NEW TECHNIQUES AND TECHNOLOGIES IN MINING

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE SCHOOL OF UNDERGROUND MINING, DNIPROPETROVS’K/YALTA,
UKRAINE, 12–18 SEPTEMBER 2010

New Techniques and

Technologies in Mining

Editors
Volodymyr Bondarenko
Department of Underground Mining, National Mining University, Ukraine

Iryna Kovalevs’ka
Department of Underground Mining, National Mining University, Ukraine

Roman Dychkovs’kyy
Department of Underground Mining, National Mining University, Ukraine

III
CRC Press
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Table of contents

Preface VIII

Efficiency of water supply regulation principles 1

G. Pivnyak, A. Beshta & A. Balakhontsev

Substantiation of design and installation technology of tubular rock bolts

by explosive method 9
V. Bondarenko & I. Kovalevs’ka & Y. Cherednychenko

Technology in life 15
Y. Romaschin & I. Saleev

Improvement of the methodology of managerial solutions substantiation

in coal mining industry 19
A. Akmaev & I. Fesenko

Review of support systems and methods for prediction of gateroads

deformation 25
S. Prusek

Natural and mining factors that define quality of black coal for heat power
stations 37
P. Pilov

Influence of advance rate of high-output longwalls on methane abundance

of mine workings 43
M. Illyashov

Strength calculations of block elements of room-and-pillar mining under

permafrost conditions 47
V. Buzilo, T. Savelieva & V. Saveliev

Dependence of effectiveness of development of mining operations on processibility

of coal seams deposits with thickness of 1.2 m 51
A. Kuz’menko, V. Ryabychev & V. Pochepov

Safe electric power transmission for explosive underground mines 57

A. Ivanov & I. Kirillov

Analysis of hydrogeodynamics in a mining region during exploitation till closure

of coal mines 61
I. Sadovenko, D. Rudakov & O. Podvigina

Bifurcational model of rock bottom heaving in mine workings 71

A. Shashenko, A. Solodyankin & S. Gapeev

V
Numerical modeling used for designing of coal mine roadway support 77
T. Majcherczyk & Z. Niedbalski

Calculation substantiation of the yield lock model of the polygonal yieldable

support with elongated props by means of experiment 83
I. Kovalevska, V. Fomychyov & A. Vyvcharenko

Design of mine workings network on the basis of their functional-structural 89

description
V. Okalelov

Conditions for safe underground gasification of lignite in Poland 97

J. Kudelko & J. Nowak

Control and power supply of highly efficient mining plough systems 103
M. Lubryka & J. Lubryka

Possibility of production complex of sufficient gasses in Ukraine 113

V. Bondarenko, M. Tabachenko & J. Wachowicz

Researches of influence of depth of an in-seam working on displacement field

of rocks in its vicinity 121
G. Symanovych, K. Ganushevych & V. Chervatyuk

Research of influence of support resistance of the stope in the immediate roof

condition 127
V. Buzilo, V. Serdyuk & A. Yavorskiy

Improvement of mining methods with consolidating stowing of iron-ore deposits

on big depths 131
A. Kuz’menko, A. Furman & V. Usatyy

New generation concrete – new approach in designing of underground structures 137

P. Czaja & J. Hydzik

Results of the 3-D simulation of the transversely isotopic rock mass stress state
around a longwall 145
S. Vlasov & A. Sidelnikov

Effect of design of half-mask respirators on their key qualities 151

V. Golinko, S. Cheberiachko & Y. Cheberiachko

Modern rescue service as a factor providing a sense of staff security

(on example of coal mining) 157
P. Hetmańczyk, K. Tausz & A. Krowiak

Analytical determination of parameters of material and thermal balance and physical

parameters of a coal seam work-out on mine “Barbara”, Poland 161
V. Falshtyns’kyy, R. Dychkovsk’yy, K. Stanczyk & J. Swiadrowski

The research of stresses around the mine working relative to a coal seam in the
models made of optical material 167
P. Ponomarenko

VI
Formation of gas hydrates while mine methane extracting and possible methods
of the problem solving 171
L. Shirin, Y. Korovyaka & V. Astakhov

Prediction of mining-induced seismic activity with the use of neural networks

on displacement field of rocks in its vicinity 175
J. Kabiesz

The role of natural and technogenic components in failure of geomechanical

stability of the territories which are in the influence zone of mining objects 189
V. Timoshuk, U. Demchenko & Y. Sherstuk

Technology of support of workings near to extraction chambers 193

M. Kononenko & O. Khomenko

Bolting for mining workings in clay rocks and ores 199

V. Nikonets, N. Stupnik & I. Horbatenko

The first Ukrainian corporative university 203

O. Khomenko & D. Rudakov

Influence of the shape of portal support of working junctions on its stress state 207
M. Rotkegel

Clean energy from hard coal 213

A. Krowiak

Features of selectivity process of borehole underground coal gasification 219

Y. Svetkina, V. Falshtyns’kyy & R. Dychkovs’kyy

Definition of rating loading of multilayer winding of rubber-rope cable 223

K. Zabolotny & Y. Panchenko

Design principles of the control systems considering diversity of automation objects 231
N. Stadnik & V. Tkachev

Increase of stability of development openings using combined mining system

for flat coal seams at big depths 237
V. Medyanyk & J. Medyanyk

The concept of automation and monitoring of the production process

in an underground mine 245
J. Kicki & A. Dyczko

Methods of calculation of pressing value of frame support’s props 255

A. Mamaykin, V. Lapko & L. Tokar

VII
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Preface

Mining is the foremost source of minerals that all countries find essential for maintaining and improving
their standards of living. Mined materials are needed to construct roads and hospitals, to build automobiles
and houses, to make computers and satellites, to generate electricity, and to provide many other goods and
services that consumers enjoy. The high tech industries and even the better known resource industries are all
dependent, in some way, on the mining industry.
But exploring, extraction and processing of minerals require big material and labour costs and there is a
large number of acute problems to face; such as: environment and water pollution, worsening of mining-
geological conditions, depletion of minerals that can be extracted only by conventional methods, rock
pressure manifestation, big depths of the deposits and transportation of the minerals on the surface.
In order to find modern solutions there is a large number of scientists and engineers all over the world
dedicating their researches to most current problems and inventions of innovative technologies and
techniques in mining. Some of the most important results of such researches are presented in this book and
cover the following topics: management of strain and stress state of the massif, underground coal
gasification, substantiation of rational parameters of various types of support, ventilation in underground
openings, design of mine workings and other vital questions.
The primary aim of “School of Underground Mining” is exchange of experience, transfer of new
progressive technologies, consolidation of the efforts concerning saving and development of scientific
trends, good traditions and worthy status of a mining engineer in society.

Volodymyr Bondarenko
Iryna Kovalevs’ka
Roman Dychkovs’kyy
Dnipropetrovs’k
September 2010

VIII
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Efficiency of water supply regulation principles

G. Pivnyak, A. Beshta & A. Balakhontsev

National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: The paper deals with energy efficiency of water supply regulation in different applications:
water supply, heating and cooling systems etc. Each case is characterized by a set of requirements to supply
and head pressure level. Two major approaches for supply regulation are compared: throttling and pump
speed regulation. It is shown that variable speed electric drive application is not always expedient and in
some cases can bring no significant cost benefit. Parallel operation of several pumping units is also exam-
ined. Recommendations for pump installations’ parameters selection, such as regulation range, are given.

1 INTRODUCTION specific performances of equipment installed and its

Energy and resource saving programmes are con-
sidered now to be key factors for word’s industry
due to constant growth of prices for fuels and en-
ergy resources. Specific energy intensity of gross
domestic product in Ukraine is significantly higher
than in countries of Central Europe thus making
these problems more urgent. However, the aware-
ness of energy management specialists of modern
energy saving techniques and principles in Ukraine
is still low.
Electric drive is a major consumer of electric
power in industry and municipal engineering with
its share up to 65%. Electric installations with con-
tinuous duty cycle and varying productivity posses
the largest potential for energy saving. The prevail-
ing mechanisms in this class are installations with
so called parabolic speed-torque characteristic (cen-
trifugal pump, screw propeller etc). Such installa-
tions are as a rule equipped with induction motors
with squirrel cages. They are widely used in indus-
try and agriculture and municipal enterprises. The
electric drive of these installations is mainly uncon-
trolled and therefore to regulate productivity throt-
tling and bypassing principles are applied. Unfortu-
nately lowering productivity is not equal to lowering
electric energy consumption. So this control princi-
ple meets technological demands but does not ac-
count energy efficiency of water transportation.
Thereby, to justify the expediency of variable
speed drive application it is necessary to estimate
the cost benefits of this solution.
2 EXISTING APPROACHES ANALYSIS
Selection of proper production control principle is to
be made according to technology requirements and
economical efficiency. Incorrect evaluation of eco-
nomical performances of certain control principle
leads to introduction of improper technical solution
and thus low production efficiency.
The application of variable speed drive itself can-
not provide significant power consumption de-
crease. Energy saving requires thorough evaluation
of technological and technical factors concerning
production regulation.
The production level of water supply and utiliza-
tion facilities tends to vary in wide range during op-
eration. The main controlled parameter at the pump-
ing station is the pressure at the discharge line or at
the control point (step-up pumping stations of mu-
nicipal water supply system). In some cases it is wa-
ter level or its flow (supply) rate.
It should be taken into account that when using
uncontrolled water pumps the excessive pressure
can occur under low production rate. Excessive
pressure in pipeline causes electric power loss. To
minimize such losses it is necessary to achieve
maximal efficiency by mutual adjustment of pump’s
mechanical parameters and the entire system.
Energy losses can also be decreased by proper
pipeline processing measures – interior surface
processing, elimination, or at least, minimization of
elbows and narrowings in the line (Goppe 2008).
However, these measures most often cannot be ap-
plied for existing water supply facilities. It should
be taken into account while designing new systems.
Meanwhile, application of variable speed drives
which become more and more available (Pivnyak &
Volkov 2006) is possible for newly developed as
good for existing systems’ modernization.
The simplified water supply scheme can be pre-
sented as it is shown at Figure 1.
The output of pumping unit is supply (flow) rate

1
Q pump and head pressure H pump (Geyner, Dulin &
Zarya 1991). Because of extra pressure H pump the
head pressure in the mainline grows from H 0 up to
H p . Because pressure drops on the sealing and stops
valves and the filter on H1 ,the main pressure de-
creases down to H CV . The control valve CV deter-
mines pressure drop depending on the main parame-
ters H C and QC control principle.

H0 Hр H CV Hс

PUMP back Filter

CV
valve

valve 1 valve 2 …
Q С1 Q C2 Q C3 Q сn
H pump H 1 H 2

Figure 1. Simplified water supply scheme.

The head pressure H C and flow consumption H C  H1 . Thus

QC can be controlled according to the following
Ppump  k  H C  H 0  H1  H 2   QC . (2)
principles (Geyner, Dulin & Zarya 1991):
1) H C  const , QC  var ; The electric power rate (consumed from the elec-
tric mains) can be determined via efficiency of the
2) H C  var , QC  var ; pump  :
3) H C  var , QC  const .
Ppump , el  k  H C  H 0  H1  H 2   QC /  . (3)
Let us examine each case from the point of energy
efficiency. The Q-H curve of the pump is described as fol-
lows

2 REGULATION UNDER CONSTANT H  A  2  B   Q  C  Q2 , (4)

PRESSURE ( H C  const , QC  var )
Let’s consider the first principle, when it is neces-
sary to maintain constant pressure in the hydraulic
network under varying water consumption (supply)
QC  QC1  Q2  ...  QC n . This case is common
for main pipelines which must provide necessary
supply level for each consumer.
The control valve CV maintains constant head
pressure H C at required constant level by varying
pressure drop H 2 value. The output power of the
pump unit is defined as
Ppump  k  H pump  QС ,
where k – certain proportional gain.
This power is used to provide necessary con-
sumption and to cover losses k  H1  H 2   QC
and also to maintain constant pressure level
where А, В, С  coefficients;   angular speed of
the pump’s wheel.
When pump speed is constant its curve can be
written as
H  A  B Q  C  Q2 , (5)
where A1  A   2 , B1  B   , C1  C .
The hydraulic characteristic of the line is de-
scribed by
H  H0  R Q2 (6)
(1) where H 0  static pressure (back pressure, or uplift
pressure), R  line hydraulic pressure.
The operating mode of the pump unit is defined
by the intersection point of pump (Figure 2, curve 1)
and hydraulic line (Figure 2, curve 2) characteris-

2
tics. The intersection point “1” is the ideal joint op- Pd H1Q1  H1  H Q1  Q 
eration calculation point for the pump and the line. e*d   
P1 H1Q1 (9)
 
At this point the rated supply Q1 is provided under
 Q*  H * 1  Q* ,
required pressure H1  H pump and maximal effi-
ciency. * P H1Q1  H1 Q1  Q 
e    Q* , (10)
When water consumption decreases down to Q2 P1 H1Q1
level, the operating point moves to the position ‘2’.
It is caused by the rise hydraulic resistance because where Q*  Q Q1 , H *  H H1 .
of the closing of consumers’ valves. The head pres- Formulas (9) and (10) prove that speed regulation
sure rises up to H 2 value, causing the control valve is always more efficient than throttling, because un-
CV to increases the pressure drop H 2 in order to der normal operation it is always H *  0 ,
provide the required line pressure H C . Meanwhile, Q*  1 .
the pumping unit keeps operating with pressure Thus
H 2 . This is an obvious lack of throttling control.
The pressure can also be decreased by pump

e*  e*  e*d  H * 1  Q*  0 .  (11)
wheel speed regulation. In this case, the curve of the
Lets transform (11) to
pump will move to ‘1’ position, and the operating

 
point will move to the ‘3’ position (Figure 2). How-  H * 
ever, under these conditions, the required supply e*    1  Q* Q* . (12)
 Q* 
Q2 is not provided. The supply will be lower and  
consumers will open their valves, so decreasing The equation (12) shows that the value of e*
line’s hydraulic resistance. After several iterations, a which determines relative efficiency of speed regu-
new operating point ‘4’ will be set. lation principle in compare with throttling depends
So, the decrease of the supply in the line to Q
on Q* regulation range and H * Q* ratio at
value by throttling causes the increase of pressure
on H and, accordingly, variation of the pump the new operating point. Let us use (5) to deter-
power to mine H * Q* . Equation (5) in per units is
Pd  k  H1Q1  H 2Q2  . (7)
H *  A1*  B1*  Q*  C1*  Q*2 , (13)
And same decrease of water supply by means of
speed regulation leads to the change of power on where H *  H H1 , Q*  Q Q1 A1*  A1 H1 ,
P  k  H1Q1  H1Q2  . (8) B1*  B1Q1  H1 , C1*  C1Q12 H1 . 
H Taking increments of (13) we obtain

H2
2
2' 1
1
2
 H *

 Q*


  C1* Q*  B1*  2C1*

 (14)
H1  
3 1'
4
H And substituting (14) in (12) we estimate effi-
ciency

H0 Q
Q
   
e*  C1* Q*  B1*  2C1*  1  Q*  Q* .  (15)

Q2 Q1 Formula (15) shows that speed regulation effi-

Figure 2. Regulation under constant pressure.

ciency relative to throttling e* depends on regula-
tion range relative to the given point Q* and
Thus we can asses regulation efficiency comparing
pump’s Q-H curve B*1 and C*1
power values calculated by (7) and (8) relative to
base value P1  k  H1Q1 . So The formula estimates useful power saving under
speed regulation. Losses in the pump are not taken
into account. However, it is known that pumps effi-

3
ciency significantly depends on supply, taking sary to introduce  ( Q* ) in (15). Figure 3 shows
maximum value at the rated operating point. That is
corrected dependency (15) for several pumps
why in order to estimate energy saving it is neces-
(pumps data are given at the Table 1 (Popov 1990)).

Table 1. Pumps characteristics.

Q-H curve equation

# Pump type Efficiency equation
H  A1  B1  Q  C 1  Q 2

CSP* 38-44-220, 2950 rpm,

1 26.8+0.168Q-0.00787Q2 0.04Q0.00073Q2+0.000003Q3
38 m3 / hr, 44 m
CSP 180-76-880, 2950 rpm,
2 75+0.139Q-0.00098Q2 0.0068Q0.000017Q2+0.017·10-6Q3
180 m3 / hr, 76 m
CSP 180-500-900, 2950 rpm,
3 105.5+0.096Q-0.0007Q2 0.0085Q0.0000276Q2 +0.014·10-6Q3
180 m3 / hr, 500 m

CSP 850-240-960, 1450 rpm,

4 126.2+0.035Q-0.000049Q2 0.237·10-20.02410-4·Q2+0.00062·10-6Q3
850 m3 / hr, 240 m

* CSP stands for “centrifugal sectional pump”, correspondent soviet abbreviation is CNS.

0,04 3. When operating at Q-H curve shifts to lower

e* , p.u. supply zone (to the left), efficiency of the pump will
0,035
be even less due to higher stiffness of the curve, de-
0,03
spite on the fact that efficiency of the motor shifts
0,025 the same direction under speed regulation.
1
3
0,02
4
2
0,015
3 REGULATION UNDER VARIABLE
0,01 PRESSURE AND SUPPLY
0,005
Let us consider supply regulation H C  var ,
0
0,95 0,85 0,75 0,65 0,55 0,45 0,35 0,25 0,15 0,05 QC  var i.e. when there is no requirement for
Q* , p.u. keeping pressure constant. It is peculiar to cases
when water supply is stipulated by technology, like
Figure 3. Energy efficiency under regulation by pump refrigerating systems, irrigation and so on.
speed.

The analysis of this section shows the following. H

1. When head pressure is to be maintained, power
2 1
(energy) benefits from introduction of speed regula- H2
tion principle relative to throttling significantly de- H 2 1 2
pends on pump’s Q-H curve stiffness. The higher H1
stiffness the less efficiency is (look formula (12)). H 1 H
2'
Figure 3 shows that benefit from supply regulation H2'
by speed does not exceed 3.7% in the entire regula-
tion range. Q
H0 Q
2. Maximal efficiency under speed regulation
falls within 10…45% supply range relative to oper-
ating point. Thus deep regulation (supply less then Q2 Q1
45% of the rated value) so and “shallow” (regula-
tion range within 10%) is not expedient. Measures
Figure 4. Regulation under variable pressure and supply.
for variable speed drive introduction will not pro-
vide cost benefits.

4
 This case the decrease of supply down to Q2 where R*  R1*  C1* , D*  2 R*  B1* ,
value by means of speed regulation lowers pump’s
Q-H curve and shifts operating point from “1” to R1*  1  H *0 .
“2'” position (Figure 4). Thus under supply level 1  Q*m the speed regu-
Still, throttling shifts the operating point to “2”
position. lation benefits will be maximal relative to throttling
Energy benefits of speed regulation principle rela-
tive to throttling is defined by (11), where the dif-
   
e*max  R* 2  Q*m  B1*  1  Q*m  Q*m . (23)
ference is calculated by the following expression
Equations (22) and (23) shows that e*max de-
*
H  H *21 *
 H12 , (16)
pends on relative static pressure H 0* and coeffi-

where H *21  H 21 H1  relative pressure in- cients of pump’s Q-H curve B1* and C1* for pump’s
* rated speed.
crease in case of throttling; H12  H12 H1 
relative pressure decrease as a result of pump speed Let us analyze the dependence of Q*m and
lowering. e*max on the mentioned parameters. It is assumed
It is obvious that H *21
and corresponding effi-
that they do depend on R*  R1*  C1* (not on R1* ).
ciency is defined by (14) and (15). The value of
This assumption affects only factor R1* range. Thus
H *21 can be estimated by water line’s equation in
per units R*  1 H *0 , where H *0 variation range is shifted

H *  H *0  R1*  Q* , (17) on C1* value. The B1* value represents stiffness of

Q-H curve. The higher B1* is, the higher stiffness is
where  H 0 H1 , H *0 H1 . R1* R1Q12 and the less efficiency of speed regulation we ob-
The expression in incremental form relative to tain.
“1” point, considering that H1*  1 , Q1*  1 :
Q*m , p.u.
*
H12  R1* Q* 2  Q* ,   (18)
0.45
0.4

where  1 R1*
. H *0
0.35 B1*
0.3
Substituting (14) and (18) in (16) and find 0.25
0.9

  
0.4
0.2
H *  C1* Q*  B1*  2C1*  0.1
0.15

 
 R1* 2  Q* Q* .  (19)
0.1
0.05

From (16) and (19) we determine 0

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
H 0 , p.u.
*
e   R1*  C1* 2  Q   1  Q  Q
*
 B1* * *
(20)
Figure 5. Q-H curves for various stiffness.
In order to examine (20) let us obtain
   
d e* d Q* and find its roots: In the range for different B1* = 0.1; 0.4; 0.9 trends

d e 
of maximal efficiency were obtained (Figure 5).
 D  23R 
* Figure 5 shows that maximal efficiency is
* *
 B1* Q* 
d Q  * achieved under maintenance of the pump with no
(21)
uplift pressure. And the increase of the Q-H curve
* *2
 3R Q  0. stiffness dramatically lowers the speed regulation
benefits relative to throttling. The figure also proves

Q*m 
R *
 D*  R*2  R* D*  D*2
, (22)
that maximal efficiency lies
Q*m = 0.35…0.42 range. Higher Q *m corresponds
within

3R*

5
lower values of B1* and H *0 . For B1* = 0, H *0 = 0 Formula (24) and Figure 7 shows that maximal
benefit of pump speed regulation relative to throt-
we have Q*m = 0.423. Substituting this in (23) we tling is limited by uplift pressure
obtain e*max  0.385. e*max  1  H *0 . (25)
So, for the water supply regulation under variable
pressure, the following conclusions can be made. Thus when the pump is operating to the water line
1. Theoretical maximal efficiency (energy bene- with no uplift pressure, the benefit of speed regula-
fit) of water supply by means of pump’s speed regu- tion is limited only by its stability in low supply
lation relative to throttling is 38.5% of the power range.
consumed at the pump’s operating point. This effi-
ciency is obtained for 42.3% regulation depth
(range) relative to rated supply. 5 PARALLEL PUMPS CONNECTION
2. The uplift pressure increase significantly de-
creases speed regulation efficiency (Figure 6). In some cases it is expedient to connect several
pumping units for parallel operation in order to pro-
vide higher supply under given required pressure.
4 REGULATION UNDER CONSTANT SUPPLY Conclusions given above can be transferred for this
case. For instance, supply regulation can be pro-
In the third case for some technologies it is neces- vided by simultaneous regulation of all connected
sary to maintain constant supply of QС  const , units. However, it is not always expedient because
which is possible only by varying pres- this way implies installation of variable speed drives
sure H С  var . The pumping unit can operate with for all installation, which is expensive.
Let us analyze parallel operation of two pumps.
constant power and supply stability can be provided Total supply, obviously, is defined as a sum of indi-
with bypass system. Another, more efficient princi- vidual supplies
ple, is maintaining constant power by speed regula-
tion (Figure 6). Supply stabilization, for example, in Q*  Q*I  Q*II , (26)
water heating system, requires the pump speed low-
ering. where Q*  Q Q1 , Q*I  QI Q1 , Q*II  QII Q1 ,
H Q1  total supply.
1 Let the relative regulation range
1 *
H1 be Q  Q Q1 . Assuming that only one variable
speed drive is installed (pump II), while the other
H one is a fixed speed drive. Then
2
H2 2  
1  Q*  Q*I , y  Q*II , y  Q* , (27)
H0
where Q*I , y , Q*II , y  rated supplies of the pumps.
Q
According to the previous statements, under con-
Q1
stant hydraulic pressure it is reasonable to select
Figure 6. Q-H curves for regulation under various supply. maximal supply regulation range within  of its
rated supply, i.e. Q*max  Q*II ,y . Then under re-
When consumers open their throttles the main Q-
H curve shifts from “1” to the “2” position. quired regulation range Q* it is necessary to in-
So, the efficiency of speed regulation is defined by stall a pump with rated supply
*
e  e  e*d
* *
 H , (24) Q*
Q*II , y  . (28)
Pd 
where e*d  0,
H1Q1 The supply of the first pump is defined from
* P H Q  Q1 H1  H  Q*
e   1 1  H * . Q*I , y  1  . (29)
H1Q1 H1Q1 

6
 For example, if supply regulation range in the 6 CONCLUSIONS
system with constant pressure does not exceed 10%
then energy saving (benefit) of speed regulation is Theoretical maximal energy benefit from pump’s
only 1.5% relative to throttling (Figure 3). Obvi- speed regulation application relative to throttling
ously, it is not wise to install variable speed drive in principle is 4% under constant pressure and about
this case. 40% when pressure can be varied.
Two pumps with one of them equipped with vari- When two pumps operates in parallel, supply
able speed drive can provide only 3.7% energy sav- regulation range of one of then is to be 5…50% of
ing. And even this small value can only be obtained its rated supply.
under wide regulation range – 40…50%. (Figure 7). Energy saving due to variable speed drive appli-
cation is defined by equivalent supply regulation
range.
0.45
e*max , p.u. Installation of variable speed drive in water
0.4 mains, where constant pressure must be maintained,
0.35
B1* is not a reasonable solution. Energy saving (bene-
fits) of in this case does not exceed several per cents
0.3
0.4 relative to throttling.
0.25
0
0.2
The operation of pumping stations must be organ-
ized in a way that each pump would operate at its
0.15
maximal efficiency under given pressure regulation
0.1
range. Application of several unregulated drive and
0.05 one equipped with variable speed drive can be ex-
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
pedient in this case. The regulated pump is to be
-0.05 chosen from required regulation range.
H0, p.u.
The most beneficial is application of variable
speed drive in case of necessity of constant supply.
Figure 7. Efficiency under pumps’ parallel operation.

