Figure 6. Report on equipment delays

824
effective working time and the delay times are also Jonkman, J. 1986. Main equipment maintenance and
statistically processed for each machine. inventory control. 19^^ APCOM Littleton,
Colorado, 252-262.
Jardine, G.H. & McElrea, A.J. 1986. Information
0(fcop«>e liolieiriei Pniod Piiku kopova ^ management at minesites. 19^^ APCOM Littleton,
bu PocolalLjOCAn/99 r ObakofM :
Colorado, 252-262.
foe/%^ r Polikca

Kodym, O. 1997. System for storing and

presentation of information about the
underground mine. Mine Planning and equipment
3744 U
37 Selection 1997, Balkema, Roterdam, 681-684.
Kolonja, B., Stankovic, R. & Vukovic, F. 2000.
Information system for surface mining
equipment. ICCC 2000. High Tatras, Slovac
Republic.
Salee, A.M. 1997, Planning and scheduling of mine
maintenance operations MineIT 1997.
Figure 7. Statistics o f the coal and waste production rates
Vukovic F., Stankovic R. & Kolonja B. 2000.
Informacioni sistem za pracenje rada utovarno-
transportne opreme u RU A.D. Pljevlja. IMES
2000. Arandelovac.
6 BENEFITS OF THE SYSTEM
Williams P. H. & Cutland J. R. 1986. The planning
of management information systems within a
The Benefits of the system implementation need to
defined systems architecture. 19th APCOM.
be accessed from several points of view. The easiest
Littleton, Colorado, 252-262.
assessment is associated with direct savings or profit
resulting from the automated control of the mine
production systems.
Another benefit is in decreasing redundancy of
stored information, simplification of data access,
data verification, storage and backup. In global view
it can increase level of control processes. This
system ensure the top management with the most
accurate and reliable information flow for mine
executive decision making.
In the next development stage of PIS our aim is to
create the sub-system for Maintenance, Dispatching,
Environmental protection and Sale.

REFERENCES

Bobula, J. 2000. Information system

inhomonitianske bane prievidza. International
Carpatian Control Conference 2000, High Tatras
Slovac Republic.
Bobrowski, S. 1997. ORACLE 7 i obrada podataka
po modelu klijent/server. Mikro knjiga.
Daniel R. & Skotnica J. 1997. Information and
control system of CSM. Coal Mine preparation
plant Mine Planning and equipment Selection
1997, Balkema, Roterdam.
Dorsey P. & Koletzke P. 1997. Oracle
Designer/2000 Handbook. USA: Osborne
McGraw-Hill.
Siler, B. & J. Spotts 1998. Using Visual Basic 6.
QUE.
O’Brien, J.A. 1998. Introduction to Information
Systems. Irwin/McGraw-Hill, USA.

825
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

D igital face m apping to assist m ining operations

Christos J.Kolovos
Public Power Corporation, Main Field Mine, Ptolemais, Greece

ABSTRACT: This paper deals with the application of detailed face mapping in Greek, surface-mined, “zebra”
type lignite, (consisting of lignite strata with numerous waste intercalations), as a tool for production quality
control. The traditional procedure is described and introduction of a modem, based on digital camera, system
is commented. Modem technology of digital cameras, using memory cards instead of film, is rapidly
advancing during the last 2-3 years. An experimental program was investigated, with a Nikon® digital
camera. Different types of prints can be produced, including a panoramic view along the whole bench face.
Running this program supplies the Production Department with detailed mining face info, produced at an
acceptable image quality, a very low cost and a very fast time.

1 FACE SAMPLING AND MAPPING
Detailed mapping of the mining fronts can be
applied both to surface and underground mining
operations. In surface mining, it is applied to several
lignite-mining operations in Europe (e.g. Greece,
Germany) as a basic way to predict mn-off-mine ore
quality. Ifs also applied to cases where detailed
representation of the rock type variations along the
mining front is necessary (e g. hard rock embedded
in softer layers). In underground operations, face
mapping assists in predicting the short-term changes
in orientation of the ore, especially in case of folded
or vein-type deposits (e.g. the case of a ‘schlieren’
type chromite deposit in Greece).
The biggest lignite deposit in Greece is located at
the Kozani-Ptolemais-Amynteon basin, in Western
Macedonia, where a major industrial group has
emerged during the last 40 years.
Ptolemais lignite is a “zebra” type deposit, thus
consisting of lignite strata with numerous waste
intercalations. Excavation employees BWEs with
wheel diameters of 7,0 to 17,5 m (12,25 m in
lignite). Therefore selective excavation must be
applied, in blocks containing mainly geological
lignite, and thin waste layers as well.
Face sampling and mapping is a basic way to
predict run-of-mine lignite quality. Since 1990, a
Team for the Quality Control of the Deposit
(O.n.E.K.) has been covering the basic sampling
and mapping needs of all P-ALC mines. A separate
team has been established in the South Field Mine
since 1996.
O.n.E.K performs a sampling program in
selected positions on every lignite bench of the
mine. Sample taking positions are spaced normally
every 50-100 m along the benches, and at both sides
of faults or any other tectonic formations.
When a sampling position is established, the
O.n.E.K. crew digs steps on the slope and climb up
to the lignite layers which must be sampled. This
procedure is difficult, dangerous, time consuming
and cannot be applied to high mining faces. To solve
these problems, a special basket-hoist, 4WD light
truck is about to be introduced.
At the selected position, trench-shaped samples
are taken from every lignite layer - or block of
layers - which appears from the top to the “toe” of
the slope. Dry surface lignite is cleaned out, in an
effort to sample the layer at its normal moisture
content. All the samples are packaged in nylon bags
and then transported to the Physicochemical
Laboratory of P-ALC during the same day, where,
first of all, the moisture content is measured.
After analyzing the samples in the
Physicochemical Laboratory of P-ALC, a basic
design of the “quality profile” of the sampled
position of the excavation front is drawn, following
the stratigraphy of the slope. Appropriate software
was specially developed to input strata thickness and
quality data. A PC-system (486/100 MHz based)
together with an A4 pen plotter is used to produce
fast and detailed drawings, at a scale of 1:100. The

827
specific conveyor belt frame number reports the
sampled position as bench-belt point. By this simple
and fast procedure the “quality profile” of the
sampled position is created. Copies of these profiles
are given, via the Production Department, to
foremen and the bucket-wheel operators.
By compilation of the adjacent sampled positions,
a longitudinal “quality cross-section” of the bench is
drawn, (at length scale 1:1000 and height scale
1.200). This procedure (“face mapping”) provides
the Exploitation/ Production Department with the
necessary data for the characterization of the lignite
and waste blocks.
2 THE DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY CONCEPT
The above-mentioned drawings, up to now, are
considered sufficient enough. Nevertheless, a
drawing can never have full detail of the mining
front and often fails to give a precise correlation
between the original geological stratification (which
the bucket-wheel operator has in front) and the
respective division in blocks. Sometimes the exact
limits of the sampled block are not obvious and
reasonable doubts arise, especially when an intense
interchange of lignite and waste layers is observed.
Past experience has shown that successive shifts
(BWE operators and/or foremen) divide the same
strata in blocks in many different ways, producing
varying quantity and quality of lignite. The
introduction of the above mentioned “quality
profiles” has minimized this kind of problem.
A photo is always much more accurate than any
kind of drawing. Assuming that we are capable to
supply the Production Department with a photo of
the mining front instead of a drawing, and divide the
blocks on the photo, we can solve the arising
problems and improve the control on the production
process and the run-of-mine lignite quality. But we
must keep in mind that the photo-taking and data
processing procedure must be simple and fast.
Everyday cost is another parameter to take into
account.
Taking photos with a classic type camera,
equipped with the classical film, can reproduce the
face picture most accurately and at high distinctness.
However, this procedure has serious disadvantages,
concerning mainly the restricted number of photos in
a film and the time required for the developing
process. Quality of the picture cannot always be
controlled and special knowledge of photo taking in
poor luminous conditions may be a pre-requisite.
The division of strata in blocks must be made
manually. Strata quality data should accompany the
picture on an attached sheet of paper that could be
easily dropped or misplaced.
828
Use of a scanner can minimize the last mentioned
problems. However, the whole procedure is rather
complicated ;
• The full range of pictures in a film must be
used before it can be developed
• The film must be transported by car to the
nearest town
• The developing phase can delay from 1 h to 1
(working) day
• Next phase is to receive the developed photos
and return by car to the mine
• Scan each photo separately and save the
created files (scanner and PC are pre­
requisites)
• Input the files into a proper software to fill in
quality data
• Print the final result to the necessary number
of copies.
Cost factors imply the expenditure for the
purchase of one classic type camera and
continuous buy and developing of films.
The necessity to simplify the previously
mentioned procedure is obvious. Now, modem
technology offers the possibility to go one step
ahead. The technology of modem digital cameras is
rapidly advancing during the last 2-3 years and even
small mining enterprises at the most faraway sites
can be equipped with a Pentium based PC combined
with an inkjet color printer.
Digital cameras use memory cards instead of film
and store the photos taken in files ready to be loaded
in PC systems. They have almost the same weight
and dimensions as the classic type cameras and
photos are taken in a similar way.
Distinctness of the classic film is normally about
2500 dpi, or more, depending on the sensitivity of
the film. A digital photo taken in such a high
analysis results in an enormous file size, which
cannot be stored or handled by ordinary PC systems.
So special algorithms have been developed for the
compression of data and digital photos are stored in
different file formats (JPEG is of the most popular
ones).
3 DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY INVESTIGATION
PROGRAM
Mine Planning Department of the Main Field Mine
has run an investigation program of digital
photographing of the mining fronts. It must be stated
that digital photography can be introduced in other
areas of interest to the mining industry, such as
photos of spare parts, etc.
The aim of the program was to investigate and
establish photo-taking parameters, such as :
 • How fine the proper analysis should be,
concerning the digital camera specifications,
for the specific kind of photos (lignite is a dark
colored material)
• How simple the use of the digital camera can
become
• How long the distance from the mining front
should be, so that the entire mining front could
fit into the picture frame and still keep the
desired distinctness
• How many photos had to be taken to cover an
entire bench, considering the capacity of the
memory card
In the phase of the program (October 1998) a
SONY® MAVICA® camera was examined, offering
an analysis of 640X480 pixels. This camera is
equipped with built-in 3,5 inch floppy disk drive and
stores pictures on floppy diskettes. This is a major
advantage, because there is practically no memory
limitation to the number of photos that can be taken
at any time.
Trial pictures taken at the Technological
Education Institute of Kozani proved that analysis of
640X480 pixels is not fine enough to reproduce the
necessary details of the interchanging lignite and
waste layers.
In a 2^^ phase, sites of major camera
manufacturers (e.g. Kodak®, Canon®, Casio®, JVC®,
Minolta®, Olympus®, Nikon®) were visited via the
Internet. Specifications and indicative prices of the
available models of cameras were recorded. After
that, on March 1999, a Nikon® CoolPix900® digital
camera was selected.
The basic specifications of this camera are listed
as follows :
• Dimensions 157 X 75 X 35 mm (small,
compact and easily transportable size)
• Uses 4 AA (LR6) 1,5V alkaline batteries,
(rechargeable NiCd or NiMH or Li-ion
batteries can also be used)
• Basic memory (compact flash card) 8 MB
• 1280X960-pixel analysis in “normal” saving
mode permits storing 24 pictures (12 pictures
in “fine” mode or up to 48 pictures in “basic”
mode). Pictures are saved in JPEG mode and
file size depends on the mode used (240-260K
in “normal” mode)
• The camera can be connected to PC via an RS-
232C cable to any free COM port.
Communication speed is 115000 bps
• Focusing and light measuring can be adjusted
in manual mode or in auto mode. 3X digital
zoom and a built-in flash are also standard.
• Special software comes with the camera in
CD-ROMs to assist exporting the picture files
from camera to a PC.
829
When running the experimental photo-taking
program, we tried to establish as simple a procedure
as possible. We kept in mind that in a future
everyday operation the camera should be used by the
OHEK crew and not necessarily by engineers or
experienced photographers. So Auto-mode was
selected, that needs only to turn the power switch on
(Focusing and light measuring are controlled by the
camera itself).
At first we tried to establish the proper distance
from the mining face and investigate the number of
photos that had to be taken to cover a whole bench.
The first photos were taken in Northern Field Mine,
2"‘^ lignite bench, where an extensive faulted zone
appears. 21 photos, taken from the low step area and
away from the conveyor belt, were considered
enough for a satisfactory coverage of a face length
1100-m. Later on, photos were taken from the low
step area by the conveyor belt and from positions
between the conveyor belt and the mining face.
The results showed th a t:
• If a panoramic view of the entire bench length
is required, then photo taking every 7-10 belt
frames (40-60 m) from the low step area,
traveling along and by the conveyor belt,
seems adequate. An UNIMOG® type vehicle
rather than a jeep should be used, so that the
driver/photographer sits higher. Pictures
should be taken in landscape orientation.
• If scope of the photo is to create a quality
profile for a selected position, then the
distance from the mining face must be the
minimum possible, so that the entire face fits
into a portrait-oriented picture.
Pictures can be taken in “basic”, “normal” or
“fine” mode. In all cases analysis is 1280X960-
pixel, but the size of the created file differs
considerably. We compared photos in “normal” and
“fine” mode from a “Sector 6” mining face with
90% lignite. The file size was doubled in “fine”
mode (546 KB compared to 276 KB), with no
significant difference in the “visible” quality of the
image. Given that large sized files delay the
“unloading” of the camera to a PC, “normal” mode
is preferred.
Direct sun lighting of the mining face seems to be
of major importance for satisfying image quality.
Shadowed mining faces gave no good images even
after digital processing.
In all cases, produced images, saved in JPEG file
mode, were transferred to a PC via RS-232C cable
by using the specific Nikon® software. The PC used
was a Pentium II® (350 MHz) having 64 MB RAM
and an 8 MB video card. The time required to
transfer the files to a PC depends on the number of
photos, the file size and the remaining life of the
batteries. In all cases the required time did not
exceed 45 minutes and so it’s considered as
acceptable. Image files can then be stored in hard
disk or any other media.
Stored image files can be opened and handled or
even processed with any applicable software. In
every sample taking position we can have a mining
face photo with the lignite quality data written on.
Creating a panoramic view of an entire bench is also
feasible. This kind of print corresponds to the
longitudinal quality cross-section design.
Different types of prints were produced,
including a panoramic view along the whole bench
face. The following software were examined, mainly
for the simplicity in use
• Microsoft® Photo Editor®
• Corel® PHOTO-PAINT (5.0) ®
• Micro^afx® Picture Publisher®
• Adobe® PhotoShop (5.0)®
• Microsoft® Word 97®
It is pointed that this examination was just a
preliminary investigation and not a detailed
evaluation of the software.
It can be thoi^h stated that :
• Microsoft® Photo Editor® proved especially
proper and user-friendly for a basic processing
of the photos (contrast and illumination
enhancement, enlargement or minimizing) and
mainly for producing direct photo prints in
multiple copies
• Adobe® PhotoShop® (5.0) proved easy to use
for creating a panoramic view of an entire
bench
• Microsoft® Word 97®, well known and
widespread, can be used to demonstrate the
division of layers in blocks and note the
respective quality data.
Any printer can make printing of the photos,
preferably in color. Photos of specific mine face
positions, with or without quality data, should be
printed on A4 sheets, at a minimum analysis of
600X600 dpi for better distinctness. Panoramic
views can be printed in roll-feed plotters. A lower
analysis of 300X300 dpi, typical for low cost AO
plotters, is not a problem for printing of bench
panoramic views.
Finally it is stated that digital photos of the
mining faces or the benches can be stored in CD-
ROMs and create a data bank of the shape of the
deposit and the tectonics met throughout the life of
the mine. This data bank can be very useful to the
Mine Planning Departments.
The results were highly appreciated by the
Production Department and we plan to apply, later in
830
this year, digital photography in face mapping as a
normal everyday procedure. For the regular
operation of the program, education of 1-2 persons
(in using the camera and handling image files) is a
basic pre-requisite. The persons to be educated must
have a minimum PC knowledge.
A similar Digital Camera System can be
developed independently in any mine. The necessary
equipment consists o f .
• A digital camera, at a cost of 300-400.000 Drs,
equal to the cost of a home PC. In the coming
years, either the cost is expected to decrease
rapidly, or the pixel analysis and the storing
capacity to increase, while the price will
remain constant.
• The necessary software (e.g. Microsoft® Photo
Editor®, Adobe® PhotoShop®, etc.)
• A Pentium® based PC (RAM and video card
memory should be as high as possible, as well
as storing capacity)
• An inkjet, color page printer or a plotter
The salary of the personnel involved will be
practically the operating cost of the system. Batteries
cost (alkaline or other type), common A4 sheet
paper or plotter roll-feed paper cost and inkjet
cartridges cost is considered to be very low.
If a mine photo databank in CD-ROMs is to be
organized, then a CD recorder is required, at a
(today) cost of $280-320, while a CD of 650 MB
storing capacity (storing about 2000 photos) costs
$1,5. These costs are also considered to be very low.
4 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN DIGITAL
CAMERA TECHNOLOGY
Recent developments show that digital camera
technology advances rapidly and comes to a stage of
“maturity”. Pixel analysis of 1600X1200 has
become (May 2000) a minimum industrial standard,
while a 2048X1536 (3,3 million pixels) analysis is
offered by several manufacturers. Illumination
sensitivity can now be adjusted up to 400 ISO. USB
instead of serial connection to a PC allows better
flexibility. All these innovations come at no extra
cost : prices are kept at a range from about $850 up
to $1250, for a basic memory card of 8MB.
Rechargeable Li-ion batteries or NiMH AA-size
batteries, depending on manufacturer, provide now
more operating time. Poor illumination problems
seem to find their solutions (enhanced analysis,
increased ISO sensitivity, better quality optical
lenses). This is especially important for the mining
industry : it’s not an easy thing to take clear and
detailed photographs of lignite and other dark-
colored materials, or in underground operations.
 Meanwhile color inkjet printer technology is also
rapidly advancing. 1200X1200 dpi in plain (and not
in expensive photographic) paper analysis seems to
become a standard for SOHO applications. Printers
at 2400X1200 dpi, enabling a direct connection to a
digital camera, without connection to a PC, are now
available at a relatively low cost.

5 CONCLUSIONS

> This paper presented an investigation of the

possibility to introduce modern technology of
digital photography in mine face mapping.
> With a digital photography system different
types of photos can be produced :
• Form of the mining face in any mine position
• Form of the mining face in a selected sampling
position, division of the layers in blocks on the
photo accompanied by the block quality data
and characterization as lignite or waste blocks
• Panoramic view of an entire bench
• Photos for any other use in other Mine
Departments (spare part catalogs, constructive
works follow-up, etc.)
> The printouts can be used, for example :
• By the production engineer to have a better
look of the bench and the different deposit
areas, and to have a better understanding with
the sift foremen
• By the BWE operator for a better control of
the division of layers in blocks
• By the engineer who supervises contract works
to have a better follow-up of the development
of excavations
• To create a photo databank that reveals
changes in the form of the deposit through the
passing years
• For supporting presentations in meetings
> Finally, the basic advantage of introducing
digital photography in lignite mine face mapping
is that it provides the Production Department
with the best possible and detailed mining face
info at an acceptable image quality, produced at
a very low cost and a very fast time.

REFERENCES

Kolovos, C.J.1999. In trodu cin g d ig ita l ph o to g ra p h y

in f a c e m apping, (in Greek). Ptolemais. PPC
(unpublished).
Spinoulas, T. 1997. From chemistry to digits, (in
Greek), 103 : 105-116.
Vamvakaris, A. 1999. Digital Photography, (in
Greek). 122 ; 126-163.
Glynos, G., Hatzisavas, S.2000, The eternal photo­
graph. (in Greek). R A M 136 : 132-170.

831
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Com puter assisted planning for extraction o f ornamental granite

Aarao de Andrade Lima & Marcos Roberto Kalvelage

Department o f Mining and Geology, Federal University ofParaiba, Campiña Grande, Brazil
Giorgio de Tomi & Nelson Senhorinho Silva
DATAMINE Latin America, Sao Paulo, Brazil

ABSTRACT: This study concerns the application of DATAMINE software for planning the extraction of an
ornamental granite located in Northeast of Brazil. The necessary input data consists of topography of the
quarry and structural features of the rock mass, including joints, dikes, veins, faults, inclusions, and altera­
tions, as well as size of blocks and quarrying method. From the quarry plan it has been possible to calculate
the overall recovery of blocks, the volume overburden and waste rock from trimming and fragmentation. The
importance of geologic and geotechnical factors for planning ornamental granite quarries is emphasized in the
conclusions.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 LOCATION OF THE AREA

The extraction of granite blocks for ornamental
stone has become an important economic activity in
many countries recently. In Brazil, the initial pro­
jects favored the recovery of blocks from granite
boulders, because less development is required for
the quarry, and less investment is needed for equip­
ment acquisition. However, recently the increased
international competition has forced the producers of
granite to quarry directly the rock mass in search of
larger proved reserves of more uniform and less al­
tered rocks. In addition, the extraction of granite
from boulders have caused severe environmental
disturbances. However, the detailed planning re­
quired quarrying granite from the rock mass has not
been implemented in the current operations. As a
result, many quarries have been abandoned after ini­
tial development due to adverse geologic factors,
such as the existence of closely spaced joints, dikes,
veins, faults, inclusions, and alterations.
A detailed geologic mapping has been conducted
at outcrops of the so-called Casablanca granite. That
ornamental rock occurs in Ceara State, in the North­
east region of Brazil. The rock mass exhibits an in­
clined cleavage dipping 32^ degrees and two sets of
sub vertical joints normal to each other having direc­
tions 22^ and 112^. The other prominent geologic
features include, sub horizontal release joints, peg­
matite veins, and joints frlled with quartz. A quarry
plan has been prepared based on the topographic
data, the geologic features and the constraints of al­
lowable block sizes.
The rock mass is located at Pedra Branca County,
State of Ceara, having the following approximate
geographic coordinates: latitude 5^31.35’S and lon­
gitude 39^54.53’W, as shown in Figure 1.
The rock formation of Casablanca granite is con­
stituted mainly by leukocratic ortho gneiss with mica
and garnet (Vidal, 1995).
The following sets of data, related to the structural
features of the rock mass has been collected: folia­
tion, sub vertical joints, inclusions of muscovite
lenses, and release sub horizontal joints. Rock cores
from diamond drilling has also been logged, with the
determination of RQD for comparative purposes.
The topography of the main quarry has been digital­
ized using DATAMINE software, as shown in Fig­
ure 2.
A photographic view of the main quarry is given
in Figure 3.
3 DATAMINE SOFTWARE
DATAMINE is a software specialized for mineral
engineering, covering exploration, surface and un­
derground mining applications. In the present study
the data has been adjusted to suite ornamental rocks
quarrying.
For general mining planning DATAMINE Release 5
adopts the basic concept of geologic blocks model­
ing. In the specific case of ornamental rocks blocks
modeling should employ specific control parame­
ters, such as: commercial size of blocks, mining

833

method, structural features, including joints, faults,
foliation, planes of cleavage, inclusions, mineralógi­
ca! patterns, release joints, among others.
4 APPLICATION OF THE SOFTWARE
Initially the rock mass is modeled using topographic
maps, including the quarry faces already in produc­
tion. For the present research a tri dimensional view
of the rock surfaces and quarry benches is shown in
Figure 4.
After modeling the rock mass, control parameters
related to mining and structural geology of the rock
are added to the input data. The software creates ex­
clusion zones where no blocks of commercial value
can be recovered (Caranassios et al. 1999, Lima et
al. 1998).
With all relevant data the code creates the block
model, calculating the overall volume of blocks,
waste rock and recovery of the quarry. In searching
for optimum quarry plan, several models can be
834
Figure 3. Photographic view of main quarry.
Figure 4. Computer generated quarry surface.
simulated by varying the depths and direction of the
cuts. The basic model can be updated as the extrac­
tion of rock takes place.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Many advantages of using DATAMINE planning
software in the context of quarrying ornamental
rocks have been noticed in the course of this re­
search. Among those advantages the following are
relevant : great ftexibility in re planning for the
short term; better control of quality and uniformity
of rock blocks, with a possible classification by
types; better recovery of the reserve; good planning
for the environmental disturbances caused by waste
rock piles and abandoned quarry benches; good
visualization of the rock mass and quarry, useful for
long term decisions by staff personnel; and as mar­
keting tool in large contracts, by showing to custom­
ers availability of proven reserves.
The importance of geologic and geotechnical fac­
tors for planning ornamental granite quarries must
be emphasized.
REFERENCES
Caranassios, A., G. de Tomi, & N.S. Silva. 1999. Utiliza9ao de
Software de Minera^ao no Planej amento de Lavra de Ro­
chas Ornamentals. Rochas de Qualidade, 144:84-88.
Lima, W.B.C., A. Andrade Lima, G. de Tomi, & A.H.M Silva
1998. Posicionamento Automático de Blocos de Lavra de
Rocha Ornamental. Proceedings VI Workshop DA-
TAM1NE.:63-6S. Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
Vidal, F.W.H. 1995. Industria Extrativa de Rochas Ornamen­
tals no Ceará. M.S. Dissertation, Escola Politécnica da Uni-
versidade de Sáo Paulo. Departamento de Engenharia de
Minas. Sáo Paulo, Brazil.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The use o f geom etrical-techm cal planning system s for support:

A prerequisite for high-perform ance longw all operations

S. Moellerherm & P. N. Martens

Institute of Mining Engineering I, Aachen University of Technology, Germany

ABSTRACT: Since many years, the Deutsche Steinkohle AG uses planning software applications at their
mining sites. But the increasing complexity in planning flows now calls for an improved exchange of results
between the particular units involved in the process. So the other planning departments require information
concerning support and minimum cross-section of a gateway. The planning engineer in the division “coal ex­
traction” generates these results by use of the new Geometrical-Planning System “Support” (GTP-S). The
paper describes the structure of GTP-S, its main ftmctions and the linkage to the other planning systems used
at coal mines. The application of the GTP-S will enable the mines to analyse the influence of a mine layout
plan on the gateways and on the requested support more precisely. This is also an important necessity for
planning high production longwalls.

1 INTRODUCTION ventilation technology. The aim is to increase effi­

Complex operations, high-performance longwall
operations and the permanent obligation to optimize
operations for reasons of cost-saving while main­
taining high safety standards are characteristic for
today’s hard coal mining in Germany. Decisions
must be taken faster and have larger consequences.
For these reasons, the Deutsche Steinkohle AG
(DSK) increases the use of information-processing
systems (IP-systems). A modem IP system com­
prises the integration of plaiming systems for survey,
mining technology and business administration.
SAP R/3 is used as business administration system
and is employed with all modules at all DSK mines
since 1999. However, this system is unable to per­
form planning of survey or mining technology.
These tasks require specific systems. The Geometri­
cal-Technical Planning System (GTP) has been de­
veloped by DSK in order to eliminate this shortfall.
2 THE GTP-SYSTEMS
The basic idea of Geometrical-Technical Planning
Systems is to give computer-aided support to those
disciplines which participate in the planning of a
mine. These disciplines comprise surveying, sup­
port, machine technology, electrical engineering and
ciency of each discipline with regard to planning and
technical design.
Figure 1 shows the stmcture of the GTP-S system
with the individual modules for:
Ventilation Technology (GTP-V), Electrical Engi­
neering (GTP-E), Machine Technology (GTP-M)
and Support (GTP-S). Parallel to the GTP systems,
an information system for surveying called
“MARKIS” is being developed.
An overall database with both, geometrical and
technical data is the backbone of the GTP-systems.
E.g. information regarding geology and the deposit
but also the current and the planned mining building
are memorized. Further, technical data of the mine
equipment is recorded. The database enables the
user to perform interdisciplinary exchange of data
and information, thus turning more transparent inter­
actions between the various disciplines. At the same
time, the GTP-systems facilitate the co-ordination of
the planning activities of the individual disciplines.
Moreover, the planer can exchange data using the
business administration system SAP R/3. At Deut­
sche Steinkohle AG, this is called “vertical integra­
tion”. Major emphasis is placed on the linkage to the
SAP-moldule “material management”, allowing the
planning engineer to generate lists of spare parts
originating from SAP which are based on his techni­
cal design and his plans for equipment application.

835
 GTP-V GTP-E GTP-M GTP-S MARKIS

SAP
R/3

Figure 1: Structure of GTP-system

Moreover, the planer can exchange data using the
business administration system SAP R/3. At Deut­
sche Steinkohle AG, this is called “vertical integra­
tion”. Major emphasis is placed on the linkage to the
SAP-moldule “material management”, allowing the
planning engineer to generate lists of spare parts
originating from SAP which are based on his techni­
cal design and his plans for equipment application.
While the planning systems for ventilation, electrical
engineering and machine technology are a progress
of applications which are already employed at the
mines, a new development was necessary for the
planning of support. This aspect is becoming in­
creasingly important due to the fact that the smooth
running of all operations is a prerequisite for high-
performance longwall operations. Consequently, the
first step was to define the functionalities, which are
to be guaranteed by GTP-Support.
3. DEMANDS ON GTP-SUPPORT
In conversations and interviews with future users
various functions were identified. Along with gen­
eral functions like “file open ” and “file save”, spe­
cific functions had to be implemented. These func­
tions are for three major fields which concern the
support engineer:
• function module ’’gate road”,
• function module “face” and
• function module “supply“
The function module ’’gate road” will be portrayed
below:
The function module ’’gate road” comprises various
tasks which are to be resolved by the support engi­
neer. For some of these tasks applications do already
exist at the mines. The existing software is on rock
pressure control, convergency pre-calculation and
support-bolting.
In the framework of planning support it is required
to carry out measurements on rock pressure at the
mines so that mining technology is tuned in such a
way that increased rock pressure is avoided. Moreo­
ver, the pre-calculation method aims at permitting
the optimization of dimensioning technology, i.e. to
define. These are two important demands for high-
performance longwall operations, because unhin­
dered extraction and haulage are to be guaranteed.
A further functionality is the convergency pre­
calculation for gate roads. The prediction of conver­
gency is currently calculated for single road sections.
This is followed by the dimensioning of yielding
arch support. Software to this purpose does already
exist at DSK, just like for the decision, if the support
bolting at the entries is a standard case. This soft­
ware enables the support engineer to carry out rock-
bolt dimensioning.
All these software programs are to be integrated into
the GTP-Support. The transmission of intermediate
data, graphic descriptions or written documentation
of the results are some of the features which are re­
quired.
Figure 2: Screen design

836
Simultaneously, further functions and algorithms
must be developed within the GTP-Support. For
instance the use of rockbolt support as principal or
additional support is increasingly employed at Deut­
sche Steinkohle AG, which requires the respective
calculation software to be worked out, respecting
also the use of rockbolts in rectangular roads.
After the requirements have been defined in the first
phase, the development of a prototype was started.
4 IMPLEMENTATION INTO PRACTICAL
OPERATIONS
Besides realising the tasks of the specific fields
which were mentioned, data transfer with other
planning workstations on the one side, user friendli­
ness on the other are major aspects. This comprises
functions like the making of drawings, the visualisa­
tion of the mine building, the plotting of support
elements etc. but also the integration of texts, tables
and figures. The user-friendliness of all screens is of
great importance generally. The user should be able
to work with tools he is familiar with. The design of
the screens is windows oriented. All input and output
screens are in German, with the aim of further in­
creasing the users’ acceptance. Moreover, the soft­
ware package offers input aides like mine maps,
equipment parts from the CAD library, operating
recommendations, the 3D mine building etc.
In order for the development of the prototype to be
fast and efficient, it has been decided to first expand
the existing fimctions and algorithms and to integrate
them into the GTP-Support. For the moment, there­
fore, the realization concentrates on convergency
pre-calculations, as a reduction of the cross section
of a road influences both, extraction and ventilation,
substantially. It is important, for this reason, to know
the size already at the planning stage, as it is re­
quired for the planning of ventilation or the choice of
conveyor belts.
Figure 2 shows the general structure of a screen.
Standard fimctions like “new”, “save” or “open”,
which are positioned on the upper menu, are repre­
sented by acknowledged icons. The lower right part
of the screen serves as input aid while the upper part
shows the results.
To give an example, the pre-calculation of conver­
gency is described in the following. Here, the user
sees a three aimensional portray of the mine or, as in
figure 2, a diagram of the depth. It is possible to
subdivide the gate road into sections. Each section
influences convergency. The ribside, for instance,
may increase or decrease convergency depending on
its position with regard to the form of the gate road.
837
Attribut;
8 ankrechter Abstand (m) j ».
Teilbereid Mächtigkeitd^
0 - 300
300 - 580 Störung
580-1000 Saumversatz
1000-150 Ausbauhinterfüllung
Kohlenbeinbreite
1500-190
Druck —
Ausbau
Streckenlänge (m)
Abbauführung
Nutzung
nächstes Attribut
Berechnung durchführen
Figure 3: Screen with choice of attributes
The influence of faults is also respected this way.
On the lower left part of the screen further attributes
may be chosen. They do not require input aides but
they are relevant to the pre-calculation of conver­
gency. The user doubleclicks on the attribute (figure
3). If data related to this attribute exists in the GTP
database, this will be indicated, otherwise data may
be fed manually.
The calculation will start after recording of the nec­
essary values. The result is indicated on the upper
part of the screen (figure 2). It is possible to repre­
sent the course of convergency in a diagram. The
system calculates convergency for various sections
and different cases like first or second use of a gate
road. The reduction of the road cross section results
from this calculation. GTP-Support can visualise this
loss by means of showing the road cross section
during the heading phase and after some service time
e.g. after extraction) (figure 4). The ventilation engi­
neer requires this information in order to plan venti­
lation measures.
GTP-Support enables the user to see the results ac­
cording to the intended use. Figure 5 for instance
shows the cross section of a road, subsidence of the
roof, upheavals etc. approximately 300 m behind the
face.
The user also has the possibility to view the time
dependent development of convergency. This will
give him information about critical phases and he
can plan to make the respective lowerings or take
other measures.
 K o n v e rg e n z 75% EVH
Stoß'wan d e r u n g 44^ ■

ResrquerschnrT-t 300in hi.nter dem Streb

F irs ts e n k u n g 0 ,7 4 m
S o h le n h e b u n g 2 ,2 5 m
R e s th ö h e 1 .1 1 m
R e s tb re lte 2 ,1 2 m
R e s tq u e rc h n itt 2 ,7 0 m "
R e s th ö h e n a c h . S e n k e n 3 ,3 6 m
R e s tb re ite n a c h S e n k e n 3 ,2 7 m
R e s tq u e rs c h n itt n. S e n k e n $ ,4 0 m "

Figure 4; Graphic representation of the change of cross section

Ergebnisse nach Ereignissen: 3D0m hinter Streb 1

120
100

Legende:
— Re«tquer«cnnjtt <%)
Br«tstmlciffig (%)
Sc^er^bung (%)
-------- S t o B w a n d e r u n g ( % )
X ______________ Rfistltöiia(%)
1800 Restbrelte (H)

P Restquerschniti (%) r Restbrelte (%) i“ Möglicher Senkquer (m*) mufn. m -

R Firstseokung (%)
R Sohienhebung (%)
R Stoßwandenjog (%)
R Resihöhe (%)
R Restbrefte (%)
ir Mögliche Senkliefe (%)
r* Möglicher Senkquer. (%)
r Resthöhe nach Senken (%)
r* Restquer nach Senken (%) P Resthöhe nach Senken (m) lOmNNef SEtebl
C Restquerschniit (m) r Restbreite nach Senken (m)
n Fifstsenkung (m) C Restquerschn. nach Senken (m)
Ende 1, Alksasj
n Sohienhebung (m) P erford, Stahiaufwand (kg/m*) Bö^inn 2 Abbau
m Stoßwanderung (m) P Profilgewcht (kg/m) amSlr^ 2
C Resihöhe (m) P ; berechn. Bauabstand (m) 10 m hinEci Stre^ 2
O Restreite (m) EQüetschniii (rrt^ 40 m Nnter Stieb 2
n Mögliche Senktiefe (m) P ] Baustoffmenge för Hinterföliung ^m^nn)

Figure 5: Representation of the results along the gate road

GTP“A: Emgabdiife ^Sachmerkmalleisten*'

Figure 6: Input aid “GTP-material stock”

838
A further demand which is to be realised is the SAP
linkage compatibility . E.g. the user should be able
to chose material and produce applications lists. The
input aid GTP-material stock exists to this purpose
(figure 6). It is also possible for other user to use the
results of the convergency pre-calculation, e.g. for
plant design (GTP-M).

5 UPSHOT

In this article the first steps towards the prototype

development of GTP-Support are described. This
task has been worked out by a group of researchers
from the Deutsche Montan Technologie (DMT), the
consulting engineers X-Graphic, RAG Informatik
and the Institute of Mining Engineering I of the
Aachen University of Technology. At present, GTP-
Support is designed for Deutsche Steinkohle AG.
GTP-Support represents an important module within
the GTP system, as the planning of support is rele­
vant to all other departments and the effects of con­
vergency on the road geometry becomes more trans­
parent. Therefore, the concise planning of support is
an essential prerequisite for high-performance long-
wall operations.

839
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

R eliability assessm ent o f m ining equipm ent using genetic algorithm s

T.Nuziale & N.Vagenas

Laurentian University Mining Automation Laboratory (LUMAL), Sudbury, Ont, Canada

ABSTRACT: This paper discusses an ongoing research work which attempts to formulate, develop and test
mining equipment reliability assessment models based on Genetic Algorithms (GAs). GAs are powerful and
broadly applicable stochastic search techniques based on the principles of natural selection, heredity and ge­
netics. The reason for selecting GAs is the fact that the reliability of mining equipment changes over time due
to its dependence upon several covariates/factors (e.g. the operating environment, number and quality of re­
pairs). These factors create a combined and complex impact on the reliability function. This impact encap­
sulates and inherits to some degree the individual characteristics of the factors as they evolve over time. By
using GAs, an attempt is made to capture the impact of the factors on the reliability function of a piece of
equipment by mimicking the process of heredity and natural selection.

1 INTRODUCTION TO GENETIC resent selection or search algorithms, which are

ALGORITHMS
The significance of high reliability of capital inten­
sive mobile mining equipment (e.g. scooptrams,
trucks or shovels) is well recognized within the Ca­
nadian mining industry. In general, the reliability
can be assessed either by mathematical models using
the failure time of a machine as the only variable
under consideration or by models with covariates
where a covariate could be for example, the operat­
ing environment, the machine design, the number of
repairs or the age of the equipment under study.
Reliability models with or without covariates are
based on the use of rigorous and complicated statis­
tical techniques which include, for instance, theo­
retical probability distribution fitting, trend and se­
rial correlation tests and require assumptions of
homogeneous or non-homogeneous Poisson proc­
esses or assumptions of proportionality of the hazard
rate. The assumptions and statistical constraints of
probabilistic reliability models cause limitations to
the ability of these models to accurately represent
and fit all real life mining conditions (Kumar 1990,
Kumar 1993, Paraszczak & Perreault 1994, Hall et
al. 1998).
Genetic Algorithms (GAs) were invented by John
Holland, his colleagues and his students at the Uni­
versity of Michigan (Holland 1975). Their works, as
well as that of other researchers, have provided the
basic tools for the fabrication of reliable, robust,
self-guided software codes. Genetic algorithms rep­
based on the principals of natural selection. There­
fore, genetic algorithms combine a structured,
though somewhat randomized, mode of information
exchange with the basic rule of survival of the fittest
gene (or gene pool). This basic rule is what makes
genetic algorithms particularly attractive to engi­
neering (Clément & Vagenas 1994). Today engi­
neers must balance numerous incongruent pieces of
data in order to derive the most suitable solution to a
particular problem. The ability to explore "what i f
situations using the analytical approach provided by
GAs can be a powerful solution tool in engineering
problems e.g. optimization problems.
Genetic algorithms have become popular in many
scientific domains. Genetic algorithms have been
applied to topics in biology (Rosenberg 1967, San-
nier & Goodman 1987) and in applications in com­
puter science (Bagley 1967, Rendell 1985, Raghavan
& Agarwal 1987 & Michalewicz 1990). They have
been tested in engineering and operations research
applications (Goldberg 1989, Davis & Coombs
1987, Stadnyk 1987, Gen & Cheng 1997) as well as
in social sciences (Holland 1975, Fujiko & Dickin­
son 1987). Genetic algorithms have also been ap­
plied in specific applications to mining engineering
problems such as ore grade estimation by (Clément
& Vagenas 1994) ore grade optimization by (Yun et
al. 1998), scheduling and resource allocation prob­
lems by (Karr 1994) and open-pit layout and mine
scheduling optimization by (Schofield & Denby
1993 & Thomas 1997).

841
 GAs offer several key advantages over conven­
tional mathematical models including: simplicity of
randomized searches while retaining important his­
torical information with the population; computa­
tionally simple; GAs search from a population of
solutions, not just from a single solution; and they
can handle any kind of objective function and kind
of constraints (linear or non-linear) defrned on dis­
crete, continuous or mixed search spaces (Haupt &
Haupt 1998 & Goldberg 1989).
To the best of the authors' knowledge, in mining,
assessment of equipment reliability using GAs has
not yet been investigated. In other industrial sectors,
genetic algorithms have recently been introduced to
reliability optimization but not specifically to reli­
ability assessment. Reliability optimization concen­
trates on optimal allocation of redundancy compo­
nents and optimal selection of alternative designs to
meet system requirements, assuming that a system
has redundancy components in series and/or parallel
configurations with the reliabilities of the compo­
nents assumed known. This research offers an alter­
native method to conventional statistically based re­
liability methods and may lead to the foundation of a
new approach to reliability assessment with potential
applications in other industrial fields as well.
2 DEFINITIONS
In this paper, the following definitions pertaining to
mine equipment reliability assessment based on ge­
netic algorithms are used:
- Chromosome - An array of parameters or genes
that is passed to the fitness function, (e.g. the
Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) of a mining
equipment).
- Evolution - A series of genetic changes in which
living organisms acquire the characteristics that
distinguish them from other organisms.
- Fitness Function - Mathematical subroutine that
assigns a value or fitness to a set of parameters,
e.g. the exponential probability function.
- Reproduction - The creation of offspring from
two parents (sexual reproduction) or from a single
parent (asexual reproduction, cloning).
- Crossover - An operator that forms a new chro­
mosome from two parent chromosomes by com­
bining part of the information from each parent.
- Mutation - A reproduction operator that randomly
alters the values of genes in a parent chromo­
some.
842
3 FUNDAMENTALS OF GENETIC
ALGORITHMS
The structure of a basic genetic algorithm is as fol­
lows. First, the set of variables of a problem is
coded as a finite-length string (binary coded), which
is defined over some finite alphabet (initial popula­
tion). Second, assess the fitness of the population
with respect to the applied fitness fimction. Next, a
genetic algorithm is constructed from three primary
operators, namely, reproduction, crossover and mu­
tation.
The operation of a genetic algorithm consists of
cycling through the operators of reproduction, cross­
over and mutation until the system converges to­
wards an optimal point, (see Figure 1). First, each
point in a parameter (or solution) space is encoded
into a binary bit string called a chromosome and
each point is associated with a "fitness" value that,
for maximization is usually equal to the objective
function evaluated at the point. Instead of a single
point, GAs usually keep a set of points as a popula­
tion (or gene pool), which is then evolved repeatedly
toward a better overall fitness value. In each gen­
eration, the GA constructs a new population using
genetic operators such as crossover and mutation.
Members with higher fitness values are more likely
to survive and to participate in mating (crossover)
operations. GAs and their variants are sometimes re
ferred to as methods of population based optimiza­
tion that improves performance by upgrading entire
populations rather than individual members. Major
components of GAs include encoding schemes, fit­
ness evaluations, parent selection (reproduction),
crossover and mutation operators (Mattei 1999).
3.1 Encoding Schemes
The schemes transform points (or values) in pa­
rameter space into bit string representations e.g. by
using the DEC2BIN formula in Visual Basic. For
instance, the values of the Mean Time between Fail­
ures of a scooptram (6, 9, and 11) can be represented
as a binary string, as shown below:
MTBF 6 - Binary String 0110
MTBF 9 - Binary String 1001
MTFF 11 - Binary String 1011
In this case, each value is encoded as a gene com­
posed of four binary bits using binary coding. En­
coding schemes provide a way of translating prob­
lem specific knowledge directly into the GA
framework, and thus play a key role in determining
GAs performance.
Figure 1. The operation o f a basic genetic algorithm, after (Clément & Vagenas 1994)

Selection Probability = — ( 1)
3.2 Fitness Evaluation ^k=l fk
The first step after creating a population is to calcu­ where n is the population size, and k is an integer
late the fitness value of each member in the popula­ from 1 to n.
tion. For a maximization problem, the fitness value
fj of the member is usually the objective function
evaluated at this member (or point). Fitness value
Roulette W hee l Selection
must be positive, so some kind of monotonically
scaling and/or translation may be necessary if the
objective function is not strictly positive. Another S p in t h e W h e e l s t r in g 4
approach is to use the rankings of members in a
population as their fitness values. The advantage of
this is that the objective function does not need to be
accurate, as long as it can provide the correct rank­
ing information (Mattei 1999).
S tr in g 1

3.3 Reproduction
A genetic string is selected from reproduction ac­
cording to the fitness value fj. The selection is S t r in g 2

somewhat random, with more weight given to the

fittest strings. This operator can be simulated with a
weighted roulette wheel where strings with larger
fitness values are given a larger piece of the pie (see
Figure 2). The fitness value fj of the string is calcu­
lated by evaluating the "binary coded" genetic string
in order to obtain its "real number" equivalent value
which is then passed to the fitness function where it
is evaluated and assigned a "real number" fitness
value (Clément & Vagenas 1994).
The most common way to implement the repro­
duction process is to set the selection probability
equal to their fitness values.
Figure 2. Reproduction is simulated with a weighted roulette
3.4 Crossover
This operator has the function of exchanging the
genetic material between two mates (parents) which
were selected for reproduction and thus create two
child strings. A crossover point is selected at ran­
dom based on the string's total length. Also, the
crossover operation is performed on the parent
strings according to the probability p^ that a cross­
over operation should take place. In the event that

843
no crossover operation takes place, the child strings
will take on the values of their parent strings. If the
crossover does take place, then the child strings will
receive genetic material from both parents according
to the position of the crossover point (Clément &
Vagenas 1994). A one-point crossover is the most
basic crossover operator, where a crossover point on
the genetic code is selected at random and two par­
ent chromosomes are interchanged at this point. Ex­
ample of a one-point crossover is shown below:
10011110 100 10010
10110010 101 11110
The effect of crossover is similar to that of mating in
the natural evolutionary process; in which parents
pass segments of their own chromosome on to their
children. Therefore, some children are able to out­
perform their parents if they get "good" genes or ge­
netic traits from both parents.
3.5 Mutation
Crossover exploits current gene potentials, but if the
population does not contain all the encoded infor­
mation required to solve a particular problem, no
amount of mixing can produce a satisfactory solu­
tion. For this reason, the mutation operator will ran­
domly flip the value of each binary position in a
string according to the probability that a mutation
operation should take place. A mutation operator
can prevent any single bit from converging to a
value throughout the entire population and more im­
portant it can prevent the population from converg­
ing and stagnating at any local optima. The muta­
tion rate should be kept low so good chromosomes
obtained from crossover are not lost. (Belong 1975)
has shown that a high probability of mutation will
eventually destroy stronger genetic strings and thus
prevent the algorithm from approaching an optimal
solution. An example of mutation is shown below:
Mutated bit
10011110 10011010
In the natural evolutionary process, selection, cross­
over and mutation all occur in the single act of gen­
erating offspring.
4 ADVANTAGES OF USING GENETIC
ALGORITHMS FOR MINING EQUIPMENT
RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT
Genetic algorithms offer the potential to:
- Formulate a novel approach to reliability assess­
ment based on genetic algorithms which does not
844
necessarily rely upon theoretical assumptions
such as the homogeneous or non-homogeneous
Poison processes imposed on conventional prob­
abilistic reliability assessment models which may
limit the suitability of these models to real life
problems.
- Enhance our ability to better understand and
evaluate the combined impact of covariates on the
reliability of mining equipment over time (co­
variates may include: the operating environment,
type of repairs, number of repairs, and age of
equipment).
- Contribute to the wider acceptance of reliability
assessment techniques in the mining industry.
- Educate mining engineering students and mine
specialists in the field of applied reliability meth­
odology based on the principles of evolutionary
algorithms.
- GAs offer the simplicity of randomized searches
while retaining important historical information
within the population and/or the data structure.
- GAs are not constrained by assumptions about the
search space.
Genetic algorithms with their inherent simplicity can
assist in solving engineering problems in cases
where traditional mathematical techniques based on
operations research methods require a detailed
preparation of the input data and the development of
complicated mathematical models (Clément &
Vagenas 1994).
5 AN EXAMPLE OF A GENETIC ALGORITHM
MODEL WITH RESPECT TO MINING
EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT
A main reason for applying GA's in reliability as­
sessment is to investigate the possibility that failure
data such as Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF)
can be predicted in the future from an initial popula­
tion. A study was initiated regarding scooptrams
(Load-Haul-Dump vehicles) currently employed in
underground hard rock mines in the Sudbury region
in Ontario, Canada. Table 1 illustrates the formula­
tion of the under development genetic algorithm
model. In our example, the assumed fitness function
is the exponential probability distribution function
for a time period of approximately x = 1 month with
a scale parameter B = MTBF. The goal of this initial
model is to produce a new population of MTBFs for
the 2^^ month.
F(x) = 1-6^ ( 2)
The exponential distribution function is assumed in
this early stage of model development, since this
distribution was found to be a possible best fit for
failure data of scooptrams (Paraszczak & Perreault
Table 1. Setting up a genetic algorithm model
MTBF String Initial Fi = Probability Expected Actual Count Rejected
Value number population F (x)- selected count (based on a
(initial (converted l-e”^ Fi/Xfi*100 Fi/(avg*fi) weighted
population) to binary) roulette wheel)
3 1 00011 .28274 11.039 1.103
4 2 00100 .22060 8.613 .8613
7 3 00111 .13274 5.182 .5182
8 4 01000 .11716 4.574 .4574 yes
2 5 00010 .39254 15.32 1.532
1 6 00001 .63099 24.63 2.463
4 7 00100 .22060 8.613 .8613
16 8 10000 .06040 2.358 .2358 yes
4 9 00100 .22060 8.613 .8613
3 10 00011 .28274 11.039 1.103

Sum 2.561152 100 10 10

Average 0.256115 10 1 1
Maximum .630996 24.63 2.463 2

Table 2. New population after one iteration The research will cover the evaluation of various
New population MTBF-new values F(x) fitness functions that can produce a statistically ac­
(for the next month) ceptable prediction of new population of MTBFs
00011 3 .28 compared to available historical data.
00100 4 .22
00011 3 .28
00001 1 .63
00001 1 .63
FINAL COMMENTS
00010 2 .39
00111 7 .13 GAs should not be confused with evolution pro­
00010 2 .39 gramming which has been around for many years,
00100 4 .22 (Fogel et al. 1996 & Michalewicz 1992). In every
00011 3 .28 respect, Holland's genetic algorithms (Holland 1975)
Sum 3.469 * combine the principles of fitness-based evolution
Average .3469 applied to a population of individuals (or strings),
Maximum .63
which have inherited their defining characteristics
* Increased by 26% versus the sum = 2.56112 in Table 1 from previous generations of individuals. Using
specialized genetic operators such as mutation and
1994). The research will also investigate other pos­ crossover, new populations of individuals are cre­
sible alternatives to the exponential distribution ated. Therefore, GAs represent a specific type of
function, including the Weibull probability, empiri­ evolutionary programs, and they accomplish this by
cal functions or combination of these alternatives. mimicking the natural evolution of genes through
Note that the algorithm, which guides the repro­ simplified algorithms (Clément & Vagenas 1994).
duction of a genetic string, uses a weighted roulette At present to the best knowledge of the authors,
wheel which selects the fittest string values. As it is no investigation has been reported regarding the ap­
observed in Table 2, the new population is generated plication of GAs for reliability assessment in mining
and the total fitness has increased, in one iteration by even though experimentation with GAs to solve
a factor of 26% and the average fitness has also in­ other types of mining problems has taken place. The
creased by a factor of 26%. overall idea is to investigate whether reliability as­
The next step is to run the genetic algorithm sessment models based on GAs can produce satis­
model for a number of iterations, which might lead factory solutions compared to the existing probabil­
to the best-fit solution. It is anticipated that the istic reliability models. In general, the application of
number of iterations required for a good solution to GAs in reliability engineering is a novel approach,
the prediction of “best-fitting” MTBF values will which may contribute to a better understanding of
depend upon: the reliability characteristics of industrial systems
- The complexity of the problem and create a new method for reliability evaluation.
- The number of possible "good" solutions to the
problems
- The number of factors influencing reliability.