These results can be transferred to the case when REFERENCES

the pressure is not to be maintained. In this case
maximal regulation depth for variable speed pump
is to lie within 35…42% range relative to its rated
supply (Figure 5). The increase of uplift pressure at
the unregulated pump output is also to be taken into
account.
For the case H C  var , QC  const there is no
necessity to apply pump stations with several
pumps. One powerful variable speed drive should
be installed.
Goppe, G.G. 2008. Decreasing energy losses in header
water and gas transportation pipes. Energy saving and
water processing.Vol.1(58): 68-73.
Pivnyak, G.G. & Volkov, O.V. 2006. Modern variable
speed induction drives with PWM. Monograph. Dni-
propetrovs’k: National Mining University: 470.
Geyner, V.G., Dulin, V.S. & Zarya, A.N. 1991. Hydraulics
and electric drive. Moscow: Nedra: 321.
Popov, V.M. Water pumping units: reference book. 1990.
Moscow: Nedra: 250.

7
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Substantiation of design and installation technology

of tubular rock bolts by explosive method

V. Bondarenko & I. Kovalevs’ka

National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
Y. Cherednychenko
Ministry of Coal Industry of Ukraine

ABSTRACT: Mechanism of interaction of a rock massif with rock bolt is developed and simplified tubular
rock bolt construction is designed, manufacturing of which is combined with the installation in one process –
blast of an explosive linear charge in the internal cavity of tubular shell located in a blast hole. Basic re-
quirements of bolt support are substantiated and positive features of tubular bolt are noted.

1 INTRODUCTION mines of Bulgaria, Germany, Italy, Norway and

Experience of application of rock bolts for securing
of underground workings stability testifies about
considerable economical advantages of the given
type of support that allows to drastically decrease
material and labour costs, increase working effi-
ciency and safety of works. This is achieved by
involvement of rock massif, with help of a rock bolt,
into the process focused on resistance against grav-
ity forces, i.e. strength characteristics of rock massif
are used (in a varying degree) and it is not necessary
anymore to install material-intensive supports for
maintenance of mine workings.
Mentioned advantages of a rock bolt gave rise to
their wide usage in mining sectors of industries of
many countries of the world. So, basic support for
chambers’ roof support (room-and-pillar mining
method) in coal mines of USA is rock bolting with
annual installation volume more than 60 million of
bolts (Bondarenko 1997), including about 1.5 mil-
lion of bolts that are being reused. Just on the poly-
metal mines of USA there are more than 7 million
of bolts installed annually; at iron-ore mines of
Lorraine there are more than 2 million bolts used
annually; at copper mines of Poland there are
85…90% of the openings length is supported by
bolts. At coal mines of France 1.5 million of bolts
are installed annually, at that, a quarter of this vol-
ume is used as an independent support. About 50
thousand of bolts are installed at the mines of Swed-
ish company “Karuna” monthly, 150 thousand of
bolts – at mines of RSA. Bolt supports are widely
used at mines of PRC (People’s Republic of China).
Rock bolting is used at more than 30 coal mines of
Great Britain, at all mines of Canada, on many
other countries.
Usage of rock bolting also contributes to increase
of drivage rate by 30…40% (Kovalevska 2003).
High level of mechanization of an opening bolting
process (up to 65…85%) should be mentioned as
well and also possibility of its partial automation. In
addition, usage of bolting significantly decreases
number of accidents that leads to increase of mining
operations safety. For example, bolting at mines of
Germany has allowed to decrease the number of
accidents from 86 to 34 among 100 thousand of
people, i.e. more than 2.5 times. Thus, given data
testify about big effectiveness and availability of
bolting use for support of mining openings.
2 CRITERIA OF BOLTS FUNCTIONING
There are more than 600 various designs of bolts
known in domestic and foreign practice by the
present time. Existing variety of rock bolts, as a
rule, has its advantages and disadvantages which are
analyzed both from view point of geomechanics of
deformation of strengthened near-contour rock
massif process and technical-economic indexes of
their work. This analysis has a final aim to create a
bolt design with most rational regime of interaction
with rock walls of a blasthole and rock massif in
whole with its relatively little cost (Kovalevska
2001). During research and critical analysis of
modern structures of bolts there were formed three
basic criteria that characterize application effective-
ness of one or another structure of bolts for mine
openings support.
From viewpoint of geomechanics of near-contour

9
rock massif strengthening process, the first criterion
demands to achieve rational deformation-load
characteristics of a rock bolt. Near-contour rock
massif strengthened by bolts is considered as a load-
bearing structure in modern theories which receives
load from the side of deformed rock massif and acts
as a support of working. In order to effectively
maintain mine openings, deformation-load charac-
teristics of this kind of support must, first of all,
correspond to value and nature of rock pressure
manifestation, i.e. bearing capacity of strengthened
by bolts rock layer must be not less than a load
value from the side of rock massif, and its yield –
not less than a predicted value of displacement of
rock contour with given value of support rebuff
reaction. Secondly, deformation-load characteristics
of the strengthened rock layer must provide maxi-
mum degree of compatibility of separate layers and
blocks deformation that compose unstable rocks in
order to decrease load. In this connection, it was
established by research method (Kovalevska 2006,
1999) that the most rational characteristic is the
deformation-load characteristic of a support that
reflects its work in mode of constant resistance with
value of reaction, that is close to the predicted load
on support caused by weight of rocks of unstable
balance zone.
Thus, for effective support of an opening, rock
bolt must form load-bearing iron-rock structure that
would work in a mode of constant resistance (or
close to it) with rebuff reaction and yield value
equal to or excess predicted load and displacement
of rock contour (Kovalevska 2005).
Based upon the above stated material, require-
ments of the first (geomechanical) evaluation crite-
ria of effectiveness of a rock bolt structure were
formed. First of all, in order to form strengthened
rock layer of a high bearing capacity, rock bolt must
have high reaction of resistance against pulling
loads, because the bigger pressure load by bolt of
the rock layer the bigger bearing capacity of the
most strengthened layer with all the rest conditions
being equal. Secondly, during realization of yield of
strengthened rock layer, a bolt also must have re-
quired yield value, taking into account difference of
displacements of an opening rock contour and rock
at the deepened tip of the bolt (Kovalevska 2000).
Thirdly, in order to achieve functionality of
strengthened rock layer in constant resistance mode,
the bolt itself also has to have deformation-load
characteristic that reflects this mode, i.e. construc-
tion of the bolt has to provide its functionality in
constant resistance mode or close to this mode.
Second criterion characterizes processability of
manufacturing and installation of a bolt and requires
the following:
10
– simplicity of structure;
– processability of installation of joints and com-
ponents of a bolt;
– reliability of a bolt installation in a blasthole
(Bulat 2002);
– little force of inserting the bolt into the blasthole
and its anchoring in the blasthole;
– no necessity to design special equipment (if
possible) for bolting;
Third criterion characterizes economical effec-
tiveness of application of various bolt designs and
states the following requirements:
– relatively low cost of a bolt manufacture;
– high working efficiency during bolts installa-
tion.
3 PRELIMINARY RESULTS
Theoretical basis for design development of a tubu-
lar bolt is the above considered conceptions of a
bolt’s work in a rock massif. At this, the main
requirement for tubular bolt is the possibility of
creation of iron-rock structure (beam, arc) with
maximum possible degree of wholeness. Thus, there
is a task to maximally decrease process of foliation
and fracturing of rock structure during its deforma-
tion, liquidate earlier occurred lamination and to
limit fracturing. Moreover, requirement for securing
of specified installation firmness of a bolt in a
blasthole is the secondary requirement compared
with the major one – creation of solid iron-rock
structure with required bearing capacity.
While functioning, under influence of external
load and its own weight there are shear stresses
occur in the beams, value of which substantially
determines bearing capacity of considered construc-
tions. At the same time, during process of deforma-
tion of a rock that contains mine working, intensive
fracturing occurs in most of the cases and lamina-
tion along planes of weaknesses resulting in signifi-
cant decrease and disappearance of tangential
stresses along these axis, and layers and blocks that
form rock structure deform as separate elements.
And with that, bearing capacity of rock structure
considerably decreases. The aim of a bolting is to
prevent lamination and fracturing. Apparently, the
biggest effect of rock strata fastening into solid
structure is achieved when a rock bolt contacts with
rock along its whole length. At every sector of
contact due to cohesion forces with rock walls of the
blasthole, the bolts prevent lamination of separate
rock units and occurrence of fracturing. Moreover, it
is important that the bolt material would have de-
formation characteristics, in particular, elasticity
modulus (or deformation modulus) and shear
modulus that significantly exceed corresponding
characteristics of fastening rocks. Indeed, develop-
ment of a crack during collateral deformation of a
bolt with rock walls of a blasthole, should trigger
response in a bolt that is directed to crack closing
that exceeds (per unit area) initial forces of lamina-
tion as much as deformation moduluses of a bolt
material exceed deformation moduluses of the rock.
This condition, as matter of fact, is the condition of
minimal fracturing and lamination, according to
which, the greater rigidity of a bolt material the
greater resistance of the iron-ore structure to occur-
rence of cracks and lamination in fastened rocks, the
less number of weak areas in iron-rock structure and
the greater its bearing capacity. Big bolt rigidity
along axial direction can be realized under condition
of creation of significant cohesion force along
contact surface with the blasthole walls. Thus, it is
necessary that the cohesion forces maximally use
strength characteristics of the rock. Simultaneously
high strength of the bolt installation in a rock should
correspond to the strength capabilities of a bolt
material.
Preconditions for limitation of fracturing and
lamination during the process of iron-rock structure
deformation are considered here. But in some cases
even before bolting of a rock massif containing an
opening, there are already some cracks and broken
contacts among the layers. So it is necessary to
minimize softening action on the loading construc-
tion. This condition requires maximum degree of
mutual deformation of separate elements of an iron-
rock structure. For example, if the separate layers in
the composite structure do not have sufficient rigid
link between each other, when bending they will be
moving relatively to each other, that is deforming
independently and the bearing capability of the
whole beam is determined by the bearing capability
of a single layer. It means that the main condition of
the mutual deformation of separate rock layers is the
absence of movement of the rock layers relatively to
each other. If to take into consideration that even
when we have dislocations of (5-30) × 10-3 m on
each edge of the structure in an opening with width
span equal to 5 m, its separate layers deform inde-
pendently, in this case a bolt has to ensure not only
longitudinal (respectively to a bolt) but also a trans-
versal rigid link which would not allow big trans-
versal dislocations. Performance of such link can be
executed only by means of direct contact of the
blasthole rock walls with the bolt along its whole
length when a bolt material, working in shear, will
resist any transversal movement of rock layers.
Thus, based upon analysis of modern views about
functioning of bolts in rock massif, the conclusion
has been made in favour of the bolts with supporting
11
along whole length of the blasthole and basic re-
quirements for their structures were defined. Some
of these requirements, first of all, is high rigidity of
a bolt material that achieves its highest value in
metals. For example, the cheapest construction
brands of steel have elasticity and shear modules
that, in average, by an order exceed proper brands of
concrete (reinforced concrete bolts) and by two
orders – synthetic resin (steel-polymer bolts). There-
fore, direct contact of metal with rock walls of a
blasthole significantly increases forces that prevent
lamination and fracturing of rock layers, compared
with the case, when there is an intermediate less
rigid medium that links metal rod with rock.
The condition of realization of the requirement of
the high material rigidity of the bolt, as it was con-
sidered earlier, is the provision of high tear strength
of the bolt itself and its fastening in the blasthole.
Fastening in the blasthole of the majority of consid-
ered designs of the bolts is provided either by cohe-
sion forces with the rock (reinforced concrete or
steel-polymer bolts) or by forces of friction or shear
of rock ledges (screw-in bolts).
These forces cannot use strength characteristics of
rocks in full because the rocks, in connection with
anisotropy of strength characteristics, have lowered
shear resistance. Shear strength for rocks, as a rule,
many times and even by one order less than com-
pression strength. If there are some rock distur-
bances in the rock, for example, micro cracks in the
plane of shear, then shear strength becomes even
less. The only type of load that the rocks resist most
successfully is the compression, and in that connec-
tion it is quite effective to use strength compressive
characteristics of the rocks for bolts fastening along
the full length of the blasthole. Obviously, realiza-
tion of this idea can be carried out by means of
applying of normal stresses on the blasthole surface
from the side of the bolt, which provide emergence
of tangential stresses during bolt’s movement rela-
tive to the blasthole. By changing the value of
normal stresses, it is possible to achieve maximal
use of strength properties of rocks and, conse-
quently, receive high strength of fastening of the
bolt. Such method of fastening can be successfully
used in loosely-connected rocks, where shear resis-
tance is extremely little and its usage in known
structures will not provide with the desired results.
Along with provision of high fastening strength of
the bolt in the blasthole it is necessary to also in-
crease its tensile strength. In this respect, a metal
that can be strengthened, advantageously differs.
Moreover, it is necessary to consider influence of
yield of the bolts on their bearing capacity, as due to
only yield of support, destroying concentration
stresses can be avoided, which often occur during
high rock pressure. Yield of the bolt depends on its shape of a hollow metallic cylinder with constant or
character of contact with rock walls of the blasthole. alternative lengthwise cross-section i.e. it has
Cohesion forces (reinforced concrete, steel-polymer smoothbore or corrugated shape.
bolts) cannot provide significant yield, because Workpiece of a tubular bolt is performed in a
when bolt dislocates relative to the blasthole, the shape of a piece of metallic tube inside of which, in
contact breaks and cohesion forces (except rough- the central area of the cross-section, there are explo-
nesses that create friction during sliding of the bolt) sive linear charge and blasting agent (Figure 1).
practically disappear - the bolt loses bearing capac- As an explosive, detonating cord of a type DC-A
ity. Yield of such bolts is provided by means of or DC-V is taken, explosive energy of which pro-
stretching of their material. The most acceptable, in vides necessary cohesion at the contact rock-bolt for
respect of yield, is the earlier considered contact that a wide range of mining-technical and geological
provides cohesion of bolt with rock by means of conditions, and as the blasting agents – permissible
forces of friction with radial pressure along the electrical detonator of immediate and delayed ac-
contact surface. Such contact, under condition of tion.
keeping the pressure at the same level, allows to
move the bolt respective to the blasthole on any
acceptable value without loss of bearing capacity.
Thus, basic disadvantages of the most widespread
structures of the bolts were discovered with fasten-
ing along the full length of the bolt and basic re-
quirements for effective bolt design development:
– material – steel;
– direct contact of steel with the blasthole surface
without any intermediate fastening materials;
– character of the contact – radial pressure along
the whole blasthole surface that provides occurrence
of tangential stresses of friction;
– strengthening of the bolt material during crea-
tion of contact;
These requirements can be performed most suc-
cessfully in the structure of tubular bolt that is
deformed before creation of a definite pressure
along the contact surface with the blasthole. The
most producible and economical method of expan-
sion of the tube shell in the blasthole is the applica-
tion of the charge explosion energy of the explosive.
As this takes place, possibility of a significant
strengthening of the bolt’s material occurs simulta-
neously with pressing of the bolt in the blasthole.

4 RESULTS

The property of carbon steels to deform without

breakage of material uniformity by a big value lies
in the basis of the tubular bolts design. Rocks pos-
sess this property, in average, lower by an order,
and this allows to use rock walls of the blasthole as
more rigid body, as a matrix for punching and
fastening of tubular bolt with needed diameter in it
(matrix) by means of explosion. At this, idea of
combination of a bolt manufacturing with its instal-
lation in one process, and increase of strength char-
acteristics of applied type of steel by means of
explosion processing is realized.
Structurally, tubular bolt “TA1” is performed in a
Figure 1. Structure of a shell tube (a) and tubular rock bolt
ТА1 (b): 1 – blasthole; 2 – shell tube; 3 – clay cap;
4 – detonating cord DCА or DCВ; 5 – electrical detonator;
6 – electrical wires; 7 – filling compound (sand, water).
As an inert material, sand or water is taken which
serve as a preventive cover for the detonating cord
and promotes to even and more intensive influence
of a shock wave on the material of the shell tube.
Fixing of the detonating cord in the middle area
of the cross-section of the shell tube is performed
with help of end caps, for example, from cardboard,