845
REFERENCES Rendell, L. A. 1985. Genetic plans and the probabilistic learn­
ing system: Synthesis and results. Proceedings of an Inter­
Bagley, J.D. 1967. The Behaviour of adaptive sytems which national Conference on Genetic Algorithms and Their Ap­
employ genetic and correlation algorithms. Dissertation plications: 60-73.
Abstracts International, 28(12), 5106, University of Micro­ Rosenberg, R. S. 1967. Simulation of genetic populations with
films No. 68-7556, University of Michigan, USA. biochemical properties. Doctoral dissertation. Dissertation
Clément, S. and Vagenas, N. 1994. Use of genetic algorithms Abstracts International: 28(70), 2732B. (University Micro­
in a mining problem. International Journal of Surface films No. 67-17, 836), University of Michigan, USA.
Mining, Reclamation and Environment, No. 8, pp. 131-136. Sannier, A. V., II & Goodman, E. D. 1987. Genetic learning
Davis, L. & Coombs, S. 1987. Genetic algorithms and com­ procedures in distributed environments. Genetic Algo­
munication link speed design: theoretical considerations. rithms and their applications: Proc. 2'^ ICGA: 162-169.
Genetic algorithms and their applications: Proc. 2"^* ICGA: Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, USA
252-256. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Schofield, D. & Denby, B. 1993. Genetic algorithms - A new
USA. approach to pit optimization, APCOM XXIV, International
DeJong, K. A. 1975. An Analysis of the Behaviour of a Class Symposium on the Application of Computers and Opera­
of Genetic Adaptive Systems. Doctoral Dissertation, Uni­ tions Research in the Mineral Industries, Oct. 31-Nov. 3,
versity of Michigan, USA. Montreal, Quebec, Canada, pp. 126-133, 1993. Edited by
Fogel, L. J., Owens, A J. & Walsh, M. J. 1996. Artificial In­ Elbrond, Jorgen & Tang, Xiaoli, Montreal, Que., Canada.
telligence Through Simulated Evolution, New York: John Stadnyk, I. 1987. Schema recombination in pattern recognition
Wiley & Sons, Inc. problems. Genetic algorithms and their applications:
Fujiko, C & Dickinson, J. 1987. Using the genetic algorithms Proc: 2"'^ ICGA: 27-35. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
to generate LISP source code to solve the prisoner's di­ Associates.
lemma. Genetic algorithms and their applications: Proc. 2"‘‘ Thomas, G.S. 1997. Optimization and scheduling of open pits
ICGA: 236-240. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ­ via genetic algorithms and simulated annealing. Proceed­
ates, USA. ings of the r* International Symposium on Mine Simulation
Gen, M. & Cheng, R. 1997. Genetic Algorithms and Engi­ via the Internet, 2-13 December 1996, published by
neering Design, published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Balkema Publishers, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, ISBN
ISBN 0-471-12741-8. 9054108630, pp. 44.
Goldberg, D. 1989. Genetic algorithms in search, optimization Yun, Q.X., Wu, J.H., Wang, Z.Q. & Niu, J.K. 1998. Genetic
and machine learning, published by Don Mills, Ontario: algorithm for optimization o f ore grade in mines, AP-
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. COM’98, Int. Symp. on the Application of Computers and
Hall, R., Daneshmend, L. & Knights, P. 1998. Reliability Operations Research in the Mineral Industries, 19-23
analysis o f mobile underground mining equipment - A case April, London, England, pp. 681-692.
study. Proceedings of the 1(T^ CIM Mainte-
nance/Engineering Conference, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan,
Sept. 13-16,.
Haupt, R. & Haupt, S.E.:1998. Practical Genetic Algorithms,
published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,ISBN 0-471-18873-
5.
Holland, J. H. 1975. Adaptation in natural and artificial sys­
tems, Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
Karr, C. L. (US Bureau o f Mines) 1994. Scheduling and re­
source allocation with genetic algorithms, SME confer­
ence, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA.
Kumar, D. 1993. Reliability analysis considering operating
conditions in a mine. Licentiate Thesis, Division of Mining
Equipment Engineering, Lulea University o f Technology,
Lulea, Sweden, No. 1993:17L.
Kumar, U. 1990. Reliability analysis of Load-Haul-Dump ma­
chines, PhD Thesis, Division of Mining Equipment Engi­
neering, Lulea University o f Technology, Lulea, Sweden,
No. 1990:88D.
Mattel 1999. Genetic Algorithms. At the website:
www.mnsi.net/mattei/ga/genetic/index.htm.
Michalewicz, Z. (Editor) 1990. Proceedings of the 5* Interna­
tional Conference on Statistical and Scientific Databases:
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 420. New York:
Springer-Verlag.
Michalewicz, Z. 1992. Genetic Algorithms + Data Structures
= Evolution Programs, New York, Springer-Verlag.
Paraszczak, J., & Perreault, J.F. 1994, Reliability of diesel
powered Load-Haul-Dump machines in an underground
Quebec mine, CIM Bulletin, Vol. 87, No. 978, pp. 123-127.
Raghavan, V.V. & Agarwal, B. 1987. Optimal determination
o f user-oriented clusters: An application for the reproduc­
tive plan. Genetic algorithms and their applications: Proc.
ICGA: 241-246. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum As­
sociates.

846
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

U sing anim ations o f m ining operations as presentation m odels

JohnR.Sturgul
University o f Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, USA

ABSTRACT: Discrete system simulation software initially was developed in the 1960s for industrial applica­
tions such as manufacturing and transportation. Mining applications of simulation models have been used to
assist the mining engineer in mine design and equipment selection ever since the introduction of simulation
software. In a few examples, the simulation model was used to design a mine from scratch. There is yet an­
other application for simulation and animation models which is just being realized and this is to make "pres­
entation" models. These are animations that show the general operation of the mine without regard to mining
schedules or the exact logic of the mining operation. These are finding applications in the following areas: to
show prospective investors what the mine will be like once it is in full operation, to show management how
proposed changes will affect the overall operation of the mine and to show other engineers how the mine will
now operate. Several examples of such presentation models for actual mines are presented and discussed.
These include a proposed expansion for an underground gold mine and several platinum mines. All of these
projects are for mines in South Africa. A comparison of the presentation model with that of the actual mine
simulation is given for a platinum mine.

1 MINE SIMULATION MODELS IN GENERAL
While simulation models for mining operations can­
not yet be considered as a standard tool for the min­
ing engineer, they are slowly gaining acceptance.
Software is continually improved and new simula­
tion software, known as OOS (Object Orientated
Software) is available for quickly making models
that are not too complex. Most detailed mining
simulations are done using traditional computer
simulation languages with the most commonly used
being GPSS/H and SIMAN (ARENA). A history of
mine simulation modeling is provided by Sturgul
(1996). An example of a mine that has been de­
signed from scratch using a simulation model is the
Lihir mine which is located on an island northeast of
Papua New Guinea. (Jacobsen, et. al., 1995 & Stur­
gul, 1995). This is the first reported example of a
mine being designed from the very first using a
simulation model. Other simulation languages that
have been used by mining researchers are SLAM,
Planimate, Witness, and ProModel. A review of
mining simulation has been presented by Sturgul. In
fact the whole issue of Inter. Jour o f Surface Mining,
Sept. 1999 was devoted to mine simulation around
the world. A recent textbook by Sturgul, Mine De­
sign: Examples using Simulation, Soc. of Mining
Engrs, Littleton, CO, April, 2000, is concerned with
a variety of mining problems where simulation can
be of assistance. This book contains 30 mining ex­
amples where simulation can be used and 48 anima­
tions.
Simulation models have been used for all types of
mining operations from open pit coal or copper mines
to underground gold, platinum and zinc mines. The
flow of materials through smelters, refineries and
mills has also been done although not as commonly as
for models of actual mining operations. An example
of modeling complex surface rail haulage at a mine
complex was done by Sturgul and Li (1998). The
main use of simulation models has been to determine
the answers to the myriad of "What if?" questions that
the mining engineer poses and which the model can
often so easily answer. With the introduction of
animation in the 1990's, other applications and uses of
these models were discovered. The mining engineer
could now develop models that showed how the mine
would work once proposed changes were made. The
ability to show the mine in motion meant that non­
mining people such as bankers and lawyers could now
see a "cartoon" version of the mine. A further
application is that engineers such as contract engineer
bidding on design projects could now add animation
to their proposals. These animations are constructed

847
using only a sketch of the mine and how the various
elements of interact and can be called "presentation"
models. These animations are relative easy to
construct and, in some cases, can actually be
developed in only a matter of days whereas the full
simulation for the real mine may take several months.
Several of such presentation models are discussed
here and their applications noted.
1.1 Major gold mine expansion
Figure 1. shows the cross-section of a large under­
ground gold mine. The mine currently has 4 shafts
on the left for men and materials and two on the
right. The large shaft on the right is to be extended
and used only for waste material as the large body of
ore below the current bottom level will be mined
out. The smaller, deep shaft on the lower right will
need to be built. It will hoist only ore. Not shown
are the ventilation shafts.
At first glance, when the animations takes place,
the model would seem to be one for the whole mine.
However, the data is all dummy and the different
mining rates, travel times, hoisting sizes and speeds
are not correct. In addition, no reliabilities have been
used. A true, complete model would have the mining
machines, loaders, correct sizes of equipment, work
schedules, and reliabilities of all equipment.
The animation shows the flexibility of PROOF as
there is an x-y plot as well as several dancing bar
graphs showing the utilization of equipment. Since a
simulation model produces copious amounts of data, it
is easy (and instructive) to show many of these plots.
In converting this model to one that represents the
actual mine, some of the correct data can easily be
read in using data files. In some cases, the mining
engineer is able to set up a menu system for the data.
This model was used by a major engineering
company to show the mining engineers how the
general layout of the mine would be. A model such as
this was constructed in a matter of a few days whereas
a complete one for all of the possible "What if?"
scenarios might take several months, especially the
incorporation of the correct data. Input data can also
be in the form of a spreadsheet, the most commonly
used being EXCEL. However, any ASCII data file
can be used for input data.
Although this animation is shown on a single
screen, it should be noted that PROOF animation
allows for an extremely large drawing palate.
1.2 Simple skip and underground storage bin
Another important use for a presentation model is to
assist the mining engineer in the construction of a
much larger simulation model. Consider a situation
where there is a single underground storage bin.
848
This bin is fed irregularly but according to a known
statistical distribution. In this case, it was found that
the exponential distribution best described the inter­
arrival rate for the ore. A conveyor belt is used to
transport the ore (or waste as the case might be) to
one of two flasks. These flasks are the same size (or
slightly smaller than the skips). Ore fills the flask
and then the skip travels to pick up a load of ore.
The animation given in figure 2. shows this system
working.
The size of the storage bin is critical as all other
elements of the system are considered as being fixed
in size. If the ore is assumed to arrive in a Poisson
stream, it is quite instructive to determine the "correct"
size of the storage bin, where the "correct" size is one
where there will be less than, say, .5% of spillage.
This simple presentation model can be used to show
management how important it can be to correctly
match the size of storage bins to mining rates. This
example can actually be used for a learning exercise
as the input to the GPSS/H program easily can be
varied to allow the mining engineer to do any amount
of sensitivity analysis. Since the animation is not
needed for every computer simulation, it is possible to
use DO loops in the GPSS/H program. Tliis allows
the user to run the model for many different
possibilities of changes in the system parameters at
one time.
1.3 Truck shovel operation
One of the first examples of a simulation model
that the mining engineer will encounter is the one
where there is a single shovel that can load only one
truck at a time and n- trucks to be loaded. The
loaded trucks haul to a crusher and then cycle back
to the shovel. In the model shown in Figure 3, the
trucks also are checked for possible repairs after
each one has dumped. These repairs can be
scheduled maintenance or random down times. By
varying the number of trucks in the mine, one can
determine a plot of the production vs. number of
trucks. This plot is in the animation but not shown
here. The down times for the trucks can be varied
and different distributions of down time can be
tested. For example, repairs to mining equipment
often follow the Weibull distribution. This is a two-
parameter exponential distribution that is also called
the "bathtub distribution" due to its shape which is
similar to a bathtub. This curve shows a high
probability of failure early on in the life of a truck
but, after an initial settling in period, has a low
probability of failure until later in its life, when many
parts start to wear out. Breakdowns of personal
automobiles also often follow such a distribution as
most people are only too well aware of Even a
simple model such as this can be of assistance to the
mine planning engineer.
 AVG. TRUCKS
tf 'ijc k a uionk i ng
WAITING
le ft : T BOTH SIDES:
n ig h t : G 1.44
L E F T SIDE:
C Y C L E TIMES
EXP. QBSV
LEFT 5 9 .3 1
RIGHT B 3 .H B

LDADS DUMPED
FRDM L E F T

Figure 5. Figure 6.

849
 A mining system is said to be "undertrucked" if the
shovel has a low utilization rate, and the queuing time
at the shovel is very low. A system with too many
trucks is said to be "over-trucked" when the shovel is
used most of the time and the average time or average
number of trucks in the queue waiting for the shovel is
high. In the case of undertrucking, the downtimes for
the trucks are more critical as every truck out of
service has a relatively large effect on the production
compared to when the mine is over-trucked. This
would seem to be an easy concept to understand.
However, the simulation model shows the engineer
exactly how to study this situation.
1.4 Expansion o f iron mine
An existing iron mine with five pits and a single
crusher is considering a major expansion. The mine
currently is using trucks that are dedicated to each
pit and a computerized dispatching system is being
considered. The increase in production is going to
be brought about by purchasing new, larger trucks
and deepening and expanding all five pits. No new
pits are being planned. The number of trucks to pur­
chase is one of the main purposes of the simulation
study. However, it may be necessary to build a sec­
ond crusher if the first one cannot handle the in­
creased truck traffic. Also, as the pits are deepened,
the travel times form the furthest pits may necessi­
tate a second crusher. Before committing to either
the expansion or the purchase of a new fleet of
trucks, the mining engineers would like a simulation
model to show them how to best make these deci­
sions.
Before the full simulation model was made, a
presentation model was used that showed, in general,
how the model can be used. Since the crusher area
was thought to be critical, separate models for it were
made. The first model of the crusher shoed it working
with no repair shop and the second with a repair shop.
The tucks can dump on either side of the crusher, so it
is possible to for two trucks to be positioned to dump
at the same time. However, only one can dump at a
time.
The trucks arrive at the pit and can be sent to the
repair shop either for scheduled maintenance of for
random breakdowns. Different reliability functions
were tested in this model. It was shown that, when the
mine is"undertrucked," the production was more
severely affected that when it was "overtrucked."
While this is intuitively obvious since, if the mine has
too many trucks, removing one or more for repairs
will not adversely affect the production, the simulation
program was used to show the exact amount of
change in production.
Fig. 4 shows an overview of the mine with the five
pits and the crusher. Figure 5 shows the crusher area
with no repair shop, and Fig. 6 shows the repair shop
850
and the crusher. The effect of a dispatcher is easy to
demonstrate as this involved only adding computer
code for the trucks after they had dumped.
2 CONCLUSIONS
Presentation models of mining systems have several
important applications. The can be used to assist
the mining engineer better understand how the min­
ing system will operate when proposed changes are
made. They can also be used to show non-mining
people how the mine is operating. Often a visit to an
underground mine is not that revealing to a person
who has never been to such a mine whereas the
computer model is easy to understand. As mining
people start to accept and use discrete simulation
models more and more, such models will play an in­
creasingly more important role.
3 NOTE
GPSS/H and PROOF Professional are registered
trademarks of Wolverine Software, 2111 Eisen­
hower Avenue Alexandra, VA 22314-4679, USA.
REFERENCES
Jacobsen, W. L., J. R. Sturgul, C. Ritter, and T. Fliess. 1995.
A simulation model for the waste handling system proposed
for the Lihir Project in Papua New Guinea. Paper presented
at APCOM 25, Brisbane, Australia and published in Pro­
ceedings, July, 1995
Sturgul, J. R. 1995. Simulation and animation come o f age.
Mining Engr. & Mining J. Oct. 1995, feature article and
cover devoted to article, pp. 38-42
Sturgul, J. R. 1996. History of simulation in mining; 1961 -
1965. First International Symposium on Mine Simulation
via the Internet, Athens, Greece, Dec. 1996. Paper pre­
sented and published in Proceedings, pub. by Balkema,
Rotterdam, Holland. J. R. Sturgul and G. N. Panagiotou
eds.
Sturgul, J. R. 1999. Introduction to special issue of Interna­
tional J. of Surface Mining, Reclamation and the Environ­
ment Sept. 1999, ed. J. R. Sturgul, pub by Balkema, Hol­
land.
Sturgul, J. R. 1999. Review of mine system simulation in the
United States. International J. of Surface Mining, Recla­
mation and the Environment Sept. 1999, Balkema, Holland.
Sturgul, J. R., & Zhongxue Li. 1998. Modeling complex sur­
face rail haulage at a mine complex. Paper presentation and
publication in APCOM '98, London, England, April 1998.
Inst, of Mining and Metallurgy, London.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3
A pplication o f genetic algorithm s for the layout o f openings in mines*
Q .X .Y un& K .M .H uang
Xian University o f Architecture and Technology, People's Republic of China
M .Z.Lian
Xishimeng Iron Ore Mine, People's Republic of China
ABSTRACT: This paper presents a new method to determine the optimal layout of openings in underground
mines. The new method consists of three phases: generation of opening networks by genetic algorithms, se­
lection of the feasible opening networks by graphic theory, decision making of opening networks by econo­
metrics. The new method has been successfully used in a gold mine of China.
1 INTRODUCTION
The layout of openings is an important and compli­
cated task in the planing of underground mines. It
gives essential impact on the mining technology and
economics, including the effects on ventilation and
the transportation of ore and materials. Therefore,
the optimization of the layout of openings is a per­
manent subject on the planning of mines. In past
years many works have been done in this subject but
there is no satisfactory method yet (Chanda &
Kabibwa. 1996). This paper presents a new approach
to deal with the problem mainly by means of genetic
algorithms.
The new approach consists of three phases:
Phase 1. Generation of opening networks by ge­
netic algorithm. The purpose of this phase is to set
up a set of opening combinations for underground
mines by means of evolution computation. The pro­
cedure of genetic algorithm includes coding, genera­
tion of initial population, calculation of fitness, re­
production, crossover, mutation and termination.
Phase 2. Selection of the feasible networks by
graphic theory. This phase is used to select the feasi­
ble alternatives from the previous phase based on the
requirements of mining engineering. The criterion of
selection is composed of matrix representation,
depth-first search, calculation of degree of nodes and
module comparison.
Phase 3. Decision making for opening combina­
tion by econometrics. This phase is used to calculate
the economics for the feasible alternatives from
phase 2 in order to chose the optimal one as the final
decision. The evaluation is mainly based on cash
Project No.59874019 supported by National Natural Science Foundation o f China
851
flow calculation, including cash flow-in, cash flow-
out and the rate of return of revenue.
These phases are related with each other and in­
tegrated as a whole package. The new method has
been successfully used for a gold mine in China.
2 GENERATION OF OPENING NETWORKS
BY GENETIC ALGORITHM
Genetic algorithm is the most important method in
evolutionary algorithms, which imitates the princi­
ples of evolution and heredity in nature. Based on a
set of random initial population, the quality of
population will be improved a generation after ano­
ther generation by means of Darwinian principle:
“ the survival of the fitness “. Eventually, an indi­
vidual in population will reach the optimal solution.
Therefore, genetic algorithm is an adaptive search
approach in general.
2.1 Coding
Genetic algorithm usually uses symbolic string with
fixed length to represent problem. Each string is
equivalent to the chromosome of biology and it de­
livers evolution information to next generation.
In this paper binary strings are used to represent
opening networks. The length of binary strings is
equal to the number of openings which is deter­
mined if it need to exist. If the binary digit is equal
to 1, it means that the corresponding opening will
need to exist; if it is 0, the opening will be deleted.
For example, a string 1001101 implies openings #1,
#4, #5 and #7 will exist and #2, #3 and #6 will not
exist.
2.2 Population
In genetic algorithm there are many individuals in a
population for each generation. The more the indi­
viduals in a population are, the wider the search
scope for each generation will be; but the more the
calculation time will be. Usually there will be 50-100
individuals in a population.
To begin with the process in genetic algorithm,
the initial population will be generated by random
method. The binary digit in a string is selected ran­
domly as 0 or 1 with uniform distribution function.
In order to spread the initial individuals in a large
area for wider search, some individuals are generated
by means of reproduction and mutation based on
some random individuals (Haupt & Haupt. 1998).
In this paper 3-point crossover are used because
of the large length of string. By means of multiple
crossover, its exchanged section can be spread in
different location of strings (Michalewicz 1996).
Table 1 illustrates the crossover in principle.
2.6 Mutation
Mutation is another way to generate a new individ­
ual. It ensures that the probability of searching any
region in the problem space is never zeroed and par­
ents can complete its loss of genetic material
through reproduction and crossover.
During mutation, a digit in string is simply
changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0. The location of
mutation is determined by random method.

2.3 Fitness
2.7 Termination
Fitness is the measurement for the quality of indi­
Genetic algorithm is an iterative search method,
viduals. It is also a driving force for genetic algo­
which approximates to the optimal solution gradu­
rithms from one generation to another.
ally by many cycles of evolution. Therefore, there
In this paper fitness of each individual is its annu­
should be some criterion to terminate the iteration.
al cost of opening network, including capital invest­
In this paper there are two criterions to terminate
ment and operation cost.
the computation:
(1) Specify the maximum number of iterations.
2.4 Reproduction Once the number of iteration reaches the specified
number, the computation will stop.
To implement Darwinian principle “the survival of
(2) Observe the variation of fitness. When the
the fitness”, in genetic algorithm some excellent in­
variation of average fitness and the maximum fit­
dividuals are copied from one generation to the next.
ness in a population is small and approximates to
At the same time an equal number of bad individuals
zero, the computation will stop.
are deleted. Therefore, the quality of population will
be improved one generation after another.
In this paper fitness-proportion selection is used
3 SELECTION OF THE FEASIBLE OPENING
for reproduction, i.e.
NETWORKS BY GRAPHIC THEORY

The purpose of opening network in underground

/=i mine is to establish an access from surface to ore
where p(i) = probability to be selected of individual body in order to carry out transportation, ventilation
i ; f = fitness of individual i;m = number of individu­ and other operation activities. Therefore, a feasible
als in a population. opening network should meet the following re­
quirements:
(1) The network should be connected with each
2.5 Crossover other in order to reach any location from any point
In genetic algorithm, crossover is a main way to of the network.
generate new individuals. It provides a tool for sym­ (2) The network should connect with surface in
bol strings to mix attributes together by random pro­ order to establish an access for operations, and for
cess. the sake of safety there should be two exits to sur­
face at least.
(3) The network should be closed in underground
Table 1. 3-point crossover without end opening for better ventilation, except
Crossover point 1 2 3 the exits to surface.
Parenti: 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 To verify the networks if it meet the above re­
Parent2: 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
quirements from the point of mining engineering,
Offspring 1: 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
the paper employs following approaches.
Offspring2:

852
3.1 Matrix representation L = [A]
S = [F, B, G]
In computer science incidence matrix is the common
one to represent network as follows:

A= a„ - ciij - (1)

where: m = number of arcs; n = number of nodes;

+ 1 if arc j is incident to node i
ay = ' -1 if arc j is incident from node j
0 otherwise
In order to save the memory of computer, inci­
dence matrix A can be substituted by two index ma­
trices D and E as follows:
d\j
^11 dxm
( 2)
dn dij ^ 2 /m
^11 ^12 e^p
E= ^iP (3)
^«2 ^nP _
where: djj = source node of arc j; djj = sink node of
arc j; e^ = arc j which is incident with node i; p = the
maximum degree of nodes.
If matrix A is substituted by matrices D and E, the
larger the m is, the safer the memory will be.
3.2 Depth-first search
The connectivity of network is verified by the depth-
first search as described in graphic theory. It is a
general ergodic approach to reach all nodes of net­
work.
To carry out this approach, there are table L and
stack S. At the beginning, any node in network can
be selected as the first one to be accessed. After this
node is pushed into table L, all its conjoint nodes
will be pushed into stack S. Then, a conjoint node V
is pulled out from stack S and moved it to table L.
All conjoint nodes with V will be found out in se­
quence and stack S only saves the new conjoint no­
des which do not exist in table L and stack S. Repeat
the procedure until stack S is empty. When stack S is
After G is pulled out from stack S and pushed
into table L, the list of L and S turn out to be:
L = [A, G]
S = [ F, B]
Since the conjoint node F for G has already in
stack S, B is the next node to be pulled out from
stack S and moved into table L. The conjoint node
of B is node C. Since node C is not in the list of L or
S, it will be pushed into stack S. New lists of L and
S are as follows:
L = [A, G, B]
S = [F, C]
The 4-th iteration will change the lists of L and S
as:
L = [A, G, B, C]
S = [F,D, E]
The 5-th iteration will result in:
L = [A, G, B, C, E]
S = [F, D]
The 6-th iteration will made the lists as:
L =[A, G, B, C,E, D]
S = [F]
Finally the list of stack S becomes empty after
node F is moved to table L, i.e.:
L = [A, G, B, C, E, D, F]
Therefore, the network is proved to be a connect­
ed one.
3.3 Degree o f node
This approach is used to verify network if it is
closed, in which there is no end opening. According
to the definition of graphic theory, degree of node is
the sum of number of arcs incident from and to the
node. Based on the incidence matrix of network, de­
gree of node i is the absolute sum of elements in row
i, i.e.
m

empty, it means that the network is a connected one.

Figure 1 illustrates the depth-first search. Suppose 7=1
that node A is the first one to push in table L, then
table L and stack S are as follows:

853
where: ay = element of row i and column j in inci­
dence matrix; m = number of arcs in incidence ma­
trix.
Obviously, if degree of node is equal to 1, it
means that the node is the end of opening. Other­
wise, the node is a cross of openings.
3.4 Module
There are some openings which should exist no
matter what the network looks like. For example,
adits perpendicular and close to the foot-wall of ore-
body should exist for any network in order to estab­
lish the access to ore-body. To ensure these openings
to exist, module is used here.
In essence, module is a binary string where some
digits are fixed to 1. For example, module
[♦i**!***!****!*] implies that openings #2, #5, #9
and #14 should exist in any network. After the com­
parison between module and generated network by
genetic algorithm, it is easy to find out the latter if it
includes the necessary openings.
4 DECISION MAKING OF OPENING
NETWORK BY ECONOMETRICS
To evaluate the opening network generated in previ­
ous phases, annual cost C is used as fitness of each
individual, i.e.
C =D +P
0 + 0 ” -1
where: D = annual operation cost; P = construc­
tion investment; i = annual interest rate; n = op­
erating life of mine.
Since annual cost C is used to compare different
networks, the items of C only include the different
parts and ignore the same parts.
4.1 Construction investment
Construction investment includes opening construc­
tion and equipment investment. In order to calculate
the construction cost, openings are divided as three
categories: vertical openings, incline openings and
horizontal openings. Each category of opening has
its specified cost. The construction cost is just the
product between the length of openings and its speci­
fied cost. As to equipment investment, it consists of
special equipment such as hoisting machine and belt-
conveyer.
4.2 Operation cost
Operation cost is composed of transportation cost
and ventilation cost. Transportation cost is the pro­
duct among weight and length of transportation and
854
its specified cost. The latter is also divided in three
categories: vertical transportation, incline transpor­
tation and horizontal transportation.
As to ventilation cost, there is a special software
to deal with the computation of ventilation network
(Yun & Huang 2000). Ventilation cost V is calculat­
ed according to air volume and air pressure as fol­
lows:
V =e H Q ( ; T
where:e = specified cost of electricity; H = total
air pressure; Q = total air volume; ^ = efficien­
cy of ventilation machine; T = working time.
Air volume and air pressure are calculated by it­
erations as follows:
=^k E ,)
/=1 7=1 7=1
( ^ = 1 ,2 ,- , n - \ )
where: = element of row i and column j in in­
cidence matrix ; pi = total air pressure of node i;
qj, = total air volume of node k; Hjj = mechanical
air pressure of arc j ; = difference between static
pressure of arc j ; Rj = resistance coefficient of ven­
tilation for arc j ; Qj = air volume of arc j ; Cj =
m m ) o '= i , 2 , - , m)
5 APPLICATION
The new method presented in this paper has been
successfully used in Huangshi gold underground
mine for long range planning. The parameters of its
genetic algorithm are:
Length of strings 35
Size of population 100
The maximum number of iteration 200
Reproduction rate 0.10
Crossover rate 0.65
Mutation rate 0.15 (according
to individuals)
The optimal solution is converged after 50 itera­
tions and its fitness is 29959111.168. Figure 2 illus­
trates the process of genetic algorithm to determine
the optimal layout of openings for the mine. A
similar application was also used for Xishimeng iron
ore mine in China.
6 CONCLUSION
Genetic algorithm is an optimization technique by
means of adaptive search. It imitates the principles
of evolution and heredity in nature in order to reach
the optimal solution by iteration. It is a useful tool to
deal with the structural optimization such as the de­
termination of layout of openings in underground
 Based on genetic algorithm, this paper presents a
new method to determine the optimal layout of
opening network in underground mines with the help
of graphic theory and econometrics. At the begin­
ning, a variety of opening networks is proposed by
genetic operations such as reproduction, crossover
and mutation. Then, some feasible opening networks
are selected by graphic theory from the point of
mining engineering. After that, each opening net
work is evaluated according to its fitness calculation.
Finally, the optimal solution will emerge by Dar-
vvdnian principle “ the survival of the fitness”.
The new method in this paper has been success­
fully used in an underground gold mine of China for
a long-rang planning. The application proves that
the new method is useful and reasonable and can be
used for other underground mines.

REFERENCES

Chanda, E.K.C. & M.S. Kabibwa. 1996. The development of

computer-aided underground mine planning at NKANA
division o f ZCCM Limited. Proceedings of the 26-th sym­
posium o f Application o f computers and operations re­
search in the mineral industry. USA. pp. 189-196.
Haupt, R.L. & S.E. Haupt. 1998. Practical genetic algorithms.
New York. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Michalewicz, Z. 1996. Genetic algorithm + data structure =
evolution program. Berlin. Springer-Verlag.
Yun, Q.X. & K.M.Huang. 2000. Determination of ventilation
system for mines by genetic algorithm. Proceedings o f the
6-th international symposium on environmental issues and
waste management in energy and mineral production. Can­
ada.

855
8 M ining and the environm ent
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 178 3

E conom ical aspects o f possible pollution decreasing in m ining

industry o f Kazakhstan

A.Ye.Aikynbayev & G.I.Yedilbayeva

Gornoe Büro Limited, Almaty, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT: Mining sector in Kazakhstan makes a significant contribution in the environment deterioration
due to low level of production technology and inefficient pollution regulation. It is found that existing tax-
based regulation creates situation when payment for the pollution is much more cheaper then introducing new
environment friendly technology. Tradable permits are discussed as a possible economical tool for pollution
control.

1. DISCUSSION shifted, because they are based on natural resources

Mining sector in the industrial structure of
Kazakhstan is about 27%. Since 1992 the
considerable growth of mining sector and reduction
of processing industries have taken place in the
Republic ( Daukeev S.Zh.l998). Mining industry is
in charge for atmosphere pollution in Eastern and
Central regions of Kazakhstan. Thus, among 149
consumers of natural resources in Aktybinskaya
oblast about 37.38% of atmosphere contamination
was made by mining company “Donskoi GOK”
(Environmental Protection Department of Aktubinsk
1999).
As you may see if the production is increasing the
quality of environment is decreasing, and the
country’s capacity is limited.
Production Quality of
Environment
Country’s capacity
To increase quality of the environment government
(usually from developed countries) puts efforts to
shift production into less developed countries
justifying them selves by cheaper labor in that
countries. However, the mining sector could not be
the country is abandoned in. That is why the
environmental problems should be solved locally or
government should regulate economically (example
could be the U.S. market of crude oil) the amount of
extraction of natural resources. Due to this reason,
the research on economical instruments to reduce
natural resources contamination became great of
importance.
State regulation of pollution decreasing in
Kazakhstan is tax based. However, this system is
inefficient in the frame of Kazakhstani economy due
to different reasons.
One of the disadvantages of tax-based approach is
inability to calculate cost of pollution. The next one
is the fact that the taxes are fixed on the government
level, that creates indifference by producers to move
production on the places where the harm from
pollution will have less impact on Environment.
Another negative reason is that the system has no
reflect on devaluation of tenge. So, the changing
exchange rate is also beneficial to producers making
pollution more profitable rather than decreasing of
pollution.
The second approach is tradable permits (Barry C.
Field 1994). This system is really good one and has
shown positive effect on decreasing of pollution in
developed countries. However, this system is time
and capital consuming and the profit could be
received in the long run.
The theory of tradable permits does not depend on
the price of pollution, the one factor, which needs to

859
be controlled is amount of pollution. The
government will control this variable and price of
permits will vary depending on the demand of these
permits by polluters. The price for these permits will
define the cost of pollution of businesses and if the
cost will be too high the company will search for
new methods for decontamination or will shut its
production. However, the implementation of
tradable permits will be just a good tool for
controlling of amount of pollution, the most
important is the strategy for issuing this permits,
which will have a positive effect on business, sector
and will decrease pollution in future.
What can be proposed in this case is just an
announcement by government the future decrease in
the number of pollution permits. This strategy will
give polluters time to adjust their business and get
ready to change their production/decontamination in
the future.
Fig. 1 - Supply and Demand curves in
tax based pollution
Let’s discuss this on the example with picture. You
can see that on the first year the government has
issued permits on 1000 tons, the price on the market
for this permits was 5000 tenge per ton of pollution.
You may see this situation on the graph. Of course
the price for permits might change and price variable
will fluctuate, we will take the average for the price.
Let’s assume that on the next year the government
decided to decrease pollution till the point 850 tons.
In this case business will change their technology
and the demand for permits will decrease, which is
resulted in the shift of the demand curve. Depending
on how much the demand curve shifts the price will
vary and will give us the ability of firms to
implement new technologies or will show the cost of
pollution. If, for example, the price of permits will
860
increase it will show us that price for pollution is too
low and businesses prefer to pollute rather than
decontaminate. It might be increasing in price
without shifting of demand curve, indicating that
there were no technology improvements, but this is
not important for us at the moment, because it also
indicates that polluters prefer to pollute rather than
clean. In this case further decrease in amount of
permits will increase cost of pollution and will make
producers to search for new ideas of
decontamination. If the price for permits will
decrease (in the Fig.2 it is 3500 tenge price) this will
indicate that demand curve has shifted by
implementation of producers new technologies.
By taking such steps toward decreasing of number
of permits we can reach desirable point in tons of
pollution in the country.
Fig. 2 - Shift in the demand curve
It is very important to keep in mind that today’s
environment is not only a country’s problem, it
becomes a global focus. That is why the government
can not “close eyes” just to stimulate production in
the country. Foreign countries should invest directly
to the specific plants and on the implementation of
specific aims, such as development and
implementation of international standards ISO
14000 or invest on implementation of tradable
permits in Kazakhstan.
However, the history has shown that the only
method to solve ecological problems is to solve
them locally. That means whenever we take any
approach of government regulation of the pollution
in the country, we should have local and personal
approach to polluter, and we should make the
polluter pay for its pollution.
2. CONCLUSION

As we may see from this article the best way to

regulate pollution in the country is to have
economical factors of regulation and have public
regulation with government control. Tradable permit
approach is relatively good, but it needs to be
regulated by the government, because people are
rational.

3. REFERENCES

Environmental Protection Department of

Aktubinsk 1999. Ecological situation in the
Republic of Kazakhstan. Ecological Bulletin. 3:
3-21.
Daukeev S.Zh. 1998. National Ecological Strategy
of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Ill International
Conference “New in the Environment and Labor
Protection”. Almaty: Prostor. p. 5-13.
Barry C. Field 1994. Environmental Economics.
U.S.A.: McGraw-Hill,Inc. 462p.

861
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The ecological rehabilitation o f the Banat-Oravita area

S. Arad & V.Arad

Petrosani University, Romania
D.Cosma
West University of Timisoara, Romania
T. luhas, A. M.Cosma, D.Cosma & D.Cocar
KM.Banat-Oravita, C.N.U Bucuresti, Romania

ABSTRACT: The paper aims to analyze the causes o f some potential ecological risks as a result of the uranif-
erous deposits exploitation mining activity in E.M.Banat, Romania as well as those related to the ceasing of
this activity. Not to be taken as a risk study, the paper identifies the risk factors and proposes the counteract­
ing adequate measures. Also we presents ways to diminish the contamination effects of the environment both
and there are not neglected the economical aspects o f the environment evaluation.

1 INTRO DU CTIO N in the zone under supervision they were between

The complex capitalization o f useful mineral sub­
stances from poor ores o f rare and radioactive metals
has been a major preoccupation for the researches
working in this domain in the context o f the deple­
tion o f high- content raw material deposits or o f their
absence as things stand in Romania.
The uranium mining from Banat- Oravita Mine
become to be exploited from 1952 and all along this
period the production has delivered, also waste
masses that from the waste dumps.
The evident advantages o f using uranium in pro­
ducing electric power are somewhat overshadowed
by some ecological aspects brought about by mining
and processing radioactive ores.
2 POLLUTIO N SOURCES
The main pollution sources o f the environment in
the Banat Oravita region are waste and poor ore
dumps as well as the waters drained from the under­
ground.
2.1 T ail lin g dum ps
The total area taken up by waste dumps is approxi­
mately 20000 square meters. The dumps from the
deposit exploitation are situated between 250- 450 m
altitude. In the waste dump area o f the Banat Coal
Bureau branch the value o f the natural gamma ftmd
varies between 0.08 and 0.12*10'^ Sv/h.. In the zone
checked up on the average values per waste dump
were comprised between 0.3 and 1.0*10 Sv/h and
0.13 and 0.3*10-^ Sv/h.
External irradiation caused by ore dumps is on 100
m^ area by 0.8- 2 *10’^Sv/h.
2.2 M in e w aters
The amount o f drained water from the underground
is maximum 1200 m^/24 h. at Ciudanovita and 2200
m^/24 h. at Dobrei Sud. These waters have an ura­
nium content comprised between 0.074 and 0.867
mg/1. and content o f Radium-226, 0.007- 0.412 Bq/1.
The places o f collecting was upstream industrial
areas, industrial areas, exit industrial areas, down­
stream industrial areas and roadways discharge.
Except mine waters as main pollution sources,
some other elements have an indirect participation to
the pollution maintenance at high values (U = 35-
200 ppb;Ra = 0.12 Bq/1)
Rainwater, washing waste and poor ore dumps
represent another pollution source.
The total effects of the pollution inside a mining pe­
rimeter are made evident especially in the water
quality (according to Romanian Standards the
maxim permissible concentration - MPC- values are;
for uranium 21 ppb and for radium 0.088 Bq/1) and
on large areas such as : small water flow and gentle
slope o f rivers; valleys with U shape; alkaline pH.
3 GEOTECHNICAL WORKS FOR
ENVIRO NM ENT REHABE^ITATION
The Banat- Oravita mining region is crossed by the
streams Natra, Lisava, Jitin and Caras. The waters of
the streams, flowing in the industrial zone are af­

863
fected by the mining of uranium in the area. Dis­
tance in meters of hydrographic net from the pollu­
tion sources is 4000- 6000 m.
The hydrografic net is several polluted with ura­
nium content of 20- 300 ppb and radium content
0.12- 0.3 Bq/1.
Diversion works consisting of a diversion tunnel
combined with downstream and upstream hydro-
technical works have been carried out in order to en­
sure the normal flow of the Lisava stream in the
waste dump zone.
These works are meant to prevent the contact
between the stream water and the material deposited
in the dumps.
In the order to hinder pollution from spreading it
is necessary to carry out the levelling and bank-
sloping of the waste dumps as well as digging
guarding trenches for collecting rain water and di­
recting it outside the waste dump perimeter.
It is necessary to undertake periodical geotechni­
cal studies on the rocks constituting the foundation
ground for dumps with a view to assessing the sta­
bility of these rocks.
Sinking water suck-up shafts is also required, as well
as grass sowing and afforestation of waste dumps.
Positioning rockfill at the base of waste dump slopes
can also increase the stability of waste dumps.
4 NECESSARY WORKS FOR PURIFICATION
OF MINE AND RAIN WATER
The treatment of water will be performed in the two
existing installations in the mine yards Ciudanovita
and Dobrei Sud. These installations ensure reducing
uranium content down to 0.6 mg U/1. This content is
much higher than the maximum level of 0.021 mg
U/1.
A module of 2000m^/ is recommended for each
site so that at the exit from the treatment installation
the water should not exceed the maximum allowable
concentration. These modules have as an object;
> To reduce the uranium and radium content;
> To recover uranium under the form of diuranati
[Na2U207 or (NH4)2U207].
The module recommended is composed of 3 col­
umns connected in series for the sorption of uranium
on on resin VIONIT AT-1. The duration of charging
a column with uranium is 3- 6 months. Eliminating
uranium is done with a solution containing 10 g/1
Na2C03 and 100 g/1 NaCl. In order to obtain Ra ^
from the mine water active coal columns are used
and they are charged with 7 to 8 pCi Ra /g.
On their exit from the installation the waters will
have a content of 0.005 mg U/1 and 2.0 pCi Ra
These concentrations are below the maximum al­
lowed level of the regulation Standard, STAS 1342-
91, respectively 0.021 mg U/1 and 2.4 pCi Ra /I.
5 CONCLUSIONS
After the observation made on the whole geochemi­
cal ensemble, the main purpose of the protection
measures consists of the limitation of the uranium
environmental dispersion using the following ways:
1. For ore and tailling dumps:
> The dumps top covering with clay;
> Fir trees may planted on the dump slopes be­
cause they have the capacity both to reinforce
the dump and especially to diminish the mobile
uranium quantity wich could contaminate the
rivers and the sediments by its sorption in the
trunk, branches and roots.
2. For mine waters
> As regards mine waters with high uranium con­
tents, they are collected and conducted to the de­
pollution stations.
The contents of natural uranium and radium 226
exceed the maximum allowable level, thus the high­
est concentrations were in the Lisava stream- on its
flowing out of the industrial area; also in the Jitin
area.
To this effect, specific measures of stream de­
pollution are required and a monitoring of the waters
in the region in order to manage to carry out the en­
vironmental protection policy for the region.
The measures taken should precede an ecological
project based an audit of an environmental study
concurrently with the outset of water, soil and air
monitoring in this region.
6 REFERENCE
Arad, V.s.a. 1998. New concept in environmental protection in
rare metal and radioactive ores exploitation. Proc. o f the
fifth International Symposium - SWEMP.. A.ABalkema,
Rotterdantpag 313- 319
Cosma D., Cocar D. Studii de ecologizare si rezultate ale
masuratorilor {\995-\999)Arhiva EM.Banat- Oravita,
Bejenaru, Gh., s.a. 1995. Experience in Research and Applica­
tion of Decontamination and Uranimn Recovery from waste
Waters in the Uranium Extraction and Processing Activity
in Romania. Proc o f International Conference, Freiberg,
Germany.
/I.
864
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Environm ental im pact characterization o f a tin m ine in the northwest

o f A rgentina

J.C. Avila & A. S. Fogliata

Tucumàn University, CONICET, Argentina

ABSTRACT: It was analized the environmental impact produced by Vil Achay tin mine placed in the sou­
theastern edge of Fiambala hill, Catamarca, Argentina. The hill belongs to Sierras Pampeanas morphostructu-
ral province. The ore, cassiterite, took place in a granitic dyke sited in amphibolites close near the boundary
with granitic intrusive of paleozoic age. The deposit has neumatolitic - hydrothermal genesis related with
greisen alteration. Stoping and Caving methods were chosen as optimum mining methods. Processing
methods include gravitational and magnetic stages. The highligth of environmental impact is related to mi­
ning subsidence and tailings management. Annual rainfall is about 200 mm. The region is sparsely populated
and the site facilitates environmental management.

1 INTRODUCTION The main population is the the city of Tinogasta-

This paper deals about geology, mining and envi­
ronmental impact characterization of a tin mine in
the northwest of Argentina.
The mine site is located in the Fiambala hill pro­
vince of Catamarca, 190 kilometers west from San
Fernando del Valle de Catamarca, capital of the
county.
2 GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS
The topography surrounding the site is quite steep
and varies from 4900 to 1800 meters in elevation.
The average elevation is 2600 m.
Hydrographic net has a dendritic design with deep
and steeply gulchs. There is no permanent current
water and the possibilities of aquifers are minimum.
Precipitation have seasonal variation. They are to­
rrential for a short period of time. The site receive an
average of 200 mm of rainfall annually. More than
70% of rain fall in summer months. Potential évapo­
transpiration grows up to almost 800 mm.
The climate of the area corresponds to "desert li­
ke" with an amount of rain below the drought limit
whith a dry season in winter, hot (mean annual tem­
perature > 18°C) and mean temperature of the war­
mest month above 22°C.
Soils are subskeletal grey and the main vegetation
is xerophyte. The fauna is represented by scarce
arthropods, birds, reptils and mammals.
with about 10000 inhabitants.
3 GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS
The deposit is located in a basement zone in the
southeastern edge of Fiambala hill that belongs to
Sierras Pampeanas morphostructural province. (Ca-
minos, 1979).
Metamorphic rocks, mostly amphibolites, of Pre-
cambrian and lower Paleozoic age are intruded by
granites of paleozoic ages.
The amphibolites are medium coarse grey rocks
with position NNW-SSE , subvertical. The intrusive
is an apophysis with general strike N-S. Have appro­
ximately seven kilometers long and 200 m width.
The rock is gray rosy, equigranular, of grain medium
size, compound mainly for orthoclase, albite, quartz
and scarce biotite and muscovite.
Mineralized structures are placed mostly in a gra­
nitic dyke sited in amphibolites, close near to the
contact with El Salto granite of paleozoic age (Avila
1982).
The dyke has NS strike and dip 50°- 60° W. Has a
width of 6 to 9 m and its outcrops extends 300 m
(Fig.l).
The color, that varies from gray rosy to reddish
intense, it is in function of to the alteration and mine-
ralizacion degree that it presents.
The texture is equigrained partly porphyritic.

865
 Shearing stress (NW-SE) produced sigmoidal
fractures and cracked the rocks between them
(Fig.2).
The ore is cassiterite which happens in three
ways: in veins forming stockworks; small euhedral
crystals disseminated in the dyke and crystals up to
10 mm of size.
Post magmatic hydrothermal fluids of high tempe­
rature produced greisenization and mineralization in
the granitic rocks of the dyke.
4 MINING METHODS
The mineralized sigmoidal lenses have a length that
varies between 15 and 20 m and a width of up to 3
m.
With the mining works it has been verified that
the dyke continues 90 meters in deep of its dip.
Taking advantage of the sharp topography the
dyke has been exploited in several levels by open
cast methods and the rate rock/mineral limits the
mine's depths. Then, underground levels were de­
veloped.
The access to the levels is by horizontal galleries
and vertical chimneys.
Sloping and caving methods are mostly developed
which in some cases face difficulties with hanging
wall.
5 MINERAL PROCESSING
The mined mineral is taken in trucks to the treatment
plant located in the outskirts of the city of Tinogasta.
Conventional plant includes jaws crusher, balls
mill, shaking table and intense field magnetic sepa­
rator.
Due to the medium size of the ore the mineral is
milled up to 50 mesh.
Cassiterite is recovered by gravitational methods
and magnetite is separated by magnetic methods.
6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT - DISCUSSION
This point deals about the environmental impact of
the different stages of mining activity following cha­
racterization and valuation concepts proposed by the
Instituto Tecnológico Geominero de España (1989),
Marcus (1996) and Owen Harrop & Ashley Nixon
(1999).
It has been analized the following characters: be­
neficial / adverse, direct / indirect, temporal / perma­
nent, localized / extensive, near / far (from the sour­
ce), reversible / irreversible and recoverable /
unrecoverable.
868
6.1 Landscape impact
Because of the mine is placed in the medium height
of the hill, is not observed from the routes. Conse­
quently, the remote visual impact is null.
The closer visual impact is delimitated to distance
less than 300 meters because of the topography
steep. Colors contrast represents the principal im­
pact. In some cases the sky-line is affected.
Characteristics: adverse - direct - permanent -
extensive - near the source - irreversible - recovera­
ble.
Valuation: compatible.
6.2 Atmosphere impact
Dust emission fixed sources are located in open pit
mining and crushing sectors.
Gaseous emission fixed sources are located in
compressors and diesel- fired electric generators.
Dust and gaseous mobile sources are those equi­
pment that charge and transport the ore from the mi­
nes to the plant.
As village is far away to west and the winds have
directions N-S, this impact is minimum.
Characteristics: adverse - direct - temporal - ex­
tensive - near the source - reversible - recoverable.
Valuation: compatible.
6.3 Biota Impact
Flora and fauna, as mentioned, are scarce in species
diversity as in number of individuals.
They are affected where surficial mining is deve­
loped but generally fauna has not been affected be­
cause there are neither air and water pollutants nor
loss of terrestrial habitats.
Characteristics: adverse - direct - permanent - lo­
calized - near the source - reversible - recoverable.
Valuation: compatible.
6.4 Noise and vibrations impact
It is delimitated to open cast mining. As the village is
far away to the west and winds have directions N-S,
this impact is minimum.
Characteristics: adverse - direct - temporal - lo­
calized - near the source - reversible - recoverable.
Valuation: compatible.
6.5 Water impact
There are no aquifers in the hill and overland flows
are no permanent according with low precipitations.
Furthermore, m ining and treatment m ethods not cau­
se any pollution in water.
In the place were tails where disposed are no risks
o f overflow s o f water. A lso, due to the m ineralogical
characteristic o f the tails, the possibilities o f genera­
tion o f acid drainage is minimum.
Characteristics: adverse - direct - permanent - lo ­
calized - near the source - reversible - recoverable.
Valuation: com patible.
Instituto Tecnológico Geominero de España 1989. Ma­
nual de restauración de Terrenos y Evaluación de Im­
pactos Ambientales en Minería. Madrid.
Marcus, J.J. (Editor), 1996. Mining Environmental Han­
dbook: Effects o f Mining on the Environment and Ame­
rican Environmental Controls on Mining. Publihed by
Imperial College Press, Imperial College, London.
Owen Harrop, D. & J. A shley N ixon 1999. Environmen­
tal Assessment in Practice. London: Routledge.

6.6 M ining subsidence

The dyke is m ined by surficial and underground

methods.
In those sectors were underground methods are
applied, m ining subsidence is scarcely developed
due to geotechnical characteristics o f rocks. (D ow n
& Stocks 1978).
Characteristics: adverse - direct - permanent - lo­
calized - near the source - irreversible - unrecovera­
ble.
Valuation: com patible.

7 C O NC LUSIO N S

M ain conclusions are:

V il Achay tin m ine sited in the Northwest o f Ar­
gentina, produces com patible impact in Landscape,
Atmosphere, Biota, Water, by N o ise and Vibrations,
and by Subsidence
A w hole valuation o f the m ines show s that the
balance betw een Environmental Impact and D ev elo ­
pment has positive results for the region where the
mine is placed.

A C K N O W LED G EM ENTS.

The authors w ould like to express their gratitude to

the Investigation Council o f the Tucuman University
and the National Investigation Council (CONICET)
for the support in the realization o f the present work.

REFERENCES

Avila, J.C. 1982. Estructura y mineralización del yaci­

miento de estaño V il Achay, provincia de Catamarca,
Argentina. Quinto Congreso Latinoamericano de
Geología I I 633-651. Buenos Aires
Caminos, R. 1979. Sierras Pampeanas Noroccidentales,
Salta, Tucumán, Catamarca, La Rioja y San Juan.
Proc. II Simp, de Geología Argentina. Academia Na­
cional de Ciencias I I 225-251.
Down, C.G. & J. Stocks 1978. Environmental impact o f
Mining. London: Applied Sciences Publishers Ltd.

869
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 178 3

M ine planning and closure issues in the 21st Century

Sukumar Bandopadhyay
University o f Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska, USA
Edmond C. Packee Jr
Travis ¡Peterson Environmental Consulting Incorporated, Fairbanks, Alaska, USA

ABSTRACT: Mining faces distinctive challenges in the future. The concept of closure and decommissioning
now involves the entire mining industry. As a consequence, it is essential to recognize in the mine planning
process that a commitment to mitigating the environmental effects of a project is a fiindamental component,
and a closure plan is an important aspect of the mining project. Mining companies must be committed to seek­
ing out the cleanest, most environmentally sound mining techniques. Environmental concerns include liability
considerations about existing and closed operations, the need for quantification of measures to achieve com­
pliance, and closure plans. New and evolving environmental protection expectations will present a significant
cost to the industry to achieve the economic and environmentally satisfactory closure of these sites. Legisla­
tion mandating long-term liability forces mine owners to consider the post-closure environmental impacts of
mining. These stipulations impose retroactive liability to mine owner in the Unites States. Mining companies
now must investigate three aspects of closure planning: the indicative mine closure plan, its predictive im­
pacts, and the implementation cost for bonding. Mine closure is not simply a phase of the mining cycle but is
inextricably linked to environmental liability.

1 INTRODUCTION lending institutions as well. In order to protect all en­

Experience in the last century has shown that envi­
ronmental standards have risen steadily. Changing
conditions, such as higher production from fewer
mines, increasing depth of workings, the extraction
of lower grade deposits, increasing costs in heap
leach pile detoxification and rinsing, tailings dam
closure, growing recognition of the health and
safety, and environmental aspects, have had a pro­
found influence on the planning and design of
mines.
As a truly global industry and one with unenvi­
able reputation in many circles, mining faces distinc­
tive challenges in the future.. Industry and govern­
ments all over the world is now focusing on
thorough and reliable assessments of these impacts,
as well as identification and evaluation of possible
response, all in the context of widely differing social
and economic settings. In the U.S., in addition to the
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of
1977 (SMCRA), mine owners and operators are
faced with a myriad of environmental laws and regu­
lations with consequences which can reach far be­
yond those imposed by SMCRA. The civil and
criminal enforcement actions mandated in those laws
compel owners and operators to be accountable for
the preservation of the environmental impacts of
these conditions could become the responsibility of
tities involved, it is important that mine planners
maintain a thorough understanding of the environ­
mental issues, the adequacy of their plan relative to
current laws, and the ramifications of pending laws
and regulations.
2 CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Land damages that cited against surface mining
are mainly due to the destruction of surface topogra­
phies and of soil conditions that existed before min­
ing commenced. Often, this potential productivity of
the soil for plant growth is greatly reduced after min­
ing. Soils that are disrupted by these operations are
often chemically active, and toxic, thereby becoming
a source for water pollution. Also, if the overburden
is a massive rock formation, huge blocks of rock oc­
cur in the graded spoil which makes it difficult for
the smooth passage of farm machinery. Much larger
areas are also affected by the unconsolidated spoil
heaps and voids because these conditions affect
drainage patterns. Here, the natural processes of ero­
sion and sedimentation are accelerated, moving large
volumes of soil into receiving streams.
The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
of 1977 (Public Law 95-87, 95* Congress) repre­
sents a significant effort on the part of the Federal

871
Government to establish a nationwide program to
protect society and the environment from the adverse
effects of surface mining operations.
The Act of 1977 requires that reclamation plans
must include the following:
- historical and existing land use;
- capability of land to support a variety of uses be­
fore and after mining;
- proposed use of land after reclamation, and
- relationship of proposed use to existing land use
policies.
In addition, compliance is also required with those
regulations that are generally separate (non-SMCRA)
from compliance with mine permit requirements.
These regulations are commonly mandated by State
and Federal environmental protection agencies and
are usually enforced separately from SMCRA ( Han­
lon, 1995) :
- Clean Water act (CWA)
- Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA)
- Comprehensive Environmental Response,
- Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)
- Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA)
- Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
- Clean Air Act (CAA)
The regulatory framework under which industry is
mandated gets more complicated everyday. EPA,
OSM, and the State mining agencies have increased
scrutiny of all facets of mining and processing opera­
tions to the point that mining companies can no
longer react in passive manner (Marcus, 1990). As a
capital-intensive industry, mining cannot tolerate
much political risk and must, therefore, conduct its
operations in a socially responsive manner.
In the non-coal mining sector, principally gold,
and base-metal sulfides, mining activities, compris­
ing the mining and milling of ores to produce con­
centrate, disturb the environment in several ways.
Tailings disposal may contaminate water with toxic
substances and acid mine water and tailings water
affect the pH of receiving watercourses. Tailing
dams are potentially dangerous structures. Water
pollution is the single most important type of envi­
ronmental damage caused by mining activities. Due
to serious water pollution concerns, a combination
new forces of public, special interest groups, and
government, is creating a competitive environment
that threatens the viability of a prospective mine. An
increasingly litigious and adversarial climate ob­
structive to development mandate the search for
ways to anticipate, mitigate, and resolve environ­
mental conflicts in order to facilitate appropriate and
environmentally sound economic development. En­
vironmentalists are interested in any mining activity
that will cause change to the natural environment.
The most common environmental concern is the po­
872
tential impact to water quality. However, the
destruction of habitats directly by removal of ore and
waste rock, or through the placement of tailings and
waste rock, are also a common concern.
Planning and regulatory authorities now insist that
far greater attention be paid to the likely effects of
mine closure; the program for mine decommission­
ing, site rehabilitation and restoration now forms an
integral part of the permit application. There are
other reasons that justify the application of a closure
plan. First, planning for closure during all stages of
mining operation results in a large cost saving. Sec­
ond, the regulatory environment now requires a clo­
sure plan, and third, legislation mandating long-term
liability forces mine owners to consider the post­
closure environmental impacts of mining. These
stipulations impose retroactive liability to mine
owner in the Unites States ( Lima and Wathem,
1999). The environmental implications must be fully
considered in the environmental impact assessment
(EIA) and described in the environmental impact
statement. If the consequences of a mining develop­
ment can be foreseen at the planning and design
stages, any detrimental effects can be minimized at
the outset (Ricks, 1995).
It is thus essential that mine planners recognize
that a commitment to mitigating the environmental
effects of a project is a fundamental component. In
general, the mines that would draw the attention of
the environmental community are the large projects
that involve the processing and long term storage of
hundreds of millions of tons of ore, tailings, and
waste rocks. These large scale, low grade ore opera­
tions, which have become the preferred method to
extract both precious and base metals in the last 50
or so years, represent a significant departure in the
magnitude in their physical effects, and in the
knowledge about the resource itself and the potential
resources that could be affected, from the pick and
shovel mining of previous century.
3 PLANNING FOR MINE CLOSURE
A closure plan is an important aspect of a mining
project. This implies that closure issues should be
incorporated into the EIA process at the earliest pos­
sible stage. In the past, many mining companies have
approached mine closure as a casual event. Gener­
ally, the main goal of the closure plan is to determine
the optimum method of operating and rehabilitating
a mine site. Environmental concerns include liability
considerations about existing and closed operations,
the need for quantification of measures to achieve
compliance, and closure plans. “Closure is defined
as the activity of a mining company related to the
shutdown and reclamation of mining projects in a
cost-effective manner” (Licari, 1997). Closure in­
volves the removal of structures and buildings, and
other infrastructure, and initiation of reclamation on
the yet unreclaimed portions of the mine (Taggart
and Kieth, 1997). In the closure and post-closure
Phase, structures are removed and ground surfaces
are recontoured and revegetated. Underground
mines may be plugged and other measures for the
control of acid mine drainage are initiated (Murray,
1997).
Table 1. Issues to be covered in mine closure plan.
End o f processing, deposition, or use;
Drain-down, treatment, and release of process water;
Construction of containment structures;
Plugging of drill holes, adits, or drifts;
Detoxification o f process equipment;
Machinery salvage;
Removal o f buildings, pipelines, and structures; and
Final reclamation and revegetation.
A closure plan must consider long-term physical
and chemical stability and land issues associated
with the components left behind at the project site
because of mining and mineral processing opera­
tions. A closure plan must identify a variety of data
with respect to the mine and the environment, par­
ticularly as these relate to the mining areas that will
require decommissioning. Some of the issues to be
covered in a closure plan are listed in Table 1.
4 LONG-TERM ENVIRONMENTAL LIABILITY
& CLOSURE
Ideally, every mining company wishes to move on
once the job of decommissioning, cleansing and re­
habilitation of the mine site is complete. However, it
is becoming clear that the mining industry is ex­
pected to do a great deal more in terms of long term
monitoring, measurement and reporting of perform­
ance. Today, many permits for mining require 30 to
40 years of active participation in post-closure moni­
toring and follow up actions. The time required to
complete this work varies widely from site to site.
However, the question as to when works are com­
pleted creates a great deal of uncertainty (Lima and
Wathem, 1999) and creates conflict of interests.
Closure represents a discrete point in time. Be­
cause economically viable mineral deposits are fi­
nite, all mines will eventually cease extraction and
close. This perception is implicit in the expectation
that closure is merely a formality for mines, assum­
ing that proper environmental control was exercised
during operations (Greef,1993; Anon 1993 (a)). The
assum ption or expectation that mine closure re­
leases the ow ner from long-term environmental
liability is inconsistent w ith the ' polluter-pays-
principle'. Com m enting on the closure of a
mine near Faro, Yukon Territory, White (1996)
states that:
873
"Closure is not an open and shut case. It is a
process of reconciliation for, at any point in
tim e, [m ining] costs that may represent the
price of past failures that were not seen [as fa il­
ures] at the tim e. W hite's observation intro­
duces tw o fundam ental issues that must be ad­
dressed prior to perm anent closure. First, mine
owners w ill be held financially accountable for
the failures of environm ental management dur­
ing operations regardless of cause. Second,
mine closure is not sim ply a phase of the m in­
ing cycle but is inextricably linked to environ­
mental liab ility.
The 'polluter-pays-principle' introduces the
concept of site responsibility follow ing perma­
nent closure. Legislated liabilities and eco­
nomic necessities compel mine owners to re­
consider the conventional view of closure.
The liab ility issue at, and follow ing closure, is
not unique. In fact legislated long-term liab ility
is commonplace for m ineral producing nations.
The regulatory environm ent defines the con­
straints placed on mines follow ing closure. Per­
tinent constraints include long-term liab ility
provisions, scope of liab ility, and the duration
of liab ility. The follow ing section contains se­
lected examples of long-term liab ility provi­
sions in the United States of America.
The Comprehensive Environm ental Re­
sponse, Compensation, and Liability Act of
1980 (CERCLA) is the most notorious environ­
m ental liab ility statute in the w orld. CERCLA
and subsequent amendments, commonly re­
ferred to as Superfund, were enacted to force
potentially responsible parties (PRPs) that
cause or have caused contam ination of soil, air,
or w ater to pay for clean-up efforts. CERCLA
establishes strict lia b ility for the site, which
means that no evidence of wrongdoing is nec­
essary for enforcement action against PRPs. In
general, the governm ent, acting through the
Environm ental Protection Agency (EPA), estab­
lishes a 'joint and several lia b ility ' claim against
one or more of the PRPs. 'Joint and several'
means that any one of the PRPs is responsible
for the costs of clean up. It is then up to the af­
fected PRP to seek reimbursement from other
PRPs through legal action. This statute ap­
plies to all industrial facilities that generate
hazardous wastes, including m ining operations
(Cowan, 1997). According to Cowan (1997)
typical m ining problems that result in CERCLA
enforcement include:
- Acid mine drainage;
- Trace metal releases from tailings impoundments;
- Contaminated soils; and
- Radioactive mine wastes.
 CERCLA enforcement action in the United
States is not limited to historical operations. In
a study of mine sites on the N ational Priorities
List (NPL) H ousm an and Hoffman (1992) found
that of the 52 mine sites listed, 12 were active.
In their estim ation only half of the 52 sites rep­
resented "historical m ining practices'. It is im­
portant to bear in m ind that these 52 sites are
estim ated to cost the U.S. m ining industry 21
billion dollars in clean-up costs. These costs do
not include the costs of legal action (Housman
and Hoffman, 1992). Indeed, legal costs in the
form of class-action lawsuits may dw arf the ac­
tual expenditure for site clean-up (Kumamoto
and Henley, 1996). Thus, in the United States of
America a m ine site is never closed from a li­
ability standpoint.
To indicate potential impacts all aspects of mine
closure are interfaced with principal resources sus­
ceptible to impact, while identifying the respective
emissions and effects by which impacts are pro­
duced. These are appropriately addressed by an en­
vironmental risk assessment. A risk assessment
quantifies the perceived risk posed to defined “re­
ceptors” by a proposed action. A risk assessment
normally consists of four distinct steps:
- hazard identification
- exposure assessment
- toxicity assessment (receptor dose-response)
- risk characterization
Hazard identification involves the characteriza­
tion of potential contaminants, their relative mobil­
ity, and relative toxicity and identifies target con­
taminants of concern. The exposure assessment
consists of a conceptual model of contaminant fate
and transport, and modeling of potential exposure
for a specific event. The toxicity assessment identi­
fies the dosage of target contaminants at a point of
exposure to potential receptors and compares this
exposure to known toxicological information. Fi­
nally, the risk characterization summarizes the over­
all environmental risk. Toxicity management is by
no means unique to the mining industry. For the
mining industry, however, the issue of toxicity man­
agement and associated decision making is more
complex than many other product industries. Much
remains to be learned about the movement of metals
through the environment and their possible short and
long-term effects at various concentrations. Absolute
elimination of risk may not only be difficult to de­
fine in the case of metal species but would also
prove prohibitively expensive. Finding the accept­
able balance through risk assessment requires under­
standing, not only by those in the industry, but those
influence society’s decision through the media.
874
5 MINE CLOSURE PLAN IN A SELECTED
MINE
In many respects the mine closure objectives of the
industry today are not unlike those of the regulatory
agencies. Mine operators need to eliminate future li­
abilities where possible in order to obtain a release
from plaiming and discharge permit conditions, so
that their interests in the site can be disposed of
quickly. Investors are asking companies to provide
evidence that environmental requirements will be
met. Publicly traded companies are being asked to
disclose the total environmental liabilities to share­
holders. In the following, the mine reclamation and
tailing impoundment approaches at the Fort Knox
Mine, Alaska are briefly presented here to illustrate
how important closure issues could be incorporated
in the EIA process very early in the mining cycle and
how they are being managed during the production
stage.. A more detailed description of the closure
plan and approaches used at Fort Knox Mine can be
found elsewhere (Anon, 1993 (b)).
The Fort Knox Mine is located 15 air miles north­
east of Fairbanks in the Fish Creek drainage. The
mine is located entirely on state (6830 acres) and pri­
vate (781 acres) land. The mine is designed on a
deposit of 200 million tons of ore, which is being
mined at a rate of 35,000 to 50,000 tons per day.
Standard drilling and blasting techniques are used to
break the ore. Ore is drilled using blast hole drills
and loaded using 23-cubic yard front shovels. A 23-
yard front end wheel loader is used for supplemental
primary loading . The front end loader also functions
as backup when a shovel is down for service or re­
pair. The ore is removed from the pit by 150-ton
haul trucks and dumped into a gyratory crusher. The
Fort Knox mine anticipates mining 365 days per
year, however, the mining is scheduled to meet
yearly mill throughput of 13.14 million tons of ore in
350 operating days should inclement weather force
temporary suspensions in mining. The production
schedule calls for three shifts to mine an average of
81000 combined tons of ore and waste per day,
seven days per week. The pit bench height of 30 feet
was based upon production, grade control, and geo­
technical considerations. Permafrost is shallow and
sporadic in the mine area. The first bench is laid
back at 1:33 H:1V. Overall pit wall slopes vary from
42 to 45 degrees, depending on rock competency.
As currently envisioned, the crest of the south high-
wall will be at 2100 feet elevation and the pit bottom
will be at 910 feet elevation, for a total of 1200 feet
elevation change from top of the high-wall to the
bottom of the pit. The final pit will occupy approxi­
mately 265 acres with overall dimensions of 5200
feet east-west by 2600 feet north-south. The mine
life is estimated at 16 years, possibly longer if addi­
tional ore is delineated (Anon, 1997).
 lir
ffi -------------H 1
\n

OOuiCTICWliftU

F ig u r e 1: A V ie w o f F o r t K n o x M in e
F ig u r e 2: F o r t K n o x M in e W a ter F lo w S c h e m a tic (A n o n , 1 9 9 7 )

To the extent possible, rock and materials from other

disturbed areas on the site are used as borrow or fill 6 RECLAMATION PLAN
materials in construction of project facilities. Only
unusable or excess rock is placed in rock dumps. Fort Knox mine’s long-term goal of reclamation dur­
Rock dump slopes are angle of repose during use ing and after mining and milling operations are to
and will be contoured to 2.5:1 during reclamation. shape, stabilize, revegetate or otherwise treat the
The gold ore, as part of the beneficiation proce­ land in order to return it to a safe and stable condi­
dures, is crushed, then ground, and processed as a tion consistent with the establishment of productive
slurry in a mill adjacent to the mine. The gold is ex­ post-mining uses of land. The present designated
tracted in tanks containing a cyanide solution that post-mining uses for the Fort Knox mine area are for
dissolve the gold. Next, the gold is captured by acti­ wildlife habitat and recreation. The mine will incor­
vated carbon, then striped from the carbon and re­ porate practices which includes contouring and sta­
covered from solution by electrolysis. The concen­ bilizing disturbed areas using best engineering prac­
tration of the cyanide in the remaining slurry is tices, creating seed beds which invite and promote
detoxified in tanks before the tailings are released to early serial colonization, and using commercially
the tailing pond. The tailings are piped to, and de­ available native plant species, if available, and soil
posited in, a 1,147-acre impoundment in the Fish amendments with proven track records. The mine
Creek Valley. The tailings dam is an earth-filled considers reclamation to be a progressive process di­
structure designed to hold all process water from the rectly tied to the design, construction, operation, and
mill, as well as surface runoff water. The dam is a closure of mining operation.
conventional gravity structure built using rock from
the pit as the primary source of construction materi­
als. The structure is designed for zero discharge and
will be raised on a yearly basis to a final vertical
height of 330 feet. The dam is designed and main­
tained to contain the 100-year, 24-hour strom event
in addition to the average 30-day spring breakup.
The water in the impoundment will contain lar­
ger levels of certain contaminants (above drinking
and/or aquatic water standards). Contaminant levels
will be maintained below toxic levels for avian and
terrestial wildlife species. Impoundment water is not
discharged, however, it will be recycled to the mill
for reuse in the beneficiation process of the gold ore.
A seepage control system consisting of a sump at the
toe of the dam with three interceptor wells a short
distance downstream ensures zero discharge. This F ig u r e 3 : P r o g r e s s iv e R e c la m a tio n a t F o r t K n o x M in e
system collects seepage and pumps it back to the
tailing pond.

875
7 TAILING IM POU ND M ENT
Once the tailing disposal is complete, active recla­
mation of the pond area to wildlife habitat will be­
gin. Initial tailing dam design has integrated opera­
tional and closure requirements so at retirement no
major modifications to the facility will be required.
The seepage collection/drainage system has been de­
signed as both a method of recycling water to the
mill and for treating the process water in the tailing
pond. All process solution liberated from tailing
mass will be pumped back to the tailing pond for re­
cycle to the mill as make-up water. After operations
have ceased, seepage water and decant water will be
treated until Federal and State water quality stan­
dards are met. After it is determined that seepage
water and residual tailing decant water met water
quality standards, these waters will be allowed to
flow down the valley through the wetlands to the
water supply reservoir. In addition, a trust has been
created, which will be funded by Fort Knox mine
and agreed by the State to maintain the dam and dam
breach at the abutment and drainage to the stilling
basin.
Figure 4: Tailing Impoundment Dam
The recognition that reclamation is a progressive,
long-term process, and planning for reclamation dur­
ing conceptual design of the mine has been of sig­
nificant importance to the mine’s success. The ex­
ample from Fort Knox mines demonstrates the
ability and the willingness of the industry to generate
potentially cost-effective and zero-discharge solu­
tions to the environmental problems.
876
8 CONCLUSIONS
In the past, where post-closure planning require­
ments have been minimal or did not exist, some
companies have avoided their obligations for site
clean up by manipulation of ownership and liabili­
ties to other companies. This is unlikely to be suc­
cessful nowadays. Today most countries require the
approval of reclamation and closure plans prior to is­
suing a mining permit. Environmental concerns in­
clude liability considerations about existing and
closed operations, the need for quantification of
measures to achieve compliance, and closure plans.
Mining companies now must investigate three as­
pects of closure planning: the indicative mine clo­
sure plan and its predictive impacts, and the imple­
mentation cost for bonding. Closure and reclamation
plans are, however, often developed to the extent re­
quired by permits and rarely developed beyond the
conceptual level prior to the onset of mine closure.
In many respects the mine closure objectives of
the industry today are not unlike those of the regula­
tory agencies. Mine operators need to eliminate fu­
ture liabilities where possible in order to obtain a re­
lease from planning and discharge permit conditions,
so that their interests in the site can be disposed of
quickly. Investors are asking companies to provide
evidence that environmental requirements will be
met. Publicly traded companies are being asked to
disclose the total environmental liabilities to share­
holders. Mine closure is not simply a phase of the
mining cycle but is inextricably linked to environ­
mental liability.
Many of the environmental problems associated
with mining are manageable, and are being managed
with state-of-the-art technology and on the basis of
today’s scientific knowledge. The necessity to pre­
pare reclamation and closure plans early can not be
over emphasized. Closure plan provides methods
and techniques for rehabilitation of areas impacted
by mining. The best way to create a successful mine
closure is to undertake it progressively during min­
ing operation. Contemporaneous reclamation, for
example, will provide valuable information for ulti­
mate reclamation success. The period of closure
planning prior to cessation of mining will allow the
provisional closure plan included in the EIS and re­
fined taking into account any changes in the circum­
stances which have been observed during the pro­
duction phase of the mining operation.
9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Permission from Fort Knox mine to use their closure
plans as an example is gratefully acknowledged. The
Fort BCnox Photographs are from the personal collec­
tions of Dr. T.E. Wilson, and his permission to use
these photographs in this paper is also gratefully ac­
knowledged.
REFERENCES
Hanlon, J.B., Systematic Approaches for Conduction of a
Phase I Environmental Audit Utilizing Case History Exam­
ples, SME Pre-print #95 110, Denver, 1995.
White, A.M.S. 1996. Closure: An Open and Shut Case? Is It
that Simple? Proceedings of the Insight Conference: Mine
Closure Plans and Liability Issues. Insight I^ess, Toronto,
Ontario, pp 141-153.

Anon. 1997 (a). Discussion Paper Mine Closure: Towards a

Strategy for the Australian Minerals Industry. Minerals
Council o f Australia, Dickson, Australia.

Anon. 1997 (b). Fort Knox Project Reclamation Plan, Submit­

ted to Alaska DNR, Fairbanks, AK., and U.S. Army Corps
o f Engineers, AK District, Anchorage, AK.

Anon. 1997. Project Description for the Fort Knox Mine, Fair­
banks Gold Mining, Inc. Fairbanks, Alaska 99707., PP. 45

Cowan, J. 1997. The Environmental Response, Compensation

and Liability Act. Mining Environmental Handbook. Ed
J.J. Marcus, Imperial College Press, San Mateo, California,
pp 73-78.

Greef, R.I. 1994. The Environmental Management Programme

Route to Integrated Environmental Management: A South
African Mining Industry Perspective. Proceedings of the
International Land Reclamation and Acid Mine Drainage
Conference and Third International Conference on the
Abatement of Acidic Drainage. Ed NTIS, United States Bu­
reau o f Mines Special Publication SP06A-94, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, pp 269-21A.

Housman, V.E. and Hoffman, S.D. 1992. Mining Sites on

Superfund’s National Priorities List - Past and Current
Mining Practices. Risk Assessment/Management Issues in
the Environmental planning o f Mines. Ed D. Van Zyl, M.
Koval, and T.M. Li, Society for Mining, metallurgy, and
Exploration, Inc., Littleton, Colorado, pp 55-62.

Kumamoto, H. and Henley, E.J. \996. Probabilistic Risk As­

sessment and Management for Engineers and Scientists.
IEEE Press, New York, New York.

Licari, 1997. Closure and Post-Closure Requirements. Min­

ing Environmental Handbook. Ed J.J. Marcus, Imperial
College Press, San Mateo, California, pp 388.

Lima, H. M. and Wathem, P. 1999, Mine Closure: a Concep­

tual Review, Mining Engineering, November, PP. 41-45.

Marcus, J., 1990, Mining Environment -- Regulatory Control o f

Mining at the Federal Level, Part I, Engineering and Mining
Journal, June, pp. 16W-16B.

Murray, 1997. Economic Impact o f Current Environmental

Regulations on Mining. Mining Environmental Handbook.
Ed J.J. Marcus, Imperial College Press, San Mateo, Cali­
fornia, pp 630-641.

Ricks, G., 1995, Planning for Closure, World Mining Equip­

ment, December, pp. 62-64.

Taggart and Kieth, 1997. Aesthetics. Mining Environmental

Handbook Ed J.J. Marcus, Imperial College Press, San
Mateo, California, pp 174-178.

877
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

N oise o f belt conveyors

W. Bartelmus & W. Sawicki

Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland

ABSTRACT: The paper deals with noise cause o f belt conveyors. Up to date methods as mathematical mod­
eling and computer simulation, modal analysis on real object, narrow bend noise analysis, coherence function
were used for noise identification.

1 INTRO DU CTIO N sented paper the nature o f noise generated by con­

veyors is presented and the measures for noise re­
Noise generated by belt conveyors is the concern duction are suggested.
o f producers and customers. It has big influence to Noise o f a belt conveyor may be given by its leval
an open mine environment. Level o f noise generated
by belt conveyors is a quality parameter o f belt con­ L=201ogio(p/po) dB ( 1)
veyors. Nature o f the noise is very complicated. The
generated noise by a belt conveyor depends o f its where p = acoustic pressure; po = acoustic pressure
design and operation. Talking more strictly one can o f lower threshold hearing. For noise analysis a
distinguish four groups o f factors which have influ­ spectrum of noise is used. An example o f a noise
ence to noise generated by a belt conveyor (Bartel­ spectrum is given in Figure 1.
mus & Nosowicz 1979, Bartelmus 1992). For noise
studying different tools are taken like mathematical
modelling and computer simulations, (Bartelmus 2 NOISE SPECTRUM
1996a, 1997, 1998) filed measurements and labora­
tory measurements. Lumped parameter model for a In Figure 11/3 octave bend noise is given. Talk­
conveyor section is taken into consideration (Bar­ ing more strictly two spectrums are given one taken
telmus 1996a, 1997, 1998). Mathematical model from distance o f Im and second taken from the dis­
and computer simulation gives some background to tance o f 3 m. The influence of distance is seen. For
vibration and noise generated by a belt conveyor. noise cause analysis narrow bend spectrum is used
Narrow band frequency spectrum analysis for vibra­ as it is given in Figure 2.
tion and noise is made. The frequency analysis
shows big influence o f idlers to the noise generated
by belt conveyors. For studying the vibration and
noise o f idlers a special laboratory rig is designed
(Bartelmus and others 1999). Modal analysis
(Zaveri 1985) is used for determination dynamic
properties o f idlers/rig. Modes o f vibration are de­
termined. Influence o f idlers condition change to vi­
bration generated by idles is presented. Idlers in bad
condition cause increase o f vibration in natural
components (Bartelmus & others 1999a & b) of
idlers and a supporting structure. Study on idlers
quality is given. Idlers with a plastics shell (Bartel­
mus & Sawicki 1999b) show very good properties
in comparing to idlers with steel shells taking into
consideration dynamic properties and connected Figure 1. One third cx;tave bend noise for belt conveyor from
with it vibration and noise generated. So in the pre­ 1 m distance and 3 m distance.

879
Figure 2 shows low level noise for spectrum com­
ponents for frequency higher than 3 kHz. In Figure
4 there is given the noise spectrum for scope o f fre­
quencies from 0 - 3 . 2 kHz. The cutting o f higher
frequencies gives the reduction o f total level of
noise 0.4 dB. It shows that the higher components
do not have considerable influence to total level of
noise.
Figure 3.Abriviated narrow bend spectrum of belt conveyor
There is a need for noise component identification.
A belt conveyor consists o f idlers/rollers, frames
which support the rollers a belt and idler joints
which joins rollers to frames and rollers. These con­
veyor components in operation make noise. The
problem is which conveyor component is responsi­
ble for noise generation for given by spectrum com­
ponents. Gives the rise o f noise spectrum compo­
nent or components. For component identification
different techniques may be used: mathematical
modeling and computer simulation, modal analysis
o f real object, identification given by coherence
function between vibration components and noise
components.
880
3 M A THEM A TICA L M O DELING AND
COMPUTER SIM ULATIO N
Mathematical for conveyor section vibration is given
in (Bartelmus & others. 1996 and 1998). Here are
given results of computer simulations in the form of
spectrums Figures 4 - 7 . Figures give spectrums o f
vertical vibration. Figure 4 gives a spectrum o f vi­
bration o f loaded belt in its center between idlers.
Figure 5. gives a spectrum o f frame vibration in
point o f idler support in loaded part of a belt. Figure
6. gives vibration of frame vibration in point of
lower idler support. Figure 7 vibration spectrum of
belt in no loaded part by coveyed mass.
Figure 4. Vibration spectrum of loaded belt in its center
between idlers.
ylO
support
The Figures 4 to 7 gives the nature of a low fre­
quency vibration of a belt conveyor. In vibration
spectrums one can identify 10 Hz component witch
is caused by idler rotation. Components of 2.5 Hz
and 5 Hz are identified as vibration o f belt. Compo­
nents of 48 Hz and 33 Hz are frequencies which are
identified as vibration at points o f idlers supports. In
Figure 3 we see that in a noise spectrum there are
higher frequency components and they has to be
identified. For identification o f the components mo­
dal analysis is used.
 y26

Figure 6 Vibration spectrum of frame in point of lower idler Frequency Damping

Mod
support [H z] [%]
y30 1 667,8 0,33
2 686,0 0,32
3 1382,5 0,26
4 1409,3 0,55
5 1563,1 0,20
6 1593,5 0,19
7 1684,3 0,41
8 2296,3 0,21
9 2567,2 0,10
10 2700,1 0,20
11 2739,5 0,15
12 2786,5 0,18
4 M O DAL ANALISIS 13 3052,8 0,18
14 3100,9 0,12
Modal analysis ( Zaveri 1 9 8 5 Star System) is the
15 3116,5 0,11
process o f characterizing the dynamic properties of
elastic structure in terms o f its modes of vibration. A
mode o f vibration is a “ global” property of struc­ Table 1 Model frequencies
ture. A mode is the manifestation o f energy trapped
within the boundaries o f a structure that can’t be
readily dissipated. As this energy travels back and
forth within the structure, it cause the structure to
deform with various well defined wave -like motion,
called “ mode shapes” . These modes shapes occur
at various natural frequencies o f vibration and also
will “ decay “ in amplitude, i..e, become damped
out, if e if all external sources o f energy are re­
moved fi*om the structure. Each mode o f vibration is
defined, then, by a specific natural frequency,
damping factor (or damping ratio) and a mode
shape. These modal parameters can be determined
from a set o f frequency response fijnction (FRF)
measurements, acquired by exciting the structure
and measuring its responses at various points across
its surface. These FRF measurements are obtained
by using multi-channel Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) analyzer. The result o f (FRF) for an idler is
given in Figure 8. Modal fi'equencies are given in
Table 1 . In Table 1 we see very little values of
damping ratios. As was mentioned every mode of
Figure 10. Mode shape for 2939 Hz
vibration is characterized by its shape, it is given for
two modal fi’equencies in Figures 9 and 1 0 .

881
 5 R IG IN V S TIG A TIO N S
Rig investigations o f an idlers properties were
done on the rig given in Figure 11.
Figure. 11 Rig for idler investigation o f idler dynamic prop­
erties
The investigations presented in (Bartelmus 1999a and
1999b) show that vibration components generated
during operation of an idler can be divided as rotation
dependent and rotation independent. Figure 12 and
13. The investigations were done at condition of sys­
tem deceleration and at condition o f constant rated
rotation. The frequencies o f rotation independent
components of a spectrum can be examined by im­
pulse excitation as it is given above. The causes o f the
rotation dependent components are unbalance,
change o f stiffiiess caused by change of number of
balls taking a part in a force carried by idler bearings,
deviation o f roundness o f an idler shell shape, devia­
tion of bearing rings roundness, deviation of centre of
an idler rotation from geometrical centre of an idler, it
gives run out of an idler, change of condition of an
idler. The change o f stifi&iess caused by change of
number o f balls taking a part in the force carried by
idler bearings is dependent o f a bearing clearance.
With increasing of clearance decreases frequency of
vibration generated by change o f the bearing stiffiiess.
The investigations presented in (Bartelmus 1999a)
shows that the change o f idler condition caused by
wear out of a idler bearings cause increasing of inten­
sity vibration components. Both those that come from
natural vibration and those that are rotation depend­
ent. At condition when frequencies of natural vibra­
tion component have the same frequencies as rotation
dependent components we have resonance. On the
base of upper consideration we can formulate the
term of an idler quality expressed by vibration signals.

6 IDLER NOISE

As it is given in chapter 4 an idler may vibrate with

its modal/natural frequencies, and vibration can cause
Figure 12. Water fall vibration spectrum for good idler
noise/sound. Noise generated by an idler is given in
Figure 14.

Figure 14. Noise of exited idler

° 100 m ¡00 m
If we compare Figure 14 to Figure 8 we easy see that
Figure 13. Water fall vibration spectrum for the spectrum of vibration and noise spectrum have the
same frequency components. In belt conveyors idlers

882
support belts and the damping properties o f an belt
may have influence on a shape o f a noise spectrum.
The spectrum o f an exited idler supported by a belt is
given in Figure 15.
Z14SPÜC :01Z.I
Figure 15 Comparison of spectrums (free vibrated idler blue
spectrum, idler supported by rubber, black spectrum)
Figure 15 shows noise intensity change o f compo­
nents when an idler is supported by rubber. One of
the ways for noise reduction may be covering the
idler shell by rubber, comparison o f spectrum is given
in Figure 16.
Figure 16. Comparison of spectrums(free vibrated idler, blue
spectrum, idler covered with rubber, black spectrum)
Figure 15 and 16 shows reduction in components in­
tensity.
7 IN V ES TIG A TIO N OF INFLUENCE OF SOME
DESIG N FEATURS TO VIB R A TIO N
To vibration generated by a belt conveyor may
have influence the design o f joints between idlers and
between idlers and supported frames. The joints are
made o f steel and there is some backlash between its
elements. During operation they strike each other
cause vibration and noise. On the rig described in
883
chapter 5 were done experiments. An idler was joint
with some backlash and supported by rubber. Results
of experiments are given in Figures 17 and 18. Figure
17 shows that a backlash cause vibration level rise in
some ranges o f frequencies. Figure 18 shows de­
crease of vibration components in some ranges o f vi­
bration when a rubber support is used.
Figure 17. Comparison of spectrums (no backlash idler support
spectrum, black line; backlash idler support, green line)
Figure 18 Comparison of spectrums (no backlash idler support
spectrum, black line; rubber idler support, green line)
8 BELT CONVEYOR NOISE ANALISIS
Finally belt conveyor vibration and noise analysis
was done on real objects. Figures 19 and 20 give the
noise spectrum (black line) and a coherence function
between vibration of frame and noise (red line). Fig­
ures 19 and 20 shows that noise component identi­
fied as an idler noise (Figure 14) are not coherent to
a fi-ame vibration. The results are for two points on
the fi*ame and for noise received from two different
points.

Figure 19.Belt conveyor vibration spectrum and co­
herence function between noise and vibration
1.21c 1.61c 2.4k 2.B1C
Figure 20 Belt conveyor vibration spectrum and co­
herence fonction between noise and vibration
Figures 19 and 20 show that the spectrum compo­
nents o f the highest intensity may be identified as
components caused by idlers. Figures 19 and 20 also
show that some components are coherent to fi'ame
vibration. More details on conveyor noise one can
find in (Sawicki 2000).
9 CONCLUSIONS
The paper shows that there is a relation between de­
sign features o f a belt conveyor and belt conveyor
noise.
As it is given in the presented paper the main cause
o f belt conveyor noise are idlers. The idlers vibrate
with its modal frequencies cause noise.
For noise reduction idlers with rubber cover or with
plastics shells ought to be used.
Joints between idlers and between idlers and frames
ought to have rubber covers.
Belt conveyors have to be properly maintain to re­
place idlers in bad condition.
884
10 REFERENCES
Bartelmus W. 1998. Condition monitoring of mining ma­
chinery- Open cast, (in Polish) S l^ k Katowice.
Bartelmus W. & Nosowicz B. 1979 Relation between vi-
broacustical diagnostics and machine design, (in Polish) Pro­
ceedings of XXVI open seminar on acoustics, Wroclaw -
Olesnica
Bartelmus, W. 1992. Vibration condition monitoring of
gearboxes. M a ch in e V ibration ; 1: 178-189. Springer-Verlag
London Limited
Zaveri K. 1985 Modal Analysis of Large Structures - Multi­
ple Exciter Systems, Materialy firmy Bruel &Kjear
Star System, Spectral Dynamics
Bartelmus W. Gladysiewicz L. Sawicki W. 1996a. Noise
cause of belt conveyor, (in Polish) Scientific papers of the In­
stitute of Mining of Wroclaw University of Technology,no79.
Bartelmus W. Gladysiewicz L. Sawicki W. 1996b. Structure
of noise spectrum of conveyor belt (in Polish). Scientific pa­
pers of the Institute of Mining of Wroclaw University of
Technology,no80.
Bartelmus, W. 1997. Mathematical modelling and computer
simulation of conveyor belts mechanical parts co-operation
for supporting diagnostic inference. Proceedings of the sixth
International Symposium on Mine Planning and Equipment
Selection, Ostrava, A.A. BALKEMA/ROTTERDAM/
BROOKFIELD
Bartelmus W. Gla<fysiewicz L. Sawicki W. 1999a. Test rig
for quality control of belt conveyor idlers. Proceedings of ’99
ISMST Beijing, China.
Bartelmus W. Sawicki W. 1999b. New idlers quality assess­
ment by vibration measurements. Proceedings o 9*^ IMEKO
TC-10 International Conference on Technical Diagnostics.
Wroclaw Poland
Sawicki W. 2000. Influence of design features on noise gen­
erated by belt conveyor. PhD thesis
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

M onitoring o f clay m ine w aste for utilization in the non-soil reclam ation
o f m ine w aste dumps

Zbigniew Bzowski
Department of Environmental Monitoring, Central Mining Institute, Katowice, Poland

ABSTRACT; Efficient management o f mine waste requires determining possibilities o f its utilization. One o f
procedures involves monitoring o f the waste quality to assess its usefiilness by means o f a Quality Waste
Monitoring Program (QW MP). It is essential that the QWMP should cover examinations o f clay waste
deposited on waste dumps. The mineral as well as chemical composition and properties o f clay waste (rock)
and, subsequently to its weathering, clay substance, are decisive for the growth o f plants (tress and grass)
and successful non-soil reclamation. It is also important to determine the way o f mineral fertilization and
fertilizer doses. Incorporating into the QWMP a Clay Waste Monitoring (CW M ) sub-program, with well
defined test and measuring system at the stage o f waste dump formation enables to limit costly tests, directly
preceding the non-soil reclamation.