12
clay and other materials, and the fastening of the
shell tube in the blasthole – with help of a wooden
wedge. In case of tubular bolts usage at mines that
are dangerous by gas and dust, the length of the clay
caps on the edges of the workpiece should be not
less than 0.1 m according to МаkSNI (Makeevka
research institute).
Inverse initiation of the detonating cord for the
purpose of shock wave increase is accepted.
Basic technical data and geometrical dimensions
of the tubular bolts have to correspond to calcula-
tion data and chart of support of the opening.
Applied materials and bought-in articles have to
correspond to current standards and technical condi-
tions.
Following demands are required for the shell
tubes for bolts:
– admissible tolerance of the shells length
±10 mm;
– there must not be any metal overlaps caused by
gas welder along edges of the shell tube;
– shell tubes that have twists are not acceptable
for usage;
Transportation of shell tubes is carried out in
mine cars and storage – on the stacks that exclude
possibility of their deformation and bending, and
also ingress of moisture.
Considered structure of the tubular bolt TA1 has a
line of advantages:
– as an energy source for a bolt manufacturing
and its installation, the energy of an explosive is
accepted, and performance of these various opera-
tions is done simultaneously with the blast of an
explosive in a workpiece located in the blasthole;
– tube shell is quite simple and has a shape of a
piece of a tube of an existing diameter and does not
require any preliminary surface treatment and its
manufacturing consists of cutting of the needed
length tube pieces;
– there is no necessity in manufacturing and in-
stallation of such a complex element as a bolt’s
lock, as the support is manufactured by means of an
explosive punching as a solid structure;
– there is no necessity in hammering and screw-
ing of the bolts and, consequently, there is no need
in the equipment to mechanize these operations;
– operation time significantly decreases and
working productivity during bolt manufacturing and
its installation increases due to exclusion of a row of
operations that are usually carried out during manu-
facturing and installation of existing rock bolts;
– reliability of blasting increases because the elec-
tricity wires of the detonator are located inside of
the internal cavity of the tube shell;
– it is possible to use nonstandard products of the
tube production for the rock bolts manufacturing
13
and also used tubes, which significantly increases
possibilities of the given method realization and
lowers cost of the support;
– usage of explosive as an energy source allows,
simultaneously with punching and bolt installation,
carry out strengthening of its material that provides
a way to decrease consumption of material or to
increase the bolt’s bearing capacity.
– filling of the internal cavity of the tube shell
with inert material increases influence of the shock
wave on the workpiece material by 1.5-2 times and
ensures safe conditions of detonating cord usage in
mines that are dangerous by gas and dust.
The most effective installation of the bolts, in
terms of maximum use of strengthening effect of
tubular bolts, is their installation during the opening
drivage with distance from the face being not more
than 2 meters. In this case the bolts come into opera-
tion immediately, preventing fracturing and lamina-
tion of the near-contour rock massif.
Installation of the explosive in the tube shells is
carried out by a shot-firer in the following conse-
quence:
– electric detonator is fixed at the end of the deto-
nating cord by means of electric wires and then it is
rolled up into clay cover-cap, the second end of the
detonating cord is also fastened by electric wires
and DCA is inserted into a tube shell, the end of
which is closed by a clay cap with length of which
not less than 0.1 m from the side of electric detona-
tor.
– plastic funnel with electric wires is inserted in
the open end of the tube shell and then the shell is
filled up with either sand or water;
– after the closing of the second end of the tube
shell with a cap of 0.1 m length, the workpiece is
inserted into the blasthole and, if necessary, fixed in
it with help of a wooden wedge, that prevent its
falling out of the blasthole under its own gravity or
step-by-step performance of blasting.
At a later stage connection of detonators located
in the workpieces to the main line and explosion is
performed by a shot-firer. Manufacturing and instal-
lation of tubular bolts TA1 are finishing at this
stage.
In case there are some “misfires”, their elimina-
tion is done by the following method: on the edge of
the workpiece at the blasthole collar parallel to
detonating cord, the hole is made in the clay cap by
means of breaking, in which the electric detonator is
inserted and closed by clay. Repeated blasting is
carried out after connection of electric detonator to
firing circuit.
REFERENCES
Bondarenko, V.I., Kovalevs’ka, I.A. Symanovych, G.A.
1997. New design of a rock bolt that works under con-
stant resistance. Coal of Ukraine, 8: 10-12.
Kovalevs’ka, I.A. 2003. Geomechanics of interaction of
elements of system “rock massif-strengthened rocks-
support of underground openings”.
Kovalevs’ka, I.A. 2003. Geomechanics of interaction of
elements of system “rock massif-strengthened rocks-
support of underground openings”. Dnipropetrovs’k:
National mining academy of Ukraine: 234
Kovalevs’ka, I.A 2001. Theory of bolting application.
Dnipropetrovs’k: System technologies: 247.
Kovalevs’ka, I.A. Symanovych, G.A. 2006. Geomechan-
ics of interaction of integral bolt support with rock massif.
Dnipropetrovs’k: System technologies: 104.
14
Kovalevs’ka, I.A. 2000. Analysis of experience of bolting
application, improvement of the structures by means of
parameters calculation method. Dnipropetrovs’k: System
technologies: 86.
Bulat, A.  Vynogradov, V. 2002. Supporting bolting of the
mine openings of coal mines. Dnipropetrovs’k: Vyl’po:
374.
Kovalevs’ka, I.A. 1999. Calculation of parameters of
multiple-layers support of mine openings with various
thickness of the layers. Dnipropetrovs’k: System tech-
nologies: 44.
Kovalevs’ka, I.A. 2005. Calculation of parameters of
stability management of subsystem “strengthened rocks-
support of underground openings”. Dnipropetrovs’k:
System technologies: 113.
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4
Technology in life
Y. Romaschin & I. Saleev
NPC “Mine machines”, Donetsk, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Demand on energy in the developing nations is growing rapidly alongside with gradual recov-
ering of the economy and improving the standards of life. But to satisfy the energy requirements in different
parts of the world, it is the coal, that remains attractive and important being the only source of energy.
1 INTRODUCTION
The International Energy Agency states: coal com-
prises 60% of world’s reserves of fossil fuel and is
spread more evenly and widely than other types of
fossil fuel. With today’s modern rates of coal con-
sumption in the world, the coal will run out in
250 years, as distinguished from oil reserves, which
according to modern estimates, will run out in
40 years and natural gas will run out in approxi-
mately 65 years. So in long term perspective, there
is no alternative to “black gold-coal”. But the situa-
tion is getting complicated by the fact that the main
coal reserves are concentrated in thin coal seams. It
is interesting to note the fact that there is no strict
classification in terms of thickness of the coal seam
in the world practice of coal mining. For example,
in Russian Federation, the thin coal seam are to be
the seams which are less or equal to 1.3 m thick-
ness. In Poland, the thin coal seams are considered
to be the coal seams which are less than 1.5 m, for
example, in mines “Bogdanka” in Lubel and in Ka-
tovitse mining company. The same can be attributed
to mines in Germany and to mines in American
Appalachian mountains. In Ukraine the following
qualification is adopted: coal seams which are less
than 0.7 m – very thin coal seams; 0.7-1.2 m – thin
seams.
According to the opinion of specialists of Interna-
tional School of Underground Mining, the produc-
tion of coal out of coal seams with thickness of
more than 1.2 m decreased nearly two fold, and
more than half of coal production falls to coal seams
with thickness less than 1 m.
Ukraine is the only country in the world which
has gained long term experience, required technolo-
gies and equipment for production of coal out of
thin coal seams.
The coal seams in Ukraine have the smallest
thickness in the world, among industrialized coal
mining countries, the coal seams have average
15
thickness of 1.45 m, and in the structure of coal
reserves, the seams with thickness of more than
1.2 m have the share of only 20.4%, the thin coal
seams (up to 1.2 m) – the share is 74%, including
very thin coal seams (less than 0.7 m) – the share is
33.3%.
2 BASIC PART
The mines with thin coal seams have been running
for decades in the main industrial Donbass region.
In the course of time it is getting harder and harder
to mine coal, the considerable amount of workable
coal seams are hazardous in terms of mine impacts
and mine gas emissions. The depth of each forth
mine exceeds 1 km. In Central Donbass (in mines of
the towns Gorlovka, Dzerzhinsk, Yenakievo) thin
coal seams yield 70% of coal production, and more
than 80% of coal is mined in steep coal seams. Un-
der such conditions, it is very complicated to
mechanize the technological processes and to ensure
the safety of mining.
The main supplier of the equipment which operate
in such hazardous conditions is the company “Min-
ing Machines”, the main office of which is situated
in Donetsk, Ukraine. “Mining Machines” is the
leader of Ukrainian mining machine building. The
company managers the running of the seven large
machine building plants, which are located in the
south east of Ukraine and in the south of Russian
Federation, and which have more than 100 years’
experience of producing the equipment for compli-
cated mining geological conditions. They are:
“Druzhkovskiy machine building plant”, “Gor-
lovskiy Mashinostroitel”, “Donetskgormash”, “Do-
netskiy Energozavod”, “Sverdlovskiy machine
building plant”, “Kamenskiy machine building
plant” and “Ukrtransmash”.
Powerful production facilities allow to produce
70% of existing mining equipment in the world.
This fact grants a good opportunity for the custom-
ers to order the complete deliveries of the mining
equipment on a “turn-key” basis.
The company’s facilities achieved their historical
annual production output of mechanized supports –
240 sets, shearers – 1000 units, winding engines –
362 units, fans of the main shaft – 65 units, trans-
former substations – 2640 units.
Anticipating the trends in the development of
mining industry, the facilities of the company have
been used as early as in 2001-2003 to start the pro-
duction of two- prop hydraulic supports of a new
generation – 1КDD, 2КDD, DM and DT for thin
coal seams. Their life time is three fold more than
that of previous types of supports (i.e. up to 8 years
without overhaul) and they ensure improved techni-
cal performance.
The new supports have the same technical pa-
rameters as their foreign analogues and even con-
siderably surpass their operational data.
Figure 1. Shearer-loader UKD 400.
Maneuvering speed of the shearer UKD 400 is up
to 12 m per min. It is necessary to mention that data
of the shearer’s performance: speed, load, the posi-
tion in the coal face, troubleshooting etc. are dis-
16
Having such high technical characteristics, the
cost of the company’s products is essentially lower
in comparison with the western analogues. This
equipment enables to produce coal in semi-
automatic and automatic modes and to control the
shearer by tracing hypsometry of the coal seam. The
above mentioned supports enable to produce coal in
coal seams with thickness starting from 0.85 m to
1.6 m. Maximum resistance is 3300 kN .
The shearer UKD 400 (Figure 1) is holding one of
the priority positions in the production range of the
company. It has a frequency adjusted drive and is
designed for cutting coal in the coal seams with
thickness of 0.85-1.5 m in the coal faces which are
more than 300 m long. Two electric motors with
power of 200 kW, enable to cut practically all sorts
of hard coal at the feed of up to 8 m per minute.
played on the shearer’s monitor. According to ex-
perts’ opinion, the shearer UKD 400 is the embodi-
ment of power multiplied by speed and durable life
time.
 For the market with average and big thickness
coal seams the specialists of the company “Mining
Machines” performed the project of creating the
shearer KDK 500 (Figure 2). This shearer ensures
Figure 2. Shearer KDK 500.
The shearer КDК500 proved to advantage while
operating in the coal face #17 of Mine Administra-
tion “Sadkinskaya” (Belokalitvinskaya district,
Rostov region, Russian Federation). The use of the
shearer КDК500 enabled the mine to increase aver-
age 24 hours capacity up to 3165 tons.
The study of timing observations showed that the
main operations of the technological cycle at coal
cutting by the shearer reached 79.6% of time dura-
tion of the shifts. The shearer КDК500 has produced
1.43 mln. tones of coal for the period of 14 months
in the coal faces #17 and #19.
The decision to purchase the shearer КDК500 en-
abled the mine to ensure the steady increase of pro-
duction in thick coal seams at JSC “Mine Administra-
tion “Sadkinskoye” to achieve the following figures:
average monthly production of coal starting from
68.7 thousand tones reached 200 thousand tones
(2.9 fold increase); productivity of the worker in coal
face ranges from 31 tonnes up to 88 tones / shift
(2.8 fold increase).
The shearers КDК500, which operate in the
mines “Yuzhnodonbaskaya #3”, the state enterprise
“Donetskugol”, named after Bazhanov, the state
enterprise “Мakeevugol”, “Novodonetskaya”, the
state enterprise “Dobropolyeugol”, enabled the
mines to achieve maximum production capacity in
the coal seams with the thickness of 1.6 m for the
coal face of 3200 t / 24 hours at average monthly
17
the output which exceeds 1.5-2 fold the production
capacity of its analogues and considerably allows to
improve the efficiency of coal cutting with the same
costs of coal production.
production of 1700-2400 t / 24 hours. The estimated
life time of new equipment in several times exceeds
that of replaced analogues and has much longer
operational life time ensuring 2-3 fold increase of
productivity.
One of the latest innovational machinery which has
been put into practice is the flameproof electric bat-
tery locomotive with transistor control system АВ8Т.
The locomotive is designed on the basis of battery
locomotive АМ8D with the main design parameters
(overall dimensions, rigid base, clearance). The basic
model has undergone some innovations – a remov-
able cabin has been added. A new modern control and
slow down systems have been implemented alongside
with some additional functions aimed at improving
safety of operation. IGBT modules have been used in
the function of power elements. Modes of operation
are chosen by using software of the central processor.
The battery locomotive ensures smooth descending,
slow down and makes very low the consumption of
the electricity from battery. The power supply is acid
battery, type PzS, capacity 560 Аh, which ensures
two shift charging cycle at regular operation.
In order to produce modern mining equipment
which meets the highest quality standards, the com-
pany acquires the best technological equipment
from Czech Republic, FRG, Italy , Japan and other
countries. In 2006 the company started a complex
innovation program of production facilities with
more than 20 million dollars of investment. Such
amount of currency will be spent for technical re-
equipment in 2010.
3 CONCLUSIONS
It is worth mentioning, that in order to improve the
efficiency of operation of the produced mining
equipment, the company highlights the increasing of
complete deliveries of equipment to match the spe-
cific geological conditions of the customer and wid-
ening the range of equipment due to production of
new modifications.
The company considers its priority to interact
with the customers by rendering real practical assis-
tance to mines in erection, training of the staff,
maintenance of new equipment in the course of
operation and regular supply of required spare parts.
Comprehensive scientific-technical strategy en-
abled the company, alongside with the scientists,
design engineers, specialists from the institutes, to
master the production of all basic types of transpor-
tation equipment, shearers, road headers which meet
all modern world requirements in terms of produc-
tivity, safety, ergonomics and reliability.
18
The designing and upgrading of mining equip-
ment is performed by using innovational technolo-
gies and completing items which are produced by
the leading foreign manufacturers. The powerful
stand facilities for conducting performance trials of
the produced equipment on the shop floor has been
organized at the machine building plants of the
company. Particularly, two out of the three trial
stands, which are functioning in Europe – STD
2000, which are to be used to trial the produced
mechanized supports’ sections are located at the
plants of the company “Mining Machines”:
“Druzhkovskiy machine building plant” and
“Kamenskiy machine building plant”.
In 2010 the company intends to diversify the de-
liveries of the mining equipment geographically by
offering complete deliveries to the end-users of
Russian Federation, Iran, Каzakhstan, Vietnam and
India. At the moment, the company is developing
service-distributional net in the global market.
While working with the customers, the company
“Mining Machines” follows the innovational princi-
ple which highlights the individual approach to each
customer by offering the design of the equipment
for the specific geological-mining environment
conditions.
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Improvement of the methodology of managerial

solutions substantiation in coal mining industry

A. Akmaev
Donbass State Technical University, Alchevsk, Ukraine
I. Fesenko
National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: In article questions of methodology of management by coal-mining industry and modern

methodological principles of efficiency estimation of managerial solutions concerning functioning of the
coal-mining enterprises are considered. Preconditions of searching of the new approaches to a substantiation
of managerial solutions in branch and a state level as a whole are determined. Main principles and ap-
proaches to forming of the new methodology of management by coal industry are proposed, the basic theo-
retical positions of this concept are determined. In the work it is also proved the necessity of improving of
basic directions of management by resource-saving and management of resource potential is planned.

1 INTRODUCTION nation of priorities and comparison of separate kinds

Development of scientific-technical progress, devel-
opment of society, urbanization and globalization,
increasing role of human factor in social life, as well
as initiated transition to post-industrial society require
deviation from utilitarian understanding and estima-
tion of efficiency of state managerial decisions con-
cerning coal and other branches of economy. Evolu-
tion of world economy and economical relations
resulted in less part of past and vital work at each
enterprise reflecting social expenses for manufacture
of production at this enterprise. In addition, with the
growing of social significance of humanitarian and
ecological factors in human life, visual results of each
enterprise and economical branches in their financial
and other reported indexes continuously show less
accurate efficiency of their operation in national
economy and real social usefulness of these results.
Everything mentioned requires reviewing former
views of sense and content of “usual” categories, as a
sample, an efficiency, social expenses, cost, goods for
improving of substantiation of managerial decisions.
The aim of this article is to study different ap-
proaches to forming of modern methodology of
substantiation of managerial decisions in coal indus-
try management.
2 RESULTS
In historical perspective science and management
practice always work out the problems of determi-
of effects – economical, social, ecological, political,
expenses and results etc. Due to different reasons, a
priority was far from being attached to economically
efficient decisions.
Because of specific modern economics, progress
in integration processes and peculiarities of coal
mining industry in general, except Ukrainian one,
not all managerial decisions concerning current and
perspective functioning of coal mining enterprises is
reasonable to explain by the level of economic
efficiency of their activity.
From our point of view, the necessity of forming
of the new methodological substantiation of mana-
gerial decisions has matured. It could consider
challenges of globalization and state’s role in soci-
ety’s life, present-day condition of economical and
social relations, human values as well as transition
to open model of economical activity, which accepts
values and integrity with environment.
Long-term practice of world’s state management
is a practice of number of transfers, i.e. free transfer
of money, goods, services, tangible property. Last
world economical crisis showed that to provide
stable functioning of economy, many state decisions
are also accepted, which are not aimed to obtain
direct current economical effect. In addition, from
the state budget, stabilization funds spent multi-
billiard costs, which are introduced into keeping rate
of currency, providing bank liquidity, cheap credits,
stabilization of work of many large enterprises etc.
The same situation happens in management for state
property. So, M.D. Bilyk observes, that referring to

19
defined role of state property the most preferable
tendencies of functioning of state property are the
ones outgoing from the regulatory state function,
particularly:
– filling economical caves with unfavorable
manufacture conditions, to which private capital
comes too slowly, but its development is necessary
for the whole country’s economy;
– sanitation of separate enterprises, or probably
whole branches of economy, which temporarily or
continuously are revealed unprofitable;
– regulation of social aftereffects of cycloid type
of production by widening of scale of social works
for overcoming of unemployment;
– providing of realization of active regional pol-
icy oriented to leveling of great disproportions in
economical development of regions;
– motivation of developing of science intensive,
progressive branches, which require enormous
initial capital investments and do not provide with
quick refund of capital;
– increasing of quantity and quality of so-called
“social” goods, i.e. economical, social and adminis-
trative areas of the whole society;
– creating and providing of the activity of enter-
prises in strategically important branches;
– participating in the activities concerning the na-
ture protection, achievement of the ecological bal-
ance, improvement of recreation technologies (Bilyk
2006).
Thus, one can affirm that on the present stage of
development of world economy within modern
social-economic relations in conditions of globaliza-
tion on the goals indicated and generated state func-
tions then spending of state money according to
managerial decisions haven’t the aim of obtaining of
direct economical effect. These expenses are used
mostly for efficient performing of state’s functions.
During establishment and development of eco-
nomical relations, forms and methods of manage-
ment are changing and a state receives new func-
tions and tasks. Main functions of the state are
determined by the tasks arising before the state in a
certain moment in all social spheres. In different
progress periods the state faces continually new
tasks, for solving which there necessary real re-
sources including the managerial ones. There are
such situations when the state functions reveal that
dependence on permanently changing conditions
can not stay invariable. Despite the main state
functions which are permanent and are performed
systematically, they are changing, developing
dependently on those tasks which the state has on
the certain historical stage. Subject to tasks and
purposes of state are determined economical, politi-
cal and social conditions.
20
According to the thoughts of many economists,
an economical function is the most important be-
cause it creates material foundation for realization
of other state’s functions.
Economical function usually has anti-crisis orien-
tation and forms stable economical development of
the state. General economical function of state
consists of many partial economical functions.
From our point of view, starting from the neces-
sity to provide economical safety for national econ-
omy, one of the main declared functions of the state
is necessary to mark insured and compensative
regulation of economy in those social spheres,
where even market methods can’t provide necessary
positive results. It’s clear, that market methods don’t
work in those spheres of economy or others where
investments don’t give reasonable benefit.
In certain degree insurance function and compen-
sability regulation for state used to be performed
and today it is performed through other state func-
tions, but growing and modern understanding of the
importance of economical crisis requires its separate
investigation.
All managerial decisions, which are accepted in
organizations and state control bodies can be di-
vided into two groups – programmed and unpro-
grammed. Programmed ones are those decisions
which operation order is standard and doesn’t re-
quire searching for alternative options. There is full
information about those decisions as well as organi-
zation has established actions for their acceptance
and realization and all alternatives are known and
formalized. For example, tax charge, custom fee etc.
Unprogrammed managerial decisions have the
following features:
– non-standardized precedence rule with their ac-
ceptance and solving;
– scanty information for overall substantiation of
decision;
– not established accurate criteria for effective
solving;
– probable alternative decisions with not accurate
determined results;
– it’s impossible to forecast accurately the devel-
opment of economical situations in national and
world economy especially in conditions of widening
of crisis phenomena;
– it’s impossible to forecast accurately people’s
behavior as the main element of social-economic
system.
Practically all strategic decisions, which are ac-
cepted by state control bodies, are unprogrammed,
so it’s impossible to calculate precisely their intro-
duction of efficiency using famous methods, but in
separate cases they try. Explanation of such deci-
sions is possible only basing on natural laws and
logic laws.
Long-term continuous unprofitableness of the
majority of coal mining enterprises, hot demand of
enormous state subventions for their keeping in
operation don’t allow solving the most important
problems of the future of coal industry, and the
branch itself was and has been so-called stepchild of
Ukrainian economy.
On our mind one of the main reasons of such
situation is methodological uncertainty as to solving
of the specific problems of the specific and at the
same time very important branch of national econ-
omy.
That methodological foundation being used now
was formed in Soviet Union in other kind of econ-
omy. So formation task of new methodological
principles is topical for explanation of managerial
decisions which can meet the present state of econ-
omy.
Design analysis of methodological character
shows that nowadays methodological range of
problems of certain science branches is studied
rather less than generally philosophic and generally
scientific, moreover it has unsolved methodological
problems. In the same content it concerns an econ-
omy of coal mining industry.
First of all it touches the questions of restructur-
ing of coal branch, state support for coal mining
enterprises etc. For example, in recent years it was
made a lot of attempts at all management levels to
solve problems of coal mining industry of Ukraine
by content using of generally scientific methods.
But, as a rule, branch specificity is not considered as
well as influence of forms on processes in country’s
economy, which occur in coal mining industry.
Necessity of independent scientific approach to
accepting the decisions on functioning of coal
mining enterprises are mentioned by other econo-
mists too (Chilikin 2000).
Formation of methodological base generally and
certain science branch separately stipulates collec-
tion of data and phenomena, their systematization,
classification and generalization. In modern eco-
nomic literature concerning economics of coal
industry facts and phenomena, which are specified
by scientists and practitioners are spread in many
publications and according to them, nobody made
any sufficient modern methodological conclusions.
In this connection, development of all level meth-
odology and, first of all, particular-scientific level
can be studied as one of the most important condi-
tions of further economical development of coal
mining industry of Ukraine.
Economical science comes out from background
of rational behavior of management agents, owners
and public officers, which accept managerial deci-
21
sions and perform them. Rational behavior covers
affective use of all kinds of economical resources
during the process of achieving the set tasks of
activity.
So, methodology improvement of substantiation
of coal industry development stipulates essence of
reveal of rationality of managerial decisions and
searching for methods of effective usage of the
economical resources.
To accept decisions concerning development of
coal mining industry in general and its state sector
separately is proposed to use methodology of state
rationalism, which has combined character.
Usually rationalism is considered like sign of ma-
turity, civilization, modernity, like significant fea-
ture of industrial life style.
Rationalism is usually explained as person’s abil-
ity to keep intellectual laws, to be logical and se-
quential; ability to methodological procedure and
cognitive attitude to the reality; maximization and
optimization of activity results at limited resources
and methods, structuredness and analytical transpar-
ence of research material, standards, principles,
norms and ideals, which are supported by scientific
community, behavior quality, which is oriented to
realization of personal interest etc.
State rationalism is explained as methodology of
accepting of managerial decisions by state control
bodies, which is rest upon the priority of common
national interests, oriented to economical develop-
ment and based on the limitedness of society’s
economical resources.
Principle of state rationalism in economy man-
agement: less expenses – bigger results, both in
current period and in the perspective. Among rele-
vant peculiarities of rationalism one should notice:
sequence, connectivity, harmony, simplicity, struc-
turedness and others. Rationality possesses univer-
sal methods. It’s one of the general views of indus-
trialized society.
On the authors’ opinion, the methodology of state
rationalism in economy, first of all must be based on
such main principles:
– accounting of natural laws and logical laws;
– reasonability of state control for economical
relations, growth and economy structure pace;
– maximization of useful information for substan-
tiation of decisions;
– following the Constitution and laws;
– responsibility before the international legisla-
tion;
– declaration of person’s life and health as the
highest value;
– national security (economical, energetic, etc);
– sound mind – i.e. equivalence between people’s
personal opinions and environment;
 – efficiency – economical, social, political (cur-
rent and perspective);
– unity with environment;
– system in influencing of state decisions onto
national economy and society;
– transparence for society over all stages of
preparation and realization of decisions.
It is considered that formation of methodology of
state rationalism and its implementation into man-
agement practice will allow formation of managerial
decisions acceptance process, i.e. creation of oppor-
tunities of using formal logic when explaining
managerial decisions concerning unprofitable
branches, e.g. coal mining.
Over last 15 years mass media generate the opin-
ion in the society oriented to necessity of mines
closure, which operation is unprofitable and requires
enormous subventions from the state. Over inde-
pendence period in Ukraine in accordance with
developed programs during restructuring process in
coal industry more than 100 unprofitable mines
were closed. From those 138 coal mining enter-
prises left in the branch being under control of
Ministry of Coal Industry of Ukraine, only 15 of
them or 11% are considered as financially balanced,
the others are determined as the ones requiring
subventions and incapable to work independent
(Tulub 2007).
One should notice that acceptance of decisions
concerning closure of unviable coal mining enter-
prises, all enterprises of national economy, regard-
less to kind of proprietorship, having legal inde-
pendence, are bound by system economical relations
with other national enterprises. For example, coal
mining enterprises are bound with supplier of goods
which are used during coal production process. In
addition, one can note the system ties with the
enterprises which produce mining equipment, per-
form preparation of new longwall.
All enterprises which operate in national econ-
omy pay taxes into state local budget, pay charges
into fund-in-trust. And if in this system the opera-
tion of some coal enterprise is stopped then reduc-
ing production capacity at many enterprises will be
resulted and then the decrease of all kinds of
charges into budget and fund-in-trust. So, more
frequently when closing a coal mining enterprise
oriented to reduction of state subventions, national
economy faces much more losses, which are not
accounted by present methods of analysis and
estimation. Performed researches proved that clos-
ing of many unprofitable mines leads to more losses
in economy than total state subventions on their
keeping.
Based on methodology of state rationalism and its
such principles like national security, efficiency,
22
system influence of state decisions onto national
economy and society, coal mining enterprises re-
quire further state support. The other matter is the
state’s ability to provide support, optimization of
this support over subjects, kinds, volumes and
increasing efficiency of state funds using.
Formation of modern methodology for estimation
of efficiency of managerial decisions in coal mining
industry is a difficult process which requires efforts
of many scientists and practitioners for a long pe-
riod. But some approaches to formation of such
methods, principles are studied by science and they
can be offered now.
Among them are:
– coal is a main current and strategic energy
source of Ukraine;
– coal is the base for power and economic secu-
rity of state;
– the majority of time coal industry of Ukraine
was unprofitable;
– with deepening of excavations the expenses
grow more for coal production;
– increasing of coal cost leads to increasing of
cost for goods and services in the country;
– when closing mines the losses are bigger than
subventions for supporting their operation and
producing coal;
– economical effect from performing of manage-
rial decisions is important, but it is not the only
effect from this decision;
– economically unprofitable decision can be use-
ful if promotes achieving the other vital goals;
– significant factor of efficiency of managerial
decision is refrained loss;
– in cost price of coal in mines the part of condi-
tional-permanent expenditures is 60-70%, so a mine
can not work properly with low level of coal pro-
duction;
– investments’ growth into coal industry results in
multiplied profit growth in economy; reduction of
investment results in multiplied decline of profits
and consumption demand.
Further formation of methodology estimation of
efficiency of managerial decisions is an important
background for economic progress in coal mining
industry. First of all a solution of methodology of
state support for coal mining enterprises is worth
being developed as well as progress of coal industry
with improving of technique of labour remuneration
and management of resource potential.
Management of resource potential of coal mining
and other enterprises is impossible without use of
questions which arose from globalization of scien-
tific-technical progress, development of ownership
relations, which require their own accounting in
theory and practice of resource using.
 At more detailed consideration, resource potential
is accepted both like ordinary economical resources
and specific resources: intangible assets, enter-
prise’s image, information, time, etc.; involved
resources which form the resource potential of
enterprise and it can change the type of ownership;
resource potential of mining enterprise is limited by
time limits that is connected with terms of produc-
tion of mineral in different conditions; resource
potential is greatly influenceced by not only pres-
ence of resources but their quality, ability to effi-
cient use.
Resource potential of each coal producing enter-
prise is one of the constituent parts of coal mining
industry of Ukraine and national economy in the
whole. It stipulates the importance, urgency and
necessity to continue researches and application of
principally new approaches of solving the problems
of effective formation and more complex use of
resource potential of coal mining enterprises ac-
counting their special features.
Social needs are always connected with resources.
Oriented to guaranteeing economical supply for
society, the first range task of any state is state
regulation, to provide efficient use of these re-
sources.
At all stages of society’s life there is constant gap
between consumption level and production possi-
bilities, because economical resources are always
limited. At the same time society always has oppor-
tunity for alternative and more rational using of
these resources.
Usually resources consumption is in certain space-
term limits and with accounting of real or, at least,
potential physical accessibility of such resources.
It’s necessary to note that opportunities of alterna-
tive (more rational) use of economical resources
have considerable specifics in different spheres of
society and economy. So, it is using of accurate-
scientific methodology, which is implemented into
research methods and which is pierced by funda-
mental and common science methodology that will
allow to consider branch peculiarities in economical
substantiations of branch progress. On the grounds
of their scientific methodology, an opportunity to
develop and use management methods appears, as
well as methods of plan calculations and analysis of
activity etc, activity model, algorithms of actions
and other managerial tools for economical subjects.
There are some peculiarities of using of economi-
cal resources in coal mining branch, which require
special methodological approaches for their per-
forming. Particularly, big final “price” of miners’
job. This “price” consists of relatively big salary,
big social charges and big pension payments; non-
23
renewable nature of the job subject – mineral re-
sources, variable conditions of coal excavation, and
non even natural quality of coal; orientation of
business activity at the coal mining enterprises onto
reducing the losses and decreasing volume of state
subventions on covering of production expenses;
specific effect of time factor onto the activity of coal
producing enterprises, particularly: when decelera-
tion of intensity of second working relatively to
time absolute and comparative expenses are grow-
ing greatly on keeping breakage heading and prepa-
ration of sites as results of rock pressure; termina-
tion of performing some production operation for
several dozens of hours, for example, dewatering
and ventilation, can completely destroy the mine.
So, these peculiarities have cumulative influence
on results and operation characteristics of mines and
it requires formation of special methodological
approach for their accounting in analysis and plan-
ning of coal mining enterprise’s activity.
3 CONCLUSIONS
In spite of rather deep study of many tasks of state
regulation for economy branches, a range of substan-
tiation and rationalization factors in managerial
decisions require further formalization. Bu using of
proposed methodology of state rationalism one can
shape the decisions of important problems in coal
mining industry, connected with using of current and
development of perspective production-economical
potential of coal producing enterprises etc.
From our point of view, development and practi-
cal implementation of state rationalism methodol-
ogy allow to increase the validity of many unpro-
grammed decisions, which are accepted nowadays
on the base of intuition and subjectivity.
And accounting of branch peculiarities of applica-
tion of economical resources is the main direction of
methodology improvement of managerial decisions
substantiation with resource saving and progress of
coal producing enterprises.
REFERENCES
Bilyk, M.D. 2006. New approaches to estimation of
effective activity of state enterprises of Ukraine’s econ-
omy. Formation of market relations in Ukraine, 7-8: 3-8.
Chilikin, A.I. 2000. Coal mining enterprises of Ukraine in
the system of market relations: theory and practice.
Donetsk: IEP NASU: 256.
Tulub, C.B. 2007. State and perspectives of progress in
coal mining industry of Ukraine. Kiev: UkrNiiproekt:
70.
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Review of support systems and methods