1. IN TRO DU CTIO N 2. METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

Environmental monitoring is a system of
measurements, estimates and prognoses o f the
environment condition. In Poland tasks connected
with monitoring focus the activity o f state
administration offices, as well as higher education
institutions and research centers. Environmental
monitoring aims at improving the efficiency of
environment protection work as well as
documenting and forecasting changes which take
place in the environment. At present the targets of
monitoring the environment o f coal waste dumps
are attained only partly. This refers to coal waste, in
particular its physical and chemical properties and
possibilities o f utilization (Bzowski, Dawidowski,
Drobek 1997; Bojarska, Bzowski 1997; Bzowski
1998). Since the amount o f coal waste used for
industrial purposes in Poland is not very high, and
large quantities are removed to waste dumps, the
biological reclamation o f the dumps is essential. For
both financial reasons and implementation ease,
non-soil reclamation is more and more frequently
apphed.
For investigation of clay rocks claystone and mudstone
were selected, widely represented in litostratigraphic
carbon series of Polish part of the Upper Silesian Coal
Basin. The contents of clayey minerals were calculated
using X-ray Geigerflex diffiaction Rigaku Denki.
Calculations of contents of clayey minerals and
carbonates were performed using L. G. Shultz method
(1960) as well as A. Wiewióra simulation methods
(1981). Sulfur origin fi-om sulfides was determined by
chemical analysis.
In model calculations of buffering system of clay
rocks the B. Ulrich assumptions (1986) elaborated for
soil were applied. To calculate the buffering ability of
the rocks the following densities of given rocks were
assumed; 2.4 xlO^ kg/m^ for claystone and 2.5 x 10^
kg/m^ for mudstone. The calculations based on
B.Ulrich model proved that 1% of clayey minerals
(kaolinite + illite + smectite + chlorite + mixed-layer)
demonstrate buffering ability from 2,8 g iC /t (ppm) in
mudstone to 2,9 ppm IT in claystone. The respective
buffering ability values for 1% calcium and magnesium
carbonate, found in the examined clay rocks, are 60,0
and 62,5 g iT /t (ppm).

885
3. RESULTS
3.1. Clay mine waste monitoring system
The necessity o f monitoring clay mine waste results
from a framework program o f monitoring the
activity o f mining facilities in the natural
environment. Such programs are components of
environment impact assessment o f hard coal deposits
exploitation. Monitoring o f the waste produced,
transported and dumped by a coal mine is an
element o f activities connected with coal waste
management and utilization, performed by the
mines. The following are the principal tasks o f coal
waste monitoring:
^ qualitative and quantitative assessment;
% assessment o f waste dumps and their impact on
environment;
Fig. 1. General diagram o f Clay Mine Waste Monitoring Program.
886
^ verification o f waste management efficiency;
^ stimulation o f development of waste-free
technologies ("cleaner production").
Implementation o f the above tasks may be based
on a specific Quality Waste Monitoring Program
(QWMP). Apart from the quantity record, such a
program should contain data for physical-chemical
assessment, as well as data on mechanical properties
o f coal waste. For output data for clay mine waste
monitoring and comparative data basis at the
operational level o f the monitoring, literature should
be referred to, e.g. W ilk 1979; Cebulak, Kozlowski
1978, 1980; Bojarska, Bzowski 1997; Bzowski et al.
1997. Monitoring o f clay mine waste has been
incorporated in a Clay Waste Monitoring sub­
program, presented by Fig. 1 in form o f a diagram.
The scope and test methods are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Scope and examination methods o f clay mine waste monitoring.
Scope Examination elements Methods
Mineral composition XRD
- total o f clayey minerals: illite+kaolinite+smectite+chlorite+mixed-layer IR
- total o f carbonates Ca and Mg: calcite+dolomite+ankerite+ sideroplessite D TA /TG
Chemical composition ICP
• total content Corg. and S^‘ AAS
• content o f phytochemical U V -V IS
constituents in leaching test 1:10 classical
-p H
- beneficial for plants N H 4^ K \ Ca^", and N O j'
- noxious for plants Na^ C r and SO"'
• pH w H 2O2

3.2. C la y m ine w aste m on itoring f o r n on -soil ability o f its neutralization. The obtained results
reclam ation prove that the examined clayey matter does not
contribute to acidifying the environment (Table 3).
The prognosis for chances o f biological non-soil
reclamation o f coal waste dumps may be based on Table 2. Results o f monitoring the mineral compo­
monitoring clayey components o f waste. To draw sition o f clay waste used for building up the
conclusions concerning the scope o f activities
connected with improvement and making up Components Claystones Mudstones
reclamation work one needs, apart from local n=20 n=12
monitoring results, also the results o f specialized Clays minerals
tests. This type o f monitoring is focused mainly on Average in % 56.5 47.5
the surface layer o f the dump and plant material used Range in % 38-76 34-60
for reclamation. Standard dev. in % 10.5 8.5
The tests o f clayey components and carbonates Carbonate minerals
concentrate mostly on assessment o f buffering ability. Average in % 0.7 1.2
Determination o f other components activated in Range in % 0 -5 0 -5
water aims at identifying both the components which Standard dev. in % 1.5 1.8
are favorable as well as noxious to the growth o f
plants used for non-soil reclamation. Monitoring in
this scope is also connected with determining the Table 3. Balance o f environment buffering abihty of
doses o f fertilizers necessary for appropriate plant
growth. Buffering Claystones Mudstones
in g iC /t (ppm) n=20 n=12
3.3. M o n ito rin g o f c la y m ine w aste w hile building up Clays minerals
the dum p Average 164 133
Range 110-220 95 - 168
While building up the dump quality monitoring o f Standard dev. 30 23
clay mine waste located next to the surface was Carbonate minerals
performed. In the layer close to the surface (0.5m) Average 44 70
Carboniferous clay rocks constituted 80-85% o f the Range 0-312 0-300
waste. During the monitoring program (8 months) 32 Standard dev. 93 108
samples o f clay waste were taken, out o f which 62% SUM - Average 208 203
were mudstones. The results o f mineralogical Production H" ppm
examinations are presented in Table 2. on oxidation FeS2
The balance o f buffering ability o f the Average 156 175
environment was determined by calculating the Range 90 - 233 105-275
potential amounts o f the IC ion, released from Standard dev. 37 56
oxidation o f ferrous sulfides, and the clayey matter Average balance I t +52 +28
Range - 94 / + 276 -68/ +325

887
3 .4. Assessment o f the monitored clay waste Clayslooes n = 20
suitability fo r non-soil reclamation pH H2O2 = 3.3691 + 0.00901 x
R = 0.88
The waste reaction is an important parameter for
determination o f its suitability for non-soil
reclamation. This refers both to the initial reaction,
that is material into which plants are introduced (pH
in H 2O), as well as the reaction after some time has
lapsed. The time prognosis based on the initial
reaction measured in water is not quite favorable
against the buffering ability balance (Fig. 2).

Claystones n = 20
Mudstones n = 12
pH H2O = 7.2326 + 0.00123 X
R = 0.27 pH H2O2 = 3.4863 + 0.00840 x hf
R = 0.86

H"gA

Mudstones n = 12
Fig. 3. Environment buffering ability in relation to
pH H2O = 7.1000 + 0.00243 X hT pH measured in H 2O2.
R = 0.35

It should be noted that in case of applying non-soil

Fig. 2. Environment buffering ability in relation to
pH measured in H 2O.
A much better prognosis o f changes in the
environment reaction can be obtained by correlating
the buffering ability o f the clay waste environment
and its reaction measured in 30% H 2O2 after 24
hours o f activation (Fig. 3).
The calculated environment buffering coefficient
(pB), (Fig. 4), demonstrates the best suitability for
estimate o f chances o f biological non-soil
reclamation.
PHH2O2
p B = ------------------
PHH2O
biological reclamation the coefficient (pB) should
exceed 0.5, that is the quotient pH H 2O2 = 3.6 and
pH H 2O = 7.2. The former figure results from
growth tests o f European ash (Fraxinus excelsior),
a species sensitive to acid reaction, which proves the
possibility o f this species growth in the environment
o f Carboniferous mine waste dump in pH range from
3.8 to 3.6. The latter figure is the reaction o f clayey
rocks most often measured in water. I f the buffering
coefficient (pB) is lower than 0.5 and the calculated
buffering balance o f the environment is negative, the
reclaimed part o f the dump should be limed. It does
not refer to the remaining plant nutrients (NPK),
which are also subject to examinations. The above
values demonstrate that mineral fertilization o f the
dump areas to be reclaimed with nitrogen and
phosphorus, in forms available for plants, is essential
for the success o f biological non-soil reclamation.
The results o f monitoring the clay mine waste
used for building up the surface layer o f the dump
demonstrate that the waste may constitute a base for
non-soil biological reclamation.

888
Claystoiies n = 20
pB = 0.46148 + 0 .0 0 117 x l-r
R = 0.91
Mudstoaes n = 12
pB = 0.48663+ 0.00103 x iT
R = 0.87
Fig. 4. Environment buffering ability compared with
the calculated pB coefficient (explanation in
the text).
4. CONCLUSIONS
Monitoring is an important element for determining
and forecasting changes in the environment of coal
waste dumps at the stage of preparing for biological
reclamation and after its completion. Monitoring of
clay mine waste aimed at its utilization for biological
non-soil reclamation is of particular importance.
The environment monitoring for non-soil
reclamation of coal waste dumps may apply both the
existing monitoring systems as well as new ones,
designed on the basis of appropriately modified
analytical and statistical methods. The success of
biological non-soil reclamation depends largely on
the scope and methods of examinations, which will
enable to evaluate the environment buffering
potential and to assess the waste from phytochemical
point of view. They will also enable to determine the
quality and quantity of necessary mineral fertilizers
and/or liming.
889
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to thank my wife Grazyna and Mr Andrzej
Dawidowski for their help in research and graphical
presentation of the results. I am also grateful to Mrs Anna
Pawlak and President Cezary M. Haller from Haller®
Firm in Katowice (Poland) for their support.
REFERENCES
Bojarska K. Bzowski Z. 1997. Monitoring analysis of
major and trace elements in hard coal waste by XRF
and ICP methods. In Proc. 6*^ Symp.on Mine Planning
& Equipment Selection, Ostrava, Czech Rep. 835-838.
Bzowski Z. 1998. Chemical examination of coal waste for
their application as the element of environmental
monitoring. In Proc.7th Inter. Symp.on Mine Planning
& Equipment Selection. Calgary, Canada; 729-733.
Bzowski Z, Dawidowski A. Drobek L. 1997. Physical and
chemical examination of coal waste for the evaluation
of their applicaticm possibilities and environmental
effects. In Proc. II Word Mining Environmental
Congress Katowice, Poland vol. 4; 1051-1066.
Cebulak S., Kozlowski K. 1978. Mineralogical and
petrographical characteristics of rocks heaped on the
Central Dumping Ground „Przezchlebie” in Gliwice
region (in Polish). Pr. Nauk. US. Geol. 243; 91-99.
Cebulak S., Kozlowski K. 1980. The mineralogical,
petrographical and chemical characteristic of rocks,
heap up on central heap „Brzezinka” (in Polish).
Pr. Nauk. USl. Geol. 398; 36-46.
Sdiultz L.G. 1960. Quantitative X-ray determinatic»! of some
aluminous clay minerals in rocks. Clay and clay Minerals.
Oxford 7.
Ulrich B. 1986. Die Rolle der Bodenversaueung beim
Waldsterben: Landfiistige Kcxisequenzai und forstlidie
Moglidikeiten. Forstw. Cbl. 105; 421-435.
Wiewióra A.,Weiss Z ,Krajicek J. 1981. Simulaticxi method
for X-ray quantitative analysis of clay samples. Miner.
PolcMiica 2; 3-12.
Wilk A. 1979. Petrographic investigation and commercial
value of claystones from the upper beds of the Zaleze
mines - „Chwalowice”, „Staszic” and „Wieczorek”
(in Polish). Pr. Geol. nr 117 Pol. Acad, of Sc. Krakow.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

G eochem ical studies to characterize the com plex sulfur m ineralogy

at Red D og Pb-Zn M ine

S.Day
SRKConsulting, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
G. A. Coulter & M.Falutsu
Cominco Alaska, Red Dog Mine, Alaska, USA

ABSTRACT: Open-pit mining began at Red Dog in 1989. Mining is expected to continue past 2030 but
closure planning is an ongoing process. Geochemical studies of rock and tailings were begun in 1996 as part
of development of closure plans to address leaching of metals and ARD. The deposit has many different
primary and secondary sulfur minerals in amounts that preclude the use of conventional geochemical
characterization methods. This paper will describe development of a specific chemical method to estimate the
spéciation of sulfur and classify wastes according to reactivity.

INTRODUCTION

The Red Dog lead-zinc mine is located 135 km

north of Kotzebue, in the De Long Mountains of the
western Brooks Range, Alaska (Figure 1). Cominco
Alaska Inc. (CAK) began mining the deposit in
1989. Ore is extracted from an open pit which
straddles the main stem of Red Dog Creek. Lead
and zinc concentrates are recovered by conventional
flotation methods and tailings are discharged to an
impoundment located in the south fork of Red Dog
Creek. The estimated mine life, including
undeveloped nearby resources is in excess of 30
years.
The Red Dog deposit naturally leaches heavy
metals to the environment. The deposit was
discovered based on elevated metal concentrations
in Red Dog Creek sediments and the distinctive GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
gossan formed on the outcrop of the deposit. As a
The Red Dog deposit is a Mississippian to
result, exposure of the deposit during mining has led
Pennsylvanian-age black shale-hosted zinc-lead-
to release of poor quality water. The water varies
silver deposit (Moore et al. 1986). The
from non-acidic to strongly acidic but typically
mineralization is contained in the Ikalukrok Member
contains high concentrations of zinc and sulfate.
of the Kuna Formation. This member is underlain
As part of ongoing resource development, CAK
by the Kivalina Member. The Kuna Formation is
is evaluating various options for waste management
overlain by chert and shale of the Lower Triassic to
that will minimize current and continuing liabilities
Pennsylvanian Siksikpuk Formation. The
related to leaching of metals from waste rock,
mineralization in the Ikalukrok Shale is stratabound
tailings and pit walls. An initial component of the
and consists of accumulations of silica, barite, and
process was to characterize the geochemistry of the
sulfides. The silica rock consists of translucent
various rock units to categorize wastes in terms of
quartz grains with accessory sulfide minerals and
leaching potential and contribution to water
occurs within and peripheral to the main mass of
treatment requirements.
sulfides. The baritic facies contains accessory

891
sulfide minerals, silica, and rare calcite and is
concentrated toward the top and periphery of the
deposit. The sulfide facies is composed, in
decreasing order of abundance, of sphalerite, pyrite,
marcasite and galena. Chalcopyrite is a very minor
constituent.
The natural reactivity of the deposit resulted
in oxidation of primary sulfide minerals to a depth
of 100 feet and deeper in the vicinity of thrust faults.
At least 50 secondary sulfate minerals have been
identified. These include relatively common
minerals such as jarosite, siderotil, melanterite, and
anglesite. Native sulfur is also present.
GEOCHEMICAL METHODS
Background
The complexity of the mineralogy in the ore and
waste rock indicated that conventional geochemical
characterization methods such as acid-base
accounting are not applicable to classification of the
risk of impact associated with weathering of any
particular rock unit. Natural weathering of waste
rock at Red Dog not only produces acidity but also
dissolved metals in the absence of acidity. Impacts
due to leaching of minerals at Red Dog originate
from both acid generation due to oxidation of iron
sulfide minerals and leaching of metals due to
oxidation of non-ferrous sulfide minerals such as
sphalerite and galena. Total sulfur determinations
are sometimes used in acid-base accounting as an
initial indicator of overall reactivity, however,
several different mineral groups contribute to total
sulfur concentrations and are not all reactive or have
the same effect, for example:•
• Primary sulfate minerals such as barite and
anglesite are weakly soluble and contribute low
concentrations of barium and lead to water. In
sulfate-rich waters, the solubility of these
minerals is very low.
• The dominant sulfide mineral, sphalerite, is not
an acid generator but releases zinc when
oxidized.
• Galena, also not an acid generator, produces
anglesite upon oxidation which coats the galena
surface and inhibits further oxidation.
• Secondary sulfate minerals, such as siderotile
and melanterite, are highly soluble and can be
abundant in oxidized portions of the deposit.
892
Minerals such as melanterite, a zinc-bearing
sulfate mineral, are non-acid generating but
produce metal upon dissolution, whereas
minerals containing ferrous iron, such as
siderotile, will create acid when dissolved.
Siderotile is the most abundant secondary sulfate
mineral in the deposit.
Geochemical characterization of rock at Red
Dog therefore requires that the conventional
approaches to evaluation of acid generation potential
be replaced by methods that can discern mineral
groups. These methods would ideally allow rock to
be classified according to acid generation potential,
metal leaching potential due to oxidation of non-
ferrous sulfide minerals and metal leaching potential
due to dissolution of naturally occurring sulfate
minerals. Knowledge of mineralogy also assists
with making water quality predictions.
Mineralogy can be determined by various
physical methods (for example, optical, x-ray
diffraction, scanning electron microscope) though
these are methods are applicable only to small
sample batches because they use highly specialized
equipment, are often labor intensive, and the results
require in depth interpretation to obtain the
information desired. Some progress has been made
in automation of grain counting techniques but costs
are high.
Direct chemical analysis methods were
investigated because these offered the possible
benefit of providing rapid, relatively inexpensive
results using the existing analytical facilities at the
mine. Any analytical approach or method developed
would ideally be suitable for determination of
mineralogy in numerous samples as part of block
modelling and routine waste classification during
mining.
Method Selection
Analytical methods tested fall into categories based
on the general type of information obtained (Schafer
& Associates 1997). These are (1) Whole rock non­
specific tests; (2) Mineral-specific analytical
methods; (3) Conventional acid generation tests; and
(4) Optical mineralogy methods. For wet chemical
methods, the resulting solutions from the various
digestions and leaches were analyzed using ICP to
obtain concentrations of all elements. The methods
are described below.
Whole Rock Non-Specific Tests. “Near-total”
element concentrations were determined using an
aqua regia digestion (1:3, HN03:HC1). This
digestion is not total because it is ineffective in
breaking down most silicates. It provides effective
complete digestion of metal sulfides, many sulfates
(except barite), arsenides, tellurides, native metals,
simple oxides and hydroxides, phosphates,
carbonates and organically-bound elements (Hall
1999). Because sulfuric acid is not used in the
digestions, sulfate mineral solubility limits are not
usually significant. At Red Dog, the lack of
digestion of barite is significant.
EPA Method 1312 (Simulated Precipitation
Leach Procedure) was used to estimate metal
concentrations soluble in a weak acid solution. This
includes many of the simple secondary sulfate
minerals produced by natural oxidation of sulfide
minerals at Red Dog. The method uses sulfuric and
nitric acids to create a weakly acidic solution. The
sample is leached for 24 hours.
Total zinc, lead, and iron concentrations were
estimated using the mine’s on-site inductively
coupled plasma analyzer. The unit uses an emission
spectrometer to make ppm-level determinations.
Total barium concentration was estimated using the
mine’s on-site x-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyzer.
The unit uses a radioactive source for ionizing
radiation and can achieve detection limits down to
0.1 weight percent.
Mineral Specific Analytical Methods. Various
methods are available (for example, Kwong, 1993)
to quantify the metal content in mineralogical forms.
None of these methods are completely specific for
the target mineral but under some site-specific
conditions the methods may provide useful results
and are worth investigating.
• Sulfur as lead sulfate was estimated using an
ammonium acetate extraction.
• Sulfur as lead and zinc sulfides was estimated
using 1:7 nitric acid.
• Barium as barium sulfate was estimated using a
lithium metaborate fusion.
• Alkali earth elements present in carbonates were
estimated by digesting the sample using a HCl
solution of the strength as that used for the
neutralization potential (NP) determination used
in acid-base accounting (ABA) (see below).
• Elements present in ferric hydroxides were
estimated using hydroxylamine hydrochloride.
Conventional Acid Generation Tests. The
conventional methods tested were acid-base
accounting (ABA), net acid generation (NAG) and
acid concentration present (AGP).
• For ABA, total sulfur was determined directly
using a Leco Analyzer. Sulfate was determined
using an HCl extraction. Neutralization
893
potential (NP) was determined using a
modification of the Sobek et al. (1978) method
described by Coastech (1991). The latter
method performs the acid addition step over 24
hours at room temperature rather than at boiling
point for one hour. The leachate from this step
was also scanned for element concentrations to
evaluate which minerals were being digested by
the procedure.
• Total carbon was determined directly by Leco
analyzer. Carbon was also determined on
samples from which carbonates had been
removed by hydrochloric acid digestion. The
difference in carbon content yields total
inorganic carbon.
• The NAG test uses a 30% H2O2 solution to
oxidize sulfide which generates acid and reacts
with neutralizing minerals in the sample. The
main limitation for the Red Dog project is that
non-carbonate carbon is also oxidized, and this
interferes with the acidity of the solution. Black
shales at the mine contain several percent
carbon.
• The ACP test consists of addition of deionized
water to a pulverized sample to dissolve acid
salts (such as ferrous sulfate). The leachate is
then filtered and back-titrated with base to
determine the amount of acid present.
Optical Mineralogy. The expected output of the
above tests is a predicted mineralogical composition
using the various methods to estimate the abundance
of each mineral or mineral group. To check the
predictions, the modal mineralogical compositions
of the samples were estimated by counting points in
polished thin sections. Up to 500 points per sample
were counted with fewer points being counted in
samples that contained only a few mineral species.
Point counts can be converted to the proportion
of sulfur in each mineral as follows:
• The density of the minerals is used to estimate
the average density of the sample using the
volumetric mixture of minerals reported by
point-counting.
• The individual and average densities were used
to calculate the weight percent of the mineral in
the sample.
• The weight proportion of sulfur in each mineral
was calculated based on the formula weight of
the mineral
• The weight proportion of sulfur was then applied
to the weight percent of the mineral to calculate
the proportion of sulfur in each mineral form.
Test Samples
In 1997, 59 samples were collected to test the
methods. The samples included 26 from existing
waste rock storage facilities, 4 from an oxide ore
stockpile, 21 from diamond drill core, 4 from the
tailings, and 4 from an on-site limestone stockpile
(Schafer & Associates 1997).
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
A large volume of data was generated by the
analytical procedures described above. The
following sections describe how some of the results
were used to estimate the mineralogical composition
of the samples. The interpretation is comparable to
the method used to estimate CIPW normative
mineralogical composition (Cross et al., 1903).
Analytical results which can be definitively assigned
to a mineral or group of minerals are used first.
Other less certain sources are then assigned
eventually resulting in an unassigned remainder. In
the case of sulfur at Red Dog, the remaining sulfur
after spéciation is assigned to iron.
Sulfur Spéciation
The starting point for sulfur spéciation is total sulfur
determined as part of the acid-base accounting
procedure.
minerals where lead concentrations were greater
than 2% due to lead sulfate saturation. Due to the
very strong correlation between nitric acid (HNO3 )
and aqua regia (Figure 2) digestions, a regression
equation was calculated to estimate lead by aqua
regia in samples that contained lead concentrations
greater than 2%. The nitric acid digestion gave
slightly less lead than aqua regia but both methods
effectively yield lead in all forms. The NH4 AC
method yielded lower concentrations than aqua regia
but lead concentrations by this method were
equivalent to and sometimes greater than by the
nitric acid method suggesting that the ammonium
acetate was also attacking galena. The method does
not therefore appear to be specific for anglesite.
For the purpose of estimating sulfur spéciation,
aqua regia was assumed to represent all lead forms
and nitric acid was assumed to attack only sulfides.
The difference between the two methods was
assumed to represent lead associated with sulfates.
The assumption is poor but does not affect the
overall calculation of sulfur spéciation since sulfur
in galena and anglesite both contain one mole of
lead for one mole of sulfur.
Step 3. Sulfur in Sphalerite and ZnS0 4 . Unlike
anglesite, zinc sulfate is readily soluble in weak
acid. Sphalerite requires a strong acid digestion.
Concentrations determined by aqua regia and nitric
acid were very similar with the aqua regia yielding
very slightly greater zinc concentrations (Figure 3).

Step 1 - Sulfur as Barite. Barite is expected to be

the only major source of barium at Red Dog. Barium
may also occur in feldspars and carbonates but these
are expected to be relatively minor compared to
barite. This was confirmed by barium
concentrations determined by aqua regia digestion.
Barium concentrations by aqua regia digestion were
very low (a few hundred ppm at most) compared to
several percent barium measured using the
metaborate fusion method. Aqua regia completely
digests carbonates. Feldspars are relatively rare in
Figure 2. Comparison of lead concentrations measured
the Red Dog host rocks. Total barium concentration
using nitric acid and aqua regia digestion methods.
by the metaborate fusion method were converted to
sulfur associated with barite (1 mole of Ba = 1 mole
S). Aqua regia appears to give the best indication of
Step 2 - Sulfur in Galena (PbS) and Anglesite total zinc, principally in the form of sphalerite.
(PbS0 4 ). The nitric acid and ammonium acetate Aqua regia may also digest silicates containing zinc,
(NH4 AC) digestion methods were, in theory, specific but these minerals are rare at Red Dog. The nitric
for galena and anglesite, respectively. Most likely, acid digestion was assumed to represent Zn
aqua regia gave the best indication of total lead associated with sulfur since the aqua regia digestion
though the method did not completely digest lead has an upper reporting limit of 1%.

894

• Sulfur associated with iron sulfates was
Figure 3. Comparison of zinc concentrations measured
using nitric acid and aqua regia digestion methods.
The ammonium acetate (NH4 AC) digestion did
not appear to digest zinc sulfides significantly. It
also yielded much lower zinc concentrations than
the NP leachates. These two methods would be
expected to produce similar zinc concentrations. A
possible explanation for the differences are that zinc
acetate solubility is limited in the NH4 AC leachate or
that the HCl in the NP leachate also partially
attacked sphalerite. The first explanation was
rejected due to the lack of an upper limit on zinc
concentrations. For this reason, Zn determined by
NFl4Ac digestion was assumed to represent Zn
associated with Zn sulfate.
Sulfur associated with ZnS04 was calculated (1
mole of Zn = 1 mole of S) from the NH4 AC
concentration. Sulfur associated with sphalerite was
calculated fi*om zinc concentration determined by
nitric acid, less zinc concentration determined by
NH4 AC (1 mole of Zn = 1 mole of S).
Step 4. Sulfur in Other Sulfates. The foregoing steps
estimated sulfur associated with sulfates of barium,
lead, and zinc. The reported HCl-soluble sulfate
concentration includes all sulfates except barium and
lead. Subtraction of sulfur in zinc sulfate from total
HCl-soluble sulfate yields sulfates associated with
all other metals which could include a wide range of
copper and iron sulfates in addition to sulfates
associated with aluminum, the alkali metals and the
alkali earth metals. The following assumptions were
used to estimate distribution of sulfur in sulfates:
• Copper in NP leachate was assumed to be from
copper sulfates (1 mole of Cu = 1 mole of S).
• Calcium and magnesium in NP leachate in
excess of that assigned to carbonates was
895
assigned to gypsum and epsomite (1 mole of
Ca+Mg = 1 mole of S).
calculated by subtracting sulfur associated with
copper, zinc and calcium from total HCl-soluble
sulfate.
Similar assumptions for copper could be used to
calculate metal concentrations associated with
sulfates for other chalcophile elements (eg.
cadmium, silver) however the contribution to overall
sulfur speculation is small.
Step 5. Sulfur in Copper and Other Minor Sulfides.
Sulfur in copper sulfides was calculated by
subtracting copper in NP leachate from copper by
aqua regia digestion (1 mole of Cu = 1 mole of S).
The method probably underestimates the copper in
sulfide since the weak HCl will also attack the
copper sulfides. However, the amounts involved are
very small. Similar assumptions could be used to
calculate the sulfur associated with cadmium, silver
and arsenic. However, these are also low
concentrations.
Step 6. Sulfur in Iron Sulfides. Sulfur in the form of
iron sulfide minerals is assumed to represent the
sulfur remaining after the above calculations. The
calculation of sulfur as iron sulfides provides an
indication of the degree to which sulfur is accounted
for in the samples. Eight of the 59 samples
indicated a negative balance. Seven of these
samples were marginally negative and well within
the analytical precision of any method. One of the
samples had a negative balance of -0.43%. This
sample also had the highest HCl-soluble sulfate
concentration implying that the determination may
have been erroneous and should be repeated. The
sample also had visible pyrite. Other samples with
negative balances had either trace or minor pyrite.
Carbonate Spéciation
Carbonate speculation was investigated using
neutralization potential, total inorganic carbon
(TIC), and analysis of NP leachates. Neutralization
potential and TIC produced similar values for NP
greater than 20 kg/t (Figure 4). For lower values,
the correlation between the methods was present but
very weak. Concentrations of Ca and Mg in NP
leachates were consistent with neutralization
potential from calcium and magnesium carbonates.
The ratio of magnesium to calcium in these
leachates indicated that the carbonate minerals are
dominantly magnesian calcite and dolomite. A few
samples indicated magnesite in solid solution with
dolomite.
Since TIC exceeds NP in some samples at low
carbonate concentrations, it appears that some iron
carbonate may be present, however, data scatter at
low concentrations may be a result of poor NP
determinations.
Figure 4. Comparison of neutralization potentials measured
by total inorganic carbon (TIC) and NP.
COMPARISON OF CALCULATED
MINERALOGY WITH POINT COUNTS
Table 1 compares calculated sulfur spéciations from
the chemical analysis and optical point-counting
methods. The two methods provided comparable
results for at least 12 of the 24 samples. For those
showing “significant” discrepancies the following
causes were identified:
• The sample may have become differentiated by
density separation during sample preparation.
This resulted in consistently different estimated
sulfur concentrations attributable to barite and
pyrite in particular (Samples 8, 10, 24, 34).
• Possible reporting errors in point counts or
severe binomial sampling errors (Samples 2, 11,
33, 38,40, 52).
• Wet chemical analytical method problems such
as upper reporting limits and incomplete
determination (Samples 2, 38, 52).
The point counting method probably
overestimates the concentration of anglesite and
underestimates galena since galena readily becomes
coated with anglesite when oxidized. This may
explain the lack of galena in many point counts.
Five (26, 27, 32, 35, 40) of the 10 samples identified
as having predicted mineralogy (from wet
chemistry) inconsistent with the hand samples
896
description were submitted for point counting. For
all five samples, the point count results showed that
the hand samples descriptions were probably
inaccurate.
Table 1 also shows point count results for calcite
and dolomite compared to total inorganic carbon re­
calculated as kg CaCOs/t. No iron carbonates were
specifically identified though the analytical results
suggested that they are present. The point counts
confirmed that calcite and dolomite are present and
there was good agreement at higher concentrations.
For TIC concentrations less than 30 kg CaCOs/t,
calcite and dolomite were rarely observed in the
samples probably due to rarity of grains.
RESPONSE OF CONVENTIONAL ACID
GENERATION TESTS
Acid-Base Accounting
Conventional acid-base accounts are typically
determined based on total sulfur concentration.
Maximum potential acidity (MPA) is obtained by
multiplying the sulfur concentration by 31.25. At
Red Dog, both non-acid generating, sulfur-bearing
minerals, (such as barite) and acid-generating sulfate
minerals, (such as siderotil) are present. Therefore,
determination of acid generating potential from total
sulfur is misleading. Acid generation potential is
more appropriately calculated based only on the
sulfur associated with iron sulfide minerals such as
pyrite. Figure 5 compares net neutralization
potential (NNP) estimated from sulfur in iron sulfide
and from total sulfur. At Red Dog, the selection of
calculation method makes little difference to the
overall classification using NNP. Both methods
indicate positive or negative NNPs with very few
exceptions. The difference between the two
measurement methods is the severity of the
classification. In some cases, the two methods give
similar classifications, but for most samples,
calculation of NNP from sulfur in iron sulfide
substantially reduces the acid potential.
NAG Test
No correlation between final pH from the NAG test
and acid-base accounts estimated from sulfur in iron
sulfide was apparent (Figure 6). Several strongly
calcareous samples had final pHs less than 6. These
samples also typically contained significant levels of
organic carbon, possibly indicating that oxidation of
carbon depressed the solution pH.
 TABLE;
Comparison of Mineralogical Estimates by Analytical and Optical Methods
Carbonates Sulfur S pécia tio n
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6
L ith ology S am p le ID TIC T otal S S in B a S 0 4 S-PbS S -P b S 0 4 S in Z n S 0 4 S in Z nS S -C a ,M g S 0 4 S -C u S 0 4 S -F e S 0 4 S-C u S S in F eS
kg/t % % % % % % % % % % %
O kp ikruak R D P l- 0 2 13.2 0 .2 6 0 .1 3 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 2 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 2 0 .0 9 0 .0 0 2 0 .0 0
P oint C ou nt 0 .0 1.30 1.10 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .1 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .2 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0
Ik alu k rok S hale R D P l- 0 3 2 .3 8 .8 8 0 .4 2 0 .7 3 0 .2 9 0 .2 8 0 .4 4 0 .0 9 0 .0 0 4 0 .7 8 0 .0 0 3 5 .8 4
P oint C ou nt 0 .0 9 .0 0 0 .5 0 0 .6 0 2 .7 0 0 .0 0 1 .80 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 1 .50 0 .0 0 0 2 .1 0
Ik alu k rok B arite R D P l- 0 7 3 .4 7 .5 5 6 .1 2 0 .3 4 0 .1 3 0.01 0 .0 4 0 .0 9 0 .0 0 1 0 .4 3 0 .0 0 0 0 .3 8
Point C ou nt 0 .0 7 .6 0 6 .6 0 0 .0 0 0 .3 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .8 0
S ik sik p u k R D P I-0 8 4 .5 6 .6 6 3 .2 6 0 .2 3 0 .0 9 0 .1 6 0 .9 0 0 .1 0 0 .0 0 2 0 .5 0 0 .0 0 3 1.41
Point C ou nt 0 .0 8 .3 0 2 .4 0 0 .0 0 0 .2 0 0 .0 0 0 .8 0 0 .0 5 0 .0 0 0 0 .1 5 0 .0 0 0 4 .6 0
S ik sik p u k Chert and O kp ikruak R D P l- 0 9 5 .0 5 .8 9 3 .9 0 0 .2 2 0 .0 7 0 .0 3 0 .3 4 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 2 0 .5 9 0 .0 0 4 0 .7 3
P oint C ou nt 0 .0 8 .3 0 6 .2 0 0 .0 0 0 .3 0 0 .0 0 0 .3 0 0 .3 0 0 .0 0 0 1 .10 0 .0 0 0 0 .2 0
Ik alu k rok M ixed B arite-S ilica R D P l- 1 0 3 0 .2 4 .9 0 3 .0 5 0 .2 0 0 .0 5 0 .0 4 0 .2 4 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 2 0 .5 0 0 .0 0 2 0 .8 2
Point C ou nt 0 .0 8 .8 0 5 .8 0 0 .0 0 0 .1 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .2 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 2 .7 0
M ela n g e B lack S hale R D P l-1 1 5 3 .4 1.81 0 .2 3 0.01 0 .0 0 0 .0 2 0 .0 5 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 2 0 .1 4 0 .0 0 2 1 .36
Point C ou nt 3 5 .0 5 .6 0 0 .7 0 3 .7 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 5 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 1 .60
O kp ikruak R D P l- 1 3 2 5 .0 0 .6 2 0 .0 7 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 2 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 5 0 .0 0 2 0 .4 7
Point C ou nt 14.0 1.20 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 3 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 1 .20
Ik alu d rok S ulfid e R D P l- 1 4 8.4 1 4 .0 7 7 .9 8 0 .0 8 0 .0 9 0 .1 3 1.11 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 4 0 .0 3 0 .0 0 6 4 .6 3
Ik alu k rok R D P l- 1 5 2 3 .4 3 .0 6 1.56 0 .4 5 0 .1 8 0 .0 6 0 .0 3 0 .0 2 0 .0 0 1 0 .7 7 0 .0 0 2 -0.01
CO
Point C ou nt 0 .0 5 .0 0 4 .1 0 0 .0 0 0 .3 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 5 0 .0 0 0 0 .2 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .3 0
S ik sik p u k , S ilicifed Ik alu k rok , and D iese l R D P l- 2 4 2 .7 1 1 .2 8 0 .7 4 0 .0 9 0 .0 4 0 .0 6 0 .0 7 0 .7 3 0 .0 0 2 0 .2 0 0 .0 0 3 9 .3 4
P oint C ou nt 0 .0 2 0 .6 0 1.30 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 1 9 .2 0
K iva lin a S h ale R D P l- 2 6 1 68.4 2 .3 4 0 .0 8 0.01 0 .0 0 0.01 0 .0 4 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 1 0 .4 6 0 .0 0 1 1 .74
P oint C ou nt 1 5 7 .0 3 .4 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .4 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .1 0 0 .0 0 0 2 .9 0
M ixed B a lc k Shale R D P l- 2 7 1 47.5 1 .97 0 .1 4 0.01 0 .0 0 0 .0 2 0 .1 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 2 1.0 7 0 .0 0 1 0 .61
P oint C ou nt 1 6 4 .0 2 .9 0 0 .0 0 1.90 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 1.9 0 0 .5 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .2 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .2 0
O kp ikruak R D P l- 3 2 9.8 5 .0 6 0.41 0.01 0 .0 0 0 .0 3 0 .0 4 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 8 0 .0 0 2 4 .4 9
Point C ou n t 0 .0 5 .8 0 0 .6 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .1 0 0 .0 0 0 5 .0 0
S ik sik p u k B arite R D P l-3 3 3 .4 1 2 .4 8 1 0.30 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 6 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 2 0 .0 0 0 2 .1 0
Point C ou n t 0 .0 1 3 .5 0 1 3 .5 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0
S ik sik p u k S h ale R D P l- 3 4 2 9 .8 2 .8 1 0 .7 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 3 0 .2 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 2 0 .0 0 3 1.85
Point C ou n t 0 .0 8 .4 0 1.40 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 2 .3 0 0 .0 0 0 4 .7 0
Ik alu k ru k B arite R D P l-3 5 1.1 1 4 .0 2 8 .6 4 0 .2 6 0.11 0 .0 3 1 .36 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 9 0 .0 0 4 3 .5 3
P oint C ou nt 0 .0 1 1 .7 0 8 .3 0 0 .1 0 0 .2 0 0 .0 0 1 .2 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 1 .90
Ik alu k rok M a ssiv e S u lfid e R D P l-3 8 4 .5 3 1 .8 0 0.21 0 .0 4 0 .0 9 0 .2 2 1 .59 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 -0 .1 9 0 .0 1 8 2 9 .8 2
Point C ou nt 0 .0 2 9 .6 0 0 .2 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 2 3 .7 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 5 .7 0
Ik alu k rok silica/su lfid e R D P l- 4 0 11.4 3 .9 0 1 .47 0 .7 0 0 .2 8 0 .0 5 0 .0 7 0 .0 8 0 .0 0 1 0 .8 2 0 .0 0 3 0 .4 4
P oin t C ou n t 0 .0 7 .3 0 1.10 0 .0 0 1.60 0 .0 0 0 .1 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 4 .5 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0
m a ssiv e S u lfid e R D P l- 4 5 8.4 1 5 .4 4 0 .2 5 0 .0 7 0 .0 0 0 .0 9 12.41 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 -0 .0 5 0 .0 1 5 2 .6 5
P oint C ou nt 0 .0 1 7 .8 0 0 .1 0 1 .00 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 1 3 .9 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 2 .8 0
ta ilin gs R D P l- 4 7 6 7 .0 0 .3 6 0 .0 3 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 1 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 4 0 .0 0 2 0 .2 8
Point C ou nt 2 6 .0 0 .2 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .2 0
tailin gs R D P l- 4 8 6 .6 9 .6 5 2 .2 3 0 .2 3 0 .0 9 0 .1 6 1.93 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 2 0 .0 0 7 4 .9 8
P oint C ou nt 0 .0 7 .0 0 1.10 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 2 .2 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 3 .7 0
 A positive though moderate correlation was
apparent between paste pH and NP/AP when AP
was determined from the estimated sulfur
concentration in iron sulfides.
Figures. Comparisonofnetneutializationpoterdal(NNP)as
calculated usingtotal sulfur versus sulfur in iixxi sulfides.
CONCLUSIONS
The testing to date has demonstrated that wet
chemical methods are available to characterise the
complex mineralogy at Red Dog and that these
methods relate well to actual mineralogy. Specific
mineralogical questions that can be answered using
wet chemical techniques include:
• Removal of the substantial effect of barite
• Estimation of the concentration of sulfur in acid
generating iron sulfides
• Estimation of the concentration of sulfur in non­
acid generating sulfides and sulfates (galena,
sphalerite, anglesite)
• Estimation of the amounts of readily soluble
sulfate minerals (gypsum, iron sulfates, zinc
sulfates).
The amount of total lead in both galena and
anglesite can be estimated but not distinguished
reliably at present. However, mineralogical
distinction of these two forms of lead is less
important than estimating the sulfur in them since
both anglesite and galena have low solubility.
The rock types at Red Dog do not appear to
present problems for the conventional neutralisation
potential (NP) determination of Sobek et al. 1978.
898
The procedures described have been used to
develop an understanding of mineralogical
variations in the rock types at the Red Dog Mine.
The results have been correlated to routine analyses
conducted by the mine. The latter analyses are
being used to characterise geochemical variations
throughout the deposit.
5
o
♦*2*'-
--- ^
^ -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500
M N P (S in iron su lfid e), kgC aC O j/t
Figure 6. Relationship between NNP and NAG pHs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sample collection and direction of analytical work
was provided by Bill Schafer of Schafer &
Associates. The authors acknowledge the
permission of Cominco Alaska to publish this paper.
REFERENCES
Coastech Research, 1991. Acid Rock Drainage
Prediction Manual. MEND Project 1.16.1b.,
March, 1991.
Cross, W., Iddings, J.P., Pirsson, L.V., and
Washington, H.S., 1903, Quantitative
classification of igneous rocks. University of
Chicago Press.
Kwong, Y.T.J., 1993. Prediction and Prevention of
Acid Rock Drainage From a Geological and
Mineralogical Perspective. MEND Project
1.32.1. October, 1993.
Moore, D.W., L.E. Young, J.S. Modene and J.T.
Plahuta, 1986. Geological Setting and Genesis
of the Red Dog Zinc-Lead-Silver Deposit,
Western Brooks Range, Alaska.
Schafer & Associates, 1997. Red Dog Acid Rock
Drainage Study: Phase 1 Geochemistry Study.
November 14. 1987.
Sobek, A.A., Schuller, W.A., Freeman, J.R. and
Smith, R.M. (1978), Field and laboratory
methods applicable to overburden and minesoils,
EPA 600/2-78-054, 203pp.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Som e aspects regarding the Rom anian open pit lignite m ining im pact on soil

D. Fodor & M. Lazar

University ofPetrosani, Romania
G.Baican
National Lignite Company, TarguJiu, Romania

A B S T R A C T : T he p a p e r is related to the o p en p it lignite m ining tech n o lo g y and its im pact on soil. T he

an th ro p ic a c tiv ities in th e O lten ia C o u n ty h ave p ro d u ced essential m odifications on the geo-m orphological
structure o f th e zone and the partial or to tal destru ctio n o f the ecological equilibrium . A ll these m utations
ex ert n eg ativ e in flu en ce o n the eco-system s, and th e m in in g c o m p an ies’ task is to solve the p roblem s o f land
reclam atio n an d eco lo g ical rehabilitation. T hese acting p rinciples are p re-requested conditions for obtaining
p o sitiv e e co n o m ical and eco lo g ical results.

1 FO REW O RD T he o pen p it m ines operates w ith an u p-to-date

In R o m an ia, th e op en p it lignite m in in g is very
im p o rtan t fo r th e electrical p o w er p ro d u ctio n and is
located m a in ly in the O lten ia C ounty, in the
so u th w estern side o f th e country. (S ee F ig u re 1).
T he activity is co -o rd in ated by th e “ O lten ia” L ignite
N a tio n a l C o m pany, lo cated in T arg u Jiu.
T he lignite d ep o sit is situated in sedim entary
ro ck s o f sand, clay and shale ty p e and has the shape
o f a seam p a c k w ith variab le th ick n ess, sep arated by
sterile insertions. (See F igure 2). T he d ep o sit is
m in ed in five m in in g b asins, n am ely R ovinari,
M otru, Jilt, B erbe§ti and H u snicioara, b o th in open
p it and u n d erg o u n d m ines. B ecau se o f technical-
m in in g co n d itio n s, the op en p it m in in g is
p red o m in an t, the future tren d s bein g th e p ro g ressiv e
c lo su re o f u n d erg ro u n d m ines, in such a m anner,
th at b eg in n in g w ith the y ear 2005, the entire m ining
w ill be p e rfo rm e d in op en p it m ines.
T he in d u strial reserve in the w h o le O lten ia region
is about 1250 m illio n tonnes. B y th e quality p o in t o f
v iew , th e lig n ite can be co n sid ered an in ferio r coal,
w ith an a v erag e caloric p o w er o f 7118 kJ/kg.
continuous flow technology, the m ain operations
being full m echanised. (See F igure 2)
-T he excavation is perform ed w ith b ucket-w heel
excavators o f different capacities, w ith an o utput
rate o f 1680 to 6500 m V h ;
-T he tran sp o rt o f coal to stocks and o f sterile to
dam s is perform ed w ith belt conveyors w ith
tran sp o rt rates b etw een 1400 and 12500 m^/h ;
-T he laying o f the w aste rocks on dam s is
perform ed w ith laying m achines, w ith capacities up
to 12500 m V h .
T he land rehabilitation o f the concerned areas is
com pulsory because the open p it m ining o f the
lignite dam age all environm ental factors.
2 T H E IM P A C T O N SO IL
T he open pit m ining o f the lignite b egun 45 years
ago, perio d w h en 17000 h a o f agricultural and
forest lands w ere dam aged, including h u m an
com m unities. In theT able 1 the grade o f occupation
o f th e land, versus its anterior structure is presented.