for prediction of gateroads deformation

S. Prusek
Central Mining Institute, Katowice, Poland

ABSTRACT: The paper describes the support systems applied in gateroads on the basis of selected countries
conducting underground mining of hard coal seams. There have been presented the support systems for those
workings, being applied in the United States, United Kingdom, Germany and Poland. The methods applied
in those countries, allowing to compute gateroad deformations, and to design appropriate supports, for given
geological and mining conditions, have also been described.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 CHARACTERIZATION OF HARD COAL

Longwall coal mining has been practiced for many
years particularly in European coal mines. In the
case, when this method is used, for each longwall
panel gateroads and a set-up rooms are developed.
In those workings the longwall equipment is placed,
containing: shield supports, a shearer or a face
conveyor. The European mining industry is working
with single entry roadways system, while in the U.S.
for one longwall panel from 3 to 5 tailgates and
maingates are developed. During longwall mining
the gateroads perform many functions that decide on
a proper production process. They are the ways that
enable output haulage, transport of miners and
materials, or are ventilation ducts for the mining
area. The aspect of proper ventilation is of vital
importance in the case when mining operations are
conducted in the conditions of high level of hazards
methane explosion or fire. In such situations, con-
siderable deformations of gateroads that give rise to
reduction of their cross sections, influence substan-
tially the rise of the level of hazards mentioned,
thereby putting the working crew in danger.
Considering the importance of gateroads in the
production process, numerous research works have
been conducted in many countries aimed, in princi-
pal, at ensuring the stability and proper size of those
workings. In this paper there are described different
kinds of gateroads support which are applied in the:
U.S., UK, Germany and Poland. The methods ena-
bling to predict the deformation of those workings,
and process of designing the supports reducing this
deformation have also been presented.
MINING I NDUSTRIES AND SYSTEMS OF
GATEROADS SUPPORT IN THE: U.S., UK,
GERMANY AND POLAND
With the aim of obtaining a broader view in the
subject of support systems applied in gateroads,
typical solutions have been described, being applied
in the countries conducting underground extraction
of hard coal seams. To compare, such countries
have been chosen as the: U.S., UK, Germany and
Poland. The United States are counted among the
biggest producers of hard coal in the world. In the
year 2009, a total U.S. production was 973 million
tonnes, in that 302 million of hard coal were ex-
tracted with underground methods (50% with a
longwall system, the other 50% with room and
pillar). An average depth of underground mining is
400 m. In the remaining, European countries se-
lected in the paper, the hard coal production level
using underground methods, in the year 2009, var-
ied from 13.8 million tonnes in Germany to 77.5
million in Poland. In the UK, 17.9 million tonnes
were produced, while nearly 10 million were ob-
tained using surface mining. Figure 1 shows the
above presented values of hard coal production in
the individual countries, together with the values of
average depth of mining, in the case when under-
ground mining methods were used.
In the USA, for each longwall panel, from 2 to 5
tailgates and maingates of rectangular cross section
are driven (Barczak 2005 & Peng 2006, 2008). Be-
tween those workings chain pillars are left, providing
an additional roof support. Rock bolts are the main
type of support used in the gateroads, being driven, in
general, by means of Continuous Miner. There are
used steel bolts of 19 mm diameter and length, most

25
frequently, from 1,8 m to 2,4 m. The fully resin steel
bolts are installed with spacing of 1.2 m. (Barczak
2005 & Peng 2006). Figure 2 shows an example of
rectangular roof bolted roadway.
Figure 1. Production of hard coal in the year 2009 and
average depth of underground mining in the: U.S., UK,
Germany and Poland.
Figure 2. An example of rectangular roof bolted roadway
in one of U.S. mines.
26
In the locations with high values of stress e.g. in
abutment pressure areas, or in tailgates located in
the one-sided surroundings of the goaf, there are
applied additional reinforcements of the main sup-
ports, such as cable bolts or various standing sup-
ports (Barczak 2005 & Tadolini 2005). The selected
types of standing supports, being applied in rein-
forcement of the main rock bolt supports in the
gateroads, are shown in Figure 3.
The Can-type standing support is one of the most
frequently used supports. It is composed of a tube
filled with material having high mechanical strength
parameters. In the U.S. gateroads, there are also used
various timber supports, for instance: Cluster Props,
Propsetter, or Link-N-Lock cribs (Barczak 2005).
In the UK, after ownership transformation and
privatization of the hard coal mining industry, the
rectangular cross section and rock bolts as the main
support became to be a standard in the gateroads
(Bigby, Altounyan & Cassie 2006). Such a system
of supporting the entries, introduced in a large scale
in 1987, results mainly from continual striving for
lowering the production costs, and from the ability
to obtain higher rates of development works (Al-
tounyan & Hurt 1998). To protect the gateroads, as
the primary support fully resin steel bolts are used
and additionally flexible or cable bolts, including
pretensioned bolts. The spacing between the rows of
bolts varies, depending on geological conditions, 0.6
m to 1.0m. In the roadways, there is also used rib
bolting using either steel bolts or GRP bolts (on face
rib side). The reinforcement being frequently used,
in particular in tailgates outby the face, are the Link-
N-Lock cribs (Bigby, Altounyan & Cassie 2006).
Figure 4a presents a detailed scheme of the rock bolt
in a gateroad in which fully resin steel support and,
additionally, flexible bolts were installed in the roof.
In the face rib sides, GRP bolts were applied. Figure
4, b shows a view of the rectangular rock bolted
gateroad in one of the UK mines.
In the UK mines, with the aim of ensuring ac-
ceptable size of the rock bolted gateroads, coal
pillars are being left between longwall panels. The
width of those pillars is variable, for instance, at a
depth of mining of 800 m, the width of pillars
ranges from ca. 60 m to 120 m (Cassie, Altounyan
& Cartwright 1999).
In the German mining, the principal support ap-
plied in gateroads is the steel arch yielding support.
The single frame of support consists, most fre-
quently, of five-elements of section with mass from
34 to 40 kg / m. The gateroad cross section value
varies from 25 m2 to 36 m2, on the average being
30 m2. The frame distance ranges from 0.6 m to
1.2 m, most 0.8 m. Currently in Germany, nearly
70% of gateroads are developed in combined sup-
port i.e. bolt and arch support with concrete backfill,
called type A (Eikhoff 2010). This type of support
was developed at Ibbenbüren mine in 1985, and
relies on applying in workings at the beginning rock
(a)
Figure 3. Selected types of standing support being applied in gateroads in the U.S.; Can support (a), Link-N-Lock crib (b),
Cluster Props support (c).
(a)
Figure 4. Rock bolted gateroad in one of the UK mines; (a) detailed scheme of rock bolting, (b) view of rectangular rock
bolted gateroad.
In German mines most rock bolts the 2.5 m long
and 25 mm diameter are used, and having the tensile
strength of 340 kN. In the workings, concrete back-
filling is used between the breach of working and
the supports, using the materials with high mechani-
cal strength. During retreat longwall mining very
often the one of roadway after the first passage of
the face is being used. In such cases, roadside packs
are being made in the roadways providing rein-
bolts, and then, at a distance of up to 50 m, the arch
support (Junker et al 2006). Figure 5 presents work-
ing development in combined support – type A.
(b) (c)
(b)
forcement of steel supports, and additionally isolat-
ing the goaf debris (Junker et al 2006).
The main support type used nearly in all hard coal
mine roadways in Poland, including gateroads, is the
steel arch yielding support. The frame is the main
element of this support, in general arch-shaped. It
contains three or four elements made of V section,
and most often having a unit mass in the range 25-
32 kg / m (Prusek 2010). Over the last years, in the
27
Polish mining industry, the frames have been used
with cross sections from 13 m2 to 18 m2. Most often,
in above 50% of workings, the support with the cross
section of ca. 15 m2 is used. Depending on the local
geological and mining conditions, the frame distance
adopted is from 0.5 m to 1.0 m, while most frequently
the spacing used is either 0.75 m or 0.8 m.
Figure 5. Working development in combined support, type
A (Eikhoff 2009).
In the Polish mining gateroads, combined support
is more and more often used, with the bolts playing
a role of additional supports. Many mines perform
bolting of cross-bar arches of steel supports, which
apart from strengthening the rock mass, eliminates
the necessity of installing steel props in the area of
longwall T-junction. This bolting is generally made
outby the face by means of fully resin steel bolts, of
the length from 2.5 m to 2.7 m (Figure 6a). There is
also applied bolting between steel frames or fasten-
ing with bolts steel cross bars or stringers to the
arches. This is made by using flexible bolts of the
length ranging, in general, from 4.5 m to 8.0 m.
Apart from bolts, the most frequently applied in
strengthening steel yielding arches in gateroads,
there are used: stringers, frictional steel props and
timber props. In the case of repeated use gateroads
after first face passage, are often made reinforce-
ments of steel supports by means of wood cribs, or
there are made roadside packs along the goaf line,
using various chemical materials (Figure 6b)
(Prusek 2008, 2010)

(a) (b)

Figure 6. Reinforcement of steel yielding arches in gateroads by means of: (a) bolting cross bar arches with fully resin
steel bolts, (b) roadside pack of mineral binding material.

With the aim of improved utilization of support

parameters, and obtaining a momentary contact of
the support with the roof, the Polish mines under-
take more and more often the trials to apply back-
filling with the use of chemical materials. The back-
filling of this type is commonly used at Bogdanka
mine. There, it has become a standard supporting
element, being one of the factors that ensure obtain-
ing of very good rates of roadway drivage
(Chmielewski, Masiakiewicz & Kozek 2010). The
mine working with the arches backfilled with bind-
ing material at Bogdanka mine is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Roadway at Bogdanka mine with arches back-

filled with binding material.

28
 In Poland, the number of mines that use the sup-
ports made of new sorts of steel with enhanced
mechanical parameters has increased over the last
years. Apart from enhanced mechanical parameters,
the new steel is also more resistant to corrosion
processes which may substantially lower the load-
bearing capacity of the supports, and finally result in
the loss of their stability. The use of steel with
enhanced parameters positively affects the process
of roadway maintenance, and results in reduced
costs of drivage through increasing the pitch of the
frame or using lighter section (Prusek, Kowalski &
Skrzyński 2006).
the inflexion point, in consequence the convergence
is no longer acceptable and puts in danger of rock
fall. It should be noted that in the case of using high
stiff support in the gateroad, the support will be
subjected to high load values, being able to cause its
premature damage. For this reason, in every case,
individual computations and analyses should be
made to select the suport relative to a given course
of roadaway convergence (Mucho et al. 1999; Es-
terhuizen & Barczak 2006; Barczak et al., 2005).

3 METHODS OF PREDICTING
GATEROADS DEFORMATION

The investigations on the phenomena occurring in

the gateroads, and in particular the rock mass de-
formations caused by abutment pressure have been
the matter of interest of scientists from many coun-
tries, in which underground mining of hard coal
seams has been conducted. As a result of research
work conducted, a number of methods have been
developed, enabling to predict deformations of the
gateroads, and optimize the supports being sub- Figure 8. Concept of selecting working support based on
jected to abutment loads. Among those methods, the GRC (Mucho et al., 1999).
one can distinguish empirical methods and numeri-
cal modelling methods commonly used over the
recent years.
In the U.S. mining industry, when planning un-
derground mining process using the longwall
method, in relation to gateroads, mainly the compu-
tations are performed in respect of designing chain
coal pillars to be left between the entries, and of
analysing roadway supports. The size of pillars,
which can be either stiff or yielding ones, are being
computed by applying various analytical and nu-
merical methods, as well as empirical relationships
(Mark 1990, 2006). During designing gateroad
supports, the U.S. approach takes as a base the
conception of the Ground Reaction Curve (GRC).
This curve presents the dependence of abutment
load and convergence which may occur in given
gateroads (Mucho et al., 1999; Mark & Barczak
2000; Esterhuizen & Barczak 2006). The concept of
selecting the supports based on the determined
ground reaction curve is presented in Figure 8. Figure 9. Numerical modeling of the rock mass deforma-
When selecting gateroad support based on the tion around the tailgate by means of FLAC program (Es-
knowledge of the GRC, one takes mainly into ac- terhuizen, Barczak 2006).
count: load-bearing characteristics of the support,
time of its installation in the working and conver- With the aim of computing the course of gateroad
gence of working. Figure 8 presents an example of deformation, such programs as LaModel and FLAC
applying too soft support, when the line of its load- are commonly used (Barczak et al., 2005). The
bearing characteristics intersects the GRC behind LaModel program utilizes the boundary element

29
metod, and allows to compute the convergence of
roof strata consisting of laminated elastic rock mass,
and assessment of interaction of: support, roof, floor
and pillar yielding (Heasley & Salomon 1996,
Barczak et al., 2005). In the case of inelastic rock
and failure of the roof or floor, the FLAC program
is utilized in numerical modeling (Barczak et al.,
2005). An example of applying this program for
numerical modeling of the rock mass around the
tailgate is presented in Figure 9.
When selecting the gateroad support using the
GRC conception, of vital importance is the knowl-
edge of the support load characteristic. The majority
of standing supports used in gateroads (50 different
types) had been tested in mine roof simulator in the
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health). The results of the tests were included
in the program named STOP (Support Technology
Optimization Program). The program allows to
compare the support characteristics with the ground
reaction curves and to choose an optimal support
relative to occurring convergence (Barczak 2000).
Referring to the problem of gateroad deformation,
the U.S. experience points out that those roadways
are more stable in the case of their smaller width,
and appropriate orientation of the workings with the
direction of maximal horizontal stress (Mark &
Barczak 2000).
The subject of appropriate orientation of work-
ings relative to the direction of maximal horizontal
stress is devoted a lot of attention in the UK. The
first measurements of the direction of action of
maximal horizontal stress were conducted in under-
ground conditions in mid-eighties of the last century
at Selby mine. Since that time, such measurements
in the British mines have been conducted currently,
being one of the most important factors in the proc-
ess of designing mine working supports (Bigby,
Altounyan, Cassie 2006). Wide experience obtained
points out that improper orientation of the gateroads
relative to the direction of action of maximal hori-
zontal stress can give intensity of their deformation.
Figure 10. Horizontal convergence in the gateroad depend-
ing on the distance from face (Bowler, Betts & Altounyan
2008).
30
In the UK, when selecting gateroad support, nu-
merical modeling is being applied. Also, there are
performed underground measurements of the
gateroad deformation for optimization of numerical
models, and at selection of an optimal support
scheme, ensuring minimization of deformation. An
example of underground measurements of gateroad
convergence at Daw Mill Colliery is presented in
Figure 10.
One can observe from Fig.10, that as the longwall
face comes nearer, the rise in horizontal conver-
gence of the roadway takes place, and at a distance
of 50 m outby the face, the value of convergence
exceded even 600 mm. Taking into account substan-
tial difficulties related to side wall deformation in
the gateroad, a number of actions were taken with
the aim of limiting this negative phenomenon. New
support types were introduced and longer and larger
diameter rock bolts were applied for bolting the side
walls. To evaluate the effect of changed rock bolting
parameters on deformation of the gateroad, numeri-
cal modeling was applied (Figure 11).
The investigations on the course of gateroad de-
formation have extensively been conducted in the
German mining industry. Based on the results of
measurements and underground observations, as
well as physical modeling, a number of empirical
relationships have been worked out, enabling to
predict the gateroad convergence (Götze & Kammer
1976; Jacobi 1976; Kammer 1980). To calculate the
principal convergence (K 0 ) of the gateroads, the
relationship has been given, and then modified
throughout the years. The last of the published
forms of the relationship is that as shown below
(Junker et al., 2006):
K 0 = 78 +0.066 T + 4 ,3 SV  M +
  34 
 24.3  - 4  ln Dmin , (1)
 168 
where: K 0 – convergence of roadway as percentage
ratio of initial height; T – depth of mining, m; M –
thickness of seam, m; SV – number depending on
the type of roadway protection at the edge of goaf;
 Dmin – minimal compressive strength of rock in the
roof or floor of roadway, MPa.
Relationship (1) allows to calculate principal verti-
cal convergence of the roadway developed during the
advancing longwall with caving, being outside the
past mining activities, and with arch supports applied
with stone lining. In other cases, the roadway conver-
gence ( K ) is being calculated taking into account the
principal convergence ( K 0 ) and proper correction
factors (Kammer 1980; Junker et al., 2006).
 (a) (b)

Figure 11. Numerical modeling of gateroad deformation at Daw Mill Colliery; (a) conventional scheme of bolting; (b) scheme
of bolting using side wall rock bolts with increased length and diameter (Bowler, Robinson & Altounyan 2009).

(a) (b)

Figure 12. Numerical modeling of gateroad deformation; (a) rectangular bolted gateroad (Langhanki 2001); (b) arch-
shaped bolted gateroad (Ruppel & Scior 2008).

In Germany, apart from empirical methods, to

predict gateroads deformation numerical modeling
is also used (Hucke et al., 2006; Langhanki 2001;
Ruppel & Scior 2008). Computation examples of
convergence of gateroads with rectangular and arch-
shaped cross section, with rock bolting are shown in
Figure 12.
The numerical computations are verified, and the
rock mass models created are calibrated based on:
laboratory testing of rock and supports, physical
modeling, underground measurements of: properties
of rocks, convergence and stress. The information
required for calibration of numerical models is
shown in Figure 13. Figure 13. Information required for calibration of the
numerical model (Studeny & Scior 2009).

31
 Also in the Polish mining industry for many years model the caving zone (Prusek & Masny 2007).
underground investigations of gateroads deforma- Figure 15b presents the results of computations of
tion have been conducted. On the basis of measure- rock displacement into the gateroad at the distance
ments a number of empirical relationships have 100 m inby the face. Calculations were carried out
been worked out (Prusek 2008). From among the by means of the Phase2 software and modified
methods that base on empirical relationships, the Hoek-Brown’s criterion (Prusek 2008a).
most extensive is the method worked out at the
Central Mining Institute (GIG). This method allow-
ing to predict the course of vertical convergence of
gateroads, taking into account a large number of
geological and mining parameters (Biliński 1989).
The relationships applied in this method underwent
many modifications, based on currently obtained
results of underground tests. The prognoses of
convergence based on the method discussed are
being made by means of elaborated computer pro-
grams, speeding up and improving the process of
computations. An example of the computation result
of predicted deformations of the gateroad is show in
Figure 14.
In Poland, apart from empirical methods, in mak-
ing assessment of gateroad deformations, numerical
modeling is being often applied. Figure 15a presents
the results of numerical modeling of gateroad main- Figure 14. Results of computations of the course of
gateroad convergance outby and inby the face based on
tained inby the face using support members to
empirical method worked out at GIG (Prusek 2007).

(a)

JOB TITLE : 54 m (*10^1)

FLAC (Version 5.00)

LEGEND 6.000

5-Apr-07 9:52
step 15540
3.669E+01 <x< 6.025E+01
3.966E+01 <y< 6.322E+01 5.600

Boundary plot

0 5E 0
5.200
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
o at yield in tension
Cable Plot
# 2 (Cable) -2.478E+05
# 3 (Cable) -1.181E+05 4.800
Support plot
Beam plot
Beam Plot
Structural Displacement
Max Value = 2.962E-01 4.400

Wojciech Masny 4.000

GIG Katowice
3.800 4.200 4.600 5.000 5.400 5.800
(*10^1)

32
 (b)

Figure 15. An example of numerical modeling of the rock mass around gateroads; (a) zone of rock mass damage in the
surroundings of the gateroad, axial forces and vectors of support displacements at a distance of 54 m inby the face (Prusek
& Masny 2007), (b) displacements of rock strata into the gateroad at a distance of 100 m inby the face (Prusek 2008c).

Both in the case of applying empirical methods 5

1
and numerical modeling, the results are verified 7
based on currently performed measurements of 7
gateroads deformation. Such measurements are
2
performed both manually, by means of simple
measuring devices, and using special research
equipment that enables continuous measurement of
roadway deformations. An example of such equip-
ment is a monitoring system developed by GIG
specialists within the framework of MONSUPPORT
8
project, which was financed by the Research Fund for
Coal and Steel. Within the framework of research 6
work, a number of sensors and measuring devices 4
were developed, enabling to measure loads and 3
deformations of steel arch yielding supports and
Figure 16. Scheme of monitoring system of roadway
bolts, together with the system of data transmission support: underground computer (1), module for support
to the surface (Prusek 2008b). A scheme of the deformation measurement by means of the
monitoring system developed is shown in Figure 16. photogrammetric method (2), laser module (3), hydraulic
dynamometers (4 and 5), displacement sensors to measure
the slide in support friction joints (6), tensometric sensors
of bolt load (7), tensometric sensors to measure the force
acting at the support shackles’ bolts (8). – (Prusek 2008b).

33
4 CONCLUSIONS
The overview of the support systems applied in the
gateroads point at its relatively high diversity. In
general, one can say that outside Europe, e.g. in
such countries as the United States, the principal
support type is rock bolting, while a characteristic
feature for the U.S. mining industry is making sev-
eral gateroads with pillars for one longwall panel. In
the case of European countries, the situation is
similar in the UK, where the mining industry was
privatized, and continual striving for reducing costs
of mining resulted in wide application of rock bolt-
ing. However, it should be noted that in the UK
single gateroads are driven for each longwall panels
and to maintain their stability, coal pillars are left
between panels of the width being often more than
100m. In Germany, where an average depth of
mining now approaches 1200 m, steel arch yielding
supports are used as principal type of supporting
gateroads. Recently nearly 70% of gateroads are
developed in combined support (type A bolts and
arches support). The use of concrete backfill on
support arches is a standard in all roadways. In most
cases, one of gateroads is maintained inby the face
and repeated use for the next longwall panel. In
such situations roadside packs are made along the
goaf line. In Poland, similarly as in Germany, the
principal type of gateroad support is steel arch
yielding support. Over the last years, there has been
observed a wider use in gateroads of additional rock
bolting, most often for fastening cross-bar arches of
steel support. More and more frequently, there are
also used flexible bolts to provide additional rein-
forcement of arch support. It is predicted that due to
continually worsening geological and mining condi-
tions, and connected with this fact substantial con-
vergence of gateroads, the combined support will be
more and more often used, in particular with apply-
ing rock bolting. The steel arch frames will be made
of larger size, using steel with enhanced mechanical
parameters. Owing to a number of advantages, the
mechanical lining on steel arches will also be more
extensively used.
With the aim of proper designing the gateroad
supports, the knowledge of convergence occurring
in given conditions will be needed. For this reason,
many methods have been worked out allowing to
predict the convergence occurring in the gateroads,
including the influence of longwall abutment load.
In the last century, based on extensive underground
measurements, and laboratory testing, a number of
empirical methods have been worked out, and being
applied in German or Polish mining industries. Over
the last years, owing to development of computer
technologies, numerical modelling has been widely
34
used in computation of convergence in gateroads, or
assessment of changes that take place in the rock
mass surrounding those workings. Specialist com-
puter softwares currently available allow to perform
various types of computations and analyses, being
necessary in selection of the gateroads support.
However, when using numerical methods, it is
necessary to keep in mind the possibility of making
errors, for instance resulting from improperly as-
sumed rock mass parameters in the computations.
For this reason, it is considered indispensable per-
forming periodical verification of numerical compu-
tation results, on the basis of underground meas-
urements. Such an approach allows to calibrate
numerical models and to reduce the prediction
errors.
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4
Natural and mining factors that define quality
of black coal for heat power stations
P. Pilov
National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Demand for quality of anthracite coal, its basic formation and provision of necessary level of
quality, taking into account mining-and-geological and mining conditions, demands of market and existent
standards are considered.
1 INTRODUCTION
Production and economical indices of power sta-
tions depend on quality of the fuel. Unsubstantiated
quality level of coal in modern conditions can lead
to economical failure of the enterprises-manufactu-
rers and consumers.
Conception of the quality is complex, multiple-
factor and can be described by only one index. Inte-
gral characteristics of coal quality for power engi-
neering can be calorific value of working fuel. It is
the most important consumer feature of the fuel for
its usage in power engineering.
Most important characteristics of coals are calo-
rific value, grindability and reactivity which are
connected with petrographic compound and meta-
morphism level of coals.
2 BASIC INFORMATION
There is higher calorific value of coals, i.e. combus-
tion heat of organic mass of coal (without admix-
tures) and lower calorific value of working fuel, i.e.
calorific value of coal taking into account its ash
and moisture content.
Higher calorific value is connected with elemen-
tary compound of coals and their metamorphism
level.
Lower calorific value of working fuel is deter-
mined together with highest calorific value of coal
and its ash and moisture content, composition of
mineral admixtures and other elementary indices of
quality.
In practice of energy calculations, the following
formula for determination of the lowest calorific
value of working fuel is used (by means of recalcu-
lation of the highest calorific value, taking into ac-
count the amount of ballast admixtures):
37
100  A d  W
Q nр  Q v  0.025W , MJ / Kg,
100
where Q v – highest calorific value of coal; Ad –
factual ash content of coal in air-dry state, %; W –
moisture content, %.
Requirements demanded for coal quality are de-
termined by technologies of its use. The most wide-
spread method in coal energetics is method of burn-
ing of preliminary dried and grinded to 0.1 mm fuel
in flash furnaces. Burning of coal-dust flame is per-
formed in the flow in which high efficiency of oxi-
dation is reached that is conditioned by developed
surface for the reaction of grinded fuel with oxygen.
In general, all types of coal can be used for dust
flaming. Their ash content varies in range from 20
to 45%.
Expenditures for technological material (fuel) rise
and the consumption of fuel for power generation
rises too, also its cost, tariffs for transportation,
volumes of its processing in the warehouses and in
technological process itself.
Decrease of fuel consumption, except for increase
of economical indices, leads to positive integral
effect.
It is known, that with increase of ash content, it is
required to buy and process larger amounts of natu-
ral fuel with high content of ash.
Consequently, the power station processes more
slags, captured ash with corresponding expenses of
means and labour. But ash brings many harmful
components that trigger premature erosive and cor-
rosional wearing of the equipment.
During designing of heat power stations, fuel re-
sources of the region is taken into account, and also
composition of coal and their ash content. Thus,
each of them can have economical operation mode
with fuel quality corresponding to the project val- important characteristics of coals. They define coal
ues. usage in industry and also characteristics of gained
With decrease of coal quality, in order to keep slags and ash losses during burning (Eryomin &
thermal capacity of the boiler unit and provision of Bronoviec 1994.).
required parameters of burning it is required to addi- Mineral components of coals are conditionally
tionally burn more high-calorie fuel: natural gas or divided into two groups: macro- and micro compo-
fuel oil that causes additional costs. nents (correspondingly with their content in mineral
For stimulation of fuel quality increase for power matter more or less than 1%). Macro elements are
stations in Ukraine in 2002, the state standard for Si , Al , Fe , Ca , Mg , S , and sometimes N ,
hard fuel is approved (Technical conditions 2002), Ka , Ti . Mineral components are deposited as rock
according to which, the coal for dust burning on
layers, lens, burs, organomineral compounds. Min-
thermal power stations is divided into 4 categories
eral formations in coals can be presented also by
based upon conformity of basic indices of quality to
mineral fragments and rocks as mudstone, siltstone,
project requirements of active coal-dust boiler units.
sandstone and limestone.
Coefficients of energy value of a unit of lowest
Mineral matters, just like moisture, is a ballast
calorific value are introduced for each quality cate-
during transportation of coals. In addition, they
gory, correspondingly: 1.00; 0.75; 0.50; 0.30. These
represent the source of an ash formation, quantity
coefficients should consider costs for coal enrich-
and composition of which can significantly influ-
ment and additional expenses of thermal power
ence possibility of coals use in production.
stations for fuel burning with quality lower than the
High coal ash content worsens working condi-
project one and can be used for price formation
tions of energy units. Ash leads to decrease of coke
(Pilova 2004 & Sinyakovich 2004).
quality and, consequently, indices of blast furnaces:
In the first quality category there are coals quality
consumption of coke increases per ton of produced
of which provides stable conditions of dust burning
cast iron. So, with increase of coke ash content by
without addition of natural gas or fuel oil. Lowest
1%, coke’s consumption increases approximately by
calorific value of these coals must be not less than
2% and, correspondingly, productivity of a blast
20.097 MJ / kg.
furnace decreases.
In the second quality category there are coals that
Properties of ash and slag depend on mineral
have lowest calorific value equal to limits from
components containing in coal, ash-forming com-
17.585 to 20.097 MJ / kg. These coals are also good
ponents, and also rocks contaminating coal during
for dust burning but only with addition of natural
an extraction. Composition of ash considerably
gas or fuel oil. The third quality category contains
differs from mineral component of coals that under-
intermediate products with lowest calorific value
goes significant changes during oxidation and ther-
not less than 16.747 MJ / kg, the fourth category –
mal decomposition during burning.
slags with lowest calorific value not less than
12.560 MJ / kg. With that, general moisture of the Basic components of coal ash are oxides: SiO2 ,
coals of the first, second and third categories should Al2O3 , Fe2O3 , MgO , CaO , Ka2O , Na2O ,
be not more than 12-14%, intermediate products – TiO2 , SO3 . Besides, there are rare and dispersed
9% and slags – up to 18%.
elements in ash: nonferrous metals, noble and radio-
Analysis of these data and their comparison with
active metals.
ash content of raw coal ash shows that only a little
For many coal deposits there is a correlation be-
part of them can be attributed to the second category
tween ash content and ash composition. During
without enrichment and practically all extracted coal
burning process on large power stations, 60% of
does not correspond to the first quality category.
inorganic components transfer into ash and slags.
Thus, from point of view of fuel cost decrease
Mineral component is removed from coals at en-
during power generation, one should look up to use
richment plants. At this, around 40% of inorganic
of first category coals. Thus, all extracted coal for
components are directed to wastes as a rock.
energy purposes should be enriched.
Sulphur is enclosed in fossil coals and coal rocks
Problem of quality and effectiveness of black coal
as sulphides, sulphates, organic compounds and
and anthracite usage is defined by both natural con-
elementary sulphur.
ditions (mining-geological, seams thickness, their
Sulphide sulphur is enclosed in coals basically as
ash content, sulphur content) and used extraction
pyrite and marcasite. Sulphite sulphur basically
technologies.
Fossil coal presents solid system of organic mat- occurs as CaSO4 and Fe2 SO4 3 in a small amount
ters and inorganic components (minerals). There- (0.1-0.5%) and makes up 10-12% of general sul-
fore, composition and amount of mineral part are phur. Its content significantly increases due to

38
weathering and strong coal oxidation. Elementary
sulphur has 0.03-0.20% in coal of Donbas and is
basically located in fine-dispersed form.
Possibility of coals usage depends on ash content
in coals. During energy usage of coal all types of
sulphur except of sulphite one transfer into SO 2 and
is removed together with combustion gases and that
causes wearing of the chimneys, boilers and equip-
ment, and also leads to negative influence on the
environment.
Extraction of black coal has a line of peculiarities
and they are determined by a row of factors: spatial
change of mining operations, dependence of results
of mining production on characteristics of a coal
seam and mining-geological and mining-technical
conditions, low accuracy of information about ob-
ject of mining production.
Listed factors influence the change of extracted
coal quality.
Quality of gained coal is formed under aggregate
influence of a big number of factors that are com-
bined in groups: natural, economical and techno-
logical factors.
Each of the factors except natural can be attrib-
uted to manageable. Manageable factors are those
that can be influenced to change coal quality and its
stability relative to the desired level. Unmanageable
factors cannot be influenced by any manageable
actions. They contain group of natural and eco-
nomical factors. They are connected with the con-
sumers in given kind of coal production, with its
amount on the market and also with prices fluctua-
tions and other economical changes.
Economical factors determine, in general, effec-
tiveness of coal deposit development, rationality of
acceptance of this or that technical, technological
and organizational decision. But, in its turn, eco-
nomical indices of extraction and process of coals
depend a lot on natural and technological factors
and on the market conditions. So, economical fac-
tors can be determinative and secondary during
management of quality of production.
Natural and economical conditions are dominat-
ing for coal quality determination. In addition, level
of mining operations technology significantly influ-
ences economical results. Development of geotech-
nologies creates preconditions for decrease of natu-
ral factors influence level on the coal quality (selec-
tive extraction, improvement of underground trans-
port schemes and so on).
Except of mentioned natural, technological and
economical factors, there are organizational, social,
political and other factors that have an influence on
the quality of coal industry. Quite often, a coal with
lower quality is economically reasonably to extract
under conditions of deficit for fuel in order to pro-
39
vide energy independence and safety of the gov-
ernment in extreme conditions, either because of the
imperfect mechanism of the prices adjustment.
Character feature of the coal industry production
is its single and multipurpose use. In connection
with this, one should differentiate such categories of
coal quality as theoretical, consumer and integral.
Theoretical quality of fossil coals are defined by
aggregate of their objective properties such as petro-
graphic composition, chemical composition, heat
value, physical-mechanical and technological char-
acteristics.
Consumer quality evaluates properties of coal in-
dustry one-sidedly, considering it only from a posi-
tion of concrete consumer, based on the level of
technology and economics. Each enterprise-
consumer is interested in usage of high quality coals
as its own production costs reduce.
Unlike consumer quality, integral quality is de-
fined on the basis of accounting of indices of pro-
ductions that take part in creation of the end prod-
uct. For example, mining, processing (enrichment),
metallurgical, energy and others. The basis of the
integral approach of assessment of the production
quality should be aspiration to receiving the summa-
rized effect from the whole chain of adjacent pro-
ductions, providing thereby minimum of labour and
material costs for creation of the final product and
also rational use of the earth resources.
Optimal quality defines such aggregate of con-
sumer features of coal that provides the most profit-
able indices of the end product taking into account
expenses for extraction, enrichment and processing
of the end product.
Efficiency of coal usage is defined by not only its
composition and properties of organic matters but
also by amount and composition of accompanying
inorganic components that are considered as ballast
and harmful admixtures. They are also a reason of
environment pollution.
Coal after being extracted represents by itself a
mechanical mixture of coal and rock pieces of dif-
ferent sizes and also pieces of intermediate frac-
tions.
Pollution of coal by fractions is conditioned by
technology of its extraction and structure of a coal
seam. Ash content of fractions is different – for coal
it is equal to an internal ash content substantiated by
mineralization of a coal matter. Otherwise, this ash
content is called mother ash content and ranges
from 3 to 15%. Ash content of intermediate frac-
tions makes up 25-45% and is determined by level
of coal saturation with admixtures of host rocks and
products of their destruction. Ash content of a coal
rock ranges in quite wide limits: from 70 to 92%
and is conditioned by level of its saturation with
organic matters.
Presence of mineral admixtures in coals substan-
tiates not only increase of their ash content but also
their density. Coal ash content, i.e. mass or weight
fraction of incombustible remains after burning of a
coal matter is conditioned by mineral admixtures in
coals.
Mineral admixtures have different origin. So, de-
pending on this, they are divided into internal (in-
ternal ash) and external (external ash). The source of
external ash is different salts, coverings of mineral
matters that took place during accumulation of plant
residues in a process of coal creation. The sources
of internal ash are interstratified rocks in a coal
seam and also roof and bottom rocks that is substan-
tiated by applied technologies of coal extraction.
Coal fractions are those that have density not less
than 1500 kg / m3, intermediate fractions have den-
sity of 1500-1800 kg / m3 and natural fractions –
more than 1800 kg / m3.
Separation of rock fractions from coal ones is im-
plemented according to their density difference
(Reference book for coals enrichment). In practice
of coal enrichment, gravitational methods of separa-
tion are applied for these purposes based on the
difference of interaction of separated materials
pieces with liquid medium that have diverse density
and size. Dense-media separation is mostly used for
big classes of coal that is carried out in magnetite
suspensions. For small classes – heavy-media hy-
drocyclones, spiral separators. For sludges (particles
less than 0.5 mm) – flotation is used or hydraulic
classification.
Peculiarity of black coal deposits in Ukraine is a
big stratification depth, low thickness of coal seams
and their complex structure. These factors prede-
termine respectively high prime cost and big ash
content of a rock mass. Depending on these condi-
tions and also taking into account fuel deficit and
social-economical problems of mine regions, factual
ash content of a rock mass ranges in limits of
35-55%. So, based on the mentioned demands of the
consumer to the quality of coal industry, virtually all
gained coal has to be enriched. As the concentrate
yield defines volume of finished products, so its
value considerably influences economical indices of
coal output. With other equal conditions, concen-
trate output decreases with increase of ash content
of enriching coals.
3 CONCLUSIONS
So, based upon the executed analysis, the following
conclusions can be made:
1. Quality of extracted black coals is conditioned
40
by natural properties of fossil coals, mining-
geological conditions and mining-technological
factors of extraction.
2. Black coals of Ukraine’s deposits are not worse
than other world’s deposits by their quality defining
indices, except increased sulphur content.
3 One of the most important factors that define
calorific value and technological suitability of black
coals, is their ash content consisting of internal and
external ash. Internal ash is conditioned by natural
factors that are considered as uncontrollable. Exter-
nal – to mining-technological and economical that
are controllable and partially controllable.
4. Decrease of external ash content is possible by
means of proper extraction technologies and separa-
tion of ballast admixtures from coal at processing
plants. Coal industry of Ukraine has processing
plants with total power increasing modern level of
production output.
5. Enriched coal has higher consumer properties
and even with existing economical conditions and
formed prices, Ukrainian coals can be competitive.
But quality level should be economically substanti-
ated for each kind of coal production.
6. Rational quality is reached with full separation
of polluting rock fractions with concentrates receiv-
ing and ash content being equal to rock mass ash
content that corresponds to the world’s practice
(Pilov 2001, 2002 & Pilova 2002). But due to high
dilapidation of Ukrainian power stations, applica-
tion of such fuel is not rational without their recon-
struction.
7. Prevailing factor of coal extraction economical
indices increase is ash content of raw coals, rational
level of which has to be substantiated taking into
account factors that determine prime cost of coal
production and demands of its consumers. Thus,
rating of raw coals ash content has to be based on
new principles considering not only mining-
geological conditions of extraction but also their
grade composition, following technologies of en-
richment, demands of coal production market.
REFERENCES
Black coal and anthracite for coal-dust burning at thermal
power stations. Technical conditions. 2002. Kiev:
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Eryomin, I.V. & Bronoviec, T.M. 1994. Grade composi-
tion of coals and their rational usage: Reference book.
Moscow: Nedra: 254.
Pilov, P.I., Sharov, A.I. & Pilova, Y.P. 2001. Technologi-
cal and economical model of a coal quality substantia-
tion for energy sector. Mining information-analytical
bulletin, 3: 161-165.
Pilov, P.I. & Pilova, Y.P. 2002. Technological and eco-
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Pilova, Y.P. 2002. Improvement of production economical
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Reference book for coals enrichment. Under edition of
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Blagov, I.S., Kotkin. A.M. & Zarubin, L.S. 2nd edition.
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4
Influence of advance rate of high-output longwalls
on methane abundance of mine workings
M. Illyashov
Concern “Energo”, Donetsk, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Research results focused on increase of reliability and authenticity of output prognosis in
highly productive long faces based upon laws of methane discharge into longwalls with outputs more than
3000 t / day are presented.
1 INTRODUCTION
Experience of designing and mining of longwalls
that have working load of more than 3000 t / day
under conditions of seams thickness equal to 1.8 m
and stratification depth of more than 800 m, has
shown that the results of calculation of expected
methane debit and its distribution along sources of
emission based on the natural methane content, does
not correspond to actual data. It can be explained in
the way that calculation methods, mentioned in
existing regulatory documents, to the great extent,
are based on empirical dependences received in
longwalls that advance with rate of 6 m / day. Usage
of methane abundance prognosis method, based on
such dependences, at high speed of advance can
lead to significant errors.
Provision of high output of a longwall is one of
the main trends of efficiency increase of mining
operations. Achievement of high technical and
economic indexes using combined mining method,
including extraction panel development and retreat
system of mining of longwall with direct-flow
ventilation scheme.
2 CONDUCTION OF RESEARCHES
A fresh air stream is directed into the longwall along
two workings, meanwhile one of the workings is
maintained behind the longwall and the other one is
filled after its advancement. During development of
the extraction panel it is best to drive one conveyor
drift, provide its protection and reuse it during
mining of lower longwall to the dip. Such mining
method satisfies modern requirements of mining
operations safety.
In recent years the author has executed experi-
mental works dedicated to the comparison of actual
methane debits in longwalls with computational
43
data. It is taken into consideration that while choos-
ing research object, in high-output longwalls, venti-
lation schemes with additional fresh air stream
mixed with outgoing air stream are used as a rule,
and also effective methods of complex degasifica-
tion of adjacent seams and worked out areas are
used as well. Methane debit in longwall is the basic
factor that restricts extraction of coal.
Information about actual methane debits in work-
ings is received based upon gas surveys performed
at extraction areas of mine “Krasnoarmeyskaya-
Zapadnaya #1”. This mine is the biggest mine of
Ukraine and it develops single gaseous seam d 4 .
Daily average output of the longwall exceeds
3000 tons, taking into account that several long-
wall’s output reaches 5000-7000 t / day. The mine is
considered to be extremely dangerous according to
methane factor, dangerous by coal dust explosions,
coal, rock and gas outbursts. During mining opera-
tions and increase of the operational depth, absolute
gas abundance of mine is increasing from
193 m3 / min in 1999 up to 296 m3 / min in 2008.
Predicted gas abundance reaches 350 m3 / min in
the end of 2010. With coal’s methane content being
16-20 m3 / t of dry ash-free mass, methane emission
at extraction areas exceeds 45 m3 / min. Meanwhile,
consumption of gaseous mixture and methane
content ware checked in workings and degassing
pipelines with interval of 30 minutes, using standard
methods and devices.
Survey points were located in longwalls 10-
15 meters from ventilation working and in outgoing
air streams of extraction areas, daily average coal
output was being registered during survey time.
Data of methane content and air consumption regis-
tered by automatic control devices were added to
the results analysis.
General average debit of methane at the area
( I area ) was determined as the sum of average
debits during observing time of methane debit in
outgoing ventilation stream of an area ( I area ) and
in degassing gas pipeline ( I deg ). Methane debit that
discharges from worked-out area is calculated
according to the next formula:
I w.a  I area  I st , m3 / min
Average methane debit was compared with debit-
calculated according to natural gas content taking
into account seam’s ash-content and moisture con-
tent. Initial data presented by geological service of
the mine were used for calculations.
Analysis of the results has shown (Table 1, Figu-
re 1) that actual debit of methane in a stope can
significantly differ from the computational one. This
difference increases with rising of rate of coal
(1) production. With production of up to 500 t / day, the
debits virtually coincide. With increase of output up
to 4000 t / day and more, actual debit makes up
about 30% from the calculation debit.