T able 1 T he grade o f o ccupation o f the land

N o. M in in g area T otal L and surfaces structure
A griculture % Forest %
1 R ovinari 8658 7154 82.7 1504 17.3
2 M o tru 3683 2578 69.3 1105 30.2
3 Jilt 2164 1730 79.9 434 20.1
4 Berbe§ti 2166 1662 76.7 504 23.3
5 H u sn icio ara 586 337 57.5 249 42.5
TOTAL 17257 13461 78.6 3796 22.0

899
F ig u re 1. T he lo catio n o f o pen p it m ines from O lten ia on R om ania's m ap: IR o v in ari basin ; 2 M o tm basin;
3 Jilt b asin ; 4 B erb esti basin; 5 H u sn icio ara b asin

• O/fi S.Sm deluge deposits shally sand

\ a s -1,8 S/r. V///
I t.5-3,0 sir. ViJ [7 ^ clay m coal (lignite) ^£^c-UOO
\ 2 .0 -S^r. W
,jy 6 irJ t? P
pou;-] sand \f / [ vegetal debris H
O.S-1S s tr I'j
sandy clay \ i ^ \ fossil holding level 11« %£/^c-f*00
MM-U^0-t7O
d;s -3 sir. V¿

OJ-t.S sir(\f

Q.OS-f.O str/N

O J -0 .8 str fi

0 J ~ 3 ,S S tr!
£/?c ti^OD

£J9c/4,00
/H6500-90 £Rc '^00 6si^C ^70 f0-2O
W 6500-90 W'20
14H ^^oo-no ^ \Sir.Vt-V/{ ».J-51
F tS~20
/8-20
________ a 'II- uSir V it.S-fi m

F ig u re 2. S tratig rap h ic colum n, te ch n o lo g ical flo w and m ine cross-section

900
 Table 2 The content in main elements of Miocene formations
Material pH CO3 Sand Sandy clay Clay
% % % %
Sand 7.4 1.2 52 78.7 12.2 9.0
Clay 7.8 4.5 61 48 36.1 49.7 14.2
Sandy clay 7.4 0.5 33 50 43.2 42.2 14.6
Shale 7.0 36 58 11.0 59.3 29.7
Clay+ 7.8 12.4 11 55 3.0 36.9 60.1
gray shale

Table 3 The capacity of materials to be utilized in the land rehabilitation

Thickness Labor field Pastures Forest
of seams, m 0.5 1.0 2.0 >2 0.5 1.0 2.0 >2 0.5 1.0 2.0 >2
Clay (shale) ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Clay+shale ++ + -h ++ ++
Sand +++ +++ ++ ++ ++
Clay +++ +++ +++ ■f++ +++ ;+++ +++ +++
Acid +++ ++ ++ ++
material
-non-proper +reduced capacity ++ medium capacity +++ high capacity

From the total agricultural surface occupied by
the mining activityy, 8144 ha were lands, 4500 ha
pastures, 362 ha orchards, 125 vineyards and 3796
forests.
The soils in Oltenia region are different
according to geological and geo-morphological
conditions, such as: the soils in the river valleys,
which appeared in the early sediments, the soils in
the terraces zones, appeared in deluge deposits
covering the Quaternary age fine sand and gravel
and the soils from the hilly areas represented by a
thin layer of Pleistocene age, which cover deposits
of Miocene age, as clay, shale, sandy clay or sand.
According to the Romanian classification system of
soils by goodness, in the region we have soils that
belong to the classes II-V (low to high potential).
As a result of the mining activity, the quality of
the soil decreased with 1-3 classes, a large amount
of them becoming completely sterile ones. The
vegetal soil was extracted selectively before the
mining activity start, and conserved in deposits.
The main elements, which express the quality of the
Miocene formations located between the coal
seams, which could be used in the land
rehabilitation, are shown in the table 2.
Taking into account the chemical properties of
these materials, which have a reduced phosphorus
content, a reduced to great content of potassium and
a high value of pH, they can be considered fertile
ones and used for the recovery of the potential of the
damaged lands, if thy are located in the upper side of
the dam. The capacity of these materials in order to
be utilized in the land rehabilitation is presented in
the table 3.
Related to the natural vegetation, in the mining
zone were identified 110 species of under-
Mediterranean herbaceous, 34 Pontic-
Mediterranean species, 13 Pontic and 13 Balcanic
species. The vegetation is specific for the
géomorphologie zones and can be differentiated as:
• secondary meadows between tablelands and
planes;
• secondary meadows between hills and
tablelands;
• common oak forests on hills and tablelands;
• beech forests alternating with oak forests mixed
with other species;
Even if some associations have not disappeared,
the mining activity in the zone has totally destroyed
totally the vegetation in the used areas, and has
strongly influenced the vegetation in the
surrounding areas. However, due to the chemical
properties of the sterile materials, a rapid
installation of the spontaneous vegetation on the
released lands vas noticed, but with a totally
different structure related to the initial one (see
photo 1).
3. ECOLOGICAL REHABILITATION OF THE
LANDS
In the organizational structure of the Lignite
national Company a department is dealing with the
problems of environmental impact of the mining
activity and the land rehabilitation of the affected

901
Photo 1 Photo 2

Photo 3 Photo 4

Photo 5 Photo 6

zones. In the frame of this department, specialists
from different fields are working (mining,
geotechnics, agronomy, forestry, sociology, etc.)
In the process of the land rehabilitation
plaiming, the specialists has taken into account a
series of real and verified requests:
• of the inhabitants of the zone;
• of the territory, seen as a subject capable to
express attractions and rejections towards its
utilization;

902
 • of the traditions, seen as a verified relation
between the local culture and territory.
The decisions in the released land rehabilitation
activity, the main principles of the ecological
reclamation was taken into account, such as:
The principle of globality - which means that
the territory (landscape) represent a living
organism, great and unique, which perceptible
biological characters and shapes are results of the
dynamic and superposition of multiple natural and
cultural components, which interactions are
adjusted and calibrated permanently. In other
words, any action against the environment must
take into account the fundamental requirements of
any living form, its reports between the
components of the ecosystem on long periods of
time.
The principle of ambiental autonomy. A given
territory has its proper attractions and rejections for
any hypothetical utilization, which can be revealed
by a certain analysis methodology. In the case of
the concerned territory, this principle has imposed
the perfect knowledge of all details before making
any decision.
The principle of minimal dimensioning and
reversibility. The protection and the good land
management must be realized maintaining the
anthropic influences at a minimal level in terms of
dimensions and amount of physical aggression
against the environment. It is necessary to act in
such a manner, to allow the reconversion of the
zone towards another utilization or its
renaturalization when the damaging activity is
closed.
The principle of economics supposes that a
given territory represents a very important
economical value for sustaining any form of life.
Than cannot suggest a contradiction between the
economical and ecological requests; anytime must
be identified all the environmental and economical
long term advantages for a given utilization of the
territory.
The tradition respect principle. Any
geographical and cultural zone generates its proper
local distinctive tradition. The respect of this local
tradition in the planing of action against the
territory imposes the preservation of consolidated
cultural expressions.
Taking into account these requirements and the
fundamental principles of rehabilitation the
specialists form the Department of rehabilitation,
together with the local authorities and de
community, has decided to recover the land for
agricultural and wine-growing use. This recovering
activity begun many years ago, the first experience
dating back in 1969 when the first wheat culture,
and in the next year the first corn one.
903
3.1 .Agricultural rehabilitation
On the external waste deposit of the Tismana open
pit mine, experiments were made between 1981-
1983 regarding the viability of four species of
cultivated plant-wheat, com, potato and clover - in
condition of two soils: yellow clay and bluish clay.
In the period 1984-1985 another experiment was
performed on the dam of Cicani-Balta Unchiasului,
formed mainly in yellow clay using four plant
species: com, wheat, oat and clover. The
experiments were performed on a 4-year crop, and
the field of trefoil has the objective to contribute to
increasing the soil content in organic materials and
restructuring the soil.
In the period 1993-1994 the experiments were
restarted on the Cicani dam using 6 species of
plants: potato, corn, oat, peas, two-row barley and
vetch. The results obtained in the two experimental
fields have shown a continuing increase of the
production, proportional with the process of
solidification of clays (see Photo 2).
3.2. Fruit and wine growing recultivation
The dams in the Oltenia mining region offer very
favorable conditions for fmit trees with early
maturity.
The results obtained on the plantation on the
Cicani dam has shown the good behavior of the
apple tree and the plum tree (photos 3 and 4) on
which productions of 24.9 tons/ha respectively 8.2
tons/ha were obtained after 12-13 years. The
production of sweet cherry was 4.1 tons/ha and the
cherry one was 3.8 tons/ha. The walnut tree has not
fruitful and the peanut tree vas used successfully
for stabilizing the slopes.
Regarding the wine growing, the plantations of
wine in the Cicani zone has demonstrated that it is
possible to obtain good results by a good
preparation of the terrain, such as annual and basic
fertilization. (PhotoS). The breed of grape
cultivated on the dams of the Cicani-Garla
perimeter has realized normal productions in terms
of quality and quantity. The breed Feteasca regala
has produced 12.2tons/ha, the Merlot one 11.7
tons/ha and the Riesling Italian 10.1 tons/ha.
3.3. Forest rehabilitation
In this field the aforestments realized in the zones
of the external dams of the Garla open pit mine of
125 ha, the pine forest of the Tismana I perimeter,
of 32 ha after 16 years and the 40 ha forests of
Rovinari zone can be mentioned. (Photo 6)
The behavior of the cultivated species, annuals
or multi-annuals, wine or tree growing and forestry
has demonstrated that the technologies of
rehabilitation, recultivation and improvement
comply with the requirements of all species. In
most cases, the productions are greater then the
ones obtained on natural soil.

CONCLUSIONS

The process of land rehabilitation of the areas

damaged by the open pit lignite mining is under
performing, the environment protection aspects are
considered in a high grade.
However, it will be necessary to consider this
activity in a global approach, in order to lead to a
homogenous character of the landscape, social and
economic life in the concerned area after the
complete closing of mining activity.
In this respect, more studies of prognosis must be
performed, which offer the possibility to assess
globally the future utilization of damaged zones.

REFERENCES

l.Studiu de evaluare a impactului produs de

extractia lignitului in miniere ale Olteniei. 1996.
ICSITPML, Craiova
2. Oneto, G. 1977. Manuale di piaficazione del pae­
saggio. II Sole 24 Ore. Pirola S.p.A.
3. Baican, G. & Huidu, E. 2000. Redarea in circuitul
economie a suprafetelor de teren aféctate de
exploatarea lignitului. CNLO Tg.Jiu.

904
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Elim inating negative environm ental im pacts o f large opencast

m ining equipm ent

L.Hanuska
Vitkovice-Prodeco, Teplice, Czech Republic

ABSTRACT: The energy market in the Czech Republic is liberalising. The newly accepted state energy
policy set new priorities including EU-friendly legislation. According medium-term policy, brown coal
mining will continue to play important role in the energy mix over next 40 years. Such strategy calls for
investment allocation into new mining equipment for opencast mine sites. Actually, the principal issues for
producers of mining equipment are strengthened need of eliminating negative environmental impacts related
to the operation within the densely populated landscape. New requirements cover also greater operator
efficiency and comfort and improved maintenance and serviceability by minimising of human work.The
Vitkovice-Prodeco, j.s.c. manufactures and supplies new equipment in response to set of regulation according
ISO 14000 and relevant EU standards.

The energy market in the Czech Republic is
liberalising. According to European Union
requirements, the legal system had to precede this
liberalisation. The first step was to develop the
energy policy of the state. This policy, which was
accepted in January 2000 doesn't have legislative
character. It is however a framework which should
form the basis for future acts. It formulates tasks and
especially defines deadlines, apart from otherwise
assuming that brown coal mining will be finished in
2040. Electricity consumption in the Czech
Republic is gradually decreasing; last year by more
than 2.7 % and this year it should further decrease
by 1.5 - 2 %. The biggest surplus of electricity is
expected on the market in 2003 when the total
electricity generation will be around 19 % higher
than is the predicted maximum capacity of power
industry system. Contrary to this, in 2015 the
construction of a new power plant is being
considered.
Coal mining companies operating in the extensive
area of the Northern and Western Bohemia basins
produce 43 - 48 Mt/y and are solving tasks of
sustainable levels of mining by environmental-
friendly methods. Such methods maintain quality of
life in areas affected by brown coal mining and
combustion. Investment in the renewal of mining
equipment is a crucial condition of technical, safety
and environmental requirements and equates to
levels set by the European Union, especially
standards ISO 9001 and ISO 14000. At the
beginning of 2000, spreader ZPDEl 6300 was
commissioned at Nastup Tusimice Mines in North
Bohemian coalfield; this giant machine is fulfilling
all above requirements and is the first représentant
of new generation machinery.
So what makes its construction so exceptional?
Especially the fact that the construction of the
spreader is influenced by the effort to create highly
efficient and reliable equipment, cutting down on
human work input and energy consumption. This
machine also has a minimum of negative
environmental impacts. Project development work
on the spreader was characterised by close co­
operation with the customer. Solution of the main
part of the project was concluded in consultations
between Vitkovice-Prodeco's designers and the
client's experts with the main effort to find optimum
solutions providing future reliable operation of the
spreader in the difficult conditions.
Construction of the spreader fulfilled the criteria of
present state-of-art trends, characterised by:
• Conversion from walking undercarriages to
crawler mounted undercarriages. In other words,
preference of relatively higher speeds of
movement as oppose to manoeuvrability.
• Simplification of machine design, energy and
weight efficient and also low costs design.

905
• Maximum unification of base parts with the aim
to limit the assortment of required spare parts.
• Well-balanced lifetime of the parts in use,
optimised until general overhaul od the machine.
• Solving of supporting structure issues to enable
maximum pre-assemly in the production plant
and mine site assemly place and by this to
shorten the running time of the installation.
• Equipping the machine with advanced control
and monitoring systems compatible with present
systems in the opencast coal mine and ensuring
reliable operation of the machine.
• Continuing assessment of possible
environmental impacts and their minimisation.
How are these principles involved in the design of
the spreader?
• The machine is destined for operation in very
difficult conditions and is constructed to work in
inclinations greater than normal (transverse slope
5.8 %, gradient slope 7.0 %).
• A 3-point crawler mounted undercarriage is used
(10 m/min as maximum travel speed). The
undercarriage is unified with the chassis of
excavator's crowding cars. These will be
delivered shortly.
• Transporting routes have been solved in close
co-operation with the client's experts, with the
aim to minimise wear rate of the conveyor belts,
to increase the service life of the rollers and to
reduce flue dust emissions of transported
material to the surrounding area.
• Use of gearboxes with presicion ground teeth
and dynamically balanced rollers to partially
eliminate noise emissions to the surrounding
area of spreader.
• The spreader is equipped with a central
lubrication system, which eliminates the
influence of human factor, optimises lubricant
delivery to the individual lubrication points and
reduces lubricant consumption. This has as a
final consequence a positive impact on the
environment.
• The advanced control and monitoring system is
100 % backed-up („hot back-up“) providing
maximum reliability, to make possible perfect
control of the machine by using a minimum
number of control components. The system also
identifies failures and contributes to
improvement of equipment safety because the
operator is kept informed about the activity of
individual systems and the overall situation in
906
the machine and its immediate surroundings,
reducing the risk of ecological accidents.
• All regulated driving gears are equipped with
frequency converters, which have a positive
influence on the electricity consumption.
• Cabs are designed in co-operation with the
atelier of a top Czech industrial designer with
the aim to secure the optimum view from the
cabin windows and create optimum ergonomic
location of all control components. Co-operation
was also concentrated on the creative cab interior
design to reduce the risk of operator fatigue and
also to optimise temperature regimes in the cab.
• The machine is equipped with devices for
connected measurement of height of loose soil
material in all wather conditions - another
contribution to increase safety.
The development of the spreader was overseen
according to the quality control plan which
specified ways of ensuring construction activities
took place in set order, related to proposal, work or
product as subject to contract provision and quality
system certification according ISO 9001.
The construction of this machine was conceived in
accordance with the Environmental Managmenet
System ISO 14000 for it to reduce environmental
impact during manufacture, installation, operation
and de-commissioning after usable lifetime.
Comparing the new spreader with the machines of a
similar capacity level, it is evident that the volume
of oil fillings is 75 % less because the spreader has a
more economical lubrication system. A special noise
suppresion and dust nuisance cutting package for
the spreader was mentioned earlier. By use of
newest calculation methods significant weight
savings of 400 tonnes was achived in contrast with
spreader ZP 6600, which again means important
material and energy savings just in the manufacture
stage. Progressive solution of electrical equipment
means another savings during spreader operation.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 178 3
M ining aerology - Factor o f ecological safety o f environm ent
S.A.Kaliev
The Kunaev's Institute of Mining, Almaty, Kazakhstan
V V O glov
Agency on Mine Inspection, Almaty, Kazakhstan
ABSTRACT: The paper presents new point of view on a problem of mining aerology and proves that mining
aerology is the subsystem, which w ill ensure full ecological safety of environment near mining-and-
metallurgical objects.
Kazakhstan is rich in mineral resources, which
define mining industry (M I) as one of the main
branches, reflecting Kazakhstan's economic
potential. However, modern condition of mining
industry shows decrease of effectiveness of
production owing to both abrupt deterioration of
mining-and-geological conditions of deposits and
necessity of ensuring ecological safety, when
opening of mineral resources.
Today technical and technological decisions, when
opening of deposits, are taken out ignoring full
requirements of ecological safety. Ecological safety
includes determination of necessary ecologically safe
characteristics, which define a level of adaptiveness
of systems and sub-systems of mining to
environment when comprehensive mineral resources
exploiting. Mining ecology has to do with such
problems decisions as a science, exploring displays,
tendencies and behaviours, which express changes of
environment under action of mining practice. The
purpose of mining ecology is to bring out after­
effects of mining practice's action on environment;
to establish parameters, defining such after-effects,
to create methods for their ecological evaluation; to
substantiate methods of maintenance of ecological
standards when exploiting o f mineral wealth. As is
well known mineral wealth is irreversible and
constantly modifying resource of life's work of
society, which interacts with biosphere as a whole by
system method. It is necessary to emphasize that
ensuring of ecological safety o f opening of mineral
resources has today no proper common procedure,
which allows to carry out this maintenance at the
907
same level as when substantiating technical and
economic parameters of opening of mineral
resources and mine safety.
So, indexes of ecological safety are not worked out
at a necessary level. And when designing of mining
objects and technological processes, designers, as a
rule, don't use parameters of ecological safety.
Today we can't find any case of organisation of
monitoring (monitoring of pollution, biological,
geochemical, ecological and so on) at ore mining
enterprises on the constant basis, though it should be
of great importance for environment. So, for
prevention and liquidation of negative anthropogenic
influence on environment, creation of normal habitat
area for human being it is necessary, in the first
place, reliable, unbiased and timely evaluation of
ecological condition of environment. Only in this
case it is possible to make a decision on regulation
of environment quality. Hence, successful
development and forming of science on mining
ecology and environment must become the basis of
carrying out of ecological activities in all branches of
industry, including mining industry.
So, a useful mineral mining is one of the
anthropogenic sources of atmosphere pollution,
which exerts a destructive effect on environment and
disturbs its balance.
The main problem of ecological balance
disturbance is emission of toxic pollutants in a form
of dust-gas cloud when deposits mining by
underground and open methods. Toxic gases,
aerosols of mineral oils and other pollutants, which
are evolved during blasting operations and self-
propelled machines with diesel motor using, are the
cause of irreparable damage to environment.
It is established that under action of wind activity
harmful pollutants are spreaded over substantial
distances (up to hundred kilometres) and poison
atmosphere of cities and settlements when
precipitating on soil surface, water reservoirs and
agricultural land. This process is caused of
degradation of wild nature gene pool.
So, the main cause of ecological danger of mines
and open casts by factor "ecological danger" we
must consider emission of harmful toxic pollutants
into atmosphere, that is in environment.
It is proved that mining aerology, as a system,
which is concerned with decreasing of level of
harmful pollutants emission from mining-and-
metallurgical objects, has some effect on ecological
condition of environment near these objects. A
regime of function of this system, when being wide
spectrum of conditions of interrelationship of
existing technology, equipment and sanitary-
hygienic conditions may be different, and level of
unfavourable impact on environment will be
different too, and results of this influence may be
indefmitive.
Let we consider an influence of unfavourable
impacts on environment when normal operating of
system of mining aerology at mining-and-
metallurgical objects (MMO).
Let the system "mining-aerology-ecology of
environment", which interact with each other, has on
crossing some set of measuring parameters N, that
is:
N eA in A 2 (1)
where A^ - index of mining industry by factor of
unfavourable impacts, which give off into
environment; A2 - ecology of environment.
As is clear, N eA j andNeA2.
Let's note that A2 is probabilistic value, as
parameters N, which is distributed by any low:
P(Rj) = Rj(Rj,i), j- l,N (2)
within intervals:
A
Rj > Rj > Rj
V effective measures on the basis of new technical
So, if we adopt, that we have N crossing parameters
of relations of a source of unfavourable impacts of
mining aerology with environment, that some
regulating conditions will exist for limited
908
concentrations of harmful pollutants in dust-gas
cloud, in atmosphere and so on. So, for every
Rj,i = 1, N parameters it is possible to determine
value of criterion of unfavourable impacts in the
form:
Jj-S (p (R j)d R j (3)
where j - number of variations of qualitative
characteristics of studied system; Rj - limited
concentration or normalized value for parameter of
relations;
A
Rj, Rj - correspondingly high and low levels of value
V
for parameter of relations.
It is clear that if Rj > Rj, than Jj=0; and when Rj <
Rj < Rj, Jj = 1. In all other cases: 0 < Jj < 1.
Therefore, value for determination of criterion of
evaluation of unfavourable impacts we may write
down as:
N
Jo = [l/VN(3VSJj2) (4)
j
Physical essence of the criterion (4) is in evaluation
of positive or negative influence of mine aerology by
factor of unfavourable impacts on environment near
mining-and-metallurgical objects and takes the form
of average norm of vector in N-measured space
when 0 < Jo < 1. This criterion allows to normalize
and to carry out an evaluation of level harmful
influence of mining industry on ecology and to make
a decision of wide circle of problems for ecological
control.
CONCLUSIONS
In connection with foregoing it may be established
that mining aerology is that subsystem of the mining
industry (MS), which will ensure full ecological
safety of environment near mining-and-metallurgical
objects on the basis of elimination of sources of
harmful pollutants emission into atmosphere by
means and systems.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The system o f control o f the general absorbed doze o f a dust and definition
o f possible risk o f disease m ining worker

B. Kirin
Department of Mine Aerology and Safety, Moscow State Mining University, Russia

ABSTRACT: On address the questions dust of dynamics in mining working are considered and the installa­
tion sites of gauges are certain. Is shown, that use of domestic gauges HKB-4 and HKAPII. now is expedient
The time of interrogation last is certain and the basic circuit of definition of the absorbed doze of a dust with
definition of possible risk of disease and acceptance of the decision on continuation of work miner in a dusty
atmosphere or conclusion him on rehabilitation is given.

- Distribution of the recommendations about reha­

1 INTRODUCTION bilitation mining worker.

The occupational diseases dust aetiology at the min­

ing enterprises of Russian Federation make 44 %
from all kinds of occupational diseases.
The general expenses for compensation of damage,
inflikt by this kind of diseases, only on a coal indus­
try make millions Roubles per one year. The number
again of revealed patients grows. It occurs because
practically it is impossible to achieve LAK even at
application of a complex dust suppresion of meas­
ures in a consequence of high intensity generatecof
dast. Therefore it is extremely important to create
system ensuring protection mining worker by time of
stay him in a dusty atmosphere. Such system should
include:
- Substantiation of devices of the control of concen­
tration of a dust;
- Substantiation of installation sites of devices of the
control of concentration of a dust;
- Substantiation of the period of measurement of
concentration of a dust;
- Substantiation of a method of transfer of the infor­
mation about a dust content of an atmosphere;
- Substantiation of the equipment of transfer and rec­
ognition of the information about a dust content of
an atmosphere;
- Substantiation of a method of account of the ab­
sorbed doze of a dust mining worker and definition
of possible risk of disease mining worker pneu-
monaconiosis;
2 SOME QUESTIONS OF DUST DYNAMICS TO
A SUBSTANTIATION OF INSTALLATION
SITES OF GAUGES OF THE CONTROL OF A
DUST CONTENT
By researches of dust dynamics in mining Workings
is established, that the change of concentration of a
dust in space and in time depends on speed of
movement of air in mining working.
So, the change of concentration of a dust on com­
mon weight on length of development submits ex­
ponential to the law. A Fig. 1-3. Practically at all
speeds of movement of air on mining development
the dust content is sharply reduced on first thirty me­
ters from a source generate of dust. In the further de­
crease of a dust content goes slowly and on distance
80-100 M from a source generate of dust the concen­
tration of a dust practically changes a little.
/fHcnepcHBiH the structure of a dust of a fig. 1
changes also quickly on distance 80 m from a source
generate of dust further the concentration of frac­
tions of a dust 30-25 microns and less appear.
The change of concentration of a dust on height of
development is characterized by that the maximum
of concentration is observed at ground of develop­
ment. At height 1,5-2,0 m from ground of develop­
ment it makes 30-40 % from concentration of a dust
at ground of development.

909
The change of concentration on length of mining
Working can be described by the formula
c = cor ( 1)
Where Co - initial concentration of a dust near to a
source of a dust generate, mg/m^;
1 - Distance from a place of a dust generate up to an
installation site of the gauge of the control of con­
centration of a dust, m;
t - Factor of attenuation of concentration of a dust;
e - Basis of the natural logarithm;
,t = MI4 ---
s (2)
ÌQ
Where m - factor which is taking into account sedi­
mentation of a dust; for preparatory mining Working
m=0,52, for clearing saGoea m = 0,064;
S - Cross section of mining working, m^;
Q - Charge of air on development, m^
For the account of change of concentration of a dust
in section of mining working factor of a field of con­
centration of a dust is entered
(3)
1-e-
Where ao - factor which is taking into account set­
tling of particles of a dust in turbulent a flow, 1/m; ao
= Vo/Kt;
Vo - speed settling of particles of a dust, m/s;
H - Height of mining working, m;
h - Height of installation of the gauge of the control
of concentration of a dust, m;
Kt - factor turbulent diffusion, m^/s^.
The carried out(spent) accounts have shown, that
factor Ki does not bring in essential changes in
measured concentration of a dust and makes no more
than 5-7%.
Therefore for practical accounts it is quite possible
to use the formula (1).
In view of stated expediently establishment of
gauges of the control of a dust content on distance
50-80 m from sources of a dust generate in view of
removal of a source of a dust generate from an in­
stallation site of the gauge.
For the account of concentration of a dust in clearing
face the installation of gauges of concentration of a
dust on ventilating drift is determined under the for­
mula
Le = 5D +UnH, m ( 4)
910
Where D - hydraulic diameter of section ventilating
drift, m;
Un - speed mobile clearing face for a cycle, m/cycle;
n - Quantity of cycles per one month.
At driving of mining workings blasthole by a way
the gauges of the control of concentration of a dust
are established behind a zone throw of gases and
dust at explosion.
In all cases the gauge of the control of concentration
of a dust is established at height 1,6 m from ground
of mining working.
3 SUBSTANTIATION OF DEVICES OF THE
CONTROL OF CONCENTRATION OF A DUST
The carried out analysis of used now devices of the
control of concentration of a dust abroad and in Rus­
sia has shown, that in foreign practice there are de­
vices allowing to transfer the information in item of
the tax the information. However, they are expensive
and the creations of expensive base of service de­
mand. Besides the service them demands the certain
qualification of the workers. In view of stated the
application of devices HKB-4 and HKAP II, allow­
ing is recommended to measure concentration of a
dust within the limits of 0,1-3000 mg/m^ at tempera­
ture from 40^ up to 50^ C and to transfer the infor­
mation to reception item on distance 1000-3000 m in
a discrete mode and under the given program.
They keep in memory the information, which can be
received at any time.
4 SUBSTANTIATION OF THE PERIOD OF
MEASUREMENT OF CONCENTRATION OF A
DUST
At the automatic control of concentration of a dust
the period of interrogation of gauges is established.
The indications of the gauge in time tx + t represent
average meaning x(t) on an interval (tx; tx + 1).
ij^+r
x ,= (5 )
tk
The mathematical decision of the given equation
with the account dispersion, expressed through cor­
relation fimction, has shown, that the measurement
of concentration of a dust should occur continuously.
The transfer of the information about change of con­
centration of a dust in a working zone measured by
the gauge, can be carried out on telephone commu­ Where tB - age of the worker, years;
nication or on the appropriate cables. Thus the at­ to - general experience of work, years;
tenuation of an initial signal is possible. Installation tn - experience of work in contact to a dust, years;
of "tutors" strengthening an initial signal therefore is Ki - factor which is taking into account harmful of a
provided not giving it to be deformed. dust;
The system provides two-level hierarchical structure. K2 - factor which is taking into account excess of
At the first level the half-stationary gauges of the measured concentration of a dust of mean-
control of a dust content are established. ing(importance) LAK;
At the second level the centre of the tax and process­ K3 - factor which is taking into account a category of
ing of the information (CTP), including means of weight of work.
display, registration and duplication of the informa­ Cms - middle shift of dust, mg/m^
tion, accoimt of a memory doze of a dust and defini­ R - risks of disease
tion of probable risk of disease functions. Is shown, that at R;^ = 1200 possible risks of disease
In CTP the centralized data gathering about concen­ pneumonaconiosis make 5%. If the calculated mean­
tration of a dust on workplaces, processing, analysis ing R > R/i - is necessary miner for directing on
of the information, preparation and transfer to the MCAOCMOXp.
consumers of the final information about the dust,
absorbed a doze, of controllable object is carried out.
The information interchange between the first and
second levels can be carried out as automatically,
and not automated way with the help of removal
(reading) of the information from various carriers
her(it). All received data are brought in a computer
memory.
The received information is processed in the
COMPUTER under the given program and is kept in
memory.
Schematically algorithm of account of the absorbed b,fl\
doze of a dust is submitted in a fig. 4. It includes the
following stages:
- Definition of meanings lungs of ventilation V ji de­ Figure 1. Change of dust fractions
along the mine working.
pending on weight of carried out works;
- Definition of factor harmfulness of a dust Ki de­
pending on percentage free SiOi; N,%
- Measurement of middle shift of concentration of a
dust received from devices of the control of concen­ 90
tration of a dust; 80
- Account of the absorbed doze of a dust for change 0 70
Ps; BO
- Account of the absorbed doze of a dust for all time g SO
0
of contact with a dust Po C3 40
0
In view of time of stay in a dusty atmosphere also 0
-♦ -> 30
gives out the information on continuation of work 90
miner in conditions of a dusty atmosphere and con­ 10
clusion it(him) from a dusty zone.
0 hO 00 100 200 '
On the basis of the received data the integrated pa­
rameter of possible risk of diseases
Figure 2. Change of dust concentration
nneBMOKOKHOSOM Rd pays off.
along the mine working.
On the data of researches TKancBa R pays off under
the formula

R = 8,6tB + 6to + 19,4tn Kj + 6,4Cms/cv. K2. K3 (6)

911
 REFERENCES

1 Kirin B " The Automated system ntuieBoro of the

control and account memory doze of a dust A
magazine " Safety of work in an industry ", JSfo 71,
1996r.
2. Kirin B, Kudryashov V, Pozdnyakov G, Tkachev
V "System of the automatic account personal dust of
exposition dozes". The theses of the report on the in­
ternational aerosol symposium Moscow, 1994.
3. Ahmetov THIS YEAR etc. " Systems of the con­
tinuous control of industrial pollution of an atmos­
phere ". M., 1997.
4. Sanitary norms and rules 1996.

Figure 3. Change of dust concentration along

the mine working (a-u=0,3 m/s; b-u=0,4 m/s;
c-u=l m/s).
1 - experimental data; 2 - theoretical data.

Fig. 4. The provisional circuit of the control Memory

absorbed H o h of a doze of a dust

912
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Critical factors affecting rehabilitation o f abandoned phosphogypsum stacks

K .K om nitsas
Department o f Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, National Technical University,
Athens, Greece

ABSTRACT: Abandoned phosphogypsum (PG) stacks are often characterised by residual acidity and elevated
concentrations of toxic elements and radionuclides. In most cases, the lack of a cover allows aerial transporta­
tion of fine particles, solubilization and migration of toxic and radioactive elements and finally results in con­
tamination of nearby soils, surface- and groundwater. The most viable rehabilitation option involves the appli­
cation of a vegetative cover, providing that several undesirable characteristics of PG are modified. In the pre­
sent paper, the critical factors affecting rehabilitation of abandoned PG stacks, as derived from a field pilot
application, are presented and discussed. These factors include modification of PG surface with the addition
of amendments and nutrients (such as limestone, kaolin, bentonite or sewage sludge), establishment of an ac­
tive soil microbial community in the roots microenvironment and selection and planting of suitable perennial
species and bushes exhibiting low toxic elements uptake.

1. INTRODUCTION the abovementioned risks, providing that PG critical

Phosphogypsum (PG), a calcium sulphate dihydrate-
CaS04.2H20, is a hazardous waste resulting from
plants treating phosphate ores to produce fertilisers.
PG is in general disposed of in stacks that are char­
acterised by (May & Sweeny, 1980):
• Residual acidity (pH ranges between 2 and 5).
• Inherent low-level radioactivity, associated to Ra-
226.
• Nutrients deficiency and low nutrient holding
capacity, and
• Tendency for caking and crust formation.
Since most of these stacks are abandoned and
lack a vegetative cover, humans may be exposed to
several risks, due to:
• Direct gamma irradiation.
• Radon emissions in air.
• Contamination of surface- and groundwater,
caused by solubilization and migration of toxic
and radioactive elements.
• Aerial transfer and subsequent deposition of fine
particles to the nearby agricultural lands, resulting
in increased levels of Ra and U uptake in crops.
It is therefore evident, that PG stacks should be
reclaimed in an environmentally acceptable manner.
The application of a vegetative cover seems as one
of the most viable options for eliminating most of
characteristics are modified (Patel et al. 1994).
Modification of these characteristics may be im­
plemented by:
• Addition of amendments and nutrients (such as
limestone, kaolin, bentonite or sewage sludge).
• Establishment of an active soil microbial com­
munity in the roots microenvironment, and
• Selection and planting of suitable perennial spe­
cies and bushes that exhibit sustainable growth
potential and limited uptake in toxic and radioac­
tive elements.
The establishment of such cover provides a per­
manent low cost rehabilitation solution and has the
following advantages (Komnitsas 1995):
• pH of PG modified substrates is increased to val­
ues tolerated by most of the indigenous species,
used for the development of the cover.
• PG stacks are isolated from the environment,
therefore wind erosion and dusting is eliminated.
• Oxygen diffusion and water infiltration into the
PG mass is reduced, so that PG’s acid generation
potential is minimized.
• Excess of infiltrating water is subsequently re­
turned to the atmosphere via evaportanspiration.
• Radon emissions in air as well as toxic and radio­
active elements uptake in plants is minimized.
• Improves aesthetics of rehabilitated PG disposal
areas.

913
 The objective of this paper is to present and dis­
cuss the critical factors affecting rehabilitation of
abandoned PG stacks, so that these can be used as a
suitable substrate that supports the establishment of
a vegetative cover and minimizes most of the risks
for humans and the environment. The results shown
derive from an 18-month field application on a PG
stack slope at Navodari, Romania.
2. DESCRIPTION OF THE SITE
Navodari is located 20 km north of Constanta and 3
km west of the Romanian Black Sea coast. The 15
ha chemical complex produces fertilisers by treating
phosphates ores using the wet method. This method
involves treatment of pyrites for the production of
sulphuric acid and subsequent attack of phosphate
ores. The plant has commenced operation in 1959
and so far over 3,000,000 m^ of PG have been dis­
posed of in two abandoned stacks over an area of 40
ha.
An environmental study performed earlier, has
shown that PG stacks are characterised by (Komnit-
sas et al. 1999a):
• Low pH, ranging between 4.0-5.5, depending on
location and depth. The highest values were
measured on surface samples.
• Elevated concentrations of toxic ions, radionu­
clides and sulphates.
• Tendency for solubilization and transportation of
toxic elements and radionuclides.
• High soluble or readily available fractions of cer­
tain heavy metals.
A risk assessment study performed on a “source­
pathway-target” principle (Cambridge et al. 1999)
has shown that the major risks associated with PG
stacks are:
• Inhalation of dust by residents, as well as deposi­
tion of dust on agricultural lands.
• Solubilization and migration of toxic elements
from PG stacks resulting in contamination of
nearby soils, surface streams and groundwater.
• High uptake in toxic elements in plants grown
sparsely on slopes of the older stacks. Pb, Zn and
Cu concentrations in the aerial parts of the plants
and in roots can be as high as 5000 mg/kg.
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The study of the critical factors affecting rehabilita­
tion of PG stacks was performed during a field pilot
scale application, which was conducted in an area of
200 m , over a period of 18 months, on a slope of a
Navodari PG dump.
The factors studied included:
914
• Modification of PG surface with the addition of
amendments and nutrients, such as dolomite - D,
kaolin - K, sewage sludge - SS, and clean soil -
CS.
• Establishment of an active soil microbial com­
munity in the roots microenvironment, and
• Selection and planting of suitable perennial spe­
cies and bushes that exhibit sustainable growth
potential and limited uptake in toxic and radioac­
tive elements.
In order to study the effect of these factors, two
series of field tests were carried out in plots
(Ix2x0.25m), with the following configuration:
Control PG (no addition of amendments and nu­
trients)
T1 PG + D (2 g/kg) + K (15 g/kg) + SS (30
g/kg)
T2 PG + SS (30 g/kg)
T3 PG + CS (25 cm overburden cap)
The selection of the amendments used was based
on the following properties:
• Dolomite provides nutrients to the substrates,
such as calcium and magnesium, and in addition
can neutralize to a certain extent the generated
acidic leachates.
• Kaolin also provides nutrients to the system and
increases its water holding capacity.
• Sewage sludge, with its high organic content and
near neutral pH, assists in the establishment of a
rich soil microbial community, enabling thus the
sustainable development of the vegetative cover.
• Soil, can be both used as a suitable substrate and
as a source of nutrients.
The contents of each plot were moistened using
water to which fertilizers were applied as solutions
(Komnitsas 1999b).
The perennial species and bushes planted in each
plot are shown in Table 1. The selection of these
species was based on previous glasshouse experi­
ments. The initial height of the perennial species
planted varied between 1 and 5 cm, while the initial
height of bushes varied between 50 and 150 cm.
Seeds collected from the first vegetative cycle were
sown again the following season, in order to study
the growth potential of the species in a second vege­
tative cycle.
Prior to planting, as well as at several predefined
time intervals afterwards, representative samples
(modified substrate samples) from each plot were
collected and analysed for pH and electrical conduc­
tivity (EC) using a 2:1 water:soil ratio. The quanti­
ties of the extractable elements in the substrates and
amendments were measured after treatment with ei­
ther Melich I or HCl solution.
Elemental analysis of PG and amendments was
performed by applying digestion techniques and
measurement of ion concentration in solution by
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. Plant aerial
biomass, as well as roots, were collected, dried, di­
gested and analysed for plant uptake in toxic and ra­
dioactive elements.
The soil microbial activity, which is an indicator
of substrates fertility and therefore plant growth, was
determined in selected samples by applying standard
microbiological techniques.

-Control - - -1- - - T1 _T2 - - • . - - T 3

Table 1. Perennial species and bushes planted______
Perennial species / Bush / common name Figure la.
common name
Agropyron (Elymus) repens / Acer negundo / Box elder
Salt couch grass
Artemisia absintium / Ailanthus altissima /
Salt warmwood Tree of heaven
Hierochloe repens / Robinia pseudacacia /
Holy grass Acacia
Bromus inermis / Hippophae rhamnoides /
Smooth brome grass Sea buckthorn
Cynodon dactylon / Populus alba and Populus
Bermuda grass nigra / Simon’s popular
Cardaria draba / Eleagnus angustifolia /
Hoary grass Oleaster
Galium humifusum /
Bedstraw
Figure lb.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Substrate modification

The chemical analysis of PG and all amendments

used is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Chemical analysis of PG and amendments

PG D K SS
pH 4.9
EC 1.9*
S (S 0 4 ) 177300
Ca 175500 160000 33029 24335
Mg 77.5 75000 9663 1508
Fe 2350 590 5465 3406
Cu 55 59 531
As 50 Figure 2. pH and EC (mS/cm) variation vs. time.
Zn 75
Al 22 104752 1310
Pb 34.5 Figures la and lb present pH, electrical conduc­
Cd 4.5 tivity and extractable elements concentration for raw
P2O5 22.9 and amended PG wastes, prior to planting.
F 1100 Figure 2 presents pH and electrical conductivity
Na 287 1907 682 variation vs. time over an 18-month experimental
K 220 10277 1095 period.
Ra-226** 475
Pb-210** 442
Figures la, lb. pH, electrical conductivity (in
Th-232** 12.4 mS/cm) and extractable elements concentration (in
Th-234** 53.4 mg/kg) for raw (control) and amended PG sub­
*Electrical Conductivity in mS/cm, **in Bq/kg strates. (Ca in g/kg)
915
 These results confirm the beneficial effect of the
addition of amendments on:
• Increasing substrates pH.
• Decreasing substrates electrical conductivity.
• Enriching substrates with sufficient concentra­
tions of extractable elements.
More specifically:
• Substrates pH and electrical conductivity are
maintained, in all plots and throughout the entire
study period, at levels suitable for plant growth.
Soil seems to have the greatest impact on both in­
creasing pH and decreasing electrical conductiv­
ity. Similar conclusions are drawn when PG is
modified with a mixture of amendments. Sewage
sludge’s impact on these two parameters is less
significant. Substrate pH drops slowly in all plots
during the experimental period, but still remains
at values favouring plant growth. EC follows the
same trend in all plots. It is well known that, de­
creased EC values, when accompanied with a fa­
vourable pH (>4.5), have a positive impact on
germination and plant growth.
• The mixture of amendments seems to provide the
higher quantities of extractable elements, in terms
of Mn, Zn and Cu, while modification of sub­
strates with sewage sludge provides the highest
quantities in terms of Mg, Fe, K and Ca. The
same trend is seen throughout the entire experi­
mental period. These available quantities of
micronutrients guarantee consistent plant growth.
4.2. Establishment of an active microbial community
The measurement of the enzymatic activity of a sub­
strate predicts its potential to sustain vegetation.
These measurements are quite useful for the assess­
ment of the evolution of restored ecosystems.
High enzymatic activities are responsible for the
transformation of different compounds in the sub­
strate and the release of several micronutrients (N, P,
etc.) They are correlated with the microbial popula­
tion of the substrate, since most of the soil enzymes
are produced from the microorganisms present. De­
hydrogenase activity is directly correlated with the
active biomass, since this enzyme is active only in
living cells.
Figure 3 shows the values of the enzymatic activi­
ties (dehydrogenase, urease, phosphatase) of the sub­
strates, prior to planting and after a period of 18
months.
Field data show that the addition of amendments
has a beneficial effect in the increase of all enzy­
matic activities. Their values remain at high levels,
after a period of 18 months, confirming that the
modified substrates are suitable for the sustainable
development of a vegetative cover. Soil has the most
prominent effect in increasing enzymatic activities.
916
but also sewage sludge, with its high organic con­
tent, assists in the establishment of an active soil mi­
crobial community. Microbiological analyses have
shown that in the plant roots area, over 15 physio­
logical groups of microorganisms were isolated:
namely, aerobic and facultative anaerobic heterotro-
phic bacteria, proteolytic, cellulosolytic and
amilolytic bacteria, bacteria involved in the nitrogen
cycle, filamentous fungi, yeasts, unicellular algae
etc. The density of these groups varied between 10^
and 10^ cells/g of substrate. Most of these groups are
directly associated with the formation of a fertile
substrate layer, that supports the development of the
cover.
Control
—X—Urease 0 —0— Urease 18
Phosphatase 0 Phosphatase 18
—0— Dehydrogenase 0 —0— Dehydrogenase 18
Figure 3. Enzymatic activities) of the substrates (in
mg formazan/lOOg for dehydrogenase, mg NH4/100g
for urease, mg phenol/lOOg for phosphatase), prior
to planting and after a period of 18 months.
4.3. Plant uptake
Figures 4a and 4b show the toxic elements plant up­
take for Cynodon dactylon and Agropyron repens,
over the entire pilot trial period for test T1.
From this data the following conclusions can be
drawn:
• Two of the species that exhibit one of the best
growth potentials, accumulate high quantities of
toxic elements (Mn, Zn, F, Cd) in their aerial
parts. Especially for Agropyron repens, a species
that grows sparsely on older PG stacks, measured
values for F reach 6000 mg/kg. Such species are
expected to exhibit higher tolerance for growth,
since they are adapted to the local environment.
• Similar trends have been also noticed for the
other species tested (perennial species and
bushes).
• In some cases recorded heights were higher than
those quoted in literature.
 Dry matter yield, concerning aerial biomass of the
Cynodon dactylon
species tested, increased by almost 500% in the
modified substrates after the end of the first vege­
tative cycle, in comparison to the control test. Soil
seems to be the best substrate for the development
of Bromus inermis and Cynodon dactylon, sew­
age sludge for Hierochloe repens, and the mixture
of amendments for Agropyron repens and Galium
humifusum.
Toxic elements uptake measured in plant roots,
exceeds these values by a factor of 3-5.
Radioactive elements uptake, as measured in rep­
resentative aerial parts and in roots, shows that af­
ter the first vegetative cycle U concentration var­
ies between 8.8 and 22 ppm, while Ra concentra­
Figure 4a tion varies between 0.05 and 0.34 Bq/g. These
values increase after the end of the second vegeta­
tive cycle by almost 50%, but still are not consid­
ered high, since background values (depending on
Agropyron repens the host rock) vary between 1 and 6 ppm for U
and between 0.002 and 0.5 Bq/g for Ra.
The overall species growth intensity does not
seem, so far, to be affected by the recorded uptake
in toxic elements. In any case though, and until
additional data is collected and analysed, access
to the rehabilitated area for grazing animals and
humans should be prohibited.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Navodari abandoned phosphogypsum stacks are

-Zn ■ -Cd - x - P b - X - F
Figure 4b
Figure 5. Height of representative perennial species
after a period of 18 months.
Figures 4a and 4b. Plant uptake in aerial parts of
Cynodon dactylon and Agropyron repens, over the
entire pilot trial period (18 months), for test Tl.
Figure 5 shows the final height of representative per­
ennial species, after a period of 18 months.
917
characterised by residual acidity, elevated concentra­
tions and tendency for solubilization and transporta­
tion of toxic ions and radionuclides and finally, high
soluble or readily available fractions of certain toxic
elements.
The major risks associated with these wastes are:
(a) inhalation of dust by residents, as well as deposi­
tion of dust on agricultural lands and (b) contamina­
tion of nearby agricultural lands, surface streams and
groundwater.
The most viable rehabilitation option includes the
application of a vegetative cover, providing that sev­
eral undesirable characteristics of PG are modified.
An 18 month field test, performed on a slope of an
old PG stack, has shown that the critical factors af­
fecting rehabilitation are:
• Modification of PG surface, in terms of pH, EC
and concentration of extractable elements, with
the addition of amendments and nutrients (such as
limestone, kaolin, bentonite and sewage sludge).
• Establishment of an active soil microbial com­
munity in the roots microenvironment, and
• Selection and planting of proper perennial species
and bushes that exhibit sustainable growth poten­
tial and limited uptake in toxic and radioactive
elements.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author would like to acknowledge the financial

support of the European Commission under the Co­
pernicus project entitled “Marine pollution in the
Black Sea due to mining activities: risk assessment,
development of preventive and remedial actions”,
Contract No: ERB-IC15-CT96-0114. He would also
like to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. I. Lazar
and Mrs. LG. Petrisor from the Institute of Biology
of the Romanian Academy and Dr. Dan Georgescu,
from the Institute of Rare and Radioactive Elements
of Bucharest.

REFERENCES

Cambridge, M., C. Hallett & K. Komnitsas 1999.

Selection of remedial actions in tailings disposal
sites based on risk assessment studies: Two case
studies. In R. Amils & A. Ballester (eds), Proc.
International Biohydrometallurgy Symposim,
Madrid, 655-664.
Komnitsas, K., I. Lazar & I. Petrisor 1999a. Applica­
tion of a vegetative cover on phosphogypsum
stacks. Minerals Engineering 12(2): 175-185.
Komnitsas, K., I. Paspaliaris, I. Lazar & LG. Petrisor
1999b. Remediation of phosphogypsum stacks.
Field pilot scale application. In R. Amils & A.
Ballester (eds), Proc. International Biohydro­
metallurgy Symposium, Madrid, 645-654.
May, A. & J.W. Sweeney 1980. Assessment of envi­
ronmental impacts associated with phosphogyp­
sum in Florida. In D.P. Morris & P.W. Moody
(eds). Proceedings of the International Sympo­
sium on Phosphogypsum, Florida Institute of
Phosphate Research, Bartow: 481-490.
Patel, S.K., J.B. Sartain & S.G. Richardson 1994. In­
fluence of amendments on phosphogypsum
chemical characteristics and bermudagrass
growth. International Land Reclamation and
Mine Drainage Conference and the Third Inter­
national Conference on the Abatement of Acidic
Drainage, Pittsburgh, PA, Florida Agric. Exp.
Stn. Journal Series no. R-03637:139-148.