Table 1. Gas balance of extraction.

Methane debit, m3 / min Ratio of
calcula-
actual debit
Names of stopes output At the In a In worked- tion debit
and calcula-
area stope out area in a stope
tion debit
Southern of block #6 470 14.0 4.2 9.8 4.2 1.0
1 southern of block #5 1100 17.9 5.1 12.8 6.2 0.82
6 northern of block #6 1087 18.8 5.3 13.5 6.5 0.82
4 southern of block #3 1400 19.5 4.0 15.5 7.1 0.56
1northern of block # 8 2000 26.0 5.2 25.8 10.9 0.48
2 northern of block #5 2130 29.6 5.3 21.5 11.9 0.45
4 northern of block #5 2500 32.2 4.8 27.4 12.6 0.38
1 stope of block #8 2540 26.6 4.0 23.7 12.8 0.31
2 southern of block #5 3000 40.1 4.8 35.3 13.4 0.36
4 northern of block #2 3000 34.3 4.1 30.2 12.7 0.32
2 southern of block #2 3480 35.5 4.2 31.3 13.8 0.30
3 southern block #3 3500 33.9 4.0 29.9 13.6 0.29
3 northern of block #5 3970 40.2 4.1 36.1 14.0 0.29

45

40

35 lw.a = 0.135A 0.67

R2 = 0.93
30
Debit, m³ / min

25

20

15

10 lav = 4.7 m³ / min

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Methane debit in a stope Output, t / day
Methane debit in worked-out area

Figure 1. Dependence of methane debit in a stope on coal production rate.

44
 16

14

12
Debit, m³ / min

10

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Factual methane debit Output, t / day
Calculation methane debit

Figure 2. Dependence of methane distribution in workings on coal production rate.

Increase of coal production rate is followed by
methane emission rise from adjacent seams and gas-
bearing rocks as a power function, while absolute
methane debit in a stope virtually does not change,
remaining at level of 4.7 m3 / min (Figure 2).With that
relative debit decreases from 13.5 down to 1.7 m3 / t.
Residual methane content of coal that is trans-
ferred outside of the stope is calculated according to
the following formula:
100  W  Аash  0 ,6 
Х0  18.3 V daf ,
100  
where W  3 % – moisture content of coal;
Аash  15 % – ash content of coal; V daf  30 % –
volatile matter content
100  3  15
Х0  18.3  30  0 ,6  2.2 m3 / t
100
Having natural methane content of coal equal
to Х  17 m3 / t in boundaries of the working area,
the following amount of methane should discharge
from an extracted seam:
q seam  1  k ex    Х  Х 0  ,
where k ex  0.05 – coefficient of exploitation losses
that take into account part of methane discharged
from coal in worked-out area
q seam  1  0.05   17  2.2   15.5 m3 / t
That 1.15-2.1 times greater than actual number at
output of 500 and 4000 t / day correspondingly.
First value is within the limits of error prognosis.
The second value is an evidence of an obvious error
in either determination of initial gas content of coal
in its zone of extraction or in residual gas content
outside of the working area. An error in both pa-
rameters is not excluded though.
Decrease of initial gas content can be explained
by flowing of liberated methane from off-loaded
(2) face area of the seam into worked-out area through
cracks in roof. The researches performed by the
scientists of various countries and approved by the
experience of mining operations, have allowed to
determine that roof movement essentially decreases
during increase of stope advance speed down to 4-5
m/day, its further increase virtually does not influ-
ence the movements. Fast longwall advance leads to
more intensive movement of roof but with that its
subsidence decreases, fracturing in rocks develops
slower, rocks deform less, due to that fact sustain-
ability of exposed roof increases and conditions of
its management improve.
Increasing of longwall advancement from 4-5 to
10-12 m / day virtually does not influence roof’s
(3) subsidence.
In case of a high advance speed of the longwall
(more than 200 m / month) the roof rocks do not
break in face area. Increase in face advance rate
substantiates decrease of fracturing, face slip in face
area of the seam and decrease of roof movements,
increase of step of primary and secondary roof

45
cavings, but it can contribute to accumulation of
potential energy of reversible deformation in host
rocks. With all that, accumulated energy can mani-
fest itself during the rocks breakage with dynamic
effect.
Presence of such phenomenon is proved experi-
mentally. Radioactive gas (crypton-85) injected into a
seam on a distance of 35 meters ahead of the long-
wall, was found in check boreholes within 10 meters
along the strike of the seam at the 5th meter above the
gas injection place. When the face advances by the
distance of 18 meters from the injection place, radio-
active gas used to be found in air leaks through
worked-out area. Flow of methane through cracks in
roof rocks above the longwall was found as well by
means of boreholes drilling from this working that
cross only immediate roof that has thickness 6 meters.
Methane was discharged along the boreholes by
means of natural pressure with debit of 0.27 l / min
which increased up to 5.1 l / min after the shearer’s
passing.
Process of methane discharge needs to be care-
fully explored. Decrease in methane discharge from
a mined seam depends not only on face advance
rate, seam thickness and mechanical features of roof
rocks, but also on the effectiveness of roof’s gas
drainage by boreholes. Exploration of this process is
important because an error in methane distribution
that discharges from mined seam between the stope
and worked-out area does not only decrease admis-
sible coal production rates depending on gas factor
46
but also decreases requirements for worked-out
area’s gas drainage.
3 CONCLUSIONS
Increase of output in the stopes reduces staying time
of the broken-down coal in the boundaries of stope
and that is why residual methane content determina-
tion method needs to be specified as well.
Performed researches allow to conclude that an
existing method of methane abundance prognosis is
overstated and this does not allow to use it with the
output more than 1000 t / day. Under such condi-
tions it is reasonably to determine expected methane
debit in designed longwalls based upon actual debit
during stoping in comparable mining-geological and
mining-technical conditions.
Because of this, it is logical to correct working
standards using which it is prescribed to determine
actual methane debit in a longwall “on a distance of
15-20 meters from a longwall”, because methane
flows to this area not only from a longwall but also
from a part of a worked-out area. Debit of methane
that flows into a longwall, is suggested to measure
in this working on a distance of 10-15 meters from a
ventilation working. This will allow to increase
safety and reliability of methane abundance progno-
sis, and to optimize complex of actions that prevents
gas danger, that, in general, will promote increase of
effectiveness and safety of mining operations.
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Strength calculations of block elements

of room-and-pillar mining under permafrost conditions

V. Buzilo, T. Savelieva & V. Saveliev

National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: The paper covers the results of rheological properties of gypsum under natural conditions of
permafrost and stress-and-strain conditions of the rocks of room’s roof in gypsum quarries depending upon
the thickness of the roof. The recommendations concerning room and pillar parameters are given.

1 INTRODUCTION avoid the effect of mining process on the research

The research of both strength and rheological char-
acteristics of rocks under specific mining and geo-
logical conditions helps to determine optimum
dimensions of rooms and pillars for long-time
strength.
Rheological properties of rocks are one of the
most important factors that determine stress-and-
strain conditions of rock massif to develop under-
ground workings. Mining pressure in underground
constructions, time effect on underground workings
roof stability, displacement of rock mass while
mining, etc. are the results of changing of mechani-
cal properties of rocks connected with their
rheological properties.
Rocks of Olekminsk deposit (Yakutia, Russian
Federation) are situated in permafrost zone.
Rheological properties of the gypsum deposits have
not been studied yet. The most important is the
research of rheological properties of frozen gypsum.
It is known that ice is very creepy. One can suggest
that frozen gypsum has the same properties under
sufficient ice content.
Thus, the research of rheological properties of
frozen gypsum is rather important to substantiate
parameters of rooms and pillars.
2 STUDYING OF THE RHEOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES OF GYPSUM
As the effect of positive temperatures changes,
rheological properties of rocks testings were per-
formed under natural conditions of quarry. In order
to do that, one of the quarry rooms was used as a
research laboratory. The temperature in the room
was three degrees below zero Centigrade. The
laboratory was located in such a way in order to
results.
Cores were selected from monolith. Cores were
prepared manually. Tests were performed on spring-
controlled stands. Samples were loaded using hy-
draulic jack. Jack pressure was measured with the
help of manometer. Deformation was determined by
means of clock indicators.
Before creep tests the strength of gypsum as for
uniaxial compression was determined. The informa-
tion is required for preliminary choice of loads on the
sample (Erzhanov 1964). Fracture load was 110 МPа.
15 samples were taken for rheological tests. Three
similar samples were under each load. Value of the
loads was 0.3; 0.4; 0.5; 0.7; 0.85; 0.95 of fracture
value. Rock creep tests lasted for 150 days. Time
diagrams of deformation under constant load that is
creep curves were developed on the basis of the data
(Figure 1).
Creep curves have three specific areas: initial
curvilinear area belonging to non-stationary creep;
rectilinear area called stationary creep, and terminal
area of curves belonging to progressive creep which
results in fracture.
Rheological tests of frozen gypsum show that it
has noticeable creep under loads being more than
0.4 of fracture one. If load was 0.3 of fracture the
deformation would stop after 20 days and creep
would not be available. The results give the ability
to make the conclusion. Strength margin equal to
three may be taken if durable strength of construc-
tion and complete elimination of gypsum creep are
required.
If loads are 0.5 to 0.85 of fracture one, then creep
rate is not important and irreversible deformations
of pillars grow slowly. If it is required to keep the
construction stability during several decades then
strength margin can be decreased up to two. In this
case the pillars will deform themselves. Their height

47
will be decreased as a result of plastic deformation sults. The deformation value coincides rather accu-
but fracture will not take place. Pillars will keep rately if load is 0.3  destr and if loads are more than
their carrying capability. 0.85  destr . If loads are within 0.4  destr and
0.7  destr calculated deformation value is some
ct
fra
-5

35
c t higher. As it increases strength margin, one may say
10

t fra
frac
95
0. 0.85 0.7 that the calculation method reflects gypsum creep
30
adequately.
Relative deformation,

25 Obtained values of relative deformations were

fract
0.5 used to determine absolute deformation of pillars
20
with given height after 50 and 100 years. The results
fract
are in the Table 1.
15 0.4
0.3 fract
10 Table 1. Relative and absolute deformations of pillars
under durable loads in gypsum quarry.
5
Load in 50 Years 100 Years
parts of
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 fracture Relative Absolute Relative Abso-
Time, hours one deforma- deforma- deforma- lute
tion, tion, mm tion, defor-
Figure 1. Curves of Gypsum Creep Е·10-5 Е·10-5 mation,
Experimental Curves; mm
Design Curves. 0.3 80.5 6.4 99.4 8.0
0.5 244.7 19.6 328.3 26.4
To determine absolute deformation of pillars in a 0.7 517.8 41.4 697.5 56.0
long time the experimental data concerning gypsum
creep are shown as a functional relation.
For sedimentary rocks congenital linear creep
with sufficient degree of accuracy is described by an 3 EFFECT OF ROOF THICKNESS
equation where creep memory function is expressed ON STRESS IN IT
as exponential function which reflects initial stage
It is not difficult to determine dimensions of inter-
of the rock creep process completely (Erzhanov
chamber pillars while substantiating room parame-
1964):
ters. Results of numerous research show that simple

 t     0 1 
 calculation methods are expedient for gypsum
t1   
 
 1
where  (  0 ) is the sample of deformation under
rapid load up to stress value;  and  are the
equation parameters (rheological characteristics of
rock).
To determine  and  parameters calculation
method from (Guidelines 1972) was used. Initial
data are:
• the value of initial deformation  (  0 ) for
t 0;
• deformation period;
• those corresponding to chosen deformation pe-
riods.
Creep curves for the loads under which experi-
mental curves were obtained according to calcula-
tions of relative axial deformations were developed.
The results are shown in Figure1.
Comparison of design data and results of natural
research demonstrate good coincidence of the re-
(1)
 deposits (Melnikov 1964 & Methods 1962).
It is much more difficult to determine maximum
allowable room distance. The issues are highlighted
completely in construction standards and regulations
where room roof is considered as a slab with equally
distributed load. Gypsum quarries don’t have “false
roof”. Roof is rock layers with different strength and
elastic properties. There is some kind of tie between
layers that is rocks transit into each other gradually.
Listed peculiarities should be taken into account to
calculate strength of room distance.
If roof rocks are weaker than gypsum then the
gypsum ceiling is left in the roof, if it is necessary to
test strength of the ceiling.
Finite element method (Zienkiewicz & Taylor
2000) is used to calculate ceiling stresses if room
distance in gypsum quarry is constant and roof
thickness is 1, 2 and 3 m. The calculations are
required to determine effect of roof thickness on
stress in it.
The results show that if roof thickness increases,

48
the stresses in it increase too. Finite element method was used to calculate
Calculation method of Privarnikov-Philippov stresses in the construction. The strength margin
(Philippov 1979) was used for similar conditions. equal to three is determined to correspond to 4m
Calculation results on two methods are in the Table 2. pillar width, 8 m room distance, and 1 m thickness
Stress values in the ceiling calculated according of gypsum ceiling.
to the two methods may be considered as equal
ones. The data are used to obtain the dependence of Table 3. Elastic characteristics of gypsum and rocks of
tension stresses in ceiling depending upon its thick- Olekminsk deposit.
ness variation (Figure 2). Rocks Elastic modulus, Poisson ratio
4
Table 2. Results of ceiling stress calculations. E 10 МPа
Gypsum 38 0.7
Method Tension stresses (МPа) in room roof Dolomite 50 0.8
is ceiling thickness is Argillite 11 0.30
1m 2m 3m Siltstone 20 0.13
FEM 5.91 8.90 9.10
Privarnikov- Finite element method helped to take into consid-
Philippov 6.17 7.05 8.23 eration the effect of rock stratification on stressed
state of pillars and room roof. Besides, the method
Following conclusions are possible. Usually, the allows determining stresses around rooms having
ceiling is considered as a support beam or a slab complicated forms (Figure 3).
loaded with equally distributed load. In this case
stresses decrease if thickness increases. Actually x , MPa 10 5 0 5 10 x , MPa
stratified medium with layers tied is available in
room roof. The analogy with support beam is not
Dolomite
expedient. Besides if roof thickness increases, the
4

height of room decreases, and it results in stress

Gypsum
increase in roof.
2

Dolomite
4

10
Siltstone
2

2 Argillith
2
Ceiling Stress,

8 y ,MPa
50
1
30

Gypsum
8

10
6
7

4 8 4
Dolomite
2

0 1 2 3
Ceiling Thickness, m Gypsum
2

Figure 2. Dependence of tension stresses in room roof on

ceiling thickness: 1 – on FEM; 2 – on Privarnikov-Philip- Figure 3. Design diagram and stress epures in roof and
pov method. pillar rooms.

4 SUBSTANTIATING DIMENSIONS 5 CONCLUSIONS

OF ROOM AND PILLARS
The results were used to calculate strength of inter-
chamber pillars and room distance of gypsum de-
posit by the finite element method.
Design values of compressive stresses within pil-
lars and tension stresses within distance center were
compared with allowable stresses as for compres-
sion and tension for rock. Elastic characteristics of
rock taken for calculations are in the Table 3.
The research helps to come to the conclusions. The
research of rheological properties of frozen gypsum
shows that under 0.35-0.85 loads of fracture one the
rate of stable creep is not important. In 50 years the
absolute pillar deformation will be 41 mm if load is
0.7 of fracture one. Creep stops in 15-20 days if
loads are less than 0.35 of fracture one. In 100 years
absolute deformation of pillars will be 26 mm as a
result of stable creep under load equal to 0.5 of

49
fracture one. Strength margin can be equal to three
if it is required to have durable strength of construc-
tion and to avoid gypsum creep completely. Thus
recommended parameters of rooms are: width of
pillars is 4m, room distance is 8m, and thickness of
gypsum ceiling within the roof is 1m. Using the
parameters of rooms for Olekminsk deposit helped
to decrease gypsum losses by 30%.
REFERENCES
Erzhanov, Zh. S. 1964. The Theory of Creep of Rocks and
its Applications. Alma-Ata: Nauka.
Guidelines on Laboratory Tests of Plastic Properties of
50
Rocks. 1972. Leningrad.
Melnikov, Е.А. 1964. Methods of Determination of Tight
Dimensions of Interchamber Pillars. Moscow: Institute
of Scientific Information.
Methods to Determine Dimensions of Support Pillars and
Ceilings. 1962. Moscow: Publishing House of AS of the
USSR.
Zienkiewicz, O.C. & Taylor, R.L. 2000. Finite Element
Method: Volume 1 – The Basis. London: Butterworth
Heinemann.
Zienkiewicz, O.C. & Taylor, R.L. 2000. Finite Element
Method: Volume 2 – Solid Mechanics. London: Butter-
worth Heinemann.
Philippov, N.А. 1979. As for Calculations of Stress-and-
strain Conditions of Stratified Rock Massif. Physi-
cotechnical Problems of Mining. Novosibirsk: Nauka.
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Dependence of effectiveness of development

of mining operations on processibility
of coal seams deposits with thickness of 1.2 m

A. Kuz’menko & V. Pochepov

National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
V. Ryabychev
Eastern-Ukrainian National University of V. Dal’, Anthracite, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: Questions of effective application of high-efficient longwall equipment in difficult mining-

geological conditions of Donbass on seams with thickness up to 1.2 m depending on processability of devel-
opment of deposits in mine field are considered and criteria of estimation by means of coefficients of proc-
essability and use of means of coal extraction mechanization are proposed.

1 INTRODUCTION “the Red Partisan” where daily average output from

Donetsk coal basin of Ukraine is characterized by
difficult mining-geological conditions: low thick-
ness of coal seams, big mining depth, high gas
abundance, propensity of many seams to sudden
outbursts of coal and gas, weak country rocks.
Mining operations are conducted at 25 mines
(11.5%) at depths of 1000-1300 meters. Mining
conditions at the reached depths are rather complex.
Combination of mining-geological negative factors
demands improvement of exploration, development
and extraction technologies.
Thickness of mined coal seams is 0.65-2.39 m,
seams with thickness of 1.0-1.5 m are prevailing.
Increase of average thickness of mined seams is
caused by increase in volumes of wall rocks cutting
on seams with thickness less than 1.0 m, and, as a
consequence, by increase of ash content of extracted
coal. Coal refers to the class of humite and some-
times contains sapropelic-humus interlayers.
Mudstones are deposited in a roof, and sometimes
siltstones, sandstones, rarely limestone are as well.
The bottom of coal seams is presented by mud-
stones and siltstones. Coefficient of working coal-
presence of a productive strata, in average, makes
up 0.77.
At the present time, achieved high face outputs
are related to mining of coal seams under favorable
mining-geological conditions on mines of Donbass
and in other coal basins of the world. An average
level of mechanisation of stopings makes up about
65.8%, reaching 100% at some mines. High face
output is reached on mines “Krasnoarmejskaja-
Western”, “Krasnolimanskaya”, “of Zasyad’ko”,
one face reaches 3-5 thousand tons, and daily ad-
vancing equal to 8-12 m.
2 PROBLEMS
Majority of the Donbass underground mines
equipped with mechanized complexes, operate in
hard mining and geological conditions. It leads to
big delays and loss of working time. Expenses for
purchases of complexes turn out to be not reason-
able because of the incompatibility of mining-
geological conditions to technical requirements of
the given mechanisms. It is hard to achieve high
results as the coal reserves do not correspond to the
technology which is used by the mechanized com-
plexes.
The task of stable and high efficient output is
polyfactorial and cannot be solved by means of
taking separate actions focused on liquidation of
consequences of conditions changing especially
change of face equipment in one extraction panel.
A question of coal seams suitability for extraction
by high efficient mechanized complexes is emerg-
ing and there is also a question of whether these
seams are ready to be extracted.
3 ANALYSIS OF RESEARCHES
AND PUBLICATIONS
In the work, the authors divide reserves of an ex-
traction panel into categories and groups by stratifi-
cation conditions of coal seams that judging by their

51
thickness can be applied in conditions of Donbass,
but judging by the conditions of geological phe-
nomena and readiness of the reserves for the begin-
ning of the extraction, such assessment is quite
acceptable.
First of all, it is necessary to consider structural
changes in mother rocks that can be encountered in
mining extracted area during stoping. Geologic
phenomena are related to such structural changes that
need correction of the technology or performance of
actions to bring the massif in accordance with techni-
cal conditions of implementation of mechanization
means. Questions concerning readiness of the re-
serves for the stoping contain a whole complex of
mining operations. Among them: drivage of extrac-
tion drifts, face entry and assembly chambers, instal-
lation of the equipment and transport.
These are the important components of a common
system of a longwall functionality. But in order to
provide high face output it is necessary to consider
rock massif condition, its properties and process of
formation of loads on a face support and support of
extraction openings. Also possibility of immediate
roof to collapse during exposure, inclination of the
seams to geodynamical phenomena and coal to self-
ignition.
For rational disposition of development openings
it is desired to know the stress state of the tectonic
block and orientation of horizontal stresses. At
parallel disposition of extraction openings with
respect to horizontal component of stresses, the
costs for opening’s maintenance decrease by 1.5-
2.0 times (Baranov 2006 & Zabrodin 1981).
Given approach to planning of mining operations
development is acceptable at the initial mining of a
part of a mine field under conditions of already
accepted project solutions, the awareness of the
stress field location allows to choose density of
support installation and predict costs for the extrac-
tion openings maintenance.
Analysis of structural composition of the host
rocks massif and its change during the mining of the
extraction panel is the basis when choosing set of
face equipment based upon the criterion of the
minimal resistance of a section of a mechanized
support. Given criterion is established according to
the weight coefficient of the roof taking into ac-
count areas with changes of structure of the host
rocks and advance rate of the face. It is established
that the face advance rate and structure of the host
rocks have a significant influence on the rocks
dislocation mechanism and on the character of load
formation on the support elements.
There is a known method of maximum longwall
output in which stability of the roof in the zone of
the shearer’s cutting depends on its width of cut
52
(Baranov 2006). Depending on the readiness degree
of the deposits for mining, there are four groups
which they are divided into: highly producible,
producible, low producible and non-producible.
Application of highly productive face mechanized
complexes for the last group of the deposits is not
rational because it is unreal to gain high longwall
output in this case. Presence of zonality in structure
of the host rocks of the Donetsk basin indicates on
the third group of the deposits where it is necessary
to carry out measures directed to provision of the
deposits produceability.
Taking into account possible variants of zonality
combination in structure of the host rocks, per-
formed measures should provide acceptable mining
conditions for effective application of the face
equipment during the whole process of the extrac-
tion panel mining.
4 RESULTS OF THE RESEARCHES
Effective application of the stoping technology
intensification under mining-geological conditions
on the big stratification depths is constricted by
natural and anthropogenic formations of the host
rocks structures. Classification of the structural
massif changes zones is proposed for the performed
measures focused on stabilization of the rocks in
longwalls (Figure 1).
The basic formations of the natural character are
the low-amplitude geological phenomena, zones of
intensive fracturing and dynamic rocks displace-
ments, lithologic differences and their thickness
changes, and also zones of deep faults with possible
water rupture into mine workings. The anthropo-
genic formations are the zones of lithological differ-
ences layering, dynamic rocks displacements, un-
controlled rocks cavings and heaving of the rocks.
Influence of these factors is displayed as a bottom
heaving and deformation of the openings, rocks
cavings into the working area of the face, difficul-
ties in supporting the longwall’s abutment with the
stopes, load increase on the support’s elements.
Effectiveness of the technology of highly-
mechanized stopes is determined by the machine
time coefficient, maintenance of the stopes without
repairs and by the presence of local control of the
host rocks massif condition with timely implemen-
tation of planned preventive measures. Considering
an extraction panel as a solid object, there are four
zones that can be distinguished: substitution of
lithologic differences, liquidation of the water
ruptures in fractured massifs and deep faults, and
also sudden loads on the support during hanging of
thick and hard rock layers.
 Zones of structural changes of host
rocks massif
Natural formations Anthropogenic formations
Low-amplitude phenomena
Layering of lithologic differences
Intensive fracturing
Dynamic displacements of rocks
Substitution of lithologic
differences
Thickness change of lithologic Uncontrolled rocks caving
differences
Deep faults with ruptures of water Uncontrolled rocks heaving
Figure 1. Classification of the zones of structural changes
of host rocks massif.
Each of these zones has its peculiarities and re-
quires extra resources and equipment for its success-
ful overcoming. Zones with various structure of the
host rocks massif differ by the character of rock
pressure manifestation. Given feature becomes
obvious during coal extraction by the highly mecha-
nized face complexes which can move along the
massif with quite high speed of the daily advance.
In order to provide stable face output and effec-
tive coal extraction it is necessary to establish pro-
duceability of the deposits in extraction panel and
their correspondence to technical conditions of
mechanization means. Such approach will allow to
preliminarily define list of measures focused on
increase of effectiveness and rationality of their
Figure 2. Design diagram for determination of deposits produceability in extraction panel.
Each of the zones is characterized by area in
which it is necessary to carry out measures that are
differ in technology and in duration time of the
influence on the massif. Taking constant longwall
length as an evaluation parameter of the influence
on technological processes, we can establish length
of the zone along direction of the face advance. This
is a quite acceptable admission as even small area at
a separate section of the longwall leads to general
53
implementation in concrete zones of structural
changes. Length of the zones and their possible
distribution area in massif, type of lithologic differ-
ences and their thickness are determined during the
stage of designing of mining-geological chart of the
extraction panel. Physical-mechanical properties of
the host rocks are defined, stability of the immediate
roof and bottom, possible water inflows and gas
discharge into mine workings.
Disposition of cracks in a massif and their orien-
tation according to the plane of a face are deter-
mined. During study of given factors it is necessary
to consider all stratigraphy of rock massif in order to
take into account mechanism of rock pressure for-
mation. Level of credibility of the received initial
information is sufficient for forecast of the possible
rock pressure manifestation as when using pillar
mining method the deposits are contoured by mine
workings. Qualitative and quantitative indices are
defined in order to describe condition of the coal.
Considering geomechanical task as the defining
effectiveness of the mechanized face equipment
application, it is necessary to provide produceability
of the deposits by means of measures implementa-
tion in zones and their distribution along an extrac-
tion panel taking into account the time for their
realization.
Design diagram for determination of deposits
produceability in extraction panel is shown on
Figure 2.
delay in the face advance.
Quantity of additional measures depends on the
complexity of the geomechanical characteristics
change and on the technical conditions of the
mechanized complexes application.
For influence evaluation of the complicating fac-
tors on the application effectiveness of mechanized
complexes it is suggested to introduce coefficient of
deposits produceability (k prod ) which shows the
volume ratio of the deposits that are deposited under
mining-geological conditions out of limits of a
complex technical conditions to general quantity of
coal reserves in extraction field.
Taking into account consequence of passing of
zones with different production readiness of depos-
its, produceability coefficient can be presented as a
product of coefficients of various produceability
n
ktech   ki , (1)
i n
where k і – coefficient of technological complexity
of i zone, in which it is necessary to implement the
measures; n – number of zones in extraction panel
in which it is necessary to implement the measures.
Coefficient of technological complexity of i zone
expresses ratio of general costs for implementation
of measures directed to improvement of geome-
chanical characteristics of the host rocks to the level
of produceability of the deposits, to general costs for
the coal mining, which meet technical conditions of
the complex based on the length of the extraction
panel.
Зi li
ki  , (2)
Зtech  ltech
where З i – costs per one meter of the longwall ad-
vance for implementation of the measures directed to
improvement of geomechanical characteristics of the
host rocks to the technological conditions of the
complex, UAH; l i – length of the zone in which the
measures should be implemented, m; З tech – costs per
one meter of longwall advance during coal extraction
under technological conditions, UAH; l tech – length of
the extraction panel with mining-geological condi-
tions which meet the technological conditions of the
complex, m.
Evaluation of the coefficient of deposits produce-
ability of coal in an extraction panel is not enough
to provide effectiveness of high performance
mechanized complexes application. The coefficient
does not express the time for the mining of deposits
and the degree of the usage of resource by the
mining equipment and its correspondence to the
anthropogenic environment of mine workings.
Zonality of mining-geological conditions and
physical-mechanical properties of a rock massif
necessitates the correction of technological proc-
esses and consumption of different volume of the
shearer’s resources, conveyors, pump station and so
on. Thus, time of the deposits extraction in different
zones without implementation of measures directed
to improvement of deposits to technological condi-
tions will differ from a rated time.
54
So the effectiveness of usage of the mechanized
complex resource is proposed to evaluate also with
coefficient of service life usage during extraction of
coal in the mine field (panel). With zonal structure
of the rock massif the coefficient of service life can
be expressed as a ratio of deposits mining time to
general time of expenditure of service lives in
separate components of the complex (shearer, face
conveyor, pump station and so on), it has the fol-
lowing formula
 tt.d.
i
kt  m
, (3)
 tm
j
where t t.d. – deposits mining time in an extraction
field of i zone of host rocks structure with n number
of zones, hour; t m – time of service life of j’s com-
ponent of mechanized complex with general quan-
tity m, hour.
The expenditure of the service life of mechanized
complex is influenced not only by the length of
extraction panel, but the length of a longwall as
well, i.e. some area index that defined productivity
of a stope in unit time. Therefore, with zonal struc-
ture of host rocks these two indexes should be used
for objective assessment of effectiveness of high
performance complex application. In the aggregate
they characterize rightness of making a technologi-
cal decision and selection of mechanization means
in extraction field. Technological measures of
improvement of host rocks to the level of corre-
sponding technical conditions of the mechanization
means functioning are considered, also their conse-
quence and time of implementation.
On the basis of above stated information, coal de-
posits in an extraction field are proposed to be con-
sidered producible under condition when coefficient
of produceability k prod. > 0.85 and coefficient of
service life usage of mechanized complex k m > 0.90.
Given admissions are accepted based on the data
about probable error of initial information concern-
ing mining-geological conditions of mining process.
When defining the coefficient of service life us-
age of the mechanized complex it is necessary to
consider various value of service life for coal shear-
ers, conveyors and mechanized support. Probably to
equalize service life of the components, for exam-
ple, sections of mechanized support, it will be
necessary to change a face conveyor several times
or a coal shearer in which service life depletes much
earlier. Thus, expenses for packaging of the face
complex will be increasing to all reserves but it will
have discount cost for the left reserves.
 Therefore, to determine produceability of an ex-
traction panel reserves it is necessary to develop
classification of technological principles of rock
massif state management during its structure chang-
ing.
It is known, that technological parameters of stop-
ing significantly influence the stress-strain state of
the rocks, formation of load on the support elements
and manifestation of rock pressure in mine work-
ings. Length of longwall, its rate of advance in unit
time define condition of stopes and also character of
rock cavings in worked-out area. This instrument of
regulation of rock massif condition can be effec-
tively applied at substitution of lithologic differ-
ences and their thicknesses change because the
influence area embraces a considerable value of host
rocks.
Presence of zones of intensive fracturing and low-
amplitude faults in an extraction panel is a constrict-
ing factor during intensive extraction of coal seam,
although their stress state can be regulated by tech-
nological parameters under definite circumstances:
shearer’s width of cut, density of support installa-
tion and its yield.
Zone of rocks crashing which is squeezed be-
tween immovable tectonic blocks has sufficient
cohesion force in order to not fall with a small
exposure area of immediate roof rocks. At the same
time a long period of face presence in this zone
leads to redistribution of stresses around the stope
and can lead to rocks fall and blockage of working
area. It is essentially especially for abutment of
longwall with stopes where the increased concentra-
tion of stresses takes place. Quite different character
of rock pressure manifestation takes place with
presence of humidity that leads to plastic state of
massif in the zone of intensive fracturing. With
presence of collector connection with water-bearing
levels in considered zone, water comes into mine
workings as drops or water jets. Depending on place
55
and amount of water income into mine workings,
there can be applied both measures designed for
water drainage from a working zone and controlled
parameters of stope disposition.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Effectiveness of mining operations development
depends on the orientation of development workings
with respect to force field of stresses of the Earth at
a concrete area of a mine field and on the produce-
ability of reserves for stoping.
With zonal structure of host rocks, it is necessary
to introduce produceability coefficient of extraction
panel and coefficient of service life usage of face
mechanized complex in order to objectively evalu-
ate effectiveness of high performance complex
application. In total they characterize rightness of
technological decision acceptance and selection of
means of mechanization in an extraction field.
Coal reserves in an extraction field are considered
to be producible when coefficient of produceability
is k prod. > 0.85 and the coefficient of service life
usage of face mechanized complex is k t > 0.90. At
this, technological measures designed for improve-
ment of host rocks to technical conditions of func-
tioning of mechanization means, their consequence
and time of implementation are taken into account.
REFERENCES
Baranov, S.G., Rozenbaum, M.A. & Khapsirokov, V.B.
2006. Evaluation of readiness of extraction areas for
mining with high productive stopes. Nedelia gorniaka,
12: 142-145.
Zabrodin, V.Y. 1981. System analysis of disjunctives.
Moscow: Nauka: 200.
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Safe electric power transmission for

explosive underground mines

A. Ivanov & I. Kirillov

National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: New system of electric power transmission for explosive underground mines is considered.
The system includes equipotential current-carrying paths which advanced disabling in the case of emergency
state of the line is provided. Processes in the proposed power transmission system caused by open faults,
short circuits and current leakage occurrence are described. Obtained relationships show possibility and ways
of sparking-proof power transmission enhancement. Investigations made it possible to develop specialized
units for monitoring of processes faults occurence. Reserves of the transmitted power rise in the suggested
system were revealed and that was confirmed by testing. The obtained results indicate possibility to imple-
ment the system in powerful DC and AC networks for increase of their safety in explosive environment.

1 INTRODUCTION parallel circuits and their mutual coupling should be

Earlier research and experiments in relation to
spark-proof properties of parallel paths of trolley
locomotive current collecting devices showed pos-
sibility of safe breakage of the shunting power
transmission lines feeding load of quite high power
(Ivanov 1995). This idea had been taken as a basis
of new devices providing sparking suppression at
current collection of trolley mine locomotives
(Ivanov 2000). The flame- and sparking-proof prop-
erties of the device are provided by means of deter-
mination of the current in the parallel paths distribu-
tion and disabling the power consumers when this
distribution becomes uneven. The uneven distribu-
tion serves as a criterion of the state preceding one
more path breakage. As a result of the investiga-
tions, the general current distribution behavior was
determined and the devices effectiveness was sub-
stantiated.
The above mentioned method provides use of
electricity in enhanced explosive conditions may be
applied for development of new electric power
transmission systems of increased power for such
conditions including spark-proof systems of electric
power supply.
2 ENERGY LIBERATED
AT CONDUCTOR BREAK
As compared to the devices providing sparking
suppression at current collection of trolley mine
locomotives, in this case, much greater length of the
taken into consideration. This coupling can be of
greater importance because of greater length and
smaller distance between the current carrying con-
ductors.
Taking into account that breaking of one of the
parallel branches does not stipulate changes in the
paths, being at different potential, processes arising
at the line break may be analyzed using an equiva-
lent circuit for unipotential branches (Figure 1). The
capacitor voltages caused by some unbalance of the
line actual parameters are negligible. The line longi-
tudinal per unit capacity is rather small. Ignoring the
indicated parameters the equivalent circuit becomes
as it is shown in Figure 2. Maximum energy liber-
ated in electric discharge that develops in the place
of the branch breakage is assessed by maximum
voltage across the capacitor C after the switch of
S break. Providing that the load current I does not
vary at one of the branches break, i.e. I  const .
This is explained by the fact that breakage of a par-
allel path in the considered circuit in the presence of
another operating path, the line resistance variation
is very small and does not affect the load current.
A set of equations describing processes in the
line:
i1  i2  I
d i1 d i2
Ri1  L M  Ri 2 
dt dt
, (1)
d i2 d i1
L M  uc
dt dt

57
where L and R – inductance and resistance of one
branch, M – mutual inductance of current carrying
line conductors.
Figure 1. Equivalent circuit for unipotential parallel
branches.
The energy dissipating in the discharge can be
considerably less than the determined capacitance
maximum energy, as far as zero, if the protection
comes into action previously the full break of one of
the conductors. This is explained by the fact that the
full break is preceded with redistribution of the cur-
rent between the parallel branches.
It follows from equation (5) that the more coeffi-
cient of mutual inductance of the line parallel con-
ductors the less is the released energy that dissipates
in the discharge at breaking of one of the line con-
ductors.
Therefore, to reduce the released energy it is nec-
essary to use cables that have greater mutual-
inductance coupling of the conductors. The effect
can be promoted with shielding of the unipotential
parallel conductor groups.

3 CLOSING THE CONDUCTORS

Figure 2. Equivalent circuit for assessment of energy liber-
ated in the discharge. Analyzing processes at closing in the circuits of the
transmission line with parallel branches the cases of
With account of initial conditions closing the conductors of unipotential paths, closing
i1 0   i2 0   I / 2 , the system solution for i2 and
the conductors that have different potentials and the
line output terminals should be considered.
uc is With respect to danger of explosive sparking,


closing of the unipotential conductors is safe be-
i2  I exp  R  t
2 2L  M cos t  (2)
cause of very small voltage between the points to be
connected. This voltage can appear only due to in-
R
2 L  M sint significant unbalance of these conductors. But, fol-
lowing these conductors connection, the line break
uc  IR1  expt  in any point between the point of closing and the
, (3) load does not bring to variation of current distribu-
 cost  sint   1 / 2 RC  /   tion in the circuit part between the power source and
where this point and can not be detected from the initial
point of the line. On this reason, the line should be
R disabled when closing of unipotential conductors in
 ,
2L  M  any point occurs.
Such possibility will be provided if closing the
parallel conductors at any point causes their current
1 R2
  . distribution variation.
2C L  M  4L  M 

Ignoring the damping, we find that the maximum

voltage across the capacitor is

LM
U cmax  I . (4)
2C

At that the energy stored in the capacitor is equal

Figure 3. Circuit providing current redistribution under
to the maximum energy that can be released in the conductors connection.
electric discharge comes to
CU c2max LM 2 The transmission line circuit meeting the re-
A  I . (5) quirements is shown in Figure 3. Its particular fea-
2 4

58
ture is availability of identical resistors R1 and R2 ,
being of small value, additionally introduced into
the branches, the first at the beginning and the sec-
ond at the end of the line. In this case, connection of
the parallel conductors in any intermediate point
along the section l causes the currents redistribu-
tion that can be revealed by comparison the voltage
drops in the resistors R .
The described circuit has high sensitivity rela-
tively to approaching between unipotential conduc-
tors but is ineffective at short circuits between the
line conductors of opposite polarity and in the case
of small but unsafe leakage currents in the line.
4 LEAKAGE AND SHORT
CIRCUIT DETECTION
The leakage currents and short circuits occurring in
the line can be detected if resistors R , which in
particular may be of equal magnitude, are inserted
in each line branch at its ends.
Figure 4. Equivalent circuit for sensitivity assessment.
For assessment of sensitivity relative the short cir-
cuit, use the voltage increment u1 . Consider the
worst conditions when the short circuit is located at
the far end of the line (Figure 4). Assume that before
the short circuit the branch currents are equal, then
RR1
u1  I , (6)
2 R  2 Rl  R1
where Rl – resistance of a branch.
It follows from the equation (6) that the circuit sen-
sitivity depends on the load current. It should be taken
into account when devices for sparking protection are
developed. The parameters must be selected so that
reliable power source would switch off at the short
circuit occurrence at minimum load current.
Assessment the circuit sensitivity for leakage cur-
rents in the same conditions (Figure 5).
It is seen from equation (7) that magnitude of the
signal is directly proportional to the leakage current
between the line conductors having different electric
59
potentials. The sparking protection sensitivity must
guarantee its reliable operation when the leakage
current reaches unsafe value.
R2
u2  ilk . (7)
2 R  R1  Rl
Protective cutting off for the case of short circuit at
load end can be provided by common methods. The
described method of electric power transmission
makes possible switching off a power source at the
very early stage of sparking developing and mainly
before the line conductor break. This permits to
increase maximum permissible current of a line.
Figure 5. Leakage sensitivity assessment.
Sufficiently high sensitivity to leakage currents at
use of fast acting switching device permits to in-
crease the line voltage. Devices of sparking sup-
pression based on the described method provide
considerable increase of the spark-safe power
transmitted to a load through electric line.
Preliminary test results confirm applicability of
the described method for safety improvement of
powerful DC and AC lines employed in explosive
dangerous conditions.
5 CONCLUSIONS
New method of power transmission safety im-
provement for explosive dangerous environment,
based on advanced line disabling and measurement
current distribution in parallel current carrying paths
can find application in explosive underground mines
for feeding of automation, telemetry, communica-
tion means as well as for power lines supplying
electric consumers of technological equipment.
Analysis of processes caused by a conductors
break in the transmission line with parallel current
carrying paths indicates to possibility of consider-
able increase of its spark-safe transmitted power.
Use of the transmission line having parallel con-
ducing paths provides better conditions for safety
improvement at occurrence short circuits and unsafe
leakage in the line.
REFERENCES
Ivanov, A. 1995. Trolley locomotives with sparkless cur-
rent collection. In Proceedings of the 3d International
Symposium on Mine Mechanization and Automa-
tion.Vol. 1. Golden, Colorado.
Ivanov, A. 2000. Selection of current collection operation
mode and power circuit design. In Proceedings of 9th
International Symposium on Mine Planning and Equip-
ment Selection. Rotterdam, Brookfield: Balkema.

60
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Analysis of hydrogeodynamics in a mining region

during exploitation till closure of coal mines

I. Sadovenko & D. Rudakov

National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
O. Podvigina
Ukrainian State Geological Prospecting Institute, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: The paper presents the results of studies concerning changes of hydrogeodynamics in the re-
gion of Central Donbass (Ukraine). The active mines are expected to be closed within the next twenty years,
which requires predictive estimations for hydrogeodynamic trends in mined out strata. The studies were per-
formed by numerical modeling of regional ground water flow. The model allowed reproducing paleo-
hydrogeological conditions during pre-mining time, which is highly important to assess the impacts of the
exploitation period. The predictive parametrical estimations were analyzed for different scenarios of mine
closure. The proposed technical schemes include local draining and grouping of mine drainage; they aim
eventually at self-draining of the post-mining region.

1 INTRODUCTION namics in mined out rocks, comparative analysis of

The Donetsk basin (Donbas) is the main coal region
in Ukraine having more than 200 years history of
mining, with the number of active mines exceeding
one thousand. The Central region as one of the
Donbas key areas belongs to heavily built and
highly developed mining industry agglomerations,
with total population approaching to one million
people. Such industrial cities as Gorlivka, Ye-
nakievo, Dzerzhins’k and Vuglegors’k are located
here. Twenty eight coal mines have been operated in
Central Donbas till the year 2000; they exploited
from 19 to 26 coal seams.
Long-time mining has changed hydrogeological
conditions in Central Donbas on the area larger than
410 square kilometers due to increase in rock per-
meability, total exhaustion of water resources and
further complication of underground runoff into
streams. The situation was aggravated by restructur-
ing of the coal industry, which disturbed the equilib-
rium in the system “ground waters-bedrocks-day
surface”. Closure of coal mines has led to ground
water rise and flooding large areas, this initiated
dangerous subsidence and firedamp emission.
These phenomena were studied by systematiza-
tion of monitoring data, estimation of hydrodynamic
impacts on bedrocks, evaluation of geotechnical
conditions in mining affected zones, mathematical
modeling of ground and mine water flow, calibra-
tion of key parameters for modeling of hydrody-
engineering solutions and technical measures being
developed to regulate ground water head on mine
lands.
The hydrographic network in Central Donbas
consists of small rivers Kryvyi Torets, Balmutka,
Rosokhovata, Zalizna, Krynka and their inflows
Bulavin, Korsun’, and Sadki. The absolute levels of
water in rivers varies from 85 to 252 m, absolute
elevation of watersheds reaches 310 m. The river
network density ranges from 0.2 to 0.5 km / km2.
Meandering river beds have significant slope; their
width narrows to 5-10 m during the lowest water
level in summer. The average value of underground
runoff for the coalmining area in Donbas is esti-
mated at 0.8 l / (km2 s). Ground and surface waters
are well connected hydraulically.
The aquifers in Central Donbas are located in
modern Quaternary, Permian, and Carbon sediments
(Hydrogeology and engineering geology of deep
horizons in Donbas 1974, Hydrogeology of the
USSR 1971). The aquifer in modern sediments ex-
tends along rivers as a narrow strip or localized on
watersheds. The aquifer in Carbon sediments often
reaching the day surface is spread throughout. Per-
meable sandy and clayey soils in Carbon sediments
form the complex of confined aquifers. Its top part
lies as a rule in highly fractured rocks of 40-100 m
thickness. Ground waters here are replenished by
infiltration and discharge from the dense river and
gully network in Donetsk Ridge.