918
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Radon dispersion air m odeling in Banat m ining area

G.O. Madear & E.Traista

University ofPetrosani, Romania
LPop
Baia Mare Northern University, Romania

ABSTRACT: To assess radon dispersion in Ciudanovita - Bradisor - Maidan mining area, we have used the
AUSPLUME software, that is based on a Gaussian plume dispersion model, which mathematical basis de­
rives from the Victorian Environment Protection Authority’s “Plume Calculation Procedure”. It is designed to
predict ground level concentration or dry deposition of pollutants emitted from the one or more sources,
which may be stacks, area sources, volume sources, or any combination of these. A case study is presented in
this paper regarding the dispersion of radon gas from the Uranium mining area of Banat, Romania.

1 DESCRIPTION OF THE AUSPLUME
SOFTWARE
1.1 Meteorological data
The minimum amount of data required by Ausplume
is a list of hourly values (preferably hourly averages)
of wind speed, wind direction, atmospheric stability
(Pasquill class) and mixing depth. Hourly tempera­
tures are also required if the model is to be used to
simulate stacks emitting at temperatures above am­
bient. The model also needs to know the height
above ground level at which the wind observations
were taken and the surface roughness at this site.
1.2 Wind profile exponents
In order to calculate plume rise, AUSPLUME esti­
mates the wind speed at the stack height by extrapo­
lating from the wind speed measured by the ane­
mometer (often located at a standard height of 10
meters). AUSPLUME assumes that the wind speed
increases with height according to the power law:
^ Y
u, =u re j
( 1)
where Uz = wind speed at height Z above the
ground; Uref = speed at the wind measurement height
Zref, and the wind profile exponent, is a function of
stability (and perhaps wind speed).
The most often used exponents schemes are pro­
vided by Ausplume as defaults. These schemes are
usually referred to as the “Irwin urban” and “Irwin
rural” profiles. They assume the wind profile expo­
nents given below:
Stability category: A B C D E F
Irwin Rural: 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.15 0.35 0.55
Irwin Urban: 0.15 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.40 0.60
The wind profile exponents are not considered to
be continuous functions of the observed wind speed
read in from the Meteorological data file. The expo­
nents are instead assigned on the basis of 6 wind
speed intervals. If available, site specific wind pro­
file exponents may be entered for each of the stabil­
ity and wind speed categories (the default wind
categories are 0-3, 3-6, 6-10, 10-16, 16-21 and >21
knots).
1.3 Potential temperature gradients
The potential temperature gradient (or lapse rate ) is
used to calculate a plume’s thermal buoyancy and
the gradual plume rise as it moves downwind. It is
therefore only important for stack emissions above
ambient temperature.
Ausplume default potential temperature gradients
are zero for neutral and unstable conditions, 0.02
K/m for stability E and 0.035 for stability F condi­
tions. Alternatively, the user can specify site specific
values based on Pasquill stability and wind speed
category.

919
1.4 Default decay coefficients
In Ausplume, the exponential decay of pollutants is
modeled by simply multiplying the computed con­
centrations by the factor:
kx/
(2)
where: k = decay coefficient; x = downwind dis­
tance; and U = wind speed at plume height.
1.5 Model parameters
The Model Parameters menu controls the manner in
which the model performs the simulation. The de­
fault options offered by the model will produce ac­
ceptable results in most cases.
Every simulation will require the local surface
roughness height to be entered either directly or by
selecting the appropriate land use category. The
presence of topographic features, buildings or vege­
tation increases the ground’s surface roughness. For
all but the unstable categories (where convective
turbulence dominates), the effect of surface rough­
ness is to increase the vertical mixing of the plume
because of the enhanced mechanical turbulence gen­
erated as the air moves over the ground.
Ausplume can adjust sigma z to take account of
the ground’s aerodynamic roughness based on a
suggestion by Smith (1972). The model calculates a
new value of sigma z based on the uncorrected value
of sigma z according to:
a , = a 4 l.5 8 5 z ° '“ '(0.001X)®J (3)
where:
B = 0.0777 + 0.02151n(z(, ) (4)
X = downwind distance (meters); and zo = surface
roughness (meters).
1.6 Dispersion curves
Plume dimensions are calculated at any point
downwind of the source as a function of the Pasquill
stability class and the horizontal and vertical disper­
sion coefficients.
Ausplume’s default configuration uses measured
hourly averaged wind deviation data (if it is avail­
able in the meteorological data file) to calculate the
horizontal plume dispersion for averaging times of
one hour or longer.
Ausplume provides the option to make an adjust­
ment to values of sigma y or to sigma z or to both to
take accoimt of the enhanced diffusion of highly
buoyant emissions. An improved estimate of sigma
y (or z) is given by:
920
O .IH , m ir { X ,X ^ ]
a^=cT^ + ( 5)
and
O .IH , m i r [ X ,X „ ]
(6)
where Hb = plume rise due to buoyancy; and Xm =
distance from the source to final plume height.
Ausplume provides a simple (but computationally
expensive) option to estimate the enhancement in the
lateral dispersion due to wind directional shear. The
expression suggested by Pasquill (1976) is:
( 7)
where: 2 = angular change (in radians) over the
plume depth; and x = dovmwind distance.
1.7 Plume rise parameters
The Ausplume default configuration assumes the
gradual rise of a buoyant plume. The height of the
plume centerline at some downv^nd distance is the
sum of the initial discharge height plus the plume
rise due to buoyancy and the initial momentum of
the discharge. Ausplume uses Briggs (1975) plume
rise equations with separate expressions for neutral /
unstable and stable conditions.
Ausplume uses the characteristics of the source
(exit velocity, gas temperature) together with data
from the meteorological file (ambient temperature,
wind speed) to calculate the plume rise. Two plume
rise parameters are first calculated:
- momentum flux
( 8)
4 T,
- buoyancy flux
gVd^ fi \ ( 9)
4 ( Ts
where:V = stack discharge velocity (m/s);d = stack
internal diameter (m); Hs = effective discharge
height (m); Ta = ambient temperature (K); Ts =
stack discharge temperature (K); and U = wind
speed at the top of the chimney (m/s).
(1) Plume rise in neutral and unstable conditions
In neutral and unstable conditions, the plume rise is
calculated as:
3F„X^3F,X^ (10)
+
2BJU'
where: H(x) = the plume rise; Hs = stack discharge
height; Bm = jet entrainment coefficient; and Bb =
adiabatic entrainment coefficient (Ausplume’s de­
fault is 0.6).
The plume is assumed to reach its maximum rise
at a downwind distance, Xm, which is given by:
X. =
AP{y+^uf
( 11)
Vu
IfFb = 0then ^
If Fb < 55 m V then X „ = 49¥¿
If Fb > 55 m V then X„=119F"^
The plume rise is assumed to remain constant for
all distances beyond Xm.
(2) Plume rise in stable conditions
Under stable atmospheric conditions, where the po­
tential temperature increases with height, a buoyant
plume will achieve a maximum height of rise when
the dilution of the plume due to entrainment reduces
the plume density to that of the surrounding ambient
density at that height.
1.8 Wind speed categories
Ausplume reads hourly wind speeds from a meteoro­
logical data file. However wind profile exponents
and the option which allows emission rates to vary
by stability and wind speed are not considered as
continuous functions of wind speed by the model.
Emission rates and wind profile exponents are as­
signed on the basis of six intervals of the recorded
wind speed. AUSPLUME assumes that the wind
speed increases with height according to the power
law:
U =U „ ( 12)
where U(z) = wind speed at height Z above the
ground; U(ref) = speed at the wind measurement
height Z(ref); and a = wind profile exponent, is a
function of stability.
1.9 Receptors
Receptors are the locations at which the model cal­
culates either concentrations or depositions. Aus­
plume allows for both grided and discrete receptors.
All distances are measured in meters.
Grided receptors are regular arrangements of
points based on either a rectangular (Cartesian) grid
or a polar array radiating from a central point. A po­
lar grid is often used if there is only a single source
or if the sources are close together compared with
921
the distance to the nearest receptor. Neither the radii
or the bearings need to be regularly spaced.
Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates are used if the
sources are not concentrated around a central point.
Although the grid lines must be oriented north-south
and east-west, the grid spacing are again arbitrary.
1.10 Terrain effects
Areas in which the terrain elevation varies little
compared with the effective plume height can be
treated as effectively flat. Otherwise, Ausplume al­
lows three simple adjustments which partially ac­
count for the effects of the terrain.
All of these terrain adjustments require the recep­
tor terrain heights to be entered from an external re­
ceptor location file.
1.11 Source information
Ausplume can model emissions from three source
types (point, volume and area). These broad source
categories can be used to simulate a wide variety of
actual sources.
Stacks are modeled as point sources. Volume
sources can be used to simulate fugitive emissions
fi*om buildings or wind blown dust from ore stacks
for example. Area sources may be used to model dif­
fuse emissions such as contaminated sites or anaero­
bic lagoons.
1.11.1 Area sources
Area sources can be used to model irregularly
shaped diffuse emissions such as odours from an­
aerobic lagoons, emissions from contaminated sites,
wind blown dust from mining sites etc.
For each emission source, Ausplume requires that
you enter the: source location, characteristics of the
source and emission rate.
(a) Source Location.
Ausplume needs to know the source identification
code and the location of the source. The source can
be identified with a name containing up to 6 alpha­
betic or numeric characters.
The coordinates (in meters) may be relative to
some arbitrary point on a site plan or specified in
map coordinates
(b) Source characteristics.
Ausplume assumes that individual area sources have
square dimensions. For each source, you must enter
the dimensions of the side and the effective emission
height above ground level. In practice, sources are
usually irregular in shape
 Each area source with side length 1 is actually where L = 21 /^fn
modeled as a line source which rotates to maintain
its cross wind orientation. The initial vertical disper­
sion is calculated as if it were a distance 1 upwind in (c) Emission rates.
order to simulate the diffusion which occurs as the Ausplume allows a great deal of flexibility in speci­
pollutant moves across the source. fying emission rates. Emission rates can be entered
Ausplume’s treatment of area sources is different which may be assumed constant with time or al­
from a stack source in that plume rise due to buoy­ lowed to vary.
ancy is ignored, the initial vertical dispersion is
modeled as if it were a virtual point source 1 meters
upwind, downwind concentrations are calculated us­ 2 RADON FIELD MEASUREMENTS IN
ing the expression GRAVITA AREA
y+L/2
erf -erf ^ y - L / 2 ^ (13)
■JlnL Measurement of Radon flow rates in Banat area
are shown in Table 1.

T a b le 1. R a d o n c o n c e n tra tio n s in B a n a t- O ra v ita m in in g a re a

P la c e / N u m b e r o f d e te r- RADON
NO. N u m b e r o f houses m in a tio n s
D o m a in (B q /m c ) A v e ra g e a n d v a r i­
a n ce ( V y ) (B q /m c )
1. J it in / 1 7 B17 < 1 5 -9 3 4 4 V 17
D -1 7 < 1 5 -1 5 0 53V28
T o ta l 34 < 1 5 -1 5 0 4 9 V 16
2. C iu d a n o v ita v illa g e / 1 0 B 10 < 1 5 -9 4 45V23
D 10 < 1 5 -1 0 2 55V25
T o ta l 20 < 1 5 -1 0 2 5 0 V 17
3. C iu d a n o v ita c o llo n i / 1 9 B 19 < 1 5 -1 2 3 47V19
D 17 < 1 5 -8 6 2 4 V 11
T o ta l 36 < 1 5 -1 2 3 36V12
4. B ra d is o ru l d e Jos / 1 5 B 15 < 1 5 -1 5 1 61V29
D 15 < 1 5 -1 7 5 62V37
T o ta l 30 < 1 5 -1 7 5 63V23
5. R a c h ito v a /15 B 15 < 1 5 -9 3 42V22
D 15 < 1 5 -8 7 36V18
T o ta l 30 < 1 5 -9 3 39V14
6. O ra v ita / 2 2 B22 <15 -1 2 3 34V16
D22 < 1 5 -9 2 24V10
T o ta l 44 < 1 5 -1 2 3 29V10
TOTAL B98 < 1 5 -1 5 1 45V9
D96 < 1 5 -1 7 5 41V10
G E N E R A L / 100 194 < 1 5 -1 7 5 43V7

922
3 DOSE ASSESSMENT FOR ORAVITA AREA
3.1 Basic Principles for Modeling A ir Dispersion
The downind transport of the radon in air has been
simulated using a Gaussian plume model, which
means it is based on the premise that cross-sections
through elevated plumes from point sources of pol­
lution have a Gaussian (or Normal) distribution of
concentration.
With the primary assumption of Gaussian cross-
sections, we can mathematically express the three -
dimensional concentration field associated with a
steady point source in a uniform, unbounded air
flow, as:
^2 ^
x{x,y,z;T) = exp exp
2mc7^a, 2ctI 2c7
where: X = represents the concentration at point
(x,y,z), averaged over time t; x = distance down­
wind from the source; y = distance across wind; z =
height, with the source at z = 0; Q = emission rate; u
= wind speed; and ay and Cz = “dispersion coefi-
cients” representing crosswind and vertical spread,
which are increasing fimetions of x and t.
The real atmosphere is never in a state of uniform
flow, but in many cases the wind velocity can be re­
garded as a function of height alone, with no varia­
tion of direction. This is the second main assumption
of the Gaussian models. The third assumption is that
the vertical variation of the wind speed can be mod­
elled adequately by simply substituting the wind
speed at source height for u in the above equation.
The usual way of simulating the boundary effects
is to treat both the ground and the base of any ele­
vated inversion as flat, perfectly reflecting surfaces.
The above equation is then modified by the intro­
duction of “ image sources”. Adding the extra
sources to account for an inversion base at a height
Hm 3 H above the ground, the expression becomes:
Tj o k j j j ,
[ + /- e x |^ -
2c¿
Alternatively, if the inversion base is below H, we
set n = 0 to simulate the effect of a plume trapped in
the inversion.
3.2 Dose Assessment
In order to assess doses from Radon - 222 and its
decay products, it is assumed that radon is released
from the low grade stockpiles, from EM Banat -
Oravita mining area. Our approach considers that the
stockpiles are not covered so that radon can escape
and migrate downwind, leading to a potential addi­
tional exposure for the population.
The flux density of Radon - 222 emitted from
stockpiles ( as mentioned in input data) is calculated
using an average Uranium - 238 ( and Radium -
226) concentration and physical properties of the
waste dump.
Then a solution of the Gaussian dispersion equa­
tion in the atmosphere is used to transport Radon -
222 from its sources to the exposed receptors, taking
into account the terrain configuration and annual
meteorology.
Finally, assuming an exposure duration and an
equilibrium factor between Radon - 222 and its de­
(14) cay products, the dose received by the population
can be estimated, using the following formula:
Rudose [mSv / year] = B[mJ / m^ h] x 1,1 [mSv /
(mJ / m^-h)]
where B [mJ / m^-h] = A [J / m^-h] x Ed x 1000
A [J / m^] = n [Bq / m^] x F x 5.5440-^
where Ed is the exposure duration [hr / year]
Ed = 7,000 hr / year
F is the equilibrium factor between radon and its de­
cay products (can be taken at 0,5 when no data are
available).
For example we have obtained an average annual
concentration of Radon - 222, in EM Banat -
Oravita mining area:
n=10pCi/l
which represents:
n = 370Bq/m^ofRn-222
Considering F = 0.5 we obtain:
A = 370 X 0.5 X 5.54 0 10 = 1.024 9 10 J/
B = 1.024 0 10'^ x 7 0 lO^x 10^ = 1.0249 mJ/m^ 0
(15)
Finally we have:
Rudose^ 1.0249 X 1.1 = 1.12739 mSv / year
In Figure 1 we have represented the Radon plume
dispersion concentration for considered area, taking
into account all the sources during the period of one
year. Figure 2 depicts the frequency concentration
contour plots in the same case. Similar anlysis were
made for local sources and for various periods of the
year (spring, summer, autumn and winter).
923
 R A D O N P L U M E D IS P E R S IO N C O N C E N T R A T IO N A T E M B A N A T A R E A
A N N U A L - G R O U P S O U R C E : G LO B A L; A V E R A G E T IM E : A LL H O U R S

Figure 1. Radon plume dispersion concentration for Banat area

RAD O N F R E Q U E N C Y C O N C E N T R A T IO N C O N T O U R
AT-EIVI BANAT AREA; AN N U A L - S O U R C E G RO UP :

Figure 2. Radon frequency concentration contour plots

4 CONCLUSIONS

Although in some areas the maximum admissi­

ble radon concentration of 111 Bq / m^, which
means 3 pCi / 1, is overpassed, there is no risk
within the area due to Radon - 222 contamination.
The annual measured dose in the area (within
buildings) is on average of 0.67 mSv / year, com­
pared to the world average of 0.46 mSv / year.
The predicted average dose for the EM Banat -
Oravita mining area, for one person, is 1.12 mSv /
year, less than the world average.

REFERENCES

Madear, G. & Traista, E. 1999. Radon Dispersion Air Model­

ing at Ciudanovita. Proceedings of the International
Symposium, pp.l07 - 112. ISBN 973-8035-01-5. Univer­
sity o f Petrosani. Petrosani; Universitas.

924
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

R eclam ation and developm ent o f voids in the raw material industry
in Low er Silesia, Poland

J.Malewski, J.Szwed-Lorenz & S.Slusarczyk

Institute o f Mining Engineering, Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland

ABSTRACT: Lower Silesia (SW part of Poland) is the most abounding region in rock and mineral resources
in the country. From among nearly 600 mineral deposits over 400 ones, containing open-cast voids, have been
analyzed. Authors selected 40 deposits and evaluate their voids from a point of view of different directions of
reclamation. The system of exploited void development has been defined as an issue belonging to the area of
natural resource management. Raw material industry, public administration and society are considered to be
the main elements of that system. The study recommends new method for more objective approach to voids
reclamation and development planning.

1 INTRODUCTION file and landscape type), flora, variations in fauna

Among many conditions for development of
voids in rock mining, the most important are those
resulting from geological factors that influence sig­
nificantly the process of deposit exploiting, therefore
affecting the size and type of created void.
Decisive factors here are the quality and quan­
tity of the deposited mineral, geological structure
and form of the deposit, and also lithologic and
structural features of the surrounding rock massif.
These factors provide for the so called geological
and mining conditions for the mineral extraction,
which determine possibilities and ways of deposit
exploitation, influencing the size of the final void, its
shape, inclination of the final slopes, number of min­
ing levels, occurrence or lack of water at the bottom
of the void etc. These properties in turn affect the
possibilities of current reclamation of the mining
void, and of the ways and possibilities of develop­
ment of mining areas, that is the void itself and its
close surrounding, changed in the course of mining
activities (Sroga, Szwed-Lorenz & Slusarczyk
1998).
On the other hand, the key factors that condition
the development of post-mining areas are overall en­
vironmental conditions, such as géomorphologie
conditions around the mining void (topographic pro­
habitat, climate conditions etc.
The method of development of post-mining
voids as well as other engineering structures that
emerged during mining activities (external dumping
grounds, mine and industrial waste dumps) is often
inefficiently planned. The proposed forms of devel­
opment very often fail to take into account the possi­
bilities arising from the fact that such voids exist.
Making use of the possibilities may contribute
highly to the improvement of the condition of natu­
ral environment or at least prevent its further degra­
dation.
The Lower Silesia region plays an important
role on a national scale in the rock mining. This is
due to the presence in that area of various rock mas­
sifs from various ages, representing practically the
whole history of geological development of the
lithosphere from the Precambrian Era to the present
times. This relatively small area was repeatedly ex­
posed to changes in geological conditions, which led
to emergence of a number of deposits.
From a geological perspective, the area of
Lower Silesia is built of three geological units: the
Sudeten, Fore-Sudetic Block and Fore-Sudetic
Monocline (Obère 1995, Teisseyere et al. 1979).
They are nearly equally important as far as raw mate­
rials are concerned, as within each of them a number
of various mineral deposits can be found.

925
 In the whole range the rock deposits, the fol­
lowing are found in the Sudety Mountains and Fore-
Sudetic Block:
• rich deposits of road and building stones (the
most important deposits in the country of basalt,
melaph)rre, block granite, syenite and diverse
deposits of crystalline limestone and marble),
• all deposits of white-burned ceramic clay, nearly
all feldspathoid and kaolin materials.
• most of the fire-clay deposits (with the largest in
Poland Lusina-Udanin deposit),
• all deposits of vein quartz and magnesite depos­
its,
• glass-making sand deposits, the best in Poland
• half of total bentonite deposits.
Equally important is the big deposit of natural
aggregate in the Nysa Klodzka, Bobr and Kaczawa
valleys. In the Fore-Sudetic Monocline, there are de­
posits of copper and silver ores (one of the largest
such deposits in Europe) and also a rich deposit of
natural gas.
2 STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT OF STRIP­
MINING VOIDS
In total, there are about 600 deposits of raw
materials in the Lower Silesia area. Of that number,
over 400 of deposits have surface voids within their
borders (rarely underground voids).
Most voids were created during present or past
exploitation of road and building stone deposits (164
deposits - 40 % of total deposits), which includes:
- 46 granite deposits (11 %),
- 29 basalt deposits (7 %),
- 19 sandstone deposits (5 %),
- 16 crystalline limestone deposits (4 %).
On the other hand, the exploitation of natural
aggregate led to formation of voids on 129 deposits
(32% of total number of deposits), whereas the ex­
ploitation of clay - 44 deposits (11%).
To illustrate the problems connected with devel­
opment of post-mining voids in the rock mining in­
dustry, forty deposits were selected from amongst
four hundred mineral deposits. The basic criterion
for selecting the deposits was their representative
character in comparison to particular types of miner­
als (rock materials). This refers both to frequency of
their occurrence in the area in question, as well as to
geological and mining characteristics of particular
deposits within a given group of materials. There­
926
fore, the selected deposits included 6 granite depos­
its, 9 deposits of natural aggregate, 4 clay deposits, 5
basalt deposits, 5 melaphyre deposits, 2 dolomite
marble deposits, and one deposit of syenite, gabbro,
serpentinite, mica-schist, limestone and marl, sand­
stone, greywacke, magnesite, gypsum and anhydrite.
Among the selected deposits, there are both de­
posits that are still being exploited and those that are
inactive. The exploited deposits included those of
rich resources that ensure mining for several years
(projected date of completing the exploitation is af­
ter year 2100), and those that are almost exhausted,
the exploitation of which will be finished within
next few years. When the time limit for exploitation
was set up, in some cases the validity of the exploi­
tation licence was taken into account, whereas in
other cases the time limit was decided on the basis of
the average output for the last few years. It is worth
noting, however, that the volume of output and in
consequence the exploitation period relies to a great
extent on changes in demand for a given raw mate­
rial.
Another factor that influences selection of depos­
its to be analysed is the status of the deposit from the
point of view of a possible conflict between neces­
sity to protect its resources and the formal and legal
status of environment protection.
Characterization of the voids formed in the proc­
ess of exploitation of rock, performed on the selected
examples, enables a comprehensive review of vari­
ous ways of their development, depending on local
geological and mining conditions for mineral output,
volume and methods of deposit exploitation, fre­
quency of occurrence of a particular mineral on a
discussed area and broadly understood environ­
mental conditions in the deposit and its closest sur­
rounding.
Using the examples of deposits selected accord­
ing to the above mentioned criteria, a division of de­
posits was made based on the type of mineral and
type of excavation formed as a result of mining ac­
tivity. As many as 34 deposits currently exploited
were reviewed plus additional 6 in which exploita­
tion was finished. All the deposits in which mining
activities are conducted at present, are exploited
through one void. In some deposits, there also cur­
rently closed voids, in some other cases the voids are
reclaimed. As the subject of this paper is the devel­
opment of final voids (formed after completion of
deposit exploitation), for each deposit on void was
assumed, independently of the actual situation
(Sroga, Szwed-Lorenz & Slusarczyk 1999). Location
 Explanations:

<5^-<§> - granite
<i> - syenite
- gabbro

-basalt
- melaphyre
^ - serpentinite
- dolomite marble

^ - mica-schist
^ -mali
co
ro -sandstone
^ - greywacke
^ - magnesite
- gipsum and anhydrite
- clay
. naturai aggregate

Fig.1. Located of the selected deposits

of the selected deposits has been illustrated on the
map in Figure 1.
3 EVALUATION OF VOID DEVELOPMENT
FORMS
In this paper we distinguish between the terms
development and reclamation. Development is a tar­
get form or way of utilizing reclaimed area, whereas
reclamation is a process of achieving that target form
through applying adequate technical and biological
resources. Therefore, we speak of the form of devel­
opment and the direction of reclamation.
Taking into account highly varied forms and pos­
sibilities of development of mining voids in rock
mining, a distinction of possible ways of develop­
ment, put forward by Malewski (1998,1999), was
adopted as it is most often used in the official termi­
nology or encountered in practice. These are:
natural oriented, which increases resources of bi­
otic nature (e.g. establishing reserves of specific
flora and fauna connected with bed-rock or
strong isolation of exposed rock faces; preserv­
ing habitats of common species which are rarely
encountered in the area in question; creating di­
verse ecological niches);
recreation and tourism (turning voids into areas
for sport and recreation, such as playgrounds,
sports grounds, amphitheatres, allotment gar­
dens, viewing sites);
farming;
- forest-oriented;
water-oriented (storage reservoirs, swimming
pools, deep-diving pools, fish ponds);
- industrial (municipal waste dumps, industrial
waste lagoons, storage yards for mining and
processing waste).
The unspecified cases were treated as reserve due to
e.g. lack of ideas or lack of proper development de­
cisions of the current local government authorities
which may use them alternatively depending on the
political climate as construction reserves, or recrea­
tional, mineral or industrial reserves etc.
Malewski (1998) proposed a way of optimising
the selection of void forms, taking into account the
often opposite interests or opinions of the mine op­
erator, local government's area development and en­
vironmental policies and objective values of natural
environment, which can be presented in form of an
equation:
W = E*G - result of municipality evaluation
928
Wn, = E*M - result of mine evaluation;
where:
G is a municipality preference vector defined as
municipality's policy as to the future form of
void development (0 <=g(i)<= 1, Eg(i)=l)
M is a mine preference vector defined as mine's
policy as to the future form of void development
(0 <=m(i)<= 1, Sm(i)=l)
E is a matrix of expert assessment of the impact
of a particular option on the area functionality.
The municipality's preferences may be a resultant
of the policies of the Management Board and Coun­
cil, public opinion and interest group pressures
(Czamiecka 1999). The mine's preferences are most
often driven by own interest, that is costs of devel­
opment. Obviously, implementation of a particular
direction of reclamation may have both positive or
negative implications. Evaluation of the implications
lies with experts, and the result of the assessments is
represented in E matrix.
If expert assessments E are expressed as numbers
within a selected range, e.g. from -1 to +1, and pref­
erences of municipality G and mine M with a 0 to 1
range, then the effect of the policies (preferences) in
the context of expert assessments may be expressed
as products Wg and W^. The sum of weighted aver­
age expert assessments on the part of the mine or
municipality shows the effect of their policies (pref­
erences) on the environment - positive (if plus) or
negative (if minus).
The difficult side of appraising the E value is the
proper understanding and taking note of the effects
of a particular choice, which in turn are dependant
on the scale of the effects in question. Generally, it is
assumed that E appraisals are made at the level of at
least a county, preferably a regional level, with an
insight into the issues at the local level.
Using the above mentioned method of assess­
ment, the authors assumed the role of experts and
analysed directions for reclamation of mining voids
in 40 selected examples of deposits, taking into ac­
count different angles, such as geological, mining or
environmental. Estimation of the positive and nega­
tive implications of void development in the selected
directions is, according to the above mentioned
method, a subject of an independent analysis and
evaluation conducted by experts, municipalities and
mines.
To define E matrix, the -1 to +1 range of valua­
tion was adopted to define influence of the assessed
direction of reclamation on other options (directions)
of developing voids in each deposit. Positive values
(in the 0.0 to +1.0 range) assigned to particular di­
rections of development will mean that such direc­
tion is possible to be adopted and will generally have
a positive effect on the natural values of the area, in
the broad meaning of the term, or on its utilisation
values. Assigning negative values (in the 0.0 to -1.0
range) to a particular will mean lack of benefits or
prohibition of taking that direction due to its nega­
tive impact on the environment.
Based on the above assessments, the following
results were obtained:
The most commonly proposed form of develop­
ment of final voids is forest-oriented, taken into ac­
count in the case of 13 deposits, which is 32.5% of
all analysed examples. Among them, there are 4
melaphyre deposits, 3 aggregate deposits and one
deposit of gabbro, serpentinite, dolomite marble,
crystalline limestone, sandstone and greywacke.
For 10 voids, the most adequate direction of de­
velopment selected is water-oriented. This refers to 4
deposits of natural aggregate, 2 basalt deposits, and
one deposit of syenite, granite, magnesite, and gyp­
sum.
The recreation and tourism oriented direction of
development appears to be most adequate in 7 cases:
2 granite deposits, 1 basalt deposit, 2 clay deposits
and 2 natural aggregate deposits.
The industrial development direction was selected
in 7 cases due to the fact that all of these slope and
cavity voids fulfil requirements for storing industrial
and municipal waste. The voids are made in solid
rock (granite, basalt, melaphyre) or cohesive rock
(clay), they are not hydrated and are located either
near towns or mining plants producing industrial
waste.
The farming-oriented direction for development
of a final voids was proposed just for one slope and
cavity void of ceramic clay. The deposit is no longer
exploited, and the big, relatively shallow and dry
void ensures favourable conditions for such a direc­
tion of development.
A special case is observed in the dolomite marble
deposit. In the inactive quarry, there is an island of
Charpenteria ornata snail which requires strict pro­
tection. Obviously, in that case the natural direction
for development will be selected, which should also
include active void on the north after its full exploi­
tation.
An exceptional case is also the Wilcza Gòra ba­
salt deposit, where in the part of the active cavity
void, since 1959 there has been an abiotic nature re­
serve established to preserve a fragment of wall that
929
reveals the inner part of volcanic plug in form of a so
called basalt rose. Due to that fact, after the final
completion of exploitation in 2008 it is proposed to
extend the protection over the whole final void, tak­
ing the mineral-reserve direction of development.
The forms of development of mining voids pro­
posed by the authors may be used to verify the cur­
rent directions of reclamation adopted by way of
administrative decisions by local governing bodies.
These decisions are often based on literal interpreta­
tion of the term reclamation as an activity aimed at
restoring the original condition of the environment.
However, the exploited areas may be developed to
bring more environmental, economic and social
benefits provided that the planning process is more
objective, taking into account the interests of all the
parties involved in the decision-making process, and
based on solid scientific grounds.
4 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Czamiecka,U. (1999), Directions o f area reclamation after ex­
ploitation of common mineral deposits in the Lower Silesia
Province, Gôrnictwo Odkrywkowe 2-3:134-139.
Malewski,J. (1998), Mining and environmental resources man­
agement, Proc. o f conf on Technical, natural and eco­
nomic conditions for exploitation and development of voids
in rock mining, Gôrnictwo Odkrywkowe 2-3:169-178,
Wroclaw.
Malewski,J. (1999), System conditions of reclamation and de­
velopment of voids, in Development of voids (Editor
Malewski,!.), Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wroclaw-
skiej, Wroclaw 1999.
Obère,J. (1995), Diagram of the geological structure of Lower
Silesia, Proc. of the 46‘*' Session of Polish Mining Associa­
tion, Wroclaw.
Sroga,C., Szwed-Lorenz,J. & Slusarczyk,S. (1998), Character­
istic of raw materials and deposit forms as Constrains of
mine voids utilization, Proc. of conf on Technical, natural
and economic conditions for exploitation and development
of voids in rock mining, Gôrnictwo Odkrywkowe 2-3:
242-251.
Sroga,C., Szwed-Lorenz,J. & Slusarczyk,S. (1999), Develop­
ment of mining voids against the background of the geog­
raphy and geology of mineral deposits in Lower Silesia, in:
Development of voids (Editor Malewski,!.), Oficyna Wy­
dawnicza Politechniki Wroclawskiej, Wroclaw 1999.
Teisseyre,H., Grocholski,A, Kural,S.,Milewicz,J. & Wrohski,J.
(1979), Outline of geological structure of Lower Silesia, in:
Raw Materials of Lower Silesia, Ossolineum, Wroclaw.
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

A coustic warning signals and design o f restricted working areas

in noisy environm ent

G.Massacci, V Dentoni & A.Camboni

DIGITA, Department of Geoengineering and Environmental Technologies, University of Cagliari, Italy

ABSTRACT: Conflict between mobile equipment and pedestrian workers constitutes a major hazard in open
cast mining and quarrying, as well as in construction yards, whenever it is difficult to establish separate
working areas. High noise levels and the use of personal hearing protectors could impair the effectiveness of
auditory warnings, which are activated when vehicles are reversed, increasing the risk of impact with pedes­
trian workers. The paper is concerned with the acoustical mapping of a working environment characterised
by the presence of stationary and mobile noise sources. A numerical method, aimed at defining restricted
working areas (meant to be used by machinery or pedestrian workers alone) in noisy environments, has been
implemented using the signal design window technique. The method is illustrated for open quarrying opera­
tions.

1 INTRODUCTION choice of acoustic alarm signals and in assessing

Conflict between machinery and pedestrian workers
constitutes a major hazard in mining and quarrying
operations and in construction yards. In many cases
it is not possible to define restricted work areas or
access ways because of the confined and continu­
ously changing working space. To enable safety dis­
tances to be observed, acoustic warning reverse sig­
nals need to be effective within the area where both
workers and machinery operate. However back­
ground noise or the use of personal hearing protec­
tors or operator hearing impairments can mask these
signals.
This issue is of particular interest in the granite
quarries in Sardinia where the dimension stone in­
dustry contributes significantly to the island’s econ­
omy. Typically the quarries extend over relatively
small areas (also because of the fragmentation of
land ownership) and in the main the quarrying tech­
niques generate high noise levels. Moreover, many
of the initially hillside quarries are now worked as
open pits.
While flame torching is now almost redundant,
diamond wire cutting, despite its increasingly wide­
spread use, has a long way to go before it replaces
drilling-based technologies. The presence of par­
ticularly noisy equipment, noise reverberation off the
compact rock walls of regular geometry enclosing
the pit, the concentration of operators and equipment
in confined spaces, mean that in an environment of
this kind special attention needs to be focused on the
their effectiveness for various operating conditions.
In light of the above, the signal design window
technique was used here to determine the loudness
and frequency that render the signal effective in the
operating conditions examined.
2 EFFECTIVENESS OF ACOUSTIC WARNING
SIGNALS
The importance of the effectiveness of acoustic
warning signals in noisy working environments has
been recognised by issuing relative international
standards (CEN 1992). The loudness and frequency
of warning signal should be determined in relation to
the background noise spectrum in the positions in
which that signal is to be heard, allowing for the ef­
fective masking threshold and the effects produced
by personal hearing protectors, where used.
Specifically, when spectral analysis is performed
in 1/3-octave bands, the sound pressure levels of the
signal must be greater than the masking threshold by
13 dB or more, at least in one 1/3-octave band in the
300-3000 Hz frequency range. On the other hand the
warning signal should not startle the workers, nor
should it significantly increase their personal expo­
sure levels or create unacceptable acoustic impact
with the outside environment.
Startling can result if the signal involves too rapid
a rise in the acoustic pressure level or when it ex­
ceeds the masking threshold by too great an amount

931
 Figure 1. Signal design window
(indicatively + 25 dB). Masking basically consists in
the ability of a spectral component to impair the per­
ception of the spectral components in the next higher
frequency bands. In the same frequency band, the
masked threshold level is greater than the level of
background noise when the latter is significantly
lower than the masked threshold level of the previ­
ous band.
Figure 1 shows the signal design window for
background noise with a fairly uniform spectrum.
Under such conditions, the masking effect ap­
pears at frequencies of 160 Hz, 250 Hz and over
6300 Hz, but to such a minor extent as not to be per­
ceived at the scale of the figure. The lower and up­
per bounds of the signal design window are obtained
by increasing the masked threshold by 13 dB and 25
dB respectively. The signal, represented simply by
the dominant tonal component at the frequency of
1250 Hz, falls within the design window and can
thus be considered effective.
Personal hearing protectors attenuate the noise to
varying extents, generally moreso at higher frequen­
cies. With hearing protectors of average characteris­
tics, the same background noise is characterised by a
steep gradient (Fig. 2). The warning signal, which is
readily audible without hearing protectors, is no
longer effective when they are worn because mask­
ing is enhanced.
Research work has also demonstrated that for
workers with hearing impairments the effectiveness
of the signal may be further reduced at those fre­
quencies where the absolute audibility threshold is
greater than the masking threshold. This is more
likely to happen with increasing hearing impairment
and degree of attenuation of hearing protectors
932
Figure 2. Signal design window under hearing protectors
(Simpson & Coleman 1988, Coleman 1998). In the
mining sector, to which the above cited papers refer,
the problem of the audibility of signals mounted on
mobile equipment and the effects of reverberations
in confined and semi-confined spaces warrants fur­
ther investigation.
3 MOBILE ACOUSTIC SIGNALS
An acoustic warning signal on mobile equipment is
activated when the vehicle is reversing. In sites
where it is not possible to create restricted working
areas, the warning signal must be unequivocally rec­
ognised by pedestrian workers at a distance that
leaves them sufficient time to reach a safe position,
depending on the speed of the vehicle.
Areas in which both vehicles and workers area
allowed to operate can be defined by acoustic map­
ping of the working environment, allowing for the
presence of fixed, semi-fixed and mobile sources of
noise, by implementing the signal design window
technique in the positions of interest.
4 APPLICATION
The schematic of Figure 3 is a perspective of a gran­
ite quarry in central-northern Sardinia. The quarry is
worked as an open pit, down to a maximum depth of
around 20 m below ground level. At the stage of the
workings shown in the figure, the lower yard covers
an area of some 1300 rn . The ramp on the south
slope allows access to mobile vehicles, in particular
wheel loaders and dumpers for loading andtrans-
 Assuming a maximum vehicle reversing speed of
7.2 km/h and a reaction time of a 5 seconds to be re­
alistic, the signal will need to be perceived at a dis­
tance of no less than 10 m from the vehicle. As the
alarm signal is also affected by the sound reflecting
off the surfaces enclosing the pit, the program was
applied again, obtaining a sound level at 1250 Hz at
10 m from the reversing vehicle of 95 dB (as against
93.3 dB for the free field condition).
Figure 5 shows the darker tones of the areas in the
vicinity of the excavator and the drill, characterised
by a masked threshold level at 1250 Hz of more than
82 dB.
As the audibility of the wheel loader’s reverse
warning signal is not assured within these areas, the
zone should be cordoned off and access restricted to
excavator and drill operators alone. For the specific
operating conditions considered here, access of both
vehicles and workers is permissible in that part of
Figure 3. Schematic perspective of a granite quarry. the yard beyond the above areas. The restricted areas
are separated and sufficiently far apart to allow ac­
cess and manoeuvring of mobile equipment from the
porting the material. ramp up to the working faces.
In addition to the geometrical features, the quarry Access right up to the working faces may not be
also typically exemplifies the exploitation techniques possible whenever the restricted areas are too exten­
and technologies used in Sardinia. Benches from 6-8 sive or too close for one or more of the following
m high, of various length and with thickness of reasons:
around 3 m are isolated from the hillside by means 1. Drill and excavator operating in close proxim­
of horizontal cuts, drilled or split with explosives, ity.
and chiefly diamond wire vertical cuts. Once the 2. Presence of other noisy machinery (e.g. two
bench has toppled over into the yard, the slabs of drills operating at the same time).
granite are shaped by contiguous drilling or are split 3. Increase in reversing speed of the wheel loader
with wedges. or of the reaction time.
The lay out of Figure 4 shows noise levels in the 4. Use of hearing protectors by pedestrian work­
lower yard by means of the equivalent A-weighted ers in non-restricted working areas.
sound pressure levels. The situation shown refers to
two sources of noise emitted contemporaneously; an
excavator loading quarrying waste onto a dumper
(position A) and a drill performing an underhand cut
(position B).
Noise emission characteristics have been assessed
in compliance with standard ISO 3744 for deter­
mining sound power levels. Thus both the spectral
distribution in 1/3-octave bands can be determined
together with noise directivity. The above acoustic
mapping has been done using a program for simu­
lating noise propagation in reverberating environ­
ments based on the pyramid tracing technique (Fa­
rina 1995).
Furthermore, a reverse warning signal mounted
on a wheel loader has been considered and the emis­
sion characteristics measured. The pulsed signal has
base frequency of 1250 Hz. In the main emission di­
rection (which coincides with the reverse direction
of the wheel loader) the maximum non-weighted
sound pressure level, measured in free field con­
ditions at a distance of 1 m is 113.3 dB in 1/3-octave
band at 1250 Hz The non-weighted sound power
Figure 4. Equivalent A-weighted sound pressure levels.
level is 120 dB.
933
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Investigation carried out in the framework of projects con­

ducted by C.S. Geominerari e Mineralurgici, CNR (the Na­
tional Research Council), Cagliari, Italy.

REFERENCES

European Committee for Standardisation (CEN) 1992. Safety

of machinery - Auditory danger signals - General require­
ments, design and testing. EN 457:1992 (ISO 7731:1986
modified).
Coleman G.J. 1998. The signal design window revisited. Int. J.
Industrial Ergonomics 22: 313-318.
Farina A. 1995. RAMSETE: a new pyramid tracer for medium
and large scale acoustic problems. In: Proc. EURO-NOISE
95 Conference, Lyon, 21-23 march 1995.
Simpson, G.C. & G.J. Coleman 1988. The development of a
procedure to ensure effective auditory warning systems.
The Mining Engineer may: 511-514.

Figure 5. Restricted areas around noise sources

5. Presence in non-restricted working areas of pe­

destrian workers with major hearing impairments
especially if they are wearing hearing protectors.
In the above cases the warning signal of mobile
vehicles needs to be adjusted accordingly.

5 CONCLUSIONS

In noisy working environments typical of the extrac­

tive industry and construction yards conditions fre­
quently exist that impair the audibility and effective­
ness of acoustic warning and alarm signals. Thus
noise can become a risk factor not only for the op­
erator's health but for his safety as well.
The occupational hazard connected with the con­
flict between mobile vehicles and pedestrian workers
is exacerbated by the confined conditions, small
spaces and noise being enhanced by sound reflect­
ing. Auditory warning signals should be determined
by resort to acoustic mapping adopting the signal de­
sign window technique. The extension and distribu­
tion of the area within which the signal remains ef­
fective need to be assessed for various operating
conditions and suitable safety measures defined (de­
lineation of the areas, definition of access ways,
regulation of access and flow of vehicles and pedes­
trian workers, adoption of alternative methods or
integrating other warning systems, choice of hearing
protectors, designation of suitable tasks to workers
with impaired hearing).

934
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2000 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The radiological protection during m ining radioactive raw materials

in the C zech Republic

B.Michalek, RNavratil & P.Vinkler

DIAMO State Enterprise, Branch Plant GEAM, DolniRozinka, Czech Republic

ABSTRACT; Uranium mining which consciously and purposely comes into contact with natural sources of
ionizing radiation has to solve, besides “usual” impacts of raw material mining on the environment, also
specific problems connected with the leakage of radiation sources into the environment. They are emissions of
radon and its daughter products, radioactively contaminated water and radioactive dust. The lecture is about
principles of radiation protection in uranium mining at the mine Rozna I of the state enterprise DIAMO.

1 INTRODUCTION of radionuclides on surrounding areas and health of

In the 50s-70s the Czech Republic belonged to
important producers of uranium in the world. Deep
exploitation in several localities was very intensive.
Damping of the exploitation started in the 80s when
some deposits were gradually opened to complete
exploitation and it was intensified at the beginning of
the 90s in connection with the change of the political
system. Nowadays the only deposit of uranium ore in
the Czech Republic is Rozna deposit in the
Moravian-Bohemian Higlands. The ore is deep-
mined there for the needs of the Czech energetics.
The deposit has been exploited since 1957 and there
is still about 8 % of the total reserves with relatively
high content of uranium in the ore. Opening to
complete exploitation of the deposit is expected in a
few years.
Mining is done in one deep mine, dressing mined ore
at a chemical preparation plant which is close to the
mine. The final product of the preparation plant is
uranium concentrate, co called “yellow cake”. It is
treated at conversion plants abroad. As an
organisation, the preparation plant form GEAM,
branch plant. It is a part of the state enterprise
DIAMO.
The state enterprise DIAMO besides mining at the
deposit Roznâ does all reclamation and maintenance
operations connected with liquidation of negative
results of former uranium mining at other localities
in the Czech Republic.
Uranium mining has to solve specific problems
which results from the risk of the negative influence
people.
In mining, during uncovering and disrupting an ore
body workers in the mine are the first to come into
contact with ionizing radiation, radioactive dust and
radon. Radon with its disintegration products with
short half-life decay represents the main threat of the
health of workers. The environment in the wider
surroundings of the uranium mine is threatened by
radioactive dust and radon, which is released into the
atmosphere, by possible contamination of transport
routes and especially by contaminated underground
and overground water. Contamination (radioactivity)
of water results from dissolving ionts of uranium and
radium in underground water or from percolation of
overground water by dump or stockyard of ore.
The operation of a mining organisation in the area
of radiation protection is represented firstly by
running monitoring of workers, workplaces, water
outlets, air, transport routes and all the wider
surroundings so that measures can be taken before
possible leakage of radionuclides into the
environment or before irradiation limits of people
were possibly exceeded.
2 VALID LAWS AND REGULATIONS
The latest legal norm which regulates taking
advantage of nuclear energy, ionizing radiation and
conditions for activities which are connected with
taking advantage of nuclear energy, the system of
protection of people and the environment against

935
undesirable effects of ionizing radiation is the act
No. 18/1997 of the digest, so called “nuclear act”.
This act enabled to establish “The State Bureau for
Nuclear Security” to carry out state administration
and supervision how nuclear energy and ionizing
radiation are used and to inspect radiation protection.
Procedural decrees of the Bureau determine limits of
irradiation which are obligatory quantitative indexes
and it is impossible to exceed them from the point of
view of radiation protection.
The basic limits for workers with sources of ionizing
radiation are values of the whole effective dose (i.e.
total of effective doses from external and internal
irradiation), which are set up to:
a) 50 mSv in one calendar year
and at the same time
b) lOOmSv in five following calendar years
Although procedural decree No. 184/1997 gives a
number of other irradiation limits (for ocular lens,
hands, feet etc.) in the conditions of a uranium mine
the most important and restrictive limits from the
point of view of radiation protection of workers are
given above.
Ministry of Health Service set another restriction for
uranium mine workers resulting from the threat of
their health by effects of ionizing radiation. Workers
can work 2100 shifts maximum underground of
uranium mines (so called expositional time).
The quoted decree sets a number of restrictions to
protect the environment from which the most
important are following:
a) It is possible to use out of workplaces with
sources of ionizing radiation, emit in water or
atmosphere, put on stockpiles or release in
another way into the environment without
permission of the Bureau only those
materials, substances and objects, which
contain radionuclides only when the average
effective dose of a critical group of people
does not exceed 10 |iSv in any calendar year.
b) on the basis of the permission of the Bureau it
is possible to release into the environment
materials, substances or things which contain
radionuclides only when the average effective
dose of a critical group of people does not
exceed 250 |iSv in any calendar year.
The quoted decree charges all organisations dealing
with sources of ionizing radiation with the duty to
follow, measure, evaluate, and record quantities,
parameters and facts important from the point of
view of radiation protection. To realize this activity
an organization has to have a worked out programme
936
of monitoring the workplace, personal monitoring,
outlet monitoring and monitoring the surroundings.
3 MONITORING WORKPLACES AND
WORKERS
Monitoring workplaces and workers is the basic task
in connection with the radiation protection of
workers, who participate in mining and treating
uranium ore. On the basis of the results of
monitoring it is possible to take concrete technical
and organizational measures, which ensure that
given irradiation limits will not be exceeded.
3.1 Monitoring workplaces
Monitoring workplaces means regular measurement,
recording and evaluating quantities, which
characterize the level of external and internal
irradiation at a workplace. We monitor:
volume activity of radon or concentration of
latent energy of radon transformation
products (p-J/m^)
volume activity of mixture of long-term
radionuclides emitting alpha radiation
(Bq/m^)
dose input of external gamma radiation
(pGy/h)
overground pollution of workplaces by
radionuclides (Bq/m^)
To assess underground workplaces from the point of
view of hygienic conditions we observe dustiness,
dampness, temperature, concentration of nitrogen
oxides and carbon oxides and the volume quantity of
fresh winds brought in.
The frequency of measurements of particular
quantities is different and depends on the character
of the workplace. The basic frequency of the
measurement of the quantities expressing the level of
the radiation at workplaces is weekly.
Measurements are done during all working
operations but the measured values describe only an
immediate state at a place. It is possible to count
from measured values average values of particular
quantities. Maximum values when there can be
workers at a workplace underground can be:
volume activity of radon...........12.80 pj/m^
volume activity of mixture
of long-term radionuclides........1.54Bq/m^
dose input of external
gamma-radiation.....................100 pGy/hour
3.2 Monitoring workers
In the past the level of irradiation of workers was
given by average values of a particular workplace
and by the number of shifts worked at the workplace.
An important change in monitoring workers became
in 1995, when we started to use personal dosimeters
Algade. Dosimeters are allocated to workers who
must have them during the whole shift on their belts.
This ensures that the values characterizing the level
of external and internal irradiation of each
workplace, where the worker is, are measured. An
independent organization with accreditation of
Ministry of Health Service evaluates readings from
personal dosimeters once in a calendar month.
Monthly values obtained from personal dosimeters
are counted and compared with limit values which
workers with ionizing radiation are permitted (see
chapter 2).If the total effective dose of a worker is so
high that it is possible to exceed the limit value, the
worker is redeployed to another workplace with
lower level of radiation or to the surface of the mine
out of the source of ionizing radiation (so called
regulation of workers).The results from personal
dosimeters are computer processed. The computer
counts monthly values and evaluates total effective
dose of each worker and compares it with yearly
limit and his individual limit. That limit is derived
from a five-year limit and depends on the time which
each worker has to complete expositional time. E. g.
a worker who has 4 years to complete his
expositional time, has his five-year limit rescheduled
into four-year limit, because it is not assumed that he
will ever be employed at a workplace with ionizing
radiation. The example of a concrete worker is given
in graph No. 1 and 2 and it is the worker, who has
from the beginning of monitoring to completing
expositional time 617 shifts, i.e. 3 years and 3
months.
Graph No. 1 Course and comparison of actual total
effective dose with the yearly limit of a worker.
937
Graph No. 2 Course and comparison of actual total
effective dose with individual limit of a worker.
3.2.1 Regulation o f workers
The basic task of a mining organization in radiation
protection is to ensure that limit values of the total
effective dose will not be exceeded, it means both
yearly and five-year. The problem of monitoring all
the individual total effective doses in their
connection to the limit values and then following
regulation of workers at other workplaces is that all
information only describes the state, which was at
particular workplaces in the last period.
Evaluated readings from personal dosimeters are
from the last month and monitoring values from
workplaces are only average and they can be only
tentative for regulation of workers. It was never
possible to set how many effective doses a worker
would get in the following period and if his possible
regulation at another workplace was efficient.
Redeployment of workers to other workplaces or to
the surface requires higher costs. So the task of
optimization of worker regulation was being solved
at the mine.
The aim of the task was to find such a methodology,
which could allow to set possible effective doses,
which a worker in a certain period could get. This
would allow to choose an optimal workplace and set
an optimal period for regulation. Statistic methods
were used to process figures of particular quantities,
which were recorded by personal dosimeters, and
their dependence on the content of uranium in the
mined ore. Taken dependence is given in graph
No. 3. It is used to set theoretical monthly effective
doses (when they are added up they represent the
total effective dose), which a worker gets in a
calendar month underground, at a workplace, where
ore with certain content of uranium is mined.

volume activity oflong-term alpha emitter mixture
external gamma radiation
volume activity <
0 80 160 240 320 400 480 560 640
content (J in ore f%.1000]
Graph No. 3 Dependences of effective doses on content
of uranium in ore.
Given dependence is effective for the concrete
conditions of the deposit Rozna. It is determined by
petrographic and mechanical qualities of rocks, rock
disintegration, the system of ventilation, used
machinery etc.
Taken dependence of particular quantities of
ionizing radiation on the content of uranium in the
mined ore is the basis for measures which reduce the
level of radiation. If the values of volume activity of
radon or mixtures of long-term radionuclides taken
during monitoring a workplace have a higher level
than they should theoretically have owing to the
content of uranium in the mined ore, it means that
there are ventilation faults at the workplace (in the
case higher values of volume activity of radon) or in
technology of mining (higher level of volume
activity of long-term radionuclides is caused by
higher overall dustiness at the workplace). In these
cases we take concrete technical measures to
improve ventilation or reduce dustiness including
financial fines of the crew for technological
indiscipline.
4 MONITORING THE NATURAL
ENVIRONMENT
The basic aim of monitoring the environment is to
find out how exploitation and uranium ore dressing
affect the quality of underground and overground
water, soil, agricultural products and the air in the
surrounding areas. The final aim is to take measures
in the manufacturing process which are set on the
basis of the development of concrete indexes and
affect the surrounding environment below given
limits.
The extent of monitoring as well as determination of
measuring places is in the so called “Programme of
monitoring”. It was approved by the State Bureau for
Nuclear Security, by hygienic services and territorial
authorities and it is obligatory for a mining
organization.
In line with the act No. 18/1997 of the digest
monitoring the environment is divided into two
groups: monitoring outlets and monitoring
surroundings.
720 800 4.1 Monitoring outlets
Monitoring outlets means that quality of water which
is let out by a mining organization into streams and
quality of vapours from a drying house of the
chemical concentrate are checked. They are checked
from the point of view of contents of uranium and
radium and possibly other harmful substances.
Underground water is pumped from underground of
the mine to the surface with the help of two pumping
systems. Each pumping systems is followed by a
decontamination station where the underground
water is purified from uranium and radium ionts
before they are let out into streams. Decontamination
stations also draw technological water from a
crushing plant and all precipitation water, which
infiltrate through dumping ground and waste rock.
The total volume of water purified in
decontamination stations is 2 million m^ a year.
The chemical preparation plant treats uranium ore in
a closed technological cycle without necessity to
purify and let out water during the technological
process. Only so called “excessive water”, the result
of positive precipitation balance from the area, is let
out from a setting pit. The water in the setting pit has
high contents of harmful substances. The water is
purified before it is let out into streams by
vaporization in an evaporating station followed by
condensation, so that almost distilled water is let out.
The capacity of the evaporating station is 210,000 m^
water a year. The actual purified amount depends
first of all on the volume of precipitation and the
volume of excessive water in the setting pit. Small
amounts of excessive water are cleaned by
electrodialysis. This is a physical process during
which are ionts of uranium and radium captured on
special membranes. The capacity of electrodialysis is
approximately 30,000 m^ a year.
938
These limits of harmful substances are set for given
water outlets:
decontamination decontamination preparation
station No. 1 station No. 2 plant______
limit limit limit
U(mg/1) 0,17 0,30
Ra226
(Bq/m^) 170,0 300,0 300,0
insoluble
substances
7,0 30,0
pH 6,5-9,0 6,5-9,0 6,5-9,0
Table No. 1 Limits of harmful substances for water
outlets
Actual contents of uranium and radium in discharged
water reach in average one third of values of
permitted limits.
Monitoring vapours from the drying house of
uranium concentrate is done once a month and
volume activity of uranium is checked. The set limit
is 75 Bq/m^.
4.2 Monitoring surroundings
The purpose of monitoring surroundings is to check
the quality of particular components of the
environment in the area of mining and treating
uranium ore. Monitored components are water, air,
soil and agricultural products.
Monitoring water means that quality of water in
overground streams, wells and hydrogeological
inspection drill holes around the setting pit is
checked.
The most important overground stream in the area of
the deposit is the river Nedvëdicka with its
tributaries. There are eight checkpoints and one point
for taking samples above the deposit, i.e. outside the
area affected by uranium mining. The sample from
this place serves as a comparison and show natural
burden of overground water with radionuclides.
The population in most villages in surrounding areas
is supplied with drinking water from public water-
system but using local well-water cannot be
excluded. That is why the quality of water in wells is
checked. Limits of radionuclide contents in this
water were counted from the permitted effective
dose of a critical group of population. There are
altogether eight wells monitored in the surrounding
areas. The network of monitoring hydrogeological
drill holes in the surroundings (in the direction of
underground water circulation) checks possible
water percolations from the setting pit. Samples of
underground water are taken from these drill holes.
These limits of radionuclides are set for given
overground and underground water:
the river w e lls drill
0,10
N e d v ë d ic k a h o le s
u (m g/1) 0 ,1 0 0 0 ,0 6 3 0 ,0 7 0
R a 226 (B q /m ^ ) 300 255 500
Table No. 2 Limits of radionuclides for overground and
25,0 underground water
Actual contents of radionuclides in the water are 5-8
times the set limits lower.
Stationary dosimeters Algade are used to monitor air
in the surroundings. They are located in four nearest
villages, in the precinct of the ventilation station
(where upcast winds from the mine are let out) and
in the precinct of the chemical preparation plant. The
instruments enable integral monitoring of volume
activity of long-term alpha emitter mixture, of
volume activity of radon and its daughter products
and the dose of external photon radiation.
Then we monitor dusty fall-out (concentration of
dusty particles in 1 m^ of the air), transport routes
checking possible contamination of soil on the
transport route between the mine and the chemical
preparation plant and we also monitor leakage of
NH3 at the preparation plant during uranium ore
treating. Samples of agricultural products in the
surroundings are taken once a year and content of
uranium and radium is analysed in them.
Similar monitoring is done in all localities of former
uranium ore mining in the extent which is in direct
proportion to the size of the former deposit and the
stage of its reclamation and maintenance.
5 CONCLUSION
The problem of protection against effects of ionizing
radiation is very serious and followed by population.
The lecture gives shortly principles of
radioprotection in mining and treating uranium ore in
the Czech Republic, specifically at the deposit
Rozna, which is the last mined uranium deposit in
central Europe. All the problems of radioprotection
are being developed, especially in the field of
looking for technical solutions to reduce the level of
radiation at workplaces and in the areas of former
uranium ore mining.
939
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Academia Praha 1984. Progress o f dosimetry o f

ionizing radiation
Dolni Rozinka 1999. The Programme o f Monitoring
GEAM
- 1997 Act o f CR No. 18/1997 o f digest on peaceful
use o f nuclear energy and ionizing radiation
(nuclear act)
- 1999 Information materials o f firm Algade

940
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

The environm ental m anagem ent o f the coal m ining activity in the Jiu valley

M o n ic a R adu lescu & B u ia G rigore

Mining Faculty, University o f Petrosani, Romania

ABSTRACT: The mining activity in the Jiu Valley has an important impact both on environmental and
socio-economic terms. The main problem is identifying the correct and significant impacts of the mining
activity, defining how to mitigate and monitor the process associated to the coal extraction. Romania, a
country without a veiy strict environmental legislation in the past, has made important efforts in focusing,
identifying and possibly resolving the environmental problems associated to the mining activity,
particularly the coal mining in the Jiu Valley. The paper also presents some west European regulations
adapted to the specific conditions in a country with a transitory state of the economy.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

ENVIRONMENT AND MINING ACTIVITIES
Romania is a rich country with an extended
IN THE JIU VALLEY
mining activity developed from ancient times. By
the deterioration of important surfaces and the
The Jiu Valley, also known like the Petrosani
presence of mining dumps, mining activities
basin, represents the most important coal mining
contribute to environmental destruction. At
basin in Romania. It is situated in the western
present, Romania makes efforts for the
part of the central Carpathians, at the confluence
environmental protection and management.
of the two Jiu rivers, like shown in fig. no.l. Due
The location of mineral resources is controlled by
to metamorphic processes, which affected the
geological factors- specifically zones for certain
zone, the Oligocène coal, presents a higher
ores.
quality, being a pit coal. The mining begun in the
The main characteristics of the ores in Romania
Jiu Valley in the latest part of the XlX-th century.
are their great natural diversity and dispersion in
The most evident negative environmental effects
territory, creating a serious impediment: wastes
of the mining industry, also affecting the
spread on an extended part of the country, very
economic and social factors in the studied zone,
diverse and complex technological treatment
are:
processes, a widespread scale of polluting
- gradual land occupation, once the
wastes.
development of mining zones, regarding the
The natural features are not to favorable referring
exploitation itself, mining dumps, access
to the ore’s location, dimensions, development,
ways etc
and quality of useful components. Therefore,
definitive or temporary occupation of various
some negative effects in the environment.
surfaces, affecting the hydrographic reserves and
The environmental protection today in Romania
is a major preoccupation. the natural features
- air pollution: Air pollution created by the
At present, specialized institutions intensify their
underground mining activities is practically
efforts referring to environmental management
inexistent if the evacuated air is contaminated no
and protection.
more than the rates of industrial mine aeration
due to a series of effects generated by

941
autoepuration through condensation in the
underground activity. The open pits and
concentrating plants produce serious effects of
air pollution.
- surface and underground water pollution:
Residual waters from the mining industry, due to
their noxious emissions, generate general water
degradation and also flora and fauna destruction.
Waters evacuated by the draining installations of
mining concentrating plants are most impure,
containing phenols, cyanures, salts of alkaline
and alkaline-earth metals, ions of heavy metals
(Fe, Cu, Mn, Hg, etc.), oil products.
The situation of habitants in the affected zones:
Changes produced on population occur mostly in
zones of open pits, by moving the human
settlements. In the Jiu Valley an open pit existed
in the past, with all the negative effects
associated but, due to its inefficiency both in
economic and social terms, it has been
abandoned, without a proper plan of
environmental rehabilitation.
The present study and the sequential approach of
the problem takes in account the impact
produced on the environment by underground
mining activities in the Jiu Valley coal basin.
2.1. General features o f the Jiu Valley
In the Jiu Valley there are 49 mining dumps and
two mining perimeters.
Mining dumps occupy 258 ha of forestalling and
agricultural territories. Pulp pools belong to the
Coroesti concentrating plant, with a surface of
24,8 ha, being situated in the western part of the
Petrosani Basin.
The distribution of the affected areas: mining
dumps 43% (113ha), surface activities 2%(57 ha)
and coal treatment 34%(88ha).
The deposits are generally situated in the valley
and on the terraces of the Jiu river.
At present, part of the mining dumps is in
conservation (190 ha=73,6%) the rest is
operating (68 ha= 26,4%).
Mining dumps resulted from coal treatment has a
different structure, as a result of coal treatment
containing elements as: flotation reactive,
inferior pitcoal with or without phenols,
naphthionic pitcoals, gazes, gudrons, etc.
Decantation lakes are formed by slam deposits
resulted from coal treatment at Coroesti, on
horizontal terrain, limited on the surface by an
artificial pier.
942
2.2. Aspects regarding the climate and vegetation
As for the climate conditions, the perimeter has
an alpine microclimate, with a noticeable
humidity (mostly snowfalls), variable during the
year.
Maximal rainfalls are between May and August.
The vegetation, has the following common
species: beech, fir tree, birch tree, ash tree,
acacia, hazel nut tree, pine, fruit bearing trees:
cherry, peach, plum, fruit bearing shrubs (hip
rose, raspberry).
3. PLANES REGARDING THE
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND
PROTECTION IN THE JIU VALLEY
In order to prevent and reduce the environmental
pollution, for an ecological reconstruction and
rearrangement of the affected zones in the Jiu
Valley, a project of environmental management
and protection is produced at present by specific
institutions, according to the environmental
legislation.
When starting the plan of environmental
management, it was necessary to define the
notions of “significant impact” on the
environment and “importance of the impact”.
Determining the importance of the significant
impact represented a key process in establishing
an evaluation of the environmental impacts
generated when exploiting the coal.
Unfortunately, this is not an objective process,
because definitions of the “impact” or the
“significant impact” do not exist.
According to the reality of Jiu Valley, the main
problem was how to define the notion of
“significant impact”. If the significant impact has
already happened is necessary to allocate money
and time resources in order to evaluate it. For a
not significant impact, as it can be assessed by an
objective evaluation, a report regarding this
impact is prepared, realizing important savings in
time and money.
The evaluation was structured on a three level
analysis:
• level no. 1 - a list of categorical exclusion
regarding the mining activities with no
impact on the environment
• level no.2- an evaluation report identifying
the nonsignificant impacts
• level no.3.- a final report about the main
environmental impacts
The evaluation complies to the Romanian
legislation and also to:
• international regulations and documents
referring to the environment
• documents establishing the policy of
environmental agencies
• official documents of the governmental
agencies concerned with using the coal
resources
• implemented programs, as combined actions
of a strategy or special development plans
• decisions of the environmental agencies in
collaboration with the governmental
institutions in order to implement a statutory
program.
The non-necessity of an environmental
evaluation occurs when a development category,
individually or cumulated, does not have a
significant impact on the environment. As for the
Jiu Valley, regarding the mining activities, mines
or open pits, the impacts on the natural and
socio-economic environment could not be
neglected.
The evaluation is going to be a public document.
Defining the notion “significant” and “significant
impact” represents the key factor. Finally, this
evaluation is presented like a written document
focusing the obligation to respect the legislation.
The rapport will contain a complete and
objective evaluation of the significant
environmental impacts and to inform the
developer and the public about the alternatives
avoiding or at list minimizing the adverse impact
on the environment. This document will be used
by the national environmental agencies in
relation with another relevant materials in order
to establish an action plan and to take the
appropriate solutions.
An important phase is when defining the notions
of “ major activities with significant
environmental impacts”. The simplest way to
define an important mining activity is to compare
its impact with the standard quality parameters of
the environment specified by the legislation. It is
possible to effectuate this evaluation for air and
water pollutants, for example carbon monoxide,
suspensions, stable waste, sulfates, bicarbonates,
ammoniac, azotates and ammonia, NO2, SO2,
sediment dust. There also is a multitude of
environmental issues characterized only by
descriptive factors, for example the landscape
aspect.
943
The notion of “significant impact” refers first of
all to “where” and “when” the impact occurs.
Some possible evaluation criteria used when
evaluating the impacts’ significance created by
the mining activity in the Jiu Valley were:
- the magnitude of the impacts, analyzed in
various social contexts as a whole, also taking in
account the interests linked to the mining
process. The importance of the impacts varies
according to the magnitude of the performed
activities. For example, in case of mining
activities, the first aspect regarding the local
community interest is prior to larger interests.
- Intensity, referring to the severity of the impact.
The officials must admit that different agencies
may have and emit different opinions and
decisions regarding the partial aspects of a major
development. In order to evaluate the intensity of
an impact the following issues have to be
assessed:
1. Negative or positive influence of the impacts
2. The magnitude of the project reflected in
public health and sanity
3. Individual characteristics of the geographical
area, for example historical assets, national
parks, agricultural zones, forestall zones,
areas with increased ecological risk
4. If the effects on the human environment have
controversial aspects
5. The accuracy of evaluating the impacts on the
environment and the implication of unknown
nature risks
6. If the development could represent an
antecedent for further developments having a
strong impacts on the environment
7. If the considered action is related to other
actions, which do not represent separately a
negative impact on the environment but
cumulated could become a serious danger.
Importance can not be defined taking in
account only one phase of the project or
analyzing various stages separately
8. If the development affects human
populations, ecological reservations, urban
structures or national values
9. If the mining activity accelerates the
extinction of endangered species
10. If the activity is conflictive with the national
law regulations referring to environmental
management
The coal mining activity in the Jiu Valley has a
significant impact on the environment because:
• it is conflictive with the environmental
conservation
• has a strong negative impact on the landscape
• generates mining wastes beyond the accepted
limits
• is depleting substantially the water quality
• contaminates the water supply
• induces a major growth of the population and
consequently its density in the affected zone
• induces a major increment in the traffic
overloading the existent traffic network
• favorites activities requiring a great amount
of water, fuels and energy
• produces an increased potential for erosion
• involves he habitat of certain animal and
plant species
• induces a risk regarding public health
• it is conflictive with the recreational,
educational and various social aspects
• affects the air standard quality
• exposes to the contamination the most
receptive to pollution receptors
• interferes with defense planes in case of
natural or human provoked disaster
Some additional factors have also been
considered when appreciating if the mining
activity:
• has negative or positive impact on the
environment
is naturally reversible or irreversible
does not exceed the carrying capacity of the
environment
can be controlled by a proper management
is a long or short term process
is temporary or definitive
has a local, regional, national or global scale
is accidental or planned
is direct or indirect, primary or secondary
is cumulative or not
In addition, one of the measures being taken
when identifying the negative impact was to
apply attenuation measures, always taking in
account reasonable economic and environmental
considerations.
The impact attenuation was regarded as:
• option “zero”, no any action
• minimizing the impacts by limiting the
magnitude of the project and its
implementation
• repairing and restoring the affected
environment
944
• reducing or eliminating the long term impact
through conservation and maintaining actions
during the development
• compensating the impact by using alternative
resources
Regarding the attenuation of the negative effects,
three levels were considered:
• significant impact without any possibility of
attenuation
• significant impact with attenuation
possibilities
• non significant impact
4. DETERMINING THE IMPORTANCE OF
THE IMPACT BY A SEQUENTIAL
APPROACH
A sequential approach suggests different levels in
determining the importance of a mining
development. This sequential approach is
effectuated by answering some key questions:
1. Is the development provoking impacts
exceeding the notion of “significant” impacts
as defined by legislation, regulations and
normative?
2. Is the quantitative limit of the importance
exceeded by the project?
3. Is the development situated in a special
designated area or a protected habitat? Is the
affected mineral resource a significant one in
environmental terms?
4. Is it developing according to the legislation?
5. Which is the magnitude of the changes
induced by the environmental pertinent factors as
consequence of the development? Will the
changes remain inside the normal variability of
all the implicated factors? Which is the
environmental sensitivity to the changes? Is the
environment adaptable to the changes? Is the
carrying capacity of the environment exceeded?
6. Are there any human or other living
receptors affected by the environmental
stress created by the development?
7. Can the negative effects be attenuated with
reasonable costs?
8. Which is the specialists’ opinion regarding
the water quality, ecology, urban planning,
landscape, the economic and social factors in
the affected zone?
9. Are there any public fears regarding the risks
associated to the development?
10. Are there any special cumulative impacts,
which have to be considered or impact,
related to the development?
The aim of the environmental Romanian agency
was to define for the Jiu Valley the term
“significance of an impact on the environment”
and if a complete environmental study is or is not
necessary in case of the mining development.
This is a general approach of the problem
generated by the risks associated to the mining
activityof mitigation
-selecting de environmental variables going to be
monitored in order to obtain a complete study of
the conditions in the region
-a scientific and objective documentation
regarding all the analyzed factors

5. REFERENCES
1. Voicescu, B. &, Radulescu, M.: Rehabilitation
methodologies for mining dumps in the Jiu
Valley, Proceedings o f the X-th Latin-American
Geology Congress, 1998
2. Georgescu & M., Fodor, D.: Concerns
regarding the negative effects of mining industry
in Romania, Proceedings o f the Mining
Symposium, Petrosani University, 1997

945
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

D isposal o f jarosite slurry in a lined tailings pond, Hindustan Zinc Lim ited,
India

V.Rajaram
Tetra Tech EM Incorporated, Arlington Heights, III, USA
U .C h u g h & S . M alik
Tetra Tech India Limited, New Delhi, India
R .K .B a n sa l
Hindustan Zinc Limited, Udaipur, India

ABSTRACT: Tetra Tech India Limited (TTIL) was contracted by Hindustan Zinc Limited, Udaipur, India,
to design a disposal facility to handle 750 m^/day of jarosite slurry waste from the hydrometallurgical
processing of zinc sulphide concentrate. TTIL, with assistance from Tetra Tech EM Inc. (Tetra Tech),
completed the design of a lined tailings pond near Udaipur, India, in 1999, and it is being constructed in
2000. In addition, a closure plan was designed to properly cover two existing ponds that were found to be
leaking contaminants to the groundwater. This paper provides the characteristics of the jarosite slurry and
leachate and the design criteria, and it describes the design components of the new pond and the cover for
the existing ponds.

1 INTRODUCTION concentrate and consists of the following para­

The Hazardous Waste (Management and Hand­
ling) Rules promulgated by the Indian Ministry of
Environment and Forests in 1989 require the
isolation of hazardous wastes from the environ­
ment. In order to comply with the rules, Hindustan
Zinc Limited decided to construct a new lined
pond for disposal of jarosite slurry waste from their
processing plant. The new pond site had to be
selected in the vicinity of existing ponds that are to
be closed (Figure 1). Design of the new pond had
to be approved by the State Pollution Control
Board and provide for the disposal of jarosite
slurry waste for the next 20 years. TTIL began the
site selection study in late 1998, completed the
design of the pond in 1999, and obtained approval
from the State Pollution Control Board. This paper
describes the design of the new pond and the cover
system for the existing ponds.
2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE JAROSITE
SLURRY AND LEACHATE
Jarosite slurry is produced as a waste product from
the hydrometallurgical processing of zinc sulphide
meters: pH - 9.4; moisture content - 80 percent;
total dissolved solids - 2820 mg/1; iron - 1257
mg/1; zinc - 252 mg/1; lead - 37 mg/1; manganese -
18.25 mg/1; copper - 8.5 mg/1; cadmium - 2.95
mg/1; chromium - 2.18 mg/1; cobalt - 0.26 mg/1;
and nickel - 0.11 mg/1. The leachate quality ex­
pected from the slurry was determined and consists
of the following parameters: pH - 8.0; zinc - 5.8
mg/1; lead - 1.65 mg/1; iron - 1.44 mg/1; and
cadmium - 0.56 mg/1. The retained water content
in the slurry waste after removal of the supernatant
water in the pond and leachate is about 35 percent.
The final volume of the pond for the 20-year
design life was based on this retained water
content.
3 DESIGN CITERIA
The criteria used for design of the lined pond were
as follows:
• The groundwater table varies from 1 m to 8 m,
depending upon topography and the season
• The pond will be constructed above grade
• The pond will be constructed in two phases,
with the Phase I pond varying from 5 to 10 m

947
948
 Water in slurry + rainfall
5280 mVday

Evaporation losses * Maximum Rainfall - 40 mm/day

. 702 mVday * Evaporation = 6 mm/day

Moisture retained,
80.77 m^/day Supernatant
Through
JAROSITE POND Infiltration Well
2640 mVday

Leachate
1857.2 mVday
TETRA TECH INDIA LIMITED
FIG . 4: W A T E R B A L A N C E F O R JA R O S IT E P O N D ¡3

949
 high (depending on the ground slope) and
Phase II being 5 m high (Figure 2)
Bulk density of the pond slurry (35 percent
moisture) is 1.34 t W
Total volume of slurry to be disposed is
1,135,200
Design life of the pond is 20 years
Area available for disposal is 21 hectares
A double liner system will be used for the pond
bottom, with clay forming the bottom liner and
a composite liner forming the top liner
A leachate collection system and leak detection
system will be incorporated into the design
An impermeable cover will be placed on the
existing and new ponds
• A 600 mm thick clay layer
• A 1 mm thick HDPE liner
• A 300 mm thick drainage layer (gravel or sand)
• A 600 mm thick vegetation soil layer
• A grass cover
Before the final closure of the existing ponds, the
water entrained in the jarosite slurry will be
removed using a well point system. This will
ensure uniform settling of the pond surface and
prevent damage to the cover that may result from
differential settlement of the jarosite slurry.
5 MONITORING AND INSPECTION

Regular inspection of the surface runon control and

4 POND DESIGN COMPONENTS drain system, the leachate collection and removal
system, and the infiltration wells will ensure proper
The following components were designed for operation of the pond. Protection of the ground-
proper disposal of the jarosite slurry waste: water in the vicinity of the pond will be ensured by
• Foundation soil with adequate bearing capacity regular monitoring of two piezometers upstream
• Liner system consisting of a bottom liner (600 and six piezometers downstream of the ponds.
mm thick clay layer), overlain by a leak de­
tection system (300 mm thick gravel layer, a
100 mm thick sand layer, and a 2 mm thick 6 CONCLUSIONS
geotextile), a composite liner (600 mm thick
clay layer, a 1.5 mm thick high-density poly­ The design of the new pond and closure of the
ethylene (HDPE) liner, and a 75 mm thick clay existing ponds at Hindustan Zinc Limited will
cover), a leachate collection and removal prevent groundwater contamination at the site. The
system (635 mm thick gravel layer containing a jarosite slurry waste will be isolated from the
perforated HDPE pipe network, a 100 mm environment, and all water will be recycled for
thick sand layer, and a 2 mm thick geotextile) reuse in the operations.
(see Figure 3)
• Infiltration well system to remove supernatant
water from the slurry waste
• Leachate collection sump with pumps
• Leak collection sump with pump
• Common sump for collecting supernatant water
and leachate
• A gravity discharge system from the common
sump to the sump pit near the existing ponds

The clay liner will be constructed of borrow

material in the vicinity of the pond. The borrow
clay was tested for chemical compatibility with the
leachate and for the permeability requirement of 1
X 10'^ cm/sec. Water balance for the ponds is
detailed in Figure 4.
The closure design for the existing ponds consists
of the following components, from bottom to top;
• A 200 mm thick gas venting layer

950
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 178 3

A ir quality control in quarries o f technical stone

B . S a lo p e k & G. B ed ek o v ic
Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, Croatia

ABSTRACT; In most Croatian quarries of technical stone, deposits of a carbonaceous structure were
exploited and just ten of a siliceous structure. By beneficiation of these rocks (by crushing and sizing) standard
stone sizes for the production of concrete, asphalt masses, of supporting layers in roadmaking, and for metal
and stone-flour were obtained. That production reached in 1998 a level of about 9,1 Mt, with financial value of
some 635 Mio kunas.
In the paper the dust pollution sources were discussed, then the cleaning methods of the polluted air for the
particular vessels, vehicles and the equipment in general were described, and the single operations explained. A
description of the complete beneficiation plant is given - with the dedusting points and with an analysis of the
used aerocyclone and cloth-filter.

1 INTRODUCTION emissions may be embanked into torelable limits by

Today in the Republic of Croatia some 200 commer­
cial firms are engaged in the exploitation of solid
mineral raw material; of that, approximately 50 %
exploit technical stone, 20 % gravel and sand, and 30
% clay, cement and lime raw material, building stone,
quartz-sand and seasalt.
In most technical stone quarries, rock deposits of
a carbonaceous structure (limestone, dolomite) are
exploited, whereas just some ten quarries are ex­
ploiting rock deposits of a siliceous structure (dia­
base, amphibole, granite, gneiss). By beneficiation of
these rock (by crushing and sizing) standard stone
sizes for the production of concrete, asphalt masses,
of supporting layers in roadmaking, and for metal
and stone-flour were obtained. That production
reached in 1998 a level of about 9,1 Mt, with finan­
cial value of some 635 Mio kunas (about 78,4 Mio
US$).
The impact of the exploitation and treatment of
the technical stone on the environment is most often
manifested by the lasting loss of the fertile forest soil,
the wood itself and the forest growth, as well as by
an alteration in the configuration of the terrain; the
consequence of all this is an irretrievable alteration of
the landscape prospect. As a rule, a dust eruption
takes place, sometimes the waste waters also and
noise find a new discharge, what in some cases may
severely disturb the environmental quality. The pro­
voked changes can be soothed and be made less visi­
ble be recultivation measurs, and the dust and noise
adequate protection measures (Salopek 1996). Pro­
tecting measures are carried out already during the
exploitation works, and particularly in the exploita­
tion time, as well as during the exploitation shut­
down and closing of quarries.
2 THE EXPLOITATION AND BENEFICIATION
OF TECHNICAL STONE
The stone is exploited in a system of terraces of 20 to
25 m in height, with use of explosives. The techno­
logical process is operated in several steps and ussu-
aly begins with the erection of the accessory roads
and removal of growth and waste. The waste is by
bulldozers removed to a locality convient as a load­
ing place, where from it is by dredges loaded to
trucks and transported to a waste dump. In the next
step deep shot holes are drilles, filled up and acti­
vated. After that, the mined rocky material is by bull­
dozers transferred to the loading ramp at the ter­
race’s foot. The next step covers the loading and
transport of the won raw-material by dredges and
trucks to the beneficiation plant. The last step con­
tains the technical and biological recultivation of the
terraces and waste dumps as well as of many other
locations which in the course of exploitation are
gradually losing their function.
The beneficiation or preparation plant includes a
row of machines and equipment for rock crushing

951
and sizing. In crushing, various crusher types are
used, most often jaw, impact and hammer crushers.
To achieve the desired particle size categories, the
crushing is carried out in two or three stages. After
each stage the material is classified resp. sized on
sieves, where the standard particle sizes of 61/31,5,
31,5/16, 16/8, 8/4 and -4 mm are obtained; the size
categories are taken away on belt conveyors and
adequately stored. In sizing various types of one of
multi-deck vibrating screens are used.
The preparation process can be “dry” and “wet”
i.e. without water supply of with such a supply. A
dry process is applied when the rock is comparately
clean and contains coarse waste only, which primary
can be eliminated already in a preliminary sizing (be­
fore the primary crushing). Because of the dust origi­
nating during the process a dedusting stage is always
included in the scheme. A wet process must be ap­
plied when the rock is contaminated by earthy and/or
clayey inserts which cannot be eliminated without use
of water. The water is under pressure sprayed upon
screens, so rinsing the earth and clay particles and
transporting them together with the finest sizes (-4
mm) into a spiral classifier for desliming. There, to­
gether with the water, particles of approximately -
0,1 mm are removed and by pipes transported to the
“wet pond”; the remaining particles of the -4 mm
size are by belt conveyors halued onto the assigned
stockpile. The wet processing usually is more expen­
sive but yields a cleaner and therefore in quality supe­
rior product.
For necessary maintenance and servicing of the
machines, vehicles and the equipment in general each
quarry has a mechanical workshop, store houses for
iliels and sometime an explosive store. Besides that,
within the plant limits there are one of more offices, a
worker’s room, a sanitary, some waste containers
etc.
3 AIR POLLUTION SOURCES
By the work of the many engines (bulldozer, dredge,
loader, drill, compressor) and vehicles (trucks, belt
conveyors) dust and exhaust gases were created and
emitted. The quantity of these emissions depends on
a lot of causes: work routine of the engines, the
characteristics of the mineral raw material (kind,
structure, hardness, moisture), intensity of the engine
work, velocity and frequency of the transport vehicle
movement, humidity and temperature of the air, on
the power and working characteristics of the driving
motors of the machines and transport means. The
imission itself depends on the protecting measures
taken, on the configuration of the terrain and its
overgrowth, and the climatic and meteorogical char­
acteristics of the observed area.
Large dust emissions take place ussually during
the summer months, when the won material is trans­
952
ported to the beneficiation plant, and when the final
products are stored, loaded and dispatched. The
largest part of that dust will precipitate after 100 to
200 m already; at a distance of e.g. 800 to 1000 m,
the mass concentration of the suspended particles is
such that it can be neglected. The finest particles
form with the exhaust gases and the air moisture an
aerosol which may be spread over larger distances,
too, and precipitated to the ground, but being very
diluted that aerosol is not dangerous for the envi­
ronment. By measures it was proved that dust and
exhaust gases do not cause environment changes
which may be called harmful. No chages in the
chemism of the soil or water neither in the contents
of microorganisms in the leaves of plants were noted.
At the most, as threathened can be considered the
vegetation immediately by the rim of the quarry and
transport roads, where especially during extended pe­
riods without rain the effect of photosynthesis weak­
ens as a consequence of increased dust sedimentation
(Salopek et al. 1997). However, problems with dust
and exhaust gases, but with noise too, become ap­
parent when the dispatching trucks are traversing
human settlements. At its height during the building
season up to hundred trucks, some of a capacity to
25 t even, are daily crossing the settlements, what es-
sentionally disturbs the conditions of life there. That
problem is even more significant when the roads are
poorly maintained and unpaved, without asphalt.
In quarries, the main source of dust is the benefi­
ciation plant. Most dust is originated during crushing
and grinding, and that to a greater extent in equip­
ments where the feed is crushed by impact and abra­
sion. The velocity of the rotor which by its impact
elements (bars, hammers) is hitting against the min­
eral particles reaches 100 m/s. Because of such a big
velocity, the dust emission is big, too. Dust is gener­
ated also during sizing, overloading from one to
other belt-conveyors into storage compartments,
transloading from such comparments onto stock­
piles, and during the final shipping of the products.
As a consequence of larger dust quantities present,
the dust cover of the surrounding area is heavier,
too, but its effect is the same as with the dust origi­
nated during the exploitation works.
4 PROTECTING MEASURES
The air protection in technical-stone quarries is exe­
cuted on the basis of the Law of Air Protection and
the resulting regulations. Measures are undertaken to
prevent resp. reduce the pollution of air. These
measures are in complicance with the law; among
other things, the application of the best accesible
technical means and solutions must be secured. On
the other side, the project documentation for profes­
sional works in quarries must be executed in compli­
cance with the Mning Law by which are demanded
solutions for the security of the working personnel, a
reasonable recovery of the raw material, and an eco­
nomically justified production in general.
Protecting measures are applied during the ex­
ploratory works already, but most intensive is their
application during the exploitation. Generally, two
categories of protection measures can be distin­
guished. one, for the prevention of dust and/or ex­
haust gas emissions from single engines or vessels,
and, second, measures inconnection with individual
operations inside the processes of exploitation and
preparation.
Drilling outfits for deep drilling holes usually are
completed with dedusting implements. That can be a
so-called hydro-deduster by which with the help of
finely dispersed water droplets the dust particles are
separated from the air and sediment in a slurry com-
parment. More efficient are methods with a complex
composed of an aerocyclone and a cloth filter; there
a recovery up to 99 % can be achived.
Mass (primary) shot firing takes place 5 to 7 times
yearly, and for one firing sometime several tonnes of
explosives are spent. After the firing, a cloud of dust
and burning gases are formed which, depending on
the wind, spreads over a smaller or larger area. This
dust is comparatively coarse, so that the greatest part
has sedimented already after 100 to 200 m. Although
there exist methods for the spreading prevention of
such a dust (water sprinking, cartriges and deposito­
ries with water), because of their minor efficacity
thay are rarely used.
A dust emissions is caused also by the transfer of
the mined rock by bulldozers and by the loading of
trucks by dredgers or loaders. The dust concentra­
tion depends on the material moisture, air humidity,
wind velocity; generally, it’s higher during summer
months. The mass of the emited dust is relatively
small, so that in a distance of some meters fi'om the
source it becomes negligibly and therefore these op­
erations need no protection measures what-soever.
Transport and deposition resp. discharge of the fi­
nal material as well as of the waste material often are
a significant dust source. During the truck transport,
the mostly used in quarries, dust is originated by
comminution of the ground on which the trucks are
moving, by the transport of fines from the work face
on the vehicle tires, by material spilling, by dust up-
whirling on the truck during transport, and by dis­
charging the material. The intensity of the dust rise
depends on the inclination of the ground to commi­
nution, on its humidity and the air humidity, on the
velocity and mass of the truck, on the wind velocity
etc. The dust quantity can be modified by watering
the areas resp. the roads where the trucks are mov­
ing, by diminishing the truck velocity, and by dimin­
ishing the traffic intensity. The watering is carried out
with the help of tank cars which sprinkle the water
over the whole roadway so that the water catches
hold of the rims, too, where usually larger dust
953
masses are deposited. The hygroscopy of dust can be
enlarged, and so the efficacity of the wetting also, by
addying of various salts and surface active matters.
By dispersing of emulsions on the basis of petroleum
and refuse-petroleum the dust paticles are better
bound together and are so also better protected
against being blown away by the wind. The efficiency
of that protection depends primarily on the frequency
of the wetting, so during the summer months some­
times three of four waterrings dayly are needed.
Machines and vehicles which are propelled by in­
ternal combustion engines (bulldozers, dredges,
loaders, trucks) pollute the air by oxides of nitrogen,
carbon, sulfur, by volatile organic bonds, by soot,
and other matters. The emission of polluting agents
depends on the fuel kind and quality, on the form and
regularity of the engines, and on the working inten­
sity of the machines and vehicles. The effect of these
agents is sensed most directly in the quarry area
proper but in some degree outside the quarry, too,
especially if the roads by which the material is trans­
ported are passing some settlements. A purification
of these gases is possible by dispersing of water
mixed with various neutralizers directly in the ex­
haust pipe; the gases are passing through matrices on
metal basis (copper, cobalt, nickel) by which their
oxidation is accelerated, and by the help of catalyz­
ers, what is most effective.
The beneficiation plant is the main source of dust.
The dust originated during crushing of the rock is
spreading already at the discharge from the crusher,
then during sieving, transport, storage, and loading
the products into trucks. A part of the dust covers
the environment delivered by the wind from open
stock-piles. The forming of dust cannot be prevented
but by a proper choice of comminution equipment
can be diminished. The spreading of dust into the en­
vironment can be prevented by water dispersion over
the emission sources or with the help of aerocyclones
and cloth filters. A drawback of the first method is
the fact that the dust is not removed from the work­
ing process but is temporarily bound and deposited
on the surrounding material and areas. So on the lo­
cation of the water dispersion more or less a wet dust
is deposited, what usually becomes a source of fur­
ther pollution. The sprayers got spoiled; if they are
not regularly maintained, the water is spread une­
qually and often brooks of slurry are formed which
pollute the working sites.
Much more efficient is the use of a system con­
sisting of aerocyclones and cloth filters. Not only
preventing the spreading of dust into the surround­
ings, that system eliminates the dust from the tech­
nological process and so a better quality of the final
products can be obtained. Besides that, the separated
dust can be used as filler in the manufacture of as­
phalt mixtures. In the dedusting process, crushers,
some mills, screens, trans loading points between belt
conveyers and dust bunkers are included. In Fig. 1 a
flowsheet of a preparation plant with indicated de­ clones are comparatively inexpensive in making, reli­
dusting points is given. able in work, but because of some larger pressure
decrease - from 700--3000 Pa - needs more power
than e g. gravity cleaning equipment.

GAS ^
OUTLET L J

b)

Figure 2. Aerocyclone - main parts (a) and dimensions (b)

The efficiency of dust separation in aerocyclones

comes to 80 -90 % in depence of the particle size
2,4 Fixed grid 3 Jaw crusher and can be expressed by an equation (Leith & Licht
6,9 Cone crusher 12 Bag fiter 1971):
7,10,11 Vibrating screen 13 Filler bunker

Figure 1. Flowsheet of a preparation and dedusting plant (1)

where the parameter of inertion; y=parameter of

The dedusting system consists of dust aspiration the vortex; and C=geometrical parameter.
hoods and pipelines for the disposal of the dusty air,
aerocyclones, filters. Low pressure fans and storage
bunkers for the separated dust. Coarse particles are (2)
separated by the aerocyclones the fines by the bag 18//D
filters.
An aerocyclone consists of a cylindric and a coni­ (39,4/)f'^ ' T Y
cal part; at the cylindric part tangentially is set the
inlet channel for the dusty air and centrally the outlet
r = i- 1-
2,5 283 J (3)

for the purified air (vortex); at the bottom of the

conical part there is situated the dust outlet (apex) S \ ( S +l - h
with the trunk for the separated dust (Fig. 2). The air
with the dust particles enters with a velocity of - 'f D 2D ) D
10 -20 m/s at which the so-called outer eddy is
formed and so the dust particles by centrifugal forces
are thrown onto the walls and by gravitational force 1 ^ + —
1+ — d
(4)
are forced to fall into the dust trunk. At the bottom D \D D \D) D D
of the conical part, as a consequence of eddy diame­
ter reduction and particle concentration increase, the where:
pressure increases too and a so-called internal eddy is
formed which the largest part of the air together with
a part of the finest particles directs into the vortex r
^ = 2,3^ (5)
resp. the filter for a further purification. Aerocy- D D ^abj

954
d D -{ D -B )[ { S + l - h ) / ( H - h ) ]
(6)
D~ D
where D= the cyclone diameter in meters; r=absolute
temperature in Kelvin degrees; //=gas viscosity;
Pp=particle density; vHncoming gas velocity;
is^particle diameter; and a, b, De, h, H, B,
iS'^geometrical dimensions of the cyclone (a=D/2,
b-D/4, h=2D, B=D/4, De=D/2, H=4D, S=5D/8). The
filters retain the particle carried by gas flow on a
cloth made of natural of syntetic fibres (Fig. 3).
Figure 3. Bag filter
In the first stage the filter retains a part of particles
smaller than the pore size as a consequence of at­
tractive forces; in the second stage, after a certain
quantity of particles is deposited and the filter cake
begins to form, the filter lets through just particles
smaller than the pore size and so works like a
strainer. For the regular working of the filter, of the
greatest importance is the pressure difference resp.
the pressure decrease during the forming of the cake;
it is (Loffier et al. 1988):
iS p = + ^2 (7)
where 4P/=the pressure decrease after the cake is
taken off; and Ap2=\hQ pressure decrease inside the
cake. Because of the predominantly laminar flow
(Re<l), the Darcy law for the determination of Api
and Ap2, so it follows:
955
Ap = ^ 7 7 L , v + - ^ ;/Z ,2 V (8 )
where /pthe gas dynamic viscosity; v=the gas veloc­
ity (depends on the quantity of the flowing through
and on the filter surface); Ly=the thickness of the fil­
ter medium, />2=the cake thickness; J?y=the pervious­
ness of the filter medium together with the remained
particles after the filter removal; and ^ 2=the pervi­
ousness of the cake. L 2 depends on the time and can
be calculated from the mass balance:
cv t ^
(9)
p A ^-e ) Ps(}-A
where c=the particle concentration; /=the filtration
time; O =the total filtration efficiency; /?5=the particle
density; £=the cake porosity; and w=the cake mass
on the surface unit. By interpolating the equation (9)
into the equation (8) the following expression is ob­
tained:
w
Ap = — L V+ ( 10)
(1
Ap = rjV + rjw V ( 11)
A 1
K. =- ( 12)
B. B 2 Ps (1 -
where /T/=the resistance of the filter cloth after the
filter removal; and A^2=the specific resistance of the
cake. The values Bi, B2, Ki i K2 depend on a lot of
variables and are determined experimantally.
The pressure decrease most often takes place in
the span of 750 -1500 Pa, and the particle separation
efficiency is about 99%. The filter cloth usually has
the form of bag, pipe or a rectangular plate and the
filter cake is taken off by vibrating the cloth or by
blowing fresh air trough the device; the air is brought
about by ventilators or compressors.
5 CONCLUSION
The effect of the exploitation and preparation of
technical stone on the environment mainfests itself
most often by a permanent loss of the fertile forest
soil, of forest growth and by an alteration of the con­
figuration of the terrain. Regularly there appear emis­
sions of dust and noise and sometime of waste wa­
ters, what in some cases can disturb the environment
quality. The air is polluted by the operation of en­
gines, transport vehicles, of the preparation equip­
ment and by executing the manifold working proce­
dures, what provokes further emissions of dust and
exhaust gases. The intensity of pollution depends in
the first place on the power, working characteristics
and working regimen of the transport vehicles and
other machines, on the characteristics of the raw
material, and on the air humidity and temperature.
These émisions and by that also the air pollution can
be prevented resp. diminished by protecting meas­
ures. In that, in general two categories of measures
can be identified: one by which emissions from single
machines and engines are prevented, and the second
which are aimed on singular working operations in
the technological process of exploitation and benefi-
ciation. Protecting measures today practised in quar­
ries include the following:
- equiping the drilling outfit with a dedusting de­
vice (e.g. a hydro-deduster),
- watering the transport roads where the watering
efficiency can be increased by adding various
salts and surface active agents into the water,
- decontaminating the exhaust gases of motors
with internal combustion by dispersion of water
mixed with neutralizers directly in the exhaust
pipes or by passing of gases through matrices on
metal basis or with the use of catalyzers,
- correct choice of comminution equipment, water
dispersion on the emission points or - far more
efficient - a system for dedusting (aerocyclone
and cloth filter).
As the forming of dust in quarries cannot be
avoided, by the mentioned protection measures the
dust emissions can be reduced into permitted limits
during the exploration works as well as during the
exploitation.

6 REFERENCES

Leith, D., & W. Licht 1971. Collection efficiency of

cyclone type particle collectors; A new theoretical
approach. AIQE Symp. Ser. A12.

Loffier, F., W. Dietrich & W. Flatt 1988. Dust col­

lection with bag filters and envelope filters.
BraunschweigAViesbaden, Friedr.Vieweg & Sohn,
1988, 274 pps.

Salopek, B. et al. 1997. A study of the influence on

the environment of the quarry “Velicanka” and the
Factory of dry mixtures. Zagreb, (In Croatioan.).

Salopek, B. 1996. Reclamation of quarries and

gravel-pits in producing construction aggregates.
Proceedings SWEMP ’96, R. Ciccu (ed), Cagliari,
Itali, 697-702.

956
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Seed germ ination in Ruby D ock Rumex vesicarius (Fam. Polygonaceae)

A . Schatral & J. M .O sb o m e
School of Environmental Biology, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, WA, Australia

ABSTRACT: Initial studies show that the weed Rumex vesicarius (Polygonaceae) produces two different
seed types, which vary in their germination requirements depending on age and ecotype. Light appears to be
the most important environmental factor promoting germination. The fruiting perianth inhibits germination
and salinity induces secondary dormancy in the dark.

1 INTRODUCTION (in the following called “seed”) (length: 3.5 - 4.5

mm). The perianth segments form the fruiting
valves and are round or broadly elliptic, thin, in­
Extreme and unpredictable climatic conditions as
flated, finely reticulated and purplish. The three in­
well as infertile and saline soil impede the estab­
ner perianth-segments close over the fruit, and the
lishment of native plant species in rehabilitated mine
valves of the two or three flowers, which are on one
sites in the semi-arid regions of Western Australia.
pedicel, are folded together. Dispersal of the fruit­
The invasion of weed species is an additional, seri­
ing valves (in the following also called “fruiting
ous problem that threatens the success of rehabilita­
perianth” or “fruits”) occurs by wind. In Western
tion efforts. Past mining activities, intentional
Australia plants mainly flower from July to October
seeding and incoming vehicles/ machinery have in­
(Rechinger 1984, Marchant et al 1987).
troduced Rumex vesicarius (“Ruby Dock”, “Bladder
Dock”) (Family Polygonaceae) into numerous mine Germination and dormancy of seeds have been
sites in the semi-arid regions of Western Australia extensively studied in related Rumex species (see for
and the Northern Territory. Ruby Dock often is the a review article Roberts & Totterdell 1981), but little
dominant plant species in new rehabilitation sites. is known of the germination biology and ecology of
The weed is also rapidly spreading out over National Rumex vesicarius. The present paper reports the re­
Parks in the North of Western Australia (CALM, sults of an initial study on seed germination in Ru­
pers. observations; Low 1999). mex vesicarius and attempts to relate the results to
possible dormancy strategies.
Generally R. vesicarius is a plant of dry areas and
can be found throughout mainland Australia. It is
common in a variety of disturbed situations from the
2 RESULTS
Pilbara to the Nullarbor and also grows in the
Wheatbelt of Western Australia. Rumex vesicarius is
indigenous to desert and semi-desert areas of North
Africa, southwest Asia, southern Iran, Afghanistan 2.1 Seed dimorphism
and Pakistan. The species has probably been intro­
duced to Australia at the end of the last century Rumex vesicarius produces two types of seed (seed
(Rechinger 1984). dimorphism). Dark brown or black seeds are usually
smaller and lighter than light brown seeds, and are
Rumex vesicarius is a much branched annual herb
found within the periphery of the fruiting perianth.
and between 0. 1 and 0.8 m tall. The flowers are bi­
Light brown seeds are located in the centre of the
sexual and arranged in whorls in long racemes. Two
fruiting perianth. In general only one light brown
to three flowers are usually borne on one pedicel.
seed, but one to five black seeds are found per fruit­
The flowers are wind pollinated. The six perianth
ing perianth.
segments (or valves) of each flower are unequal with
the outer perianth segments small and the three inner Initial histological studies do not show any dif­
ones large. The fruit is a 3-sided acutely angled nut ference in the structure of pericarp or seed coat be­

957
tween the two nut (seed) types. The studies are cur­
rently being continued.
2.2 Seed quality
Seed material was collected in various Australian
mine sites, near Meekatharra and Laverton in West­
ern Australia and at Granite Gold, Northern Terri­
tory. Seed was harvested from, or collected under­
neath, maternal plants and retrieved from soil
samples. The soil samples contain large numbers of
fruiting valves of Rumex vesicarius. Seeds (nuts)
were extracted and seed (nut) quality was assessed.
Potentially viable nuts (those of good quality) are
firm with intact pericarp, potentially non-viable nuts
are soft, empty, cracked open or damaged by fungal
infection or insect predation.
Black seeds are more persistent elements of the
fruiting perianth in soil samples. Potentially viable
black seeds were as frequent in intact fruiting valves
collected from maternal plants as in partly decayed
fruits found in soil samples. In contrast, potentially
viable brown seeds were significantly less common
in the partly decomposed fruits collected in the soil,
than in intact fruiting valves attached to or newly
shed by maternal plants. Fruiting valves degrade
once dropped off the maternal plant. It appears that
in the early stage of decay the light brown seed in
the centre of the fruit is set free, and germination
may occur under favourable conditions.
2.3 Germination
2.3.1 The fruiting perianth imposes dormancy
Germination of seeds within the intact fruiting peri­
anth is delayed in darkness and in a light dark
rhythm, and the final germination percentage is low
(< 20%). Seeds were extracted and incubated with
and without fruiting perianth (fp) extract in either a
light - dark rhythm or darkness. In response to light
most of the brown seeds germinated both without fp
extract and in the presence of fp extract. Black
seeds however, germinated significantly less often
with fp extract than when fp extract was not present.
In darkness brown seeds germinated significantly
less frequently than in a dark-light rhythm, and
fruiting perianth extract did not affect the final ger­
mination percentage. Germination of black seeds
was poor and only slightly better for seeds without
fp extract than for those in the presence of fp extract.
Hence the intact fruiting perianth appears to in­
hibit the germination of black and brown seeds by
acting as a light filter. The fruit also seems to con­
tain chemical compounds that may have an addi­
tional inhibitive effect on the germination of both
seed types.
958
Germination responses of black and brown seeds
depends on age and origin and in response to tem­
perature and light. Extracted seeds show a variety of
responses depending on seed type, temperature,
light, population and age. There are also differences
in the germination responses between seeds har­
vested from and around maternal plants, and seed
material retrieved from soil samples.
After harvest brown and black seeds require an
after-ripening period of at least three months. Dur­
ing this time period germination is very low for both
seed types.
Thereafter germination varies with the population
for both, brown and black seeds. In darkness the
number of brown seeds that germinate, ranges from
50 to almost 100% (optimum temperature range 15 -
20° C). In a light-dark rhythm most of the brown
seeds germinate. In the dark germination of black
seeds is significantly lower than the germination of
brown seeds (final germination percentages range
from 20 - 50%). Light dramatically promotes ger­
mination in black seeds and alternate temperatures
appear to have an additional stimulating effect.
Seeds that have been recovered from soil samples
are non dormant when tested shortly after retrieval.
A high percentage of the brown seeds germinate in
darkness and in response to light. Black seexis that
have been recovered from soil samples germinate
more frequently than black seeds harvested from
and/or around maternal plants and stored under la­
boratory conditions.
2.3.2 Salinity tolerance o f germinating seeds
Salinity tolerance differs between populations and
may be related to seed age and the environmental
conditions, which promote germination (temperature
and light). Final germination percentages in re­
sponse to salinity (NaCl) are distinctly higher for
seeds collected in soil samples than for seeds har­
vested from maternal plants and stored under labo­
ratory conditions.
Salinity induces secondary dormancy. The ger­
mination of both, black and brown seeds is only
slightly inhibited at 1.0% NaCl in a dark light
rhythm.' However, the germination of brown and
black seeds rapidly decreases with increasing salt
concentration when seeds are incubated in the dark.
Full recovery from exposure to salinity is achieved
in a light dark rhythm, but in complete darkness
seeds remain dormant.
3 CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
Weed population dynamics focuses on the life stage
or process in a weed population, which is particu-
larly critical for its regulation. Usually the seedling
stage is the most vulnerable stage within the life
cycle of a plant. Rumex vesicarius is an annual spe­
cies and its survival entirely depends on seed pro­
duction. Although our understanding of the seed ec­
ology of this species is still limited, our initial
studies show that the vigour of R. vesicarius is re­
lated to its seed biology: (1) Plants produce large
amount of viable seeds, and (2) Two seed types with
different germination requirements help to spread
germination throughout the year.
After an after-ripening period of about three
months and as soon as the fruiting valves have
started decaying, brown seeds are likely to respond
with rapid germination to favourable temperature
and moisture conditions in the field. Black seeds are
hidden away within the centre of the fruiting peri­
anth. Large numbers of black seeds may only ger­
minate once the fruit is almost entirely decayed al­
lowing enough light to reach the embryo to stimulate
germination. Germination of black seeds appears to
be also related to ecotype and age. Whether black
seeds are dormant during some stages of their life is
not clear. Seeds may undergo dormancy cycles re­
lated to annual seasons and maturity. Hence black
seeds may form a persistent seed bank in the soil,
and optimal germination may only occur as a re­
sponse to soil disturbance. The longevity of black
seeds in the soil is another important topic for future
research.

REFERENCES

Low, T. 1999. Feral future. The untold story of

Australia’s exotic invaders. Viking, Penguin
Books Australia Ltd., Ringwood, Victoria, Aus­
tralia.
Marchant, N.G., J.R. Wheeler, B.L. Rye, E.M.
Bennett, N.S Lander,. & T.D. Macfarlane 1987.
Flora of the Perth Region, part I. Western Aus­
tralian Herbarium, Department of Agriculture,
Western Australia.
Rechinger , K.H. 1984. Rumex in Australia: a recon­
sideration. Nuytsia 5, 75- 122.
Roberts, E.H. & S. Totterdell 1981. Seed dormancy
in Rumex species in response to environmental
factors. Plant, Cell and Environment 4, 97 - 106.

959
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Evaluation and m odelling o f haul road dust palliatives

R .J.T h om p son
Department of Mining Engineering, University of Pretoria, South Africa
A .T V isse r
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT: Excessive dust generation from mine haul roads is a problem common to most surface mining
operations. Optimal wearing course material selection parameters reduce, but do not totally eliminate the po­
tential to produce dust. For existing operations, which may not have optimally designed and maintained roads,
the problem of identifying existing deficiencies, quantifying their impact and assigning priorities within the
constraints of limited capital and manpower is problematic. This is reflected in the fact that most surface mine
operators agree dust-free roads are desirable, but find it difficult to translate this into cost-effective betterment
activities. The aim of this paper is to describe a dust palliative evaluation, management and costing strategy.
Models are described which enable mines to assess the likely dustiness of their chosen wearing course materi­
als as a function of surface loading of fines, traffic types and volume, together with various material parame­
ters. These models are then combined with palliative suppression performance models to enable predictions to
be made concerning the suppression- and cost- efficiency of various dust palliatives.

1 INTRODUCTION For existing operations, which may not have op­

The integrated design of mine haul roads encom­
passes structural, functional and maintenance design
aspects as discussed by Thompson & Visser (1999).
Design and construction costs for the majority of
haul roads represent only a small proportion of the
total operating and maintenance costs. Whilst it is
possible to construct a mine haul road that requires
no maintenance over its service life, this would be
prohibitively expensive, as would the converse but
rather in terms of operating and maintenance costs.
Whilst wearing course material selection guidelines
together with a maintenance management system can
optimise road performance at minimum total road-
user costs, considerable time and expenditure is nev­
ertheless applied to the reduction of haul road dust.
Excessive dust generation from mine haul roads is a
problem common to most surface mining operations.
Optimal wearing course material selection parame­
ters reduce, but do not totally eliminate the potential
to produce dust (Thompson & Visser, 2000) and
mines regularly re-apply a water-spray to the road
for palliation purposes. Although water-spraying is
the most common means of reducing dustiness, it is
not necessarily the most efficient means of dust sup­
pression, especially where high evaporation rates
and traffic volumes are found in combination with
wearing course materials that are inherently dusty.
timally designed and maintained road networks, the
problem of identifying existing deficiencies, quanti­
fying their impact and assigning priorities within the
constraints imposed by limited capital and man­
power is problematic.
1.1 Aim and scope o f paper
A dust palliative evaluation and management strat­
egy is described. The modelling of water-based sup­
pression systems is introduced and the development
of models which enable mines to assess the likely
dustiness of their chosen wearing course materials is
described. These models are then combined with
palliative suppression performance models to enable
predictions to be made concerning the suppression-
and cost- efficiency of the particular palliative cho-
2 CURRENT STATE OF HAUL ROAD DUST
SUPPRESSION
Dust generation may be loosely defined as the proc­
ess by which particulate matter becomes airborne, to
be carried downwind from the point of origin or
source. Such generation is termed a fugitive (or
open) dust source. The amount of dust that will be

961
emitted is a function of two basic factors; the erodi-
bility and erosivity of the material involved.
The erosivity is dependent on a number of fac­
tors;
Wind speed at the road surface, (lower vehicles
with many wheels cause an increase in dustiness).
Traffic volume.
Particle size distribution of the wearing course.
Restraint of fines. This is related to compaction of
the road surface, cohesiveness and bonding of the
surface material, durability of the material and the
amount of imported fines (spillage) on the road.
Climate, particularly humidity, number of days
with rain and mean daily evaporation rates.
Simpson et al (1996), investigating the causes of
transport and tramming accidents in South African
mines highlighted the fact that 74% of the accidents
on surface mines were associated with ore transfer
by haul truck and service vehicle operation. Dust
generation was identified as a significant contribu­
tory factor. Further work by Thompson (1996) and
Fourie et al (1998) confirmed these findings on un­
paved mine haul roads. The broader environmental
effects of dust have also been reviewed by Ampon-
sah-Dacosta (1997) who conducted an emission in­
ventory for a South African coal strip mining opera­
tion. The analysis, conducted according to USEPA
(1995) guidelines, found that 93,3% of the total
emissions from the mine were attributable to dust
generated from the mine haul road (the next highest,
at 2,7%, being attributable to top soil removal). It
was concluded that emissions from the road network
would be typical of most opencast coal mines, when
calculated on a percentage of total emissions basis.
2.1 Dust suppression systems
In broad terms, the effectiveness of any dust sup­
pression system is dependant on changing material
erodibility or erosivity. The nature and particle size
distribution of a mine haul road wearing course ma­
terial has a fundamental influence on the tendency to
form fugitive dust. Particles that become suspended
for a noticeable length of time are generally <3 0pm
in diameter. The proportion of material in this range
is therefore approximately proportional to a mate­
rial's erodibility. In general, the silt and fine sand
content of a material (i.e. 2-75pm) is a good indica­
tion of its erodibility.
Erodibility is reduced by cohesion, which in­
creases with clay content and/or the use of additional
chemical binders. This forms the basic motivation
for the use of some additional agent to reduce a ma­
terial's inherent erodibility, since the finer fraction,
although contributing to cohesiveness, also generates
much of the dust, particularly when the material is
dry. This forms the basis of the water-based dust
suppression techniques used widely on most surface
962
mine haul roads. Other options available to reduce
fugitive dust emissions from a mine haul road in­
clude;
Providing a tightly bound wearing course or seal
Armouring the surface (a thin layer of higher
quality wearing course on the existing material)
Good maintenance practices
Regular light watering of the road
Use of various chemical dust palliatives
Reducing vehicle speed and/or modifying en-
gine/retarder blower configuration.
From the foregoing it is clear that in most circum­
stances regular watering, the application of chemical
dust suppressants and/or the optimal selection of
wearing course materials are the only viable alterna­
tives in controlling mine haul road dust emissions.
Minimal dust control is being exercised in southern
Africa other than that provided by watering the road.
Many products are available which are claimed to
reduce both dust and road maintenance requirements
for mine roads. However, no comprehensive and
controlled performance trials of the various products
have been carried out in recognised, published field
trials. In southern Africa, representatives of the vari­
ous dust palliative companies tend to oversell their
products. Many do not have civil or mining engi­
neering backgrounds and as such inappropriate ap­
plication techniques and construction methods often
result. This has led to considerable scepticism about
such products and their overall cost-effectiveness.
From a mining perspective, the following parame­
ters would define an acceptable dust palliative;
Spray-on application with deep penetration or
(less preferable) mix-in application with minimal
site preparation
Straight-forward applications requiring minimal
supervision, not sensitive nor requiring excessive
maintenance or closely controlled re-applications.
Short product curing period
Adequate proven or guaranteed durability, effi­
ciency and resistance to deterioration
Effective over both wet and dry seasons
Safe to handle and environmentally acceptable.
The broad classes of products or systems avail­
able are listed below and the general characteristics
of each system are summarised in Table 1;
1 Water containing dissolved salts or wetting agents
2 Hygroscopic salts
3 Lignosulphonates
4 Modified waxes
5 Petroleum (or sulphonated petroleum) resins
6 Polymer emulsions
7 Tar and bitumen products
Whilst the selection matrix presented in Table 1
can be used to identify classes of palliative which
would suit a certain application, the data does not
specify the level of performance. An initial indica­
tion of the maximum and average degrees of control
Table 1 Provisional palliative product selection matrix
mine haul roads (modified after Jones, 1999).
Wearing course Palliative product
selection parameters 2 3 4 5 6 7
High PI (>10)
Medium PI (<10) ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Sand
Wet trafficability ^ ^ ^
Ramps
Heavy traffic ^ ^ V'
Short term ^ V V
Long term ^ V V
Spray-on ^^ ^ ^ ^ loss of wearing course material. Although watering
Mix-in
achievable over a specific time period, together with
degeneration rates, expressed in terms of time from
initial establishment and re-application rates, is re­
quired as a precursor to an economic assessment of
the selected palliative.
3 DUST PALLIATIVE PERFORMANCE
MODELLING
Most mine untreated wearing course materials ex­
hibit excessive dust defects and thus there is the
need to reduce the dust defect through some form of
palliation. Unfortunately, most mine haul road dust
palliative testing to date has been conducted on an
ad-hoc basis with little or no quantitative data gener­
ated and thus no appropriate dust management
strategies determined.
3.1 Experimental design
The experimental design adopted for the study en­
tailed the analysis of a number of mine roads which
covered a range of factors (Thompson & Visser,
2000a). Climate as a factor was eliminated from the
study since most mines were located in the same
physiographical region, as was the road traffic vol­
ume factor, primarily since the test site locations did
not enable similar materials to be tested under a
range of traffic conditions and due to the variable na­
ture of the traffic itself Traffic volume and road
maintenance activities were thus recorded as inde­
pendent variables for each test site. The class of pal­
liative tested was limited by the selection (previ­
ously) made by the particular mine and little control
could be exercised over the choice of palliative at
each site.
A Hund Tyndalometer (TM digital pP, Hund,
1991) was used to measure the dust generation pro­
files in 2 dimensions (time and dust reading in
mg/m^ of the minus 10pm dust fraction) of vehicles
passing the measuring point. The instrument oper­
ates on the principle of light scattering and is com­
monly used for routine checking of dust levels asso-
for -ciated with mining operations. It was assumed that
the dust particle-size profile generated by a vehicle
passing the machine remains similar before and after
palliation and thus using the 10pm fraction should
faithfully reflect the change in dust levels recorded.
3.2 Water-spray based dust suppression
Judicious watering assists in dust suppression, main­
taining compaction and therefore strength of the
wearing course, in addition to reducing the potential
^ itself is often seen as a cheap and simple approach to
dust suppression, equipment and operating costs of­
ten escalate the cost of suppression. Water retention
on mine roads is generally poor, more so during ad­
verse conditions where a combination of high tem­
peratures, high wind speeds and low humidity are
prevalent. Figure 1 illustrates a typical water-based
spray drying time dust curve showing a re­
application interval of 120 minutes for a dust defect
of 2. The degree of dust palliation achieved with wa­
tering is a function of;
The amount of water applied per unit area of road
surface
The time between re-applications
Traffic volumes
Prevailing meteorological conditions
The wearing course material
Extent of water penetration in to the wearing
course.
Watering @ O.SI/m^. 21C WB 12C C
CAT777CTajck
- Dust assessment reading
Figure I Rate of increase in dustiness following watering on a
mine haul road
Five test sites were evaluated in terms of the effi­
ciency of the water-spray based dust suppression
method. Analysis of the data enabled a first estimate
to be made of the time taken for the degree of pallia­
tion to decay to zero and the role of climate, specifi­
cally evaporation rates, on this time.
The management strategy for water-spray based
dust suppression was based on user defined levels of
the dust defect acceptability, both from a health and
963
safety point of view. Previous work (Thompson &
Visser, 2000) established the functional defect ac­
ceptability limits for a number of functional defects,
amongst these dust, in terms of defect degree, as
shown in Figure 1. As a result of the large number of
variables affecting the generation of dust, a visual
classification system was developed for the degree
of dust defect based on the road user's experience
from the point of view of a haul truck travelling at
40km/h. Table 2 gives these descriptions. In general,
the consensus was that a dust defect score of 2
would represent a typical dust defect intervention
level. This defect score was based primarily upon the
visual effects (road safety and driver discomfort),
rather than any perceived health impact.
Table 2 Classification of the degree of haul road dust defect
Dust defect degree descriptions
Dust defect degree and
peak dust levels (mg/m^
for -10pm dust per haul
truck pass)____________
Degree 1 Minimal dustiness
<3.50
Degree 2 Dust just visible behind vehicle.
3.51 to 23.5
Degree 3 Dust visible, no oncoming vehicle
23.51 to 45.0 driver discomfort, good visibility.
Degree 4 Notable amount of dust, windows
45.01 to 57.50 closed in oncoming vehicle, visibility
just acceptable, overtaking difficult.
Degree 5 Significant amount of dust, window
>57.51 closed in oncoming vehicle, visibility
poor and hazardous, overtaking not
possible._________________________
An approximate appreciation of the role of cli­
matic condition, expressed as mean monthly evapo­
ration rates, on the time taken for water-spray based
suppression to degenerate to zero was determined
from a number of test sites over the range of typical
summer and winter evaporation rates for stations in
the climatic region N=2 to 5 (Weinert, 1980). To de­
termine the re-application interval required under
these circumstances and to therefore eventually
model the cost-effectiveness of water-spray based
suppression, the peak and total dustiness of various
types of wearing course materials and the effect of
traffic speed on dustiness was modelled.
To provide an initial estimate of the dustiness as­
sociated with a particular wearing course material,
seven test sites were selected from which data was
recorded and analysed to model three parameters;
the mass of dust as loose material on the road (g/m^),
the total dustiness (from consideration of peak and
period of plume) and the total dustiness as a function
of vehicle speed and mass of loose material on the
road. By combining each of these models with the
maximum allowable dust defect score and the asso­
ciated peak value, the degree of palliation required to
maintain this maximum defect score, and the associ-
964
-ated re-application time, was determined.
Under typical summer conditions in southern Af­
rica, for a water-based spray suppression system, re­
watering is required at approximately 30 minute in­
tervals to maintain a dust defect that at no time ex­
ceeds a dust defect score of two. Under winter
conditions, the re-application interval extends to
approximately 50 minutes.
3.3 Chemical-based dust suppression
A number of alternative palliative types and applica­
tion methodologies were evaluated at nine test sites,
to provide an initial indication of the maximum and
average degrees of palliation achieved and the time
period, together with the degeneration rates, ex­
pressed in terms of time from initial establishment
and re-application.
The highest instantaneous control efficiency
measured was 92% immediately after application for
the tar/bitumen class of palliative. The highest aver­
age efficiencies measured were 75% over 86 days
for tar/bitumen class of palliative and 72% over 118
days for the polymer emulsion class of palliative,
which was also the longest control period evaluated.
Generally, when using spray-on techniques for estab­
lishment, the average degree of palliation hovered in
the 40% to 60% range for the first two weeks, then
decreased rapidly with time, whilst for mix-in tech­
niques, the average degree of palliation hovered in
the 60% to 70% range for the first 7 weeks, then de­
creased at a slower rate with time. In all cases, a
longer analysis period and follow-up re-applications
would probably increase the degree of palliation
achieved and reduce its degeneration rate, due to
build-up of residual product in the road. These re­
sults may therefore under-estimate the degree of pal­
liation that can be achieved over the long term and
therefore over-estimate the cost of a long-term
chemical dust suppression program compared to wa­
ter-spray systems. Table 3 summarises these results.
All palliatives (with infrequent re-application
rates) shared one common failing as compared with
frequent water-spray systems. Material spillage on
roadways was extremely common at all sites and
spilled material was subject to re-entrainment. With
frequent watering, the spilled material is moistened
at approximately hourly intervals. In the case of
once-only applications, or those products requiring
re-application only over longer intervals, spillage
would go untreated for 2-7 weeks and as such gener­
ate most of the fugitive dust emissions from the
road.
For chemical-based dust suppressants, the aver­
age degree of dust palliation and the period over
which it applied was considerably better than that
achievable by water-based spraying alone. However,
in terms of cost-effectiveness, an evaluation model
Table 3 Summary o f various palliative application and per­ (1/m^ spray-on only) and frequency, to achieve a
formance modelling data comparable average degree of dust palliation as to
Application methodology (1/m^ @ in- that achieved by water under the same conditions.
^ 2 terval)* Use of this data implies that the study took place un­
i § (S ^ spray-on M = mix-in) der optimal conditions, which was not the case. The
Dust defect Dust defect score
4
application of any palliative to a sub-standard wear­
score 2
ing course will not improve the performance of the
U -B W O P!h
wearing course over the long term and poorly de­
R Every 33 mins Every 68 mins signed pavements cannot be improved through the
E 21/m^ 21/m^ use of palliatives. The test results incorporated into
R 0.5Em^ every 0.25Em^ every
the model may therefore not represent the optimal
10 days 12 days
E lEm^? lEm^? performance of the palliative selected. Care should
R 0.21/m^ every 0.1 iW every 14 be taken when specifying the modelled or alternate
10 days days establishment and re-application strategies. It is im­
Unknown portant that the data used closely reflects the antici­
E 1.2lW Unknown pated palliative performance.
0.1 lEm^ every Unknown Figure 2 illustrates application of the combined
20 days performance and cost models to a particular mine
E 0.95Em^ 0.951W haul road, where some form of dust remediation is
R 0.05/m^ every 0.025/m^ every
15 days 20 days
required. Four options exist, namely water-based
3Em^ 3Em^ spraying or chemical palliation, both in conjunction
0.1251/m^ over 0.063iW over with or without improvement to the existing wearing
15 days 15 days course material. The cost effectiveness of the various
*The test results incorporated into the model may not represent management strategies for either water-based spray­
the optimal performance o f the palliative selected. Care should ing, the application of a chemical palliative (in this
be taken when specifying the modelled or alternate establish-
case a polymer-emulsion product which requires re­
ment and re-application strategies._________________________
establishment every 3 years), or improvement of the
was required with which to determine the extent of wearing course material, was analysed. If no im­
the cost benefits attributable to chemical-based dust provement to the wearing course material can be
suppression, together with an indication of those fac­ made, then application of the polymer-emulsion pal­
tors likely to alter the trade-off between water- and liative will render the lowest overall treatment cost.
chemical-based dust palliation. When the wearing course material is improved, the
benefits were evident in terms of the much reduced
cost of water-based spraying. Over the short term (2
4 MODELLING PALLIATIVE COST- years), water-based spraying offered the cheapest
EFFECTIVENESS means of suppression (primarily as a result of the
relatively expensive mix-in establishment required
The development and evaluation of dust control with the polymer-emulsion). For longer-term appli­
strategies requires an analysis of the relative costs of cations, the polymer-emulsion option was marginally
alternative palliation options, such that the most cheaper and offered other unquantified benefits such
cost-efficient option can be determined, together as improved wet weather trafficability, compaction,
with an indication of the sensitivity of the selection reduced erosion and dry skid resistance.
in terms of the primary modelling parameters. When the allowable dust defect was increased to
The analysis consisted of identification of the key four, due to associated lower average degree of dust
components that affect the overall cost of dust con­ palliation required, water-based spraying was the
trol and their interrelationship and effect on the total cheaper option. The effect of a number of other
cost per unit area of road. These parameters were, in model variables were analysed, the most significant
turn, influenced by the selected palliative and appli­ being any extra blading required, over and above
cation methodology and frequency. Costs associated that dictated by the palliative re-application fre­
with reduced road maintenance intervals are impor­ quency, and the dust palliation utilisation. For the
tant since improvements in functionality were seen particular model parameters analysed, additional
to be a major benefit of dust palliatives, especially blading of the road between spray-on re-applications
where re-application interval could be made to coin­ resulted in a significant increase in costs such that
cide with scheduled blading activities. watering became the cheapest suppression option.
The palliative performance model was based on From this result it was clear that improvements in
data presented in Table 3, in terms of the product's road functionality can significantly impact costs and
establishment application rate (iW ), establishment any palliative applied should ideally contribute to
method (spray-on or mix-in) and re-application rate improved functionality. In the case of dust palliation

965
utilisation, since chemical-based palliatives act 24
hours per day, any non-trafficked periods will also
be suppressed whilst with the water-based system,
non-trafficked periods do not require watering. Thus
it was seen that where daily duration of trafficking
fell below 10-14 hours, watering invariably repre­
sented the cheapest suppression option.
4 5 6
Life of road (years)
Figure 2 Dust palliative options unit cost assessment
5 CONCLUSIONS
The development of an integrated evaluation meth­
odology fulfilled the need for a structured approach
to dust palliative performance assessment and cost­
ing. A set of ideal dust palliative parameters were
identified, encompassing application, management
and performance factors. A watering model was de­
veloped to determine individual mine road watering
frequencies for the characteristic site parameter
combinations during summer and winter operating
conditions, for a required level of control.
Palliative cost-effectiveness was modelled with
the aim of identifying and costing the construction,
application and maintenance aspects associated with
the use of chemical palliatives, compared to that of
water-based suppression alone. A mix-in establish­
ment was recommended for mine haul roads, irre­
spective of palliative type, followed by spray-on
maintenance re-applications. However, a poor wear­
ing course material cannot be improved to deliver an
adequate performance solely through the addition of
a dust palliative; the inherent functional deficiencies
of the material will negate any safety or financial
benefit of gained from using dust palliatives.
Whilst the models were based on southern Afri­
can road construction materials and climatic condi­
tions, the principal findings are nevertheless interna­
tionally applicable. Application of the model enables
operators to identify where on the road network dust
is problematic and to identify and cost the most ap­
propriate palliation option.
966
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Acknowledgment is given to the Safety in Mines
Research Advisory Committee for permission to
publish these results, their financial support awarded
under the project COL 467, and to the participating
mines for the provision of research facilities and data
upon which these developments are founded.
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 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopoulos (eds)
Underground gold-extracting plant
A . I. Y ed ilbayev, A . I. Y akunin & V. S. M u zgin a
Gornoe Büro Limited, Almaty, Kazakhstan
ABSTRACT: The paper presents new ecologically clean gravitational technology of gold extraction with full
water recycle for small gold ore deposits in the East-Kazakhstan oblast of the Republic of Kazakhstan. It is
very important for Kazakhstan's economy in new market conditions.
The East-Kazakhstan oblast of the Republic of
Kazakhstan has high-developed mining-and-
metallurgical industry. There are a lot of gold-
bearing deposits in it. However their reserves are, as
a rule, small and gold content in ore is low (not more
than 6 gram per 1 ton). That is why large enterprises
of gold mining are not interested in their exploitation
- it is not profitable for them. However, such
deposits mining will ensure new working places for
high qualified miners, who are unemployed now for
reason of putting in prolonged storage a number of
large ore mines, which need additional investments
for further operating in new economic conditions.
To increase profitability of exploitation of small
gold ore deposits it is necessary to use non-
traditional approach to technology of their mining.
Promising way for development of such deposits is
preparing gold concentrate immediately at a place of
gold-ore mining. It allows to decrease substantially
transport charges and to increase effectiveness of
production.
For organizing of process of preparation it is
necessary to build a small preparation plant. It must
be cheap in exploitation, module type. Taking
account of the fact that temperature drop in the
oblast is from -50^C (in winter) up to +40^C (in
summer) it is necessary to build special heated room
for installation of equipment for ore preparation,
because a process of gravitational preparation
requires stable temperature regime. It requires
additional investments. An idea was offered to locate
this equipment underground in old mine workings,
where temperature regime is more favourable -
temperature drop is only from +12^C up to +15^C
967
© 2000 Taylor & Francis, ISB N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3
all the year round. Such location of the preparation
plant is ecologically favourable because silicosis-
hazard dust emission into environment decreases
substantially in comparison with its surface location.
Such plant of module type was built at one of gold
ore deposits in East-Kazakhstan oblast. It uses
ecologically clean gravitational technology. Its
principle flow sheet is presented at figure 1 and is
the following.
Gold ore is mined from an open pit and at the same
time from underground mine workings. The main
technological equipment of the plant (mills,
hydraulic cyclone, jig, concentrating tables and so
on) are located at a depth of 42 m. Now ore crushing
is carried out at a day surface, but in the future it will
be carried out underground. As a bin for crushed ore
a raise is used. It has sufficient capacity for plant's
work during twenty-four hours. Ore tailings are
transported by pipelines and are used as a hydraulic
stowing for worked-out space.
The process of gold ore preparation is ecologically
clean, because only electric energy and water are
used in it. For water saving and exclusion of
environment pollution full water recycle is used.
Designing capacity is 170-200 kg of gold a year.
Gold extraction reaches 60-80%; gold content in
gold concentrate is 160-170 gram per 1 ton. Such
gold concentrate is in demand in CIS countries and
abroad.
Exploitation of the first small preparation plant
shows, that it is profitable for the oblast, because 50
miners will be placed in job, when the plant will
reach its designing capacity, oblast budget will
receive additional money in a form of taxes from
open pit CONCLUSIONS

Our investigations showed that working out of new

Underground mine working
Crushing equipment
Bin for crushing ore
non-traditional approach to mining of small gold ore
deposits in the Republic of Kazakhstan is very
important and profitable for Kazakhstan from
economic, ecological and social points of view. It is
a promising way in development of its natural
resources in the future.

n m Feeder

Figure 1. Technological scheme of

underground cold-extracting plant

operating enterprise, the Republic will fill up its gold

reserve.

968
 Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, Panagiotou & Michalakopouios (eds) © 2 0 0 0 Taylor & Francis, IS B N 9 0 5 809 1 7 8 3

Author index

Addala, S. 601 Bortolussi, A . 2 7 ,6 5 3 Day, S. 891

Agioutantis, Z. 3 ,5 7 ,2 3 9 Boyandinova, A. A. 563 de Andrade Lima, A. 833
Aikynbayev, A . Ye. 859 Bozdag, T. 515 de Tomi, G. 3 9 ,8 3 3
Akcakoca, H. 773 Bozinis, S. 3 DeM arco, M. J. 735
Akda§, H. 11 Butra, J. 253 Demirci, A. 199
Akhmedov, D .Sh. 527 Bukeikhanov, D.G. 3 3 ,1 7 3 ,5 2 7 Denby, B. 209
Aksoy, M. 499 Bukeikhanov, S.D . 173 Dentoni, V. 931
Antoniak, J. 505 Bukin, A. A. 281 Descour, J.M. 735
Anwar, H .Z. 83 Buneyev, A.T. 763 Diaconu, L. 145
Appolinary, M. J. 247 Bzow ski, Z. 885 Didyk, R.P. 539
Arad, S. 863 Dildabayev, Sh. A. 285
Arad, V. 863 Cabala,;. 177 Dima, N. 267
Ardianto, A. 619 Camboni, A. 931 Dogan, A. 199
Arif, 1 .619 Caranassios, A. 39 Dojcsar, D. 747
Arora, R. 511 geleb i, N. 7 7 3 ,8 0 5 Dolipski, M. 541
Askarov, A. A . 121. g e lik ,R . 11 Dominy, S.C. 45
Ataee-pour, M . 777 Chabdarova, Yu. 1 .281 Diaganescu, L. 145
Avila, J.C. 865 Cheluszka, P. 541 Drymonitis, D. 193
Aygar, E. 397 Chmihun, V. A. 483 Dumitrescu, 1 .657
Ayres da Silva, L. A. 339 Christou, N. 151 Dvofacek, J. 421
Chugh, U. 947
Baafi, E.Y. 1 6 3 ,7 7 7 Ciccu, R. 2 7 ,6 2 5 ,6 4 1 ,6 5 3 Elevli, B. 199
Baican, G. 899 Cinar, 1 .233 Erarslan, K. 6 8 5 ,7 7 3 ,7 9 3
Bakhshandeh, H. 111 Cmiel, S.R . 183 Er9 elebi, S.G. 2 7 1 ,5 4 7
Bakiu, A. 461 Cocar, D. 863 Ergin, H. 799
Bandopadhyay, S. 871 Cokorilo, V. 789 Ermekov, T.M. 2 7 7 ,2 8 1 ,2 8 5
Bansal, R .K . 947 Copur, H. 533 Ersoy, M. 805
Bartelmus, W. 879 Cosma, A .M . 863 Esen, S. 21
Basaran, M. 799 Cosma, D. 863
Basarir, H. 515 Costa, J.EC.L. 167 Fabbri, S. 521
Batzias, E A. 783 Coulter, G.A. 891 Falutsu, M. 891
Bedekovic, G. 951 Cuffley, B.W. 45 Fissgus, K. 267
Begalinov, A . 123 Fodor, D. 899
Bekmurzayev, B.Zh. 173 Dadu, A. 145 Fogliata, A .S . 865
Berry, R 521 Dagdelen, K. 187 Folta, Z. 555
Beus, M. J. 15 Daigle, B. 51 Fomaro, M. 289
Biegaj, K. 703 Dakuko, N .A . 409 Forte, S. 27
Bilgin, A. 21 Daneshmend, L.K . 709 Franchuk, VP. 559
Blengini, G .A . 521 Darmawan, S. 619 Franchuk, V.V 559
Bonato, E S . 167 Das, S.K . 259 Furukawa, H. 83

969
Fytas, K. 51 Kalvelage, M .R . 833
Kapageiidis, I.K . 2 0 9 ,7 1 5
Gabdullin, T G . 3 3 ,5 2 7 ,5 6 3 Karaku§, D. 359
Galetakis, M. 57 Karpuz, C. 515
Galiyev, S.Zh. 3 3 ,5 2 7 ,5 6 3 Kavourides, C. 3 ,4 3 1
Gennaro, R. 289 K a w alec,W .217,811
Georgiu, V 145 Kawamura, Y. 309
G ladysiew icz, L. 811 Kayupov, M. A . 277
G olosinski, T.G. 731 Khair, A.W. 7 1 ,6 0 1
Gopinath, T.R. 227 Kirin, B. 909
Goshtasbi, K.G. 2 9 5 ,2 9 9 Kirk, L .J.437
Grenon, M. 303 Kirkbride, M. A. 607
Grigore, B. 941 Kirmanli, C. 547
Grosso, B. 27 Klimov, S.L. 137
Gm jic, M. M. 569 Koca, Y. 359
Gurjevsky, B. 123 Kolli, S .P B .7 1
Kolokolov, O.V. 721
Hack, D .R . 203 Kolonja, B. 6 1 3 ,8 2 1
Hadjigeorgiou, J. 303 Kolovos, C. J. 827
Hajdasinski, M .M . 425 Komazaki, M. 309
Hall, R. A. 709 Komnitsas, K. 913
Hanuska, L. 905 Konak, G. 3 1 5 ,3 5 9
Hardygora, M . 595 Kononov, V.A. 727
Heasley, K. A. 239 Koppe, J.C. 167
Heim, G .K .8 1 5 K orini,T .319
Hennies, W.T. 3 7 1 ,5 7 3 ,6 2 5 , Köse, H. 3 1 5 ,3 5 9
6 4 1 ,6 5 3 Kramadibrata, S. 8 3 ,6 1 9
Herbei, 0 .2 6 7 Kremer, O.G. 763
Hirama, K. 309 Kremlacek, V. 695
Hosseini, M. 295 Krishna, R. 247
Huang, K .M . 851 Krstev, B. 89
Hünefeld, P.815 Krstovic, S. 325
Kubota, S. 333
Ichinose, M. 83, 333 Kuchta, M. 187
Idziak, A.F. 183 Kulaksiz, S. 661
Ignjatovic, D. 577 Kumar, U. 635
Imashev, Zh.R . 223 Kurek, M .541
Ito, F. 309 Kuruppu, M .D. 731
luhas, T. 863 K usak,E .541
Ivanov, A. B. 583 Kyriakou, S. 443
Iverson, S. 15
Inkovic, M .D . 569 Lauand, C.T. 6 2 5 ,6 4 1
Lazar, M. 899
Japayev, S.K . 281 Lazurenko, U.N. 409
Jarosz, A.P. 63 Leba, M. 751
Jaszczuk, M. 541 Leontidis, M. 631
Javaherian, A. 111 Lerman, B.D. 3 3 ,5 6 3
Jaxybayev, A .K h. 5 2 7 ,5 6 3 Lian, M .Z. 851
Johansen, G.F. 45 Lichti, D.D. 327
J o rg ji,V 3 1 9 ,4 6 1 Lilly, P A . 77
Jurdziak, L. 5 8 9 ,5 9 5 Lima, A. A. 227
Logothetis, A.J. 431
Kaledina, N . 0 . 67
Kaliev, S. A . 907 M acoviciuc, 1 . 145
970
Madear, G . 0 . 919
Magalhaes, F.A.G. 453
Magda, R. 449
M alewski, J. 925
Malik, S. 947
Markeset, T. 635
Martin C .,G .R . 62 5 ,6 4 1
Martens, P N . 835
Marwan, J. 343
M assacci, G. 931
Matsui, K. 8 3 ,3 3 3 ,6 1 9
M edvedovski, E. 647
M endes, M .L .A . 653
M enezes, I.M . 453
Michálek, B. 935
Mihailescu, L. 657
Mihailescu, S. 657
M ilisavljevic, V. 789
M ilojevic, D. 95
Mirakovski, D.G. 89
Mitic, S. 95
M itii,H .S . 3 4 3 ,4 0 3
Moellerherm, S. 835
Mohamadi, M. 299
Morozov, I.T. 459
Muzgina, V S . 967
Nako, 1.461
Nakra, S .511
N asuf,E . 271
Navalkar, C .B. 99
Navrátil, P. 935
N eil, D M . 735
N evelson, I.S. 409
Nikolaev, N. 349
Nikolaides, I.P. 431
Nomikos, P.P. 377
Nugmanov, K.Kh. 281
Nuziale, T. 841
Oggeri, C. 289
Oglov, V.V. 907
Onal, G. 199
Onargan, T. 355
Onder, M. 105
O n u r ,A .H .3 1 5 ,3 5 9
Oraee, K. 365
Osanloo, M.G. I l l
Osborne, J.M. 957
Oz 9 elik, Y. 661
Ozdeniz, A .H . 233
Packee Jr, E.C. 871
Panagiotou, G.N. 319
Paraszczak, J. 667 Schimm, B. 679
Parushev, V 349 Schofield, D. 209
Pasamehmetoglu, A.G. 773 Schröder, D.L. 755
Patmanidou, B. 631 Senhorinho Silva, N. 833
Perreault, S. 51 Senhorinho, N. 39
Petros, V 381 Sensogut, C. 127,233
Pevzner, L .D . 743 Sharov, A. I. 483
P ezow icz, C. 601 Shepherd, L. 63
Pivnyak, G. 1 1 7 ,4 6 7 Shimada, H. 8 3 ,3 3 3 ,6 1 9
Planeta, S. 667 Shkundin, S.Z. 137
Poanta, A. 747 Siedin, V.E 33
Podem i, R. Y. 673 Slusarczyk, S. 925
Ponomarenko, P I. 1 2 1 ,4 5 9 Soares, L. 3 7 1 ,6 5 3
Pop, E. 751 Sobolev, V.V. 137
Pop, 1 .919 Sobota, P. 541
Pop, M. 751 Sofianos, A. 1 .377
Precek, H. 555 Specylak, J. 217
Pretorius, L. 443 Stanescu, D. 145
Pytel, W. 253 Stanic, R. 613
Stankovic, R. 821
Radchenko, V.V. 471
StellinJr,A . 573
Radulescu, M. 941
Stewart, M. 3 2 7 ,3 8 7
Rai, M .A .6 1 9
Stojakovic, M. 577
Rajaram, V. 947
Stregas, P 151
Rakishev, B. 123 ,2 2 3
S tu rgu U .R . 847
R akishev,E .B. 223
Sumanagara, D.A. 619
R istovic, 1 .577
Syedin, V.E 173
Rock, A .D . 735
Szwed-Lorenz, J. 925
Rogov, A.Y. 157
Szymanski, J. 667
Rogov, Y. 1 . 157
Rogoza, M .V 539
Tabachenko, N.M . 721
Romana, M. 381
Tafaro, V A . 521
Roumpos, C.P. 783
Taksuk, M. 685
Sally, V I. 473 Tatar, 315
Salopek, B. 951 Tavakoli, H. 381
Santos, E .N . 227 Tercan, E. 391
Sarac, S. 127 Terezopoulos, N. 485
Sasaoka, T. 333 Thompson, R. J. 961
Savchenko, Y.V. 539 Tkachov, V. 117
Savva, A. 477 Tkatchenko, A .M . 763
Sawicki, J. 131 Tokunaga, T. 309
Sawicki, W. 879 Tomlingson, P D . 691
Schatral, A . 957 Topal,E. 187
971
Traista, E. 919
Tsakiri, M. 3 2 7 ,3 8 7
Tsampis, K. 3
Tsolas, I.E. 491
Tsoutrelis, C.E. 377
Tulebaev, K.K. 285
Turgay, 0 . 315
Uisimbaeva, S.Z. 285
Ujihira, M. 309
Unal, M. 391
Ungureanu, N.S. 657
Unver, B. 3 9 1 ,3 9 7
Ushakov, K.Z. 155
Uysim bayeva, S.S. 277
Vagenas, N. 841
Vasiljevic, N. 613
Vasquez A m ez, E l. 371
Vega, H .M .3 3 9
Vicenzi, 1 .403
Vinkler, P 935
Visser, A.T. 961
Voronenko, V K . 763
Vukovic Filip, F. 821
Vypanasenko, S .1 .467
Yakunin, A. 1 .967
Yal^in, E .4 9 9
Yavuz, M. 11
Yazikov, VG. 157
Yedilbayev, A. 1 .967
Yedilbayeva, G .1 .859
Yedygenov, Ye.K. 765
Y enice,H . 359
Yildirim, O.S. 233
Yun, Q.X. 851
Yurovsky, R .1 .473
Zdarsky, J. 695
Zhanasov, M.Zh. 173
Zhuravkov, M .A. 409
Zhurin, S.N. 415
Zlatanovic, D. 95