61
 One of the main factors influencing environ- fers (Bear et al. 1968, Hydrological Forecasting
mental conditions around the mines being closed is 1985, Zhernov & Pavlovets 1976). The number of
the ground water head distribution over area and in equations is determined by the aquifer number, head
depth. Ground water rise considered as flooding values and layer elevations.
complicates industrial and agricultural activities on Depending on hydrodynamic conditions three
mine lands and leads to undesirable hydrogeological types of boundaries are simulated. They are de-
transformations (Norvatov 1988, Zilberg 1983). The scribed by time-dependent head, discharge, and the
available standards define flooding as a complex relation between head and discharge:
process caused by man-made and natural impacts Seepage through low-permeable confining layers
and accompanied by changing of the water balance is simulated according to Miatiev-Girinski’s as-
up to critical values, which requires taking protec- sumption about neglecting horizontal flow in aqui-
tive engineering measures. tards and vertical flow in aquifers (Shestakov 1979).
The flow domain is divided by volume elements of
horizontal size x and y formed as a result of
2 METHOD OF MODELING crossing vertical orthogonal planes. The saturated
rock properties are averaged for each cell and relate
Prediction of complicated ground water conditions to its center. The computational scheme is based on
on mining affected areas was performed by mathe- the inflow-outflow balance between adjacent grid
matical modeling that is used now as the advanced blocks.
tool for development of engineering solutions The spatial derivatives of the flow equation are
(Bachmat et al. 1980, Gavich 1980). Its first stage replaced with the differences along Ox and Oy axes
consists in taking assumptions and acceptable hy- (Lomakin et al. 1988, Shestakov & Luckner 1976)
drogeological simplifications as well as determining
parameters and site characteristics, which allows   H  H i , j 1  H ij
formulating the proper flow scheme. The next stage F T   
x  x  ij 
1  x j 1 x j 
results in the calculation scheme and joining its
 
modules followed by identification of the model. Its yi  2Ti , j 1 2Tij 

sensitivity to variations of flow parameters and , (1)
boundary conditions is estimated by solving a series H i , j 1  H ij

of inverse problems, which enables calibrating and 1  x j 1 x j 
validating the model. The third stage of modeling is   
yi  2Ti , j 1 2Tij 
aimed at making hydrodynamic predictions, calcu-  
lating additional characteristics, improving the flow
scheme, numerical analyzing proposed engineering   H  H i 1, j  H ij
F T   
solutions to quantify their impacts. y  y  ij 1  yi 1 y 
The software MIF developed at the Laboratory  i 

x j  2Ti 1, j 2Tij 
for hydrogeological studies of the Ukrainian State 
, (2)
Geological Prospecting Institute (Dnipropetrovsk) H i 1, j  H ij
and adopted for mining hydrogeology conditions 
1  yi 1 y 
was used to create and identify the flow model of   i 
Central Donbas. The program is applicable to nu- x j  2Ti 1, j 2Tij 
 
merical solution of differential equations governing
2D and 3D flow and transport in heterogeneous where F = x j y i , F – horizontal area of a cell con-
layered rocks. The model accounts for ground and taining the node (i, j), H i1,j1 – average levels in
surface water interaction, seepage through confining neighbor cells; T i1,j1 – average transmissivities in
layers, precipitation, infiltration and artificial re- neighbor cells.
charge, evaporation depending on ground water Difference approximation of the term describing
depth, discharge on the day surface, mine water flow between adjacent aquifers is written as
drainage by stationary devices, time-dependent
k 0 ,ij x j yi
boundary conditions and flow parameters, transition
between free and confined flow mode, hydraulic Qaq ,ij 
m0 ,ij
H1,ij  H 2,ij  , (3)
connection among aquifers, nonlinearity of flow in
free aquifers, and rock anisotropy. where k 0,ij – conductivity, m 0,ij – confining layer
The unsteady flow in hydraulically connected thickness, H 1,ij and H 2,ij – heads in two aquifers.
permeable layers is governed by the known system The recharge w distributed over the block area is
of differential equations for free and confined aqui-

62
formally concentrated in the node (i, j) so that
 
Qr ,ij  w x j , yi x j yi . (4)
The boundary condition governing ground and
surface water contact is written as follows

Qgsw,ij   ij H s ,ij  H ij ,  (5)
where  j – leakage coefficient quantifying flow
resistance of boundaries between ground and sur-
face waters, and openings,
Tij N ij
 ij  , (6)
Lij  Lij
where H s,ij – average water head in the stream, L ij –
distance between the block center to the stream,
L ij – the parameter of bed penetration into the aq-
uifer, N ij – stream length in the block.
Mine drainage is governed by the relation

Qmd ,ij  Tw,ij x j yi H w,ij  H ij ,  (7)
where H w,ij – water head hold owing to mine drain-
age, T w,ij – additional transmissivity accounting for
hydraulic connection in cells containing mine drain-
age.
The condition given along the pond contours of
small hydraulic resistance can be written as
(Livshits & Belokopytova 1987)
 
Q p ,ij  T p ,ij H ij  H p ,ij x j yi , (8)
where T p,ij – pond bottom transmissivity, H p,ij –
water level in the pond.
The time derivative in the flow equation is re-
placed with the difference relation corresponding to
the implicit calculation scheme.
The number of layers in the flow model is deter-
mined by practical reasons. The more complicated
is the hydrogeological structure, the more layers
should be introduced to describe it. Greater inclina-
tion of strata and tectonic breaks as well as the in-
creasing range of conductivity in depth requires
more layers for calculations. After mining due to
rock crumbling may arise a larger aquifer hydrauli-
cally united through underground workings. In such
case the number of layers can be reduced, especially
for closing thin coal seams. The inflow values are of
most importance for description of remote perme-
able strata. Flow parameters in each layer are sche-
matized with regard to horizontal and vertical het-
erogeneity; their average values depend on eleva-
63
tion, aquitard permeability etc. (Livshits & Be-
lokopytova 1987, Rudakov & Sadovenko 2006).
The vertical components of conductivity and
transmissivity between blocks of adjacent layers is
calculated according to formulas for piecewise-
homogeneous medium
K z ,l 1 / 2 
zl  zl 1
, (9)
zl zl 1

K z ,l K z ,l 1
zl  zl 1 1
Tz ,l 1 / 2  , (10)
zl 1 0,5zl  zl 1 
zl

K z ,l K z ,l 1
where K z,l and K z,l+1 – conductivities of layers in-
dexed with “l” and “l+1”.
The model is identified by comparison with well
testing data that are sensitive to the interval of the
borehole used for measurements. The narrower this
interval becomes, the more exact head values can be
obtained. The averaged value of ground water head
in the measuring working interval within the block
(i, j) on the layer “b” is estimated as (Bilokopytova
et al. 2003)
n Tb ,ij  hb ,ij

lnrab rw 
hw  b  m , (11)
n Tb ,ij

b  m lnrab rw 
where T b,ij – transmissivity, h b,ij – ground water
head, r w – well radius, r ab – radial distance from the
block center to the circumference where head is
assumed to be equal h b,ij , r ab equals to the radius of
sinking S = h b,ij – h w in the observation well.
3 MODEL CREATION
The calculation scheme was compiled after analyz-
ing mining area conditions and interpreting the test
problem solutions aimed at evaluation of the opti-
mal number of layers. The aquifer in fractured rocks
was reproduced by two layers on watersheds and
one layer on elevations lower than 170 m. Ground
water flow in deeper strata was simulated using four
layers, which enabled proper reproducing vertical
and horizontal heterogeneity, mine water inflow to
drains on different depth. Owing to the model re-
gional scale the flow in the locally spread Quater-
nary aquifer was simulated together with the flow in
Carbon sediments. Thicknesses of the first and sec-
ond layer reach 130 and 90 m respectively. The
relatively permeable third and fourth layers of
thickness 200 and 300 m contain watered tectonic
breaks; the fifth and sixth layers are located in the
deeper zone of slow water exchange.
The flow area was contoured regarding to the
boundaries of hydrogeological basins and water-
sheds in order to maximally diminish the effects of
outside inflows on the total water balance.
The following data were used for model creation:
surface elevation, hydrogeological sections, vertical
profiles of conductivity along deeply penetrated
wells and shafts, absolute heads of ground water in
zones of high fracturing and mining, water levels in
streams and ponds, mining work schedules, inflows
to different mining horizons etc. The area covered
with the flow model of Central Donbas occupies
1151 km2, grid step equals 0,5 km, the number of
grid blocks amounts 27139 (Figure 1).
The weighted average conductivities in blocks
along the Ox and Oy axes differ due to varying ve-
locity directions and rock anisotropy. The layer
initial conductivities along the Ox axis estimated by
aquifer testing were corrected while inverse model-
ing (Figure 2). The calculated anisotropy relation
k y /k x ranging from 0.05 to 2.0 accounts for differ-
ence in longitudinal and transversal conductivities
caused by rock heterogeneity and tectonic breaks.
River and ponds were simulated as third-type
flow boundaries, with using absolute water stage,
bottom elevations, and conductance of bottom
sediments. The parameter of interaction between
surface and ground waters below rivers and ponds
being wider than the block size is calculated as
k0
DL  Fb ,
m0
where k 0 – river mud conductivity (on the average
k 0 = 210–4 m / day), m 0 – river mud thickness (usu-
ally m 0 – 0.25 m), F b – water body area in the
block. The parameter DL for Volyntsevs’ke and
Gorlivs’ke water accumulating ponds reaches
200 m2 / day.
Piecewise distribution of the infiltration rate is
formed by dividing the area into zones with regard
to geomorphology and ground water depth. Before
mining the natural recharge was ranging from 18 to
25 mm / year. The total infiltration rate during min-
ing includes also leakage from accumulating ponds,
which was estimated by inverse modeling.
To describe mining horizons in the numerical
model the schemes of their location on the area of
neighboring mines were compiled (see an example
on Figure 3).
Inner boundaries such as surface of underground
workings were simulated with account for addi-
tional flow resistance on openings, and the differ-
ence between the mining area and the block size.
The flow resistance parameter was estimated by
inverse modeling with regard to ground water head
elevation over mining horizons and inflow into
workings.

Клебан-Бикське
Kleban-Viks’ke
водосховище
water storage pond Myronivs’ke
Миронівське water
водосховище
storage pond

Дзержинськ
Дзержинськ
Dzerzhins’k

Debal’tsevo
Дебальцеве
Дебальцеве
Горлівка
Горлівка
Gorlivka
Вуглегірськ
Вуглегірськ
Vuglegors’k

Єнакіїве
Єнакіїве рр..О
Ол
Yenakievo ллььхх
r. Ol’khovata
оовваа
а ааттаа
к яя
ин
r. Krynka
р
р.К
Жданівка
Жданівка
Zhdanivka Кіровське
Кіровське
Авдіївка
Авдіївка Kirovs’ke
Avdiivka Ясинувата
Ясинувата
Yasynuvata

Figure 1. Calculation grid of the flow domain.

64
 0.14
0.12
0.1
2 holes. If a borehole penetrates several layers, the
0.08
K, m/d
0.06
0.04 1
0.02
0 4 MODELING RESULTS
0 200 400 600 800
z, m
Figure 2. Change of weighted averaged conductivity K in
depth z: 1 – modeling, 2 – aquifer testing.
The data for water intake schedule were input
from the State ground water inventory related to the
Donetsk region in years 1981, 1991, 1992, 2000.
The simulated area does not contain wells of essen-
tial intake except single ones; the systematic data
about pumping rates miss. The most of wells were
not equipped with measuring units so water dis-
charge was evaluated by pump rates and their work-
ing time. Eventually, water intake was simulated as
the distributed negative parameter to be added to
infiltration. The absolute values of intake within
Central Donbas was ranging from 2.46 to
3.7 mm / year.
Geological structure of Central Donbass changed
by mining has led to the complicated ground water
head distribution in depth that had to be taken into
account at model identification. This required a
special approach to compare simulated and ob-
served heads and inflows correctly.
All wells penetrating several layers were distrib-
uted among grid blocks; the data about ground
55 56 57
18
490
250
19
Mining horizon
Figure 3. The mine works schedule on the mine named after Rumiantsev over the seam “Yulievs’ky” according to grid-
ding.
Before mining the ground water balance was
formed mostly by infiltration (88.3% of inflow),
discharge to surface water bodies (50.4% of out-
flow), and evaporation (39.8% of outflow). The
computational analysis of all inflow and outflow
components has confirmed their complete equiva-
lence in the ground water balance.
water head were systemized regarding to locations
of layers and intervals of their crossing by bore-
head averaged over these layers should be used to
compare the modeling results with observations.
1 000 1 200 1 400
The model was identified through successive solv-
ing of inverse problems. Firstly steady ground water
flow was calculated for pre-mining time; then un-
steady flow was simulated from 1980 till 2004 with
regard to changes in hydrogeological trends caused
by flooding of mines having started since 1996.
Special attention was paid to the factors affecting
ground water head. The decisive influence on its
distribution under natural conditions was shown to
make increased conductivity and infiltration. The
obtained conclusions about parameters and bound-
ary conditions changing ground water head were
used for model calibration starting from the steady
flow problem.
The layer conductivities along the Ox axis esti-
mated by modeling were proven to be close to the
values obtained by aquifer testing. Calculated
ground water head was ranging from 84 to 300 m
before mining. Flow on watersheds was found to be
directed downwards; on the contrary, ground water
in confined aquifers flows from valleys upwards.
The differences in heads reach 10 m. Ground water
depth in the zone of intensive fracturing does not
exceed 5 m on the major part of the simulated area,
locally reaching 20-40 m (Figure 4).
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
730
610
370
164
75
Grid block
Depending on the mine work schedule and avail-
ability of the monitoring data the following stages
of ground water flow during mining were simulated:
(1) from 1980 till 1990, (2) from 1990 till 1993, and
(3) from 1993 till 1996.
The calculated distribution of ground water head
at 1980 was given as the initial conditions for the
65
next period; the same flow parameters were used.
Deepening mines was simulated by changing abso-
lute elevation of mining horizons and varying resis-
tance to water inflow to workings. The model re-
produced changes of the day surface under mining
impacts. Calculations related to 1980-1990 were
compared with the available data about total mine
outflow. The difference between simulated and
observed inflows did not exceed 1.05%. According
to the calculated balance in 1990 (Figure 5) mine
inflow was provided mostly by infiltration, stored in
rocks and surface waters.

Дзержинськ
Dzerzhins’k

Дебальцеве
Debal’tsevo
Горлівка
Gorlivka
Вуглегірськ
Vuglegors’k

Depth of
Глибина ground
залягання
рівня підземних
water headвод
< 3 m3 м
менше Yenakievo
Єнакіїве
33–5
-5м m
55–20
- 20 мm
> 20 m
більш 20 м

Жданівка Кіровське
Zhdanivka Kirovs’ke
Авдіївка
Avdiivka Yasynuvata
Ясинувата

Figure 4. Depth of ground water head before mining calculated by modeling.

Flow modeling under further deepening of mines Conductivity of affected rocks was given several
during 1990-1993 was verified by head elevations times higher than undisturbed rock conductivity.
measured in 1993. The conductance parameter
5
quantifying the boundary condition on workings
1.20%
was estimated within the range from 0.01 to 4
1.2 m2 / day. 23.20%
Figure 6 demonstrates modeling correctness on
1
the example of two layers. The water balance during
1993-1996 remained almost stable, only the storage 38.60%
share decreased slightly.
During simultaneous flooding and exploitation of
mines in 1996-2004 underground hydrodynamics 3
was formed by flows in artificial voids like work- 11%
ings and ruptured zones with increased fracturing
and natural voids like pores and fractures in undis-
turbed rocks. 2
Artificial voids are considered as a hydraulically 26%
united system that determines boundary conditions
for saturated rocks during flooding. For this time Figure 5. Calculated balance components of water inflow
underground workings and shafts were simulated as to mine in 1990: 1 – recharge, 2 – storage, 3 – shortening
connected voids governed by the parameter of of ground water runoff, 4 – surface water inflow, 5 –
shortening of infiltration.
gravitational storage capacity in mined out rocks.

66
 (a) (b)

300
200
250 100

Ho, m
Ho, m

0
200
-100
150 -200
150 200 250 300 -200 -100 0 100 200
Hm, m Hm, m
Figure 6. Comparison of modeled (Hm) and observed (Ho) ground water heads: (a) second layer, (b) fourth layer.

Inverse modeling of mine flooding was per-
formed in two stages: (1) from 1994 till 2000, and
(2) from 2000 till 2004. Calculations were com-
pared with measured inflows to mines and mining
horizons as well as to water heads in observation
wells and flooded shafts in 2000 and 2003. Addi-
tional inflows through connecting workings from
flooded mines to those being exploited were also
taken into account (Sadovenko & Rudakov 2005).
Figure 7 demonstrates accepted agreement between
observed and simulated heads in a mine during its
flooding.

-6 2 0

-6 4 0

-6 6 0

-6 8 0

H, m
м

-7 0 0 Observation
об'єкт
Modeling
модель
-7 2 0

-7 4 0

-7 6 0
7.01 1.01 2.02 5.02 9.02 2.02 3.03 6.03 0.03 1.04 4.04
28.0 05.1 13.0 24.0 01.0 10.1 20.0 28.0 06.1 14.0 23.0

Дата
day

Figure 7. Rise of ground water head H in coaly rocks during flooding of the mine “Chervony Profintern”.

The verified model allows building predictive
hydrogeological map (Figure 8) showing ground
water head distribution after flooding of all mines in
accordance with the temporal schedule.
The identified predictive flow model of Central
Donbas enabled estimating the efficiency of mine
areas protection against flooding by grouping drain-
age on major mines, which was quantified by the
relation of the drained area to the drainage rate. This
approach was proven to be effective for two mines
only. It can be explained by long-time exploitation
having formed the man-made water balance with
dominating surface layer components. The devel-
oped model allows optimizing different engineering
solutions suited for these conditions including hori-
zontal and radial drains as well as deepening natural
river beds.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The regional flow model of Central Donbas identi-
fied on the scale of 1:50000 enabled adequate re-
producing of hydrogeological conditions for pre-
mining time, analyzing regional trends in ground
water head re-distribution on area and along key
profiles during exploitation and flooding of mines.
The changes of principal factors influencing
ground water head in mined out rocks were esti-
mated. Particularly, rock conductivity increased 10-

67
100 times, gravitational storage grew 7-14 times,
infiltration became 2.8-3.5 times more comparing to
the pre-mining period.
The generalized parameter quantifying ground
water inflow to workings takes into proper account
their additional flow resistance. Depending on the
mining stage and rock heterogeneity it is ranging
from 0.01 to 1.2 m2 / day.
Simultaneous flooding of all mines in Central
Donbas from 2005 till 2030 was shown to result in
significant ground water rise. The area of ground
water depth less than 5 m is expected to enlarge
from 264.1 to 647.2 square kilometers and reach
56% of the total region area. This requires differen-
tiating mine closure in time and taking proper pre-
ventive measures.
Zoning of mine areas by hydrogeological and
geotechnical conditions and determining the mine
flow intensity enabled contouring the areas to be
protected effectively with drainage. Different
schemes to mitigate mine closure impacts were
developed. Deepening river beds coupled with hori-
zontal drainage in valleys and radial drainage on
built-up territories will further to transformation of
Central Donbas into the sustainable geotechnical
system.

Дзержинськ
Дзержинськ
Dzerzhins’k

Дебальцеве
Дебальцеве
Debal’tsevo
Горлівка
Горлівка
Gorlivka
Вуглегірськ
Вуглегірськ
Vuglegors’k

Умовні позначення
Єнакіїве
Єнакіїве
Yenakievo
глибина рівня підземних вод
(прогнозof
Depth наground
2030 р. при поступовому
water head
закритті шахт)
до
< 33 метрів
m від 5 до
5–20 m 20 метрів
3–5
від m5 метрів
3 до >більш
20 m20 метрів
Жданівка
Жданівка
Zhdanivka Кіровське
Кіровське
Kirovs’ke

Avdiivka
Авдіївка
Авдіївка Ясинувата
Ясинувата
Yasynuvata

Figure 8. Predicted ground water depth in Central Donbas after mine closure by 2030.

REFERENCES cation in hydrogeology. Moscow: Nedra.

Bachmat, Y., Bredehoeft, J., Andrews, B., Holtz, D. &
Sebastian, S. 1980. Groundwater management: the use
of numerical models. Water resources monograph, se-
ries 5, American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C.
Bear, J., Zaslavsky, D. & Irmay, S. 1968. Physical princi-
ples of water percolation and seepage. Paris: UNESCO.
Belokopytova, N.A., Synah, V.Y., Tokar, M.B. & Pod-
vigina, O.O. 2003. Features of modeling of hydro-
geological conditions of Donbas. Kiev. Sci. Bulletin of
UkrDGRI 2: 59-62.
Gavich, I.C. 1980. Theory and practice of modeling appli-
Hydrogeology and engineering geology of deep horizons
in Donbas. Ed. by V.S. Popov and I.A. Skaballanovich.
1974. Kyiv: Naukova dumka.
Hydrogeology of the USSR. 1971. Vol. 6: Donbass. Ed. by
D.I. Shchegolev. Moscow: Nedra.
Hydrological Forecasting. 1985. Ed. by. M.G. Anderson.
Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore:
John Wiley & Sons.
Livshits, V.M. & Belokopytova, N.A. 1987. Methodical
recommendations to computer modeling of seepage in
layered rocks. Dnipropetrovs’k: DO UkrGIMR.
Lomakin, Y.A., Mironenko, V.A. & Shestakov, V.N.

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 1988. Numerical modeling of seepage in rocks. Mos-
cow: Nedra.
Norvatov, Y.A. 1988. Study and forecasting of man-made
ground water behavior. Leningrad: Nedra.
Rudakov, D.V. & Sadovenko I.O. 2006. Forecasting of
hydrodynamic behavior while working out and flooding
mines. Scientific Bulletin of Zhitomir Technical Univer-
sity 1 (36): 151–157.
Sadovenko, I.O. & Rudakov D.V. 2005. Analysis of over-
flows while flooding adjacent mines. Dnipropetrovs’k:
69
Geotechnical Mechanics, 61: 93-100.
Shestakov, V.M. 1979. Ground water dynamics. Moscow:
MGU.
Shestakov, V.M. & Luckner, L. 1976. Modeling of seep-
age in rocks. Moscow: Nedra.
Zhernov, I.Y. & Pavlovets, I.N. 1976. Modeling of seep-
age processes. Kyiv: Vyshcha shkola.
Zilberg, V.S. 1983. Recommendations to the method for
estimation and prediction of hydrogeological conditions
on urban areas being flooded. Moscow: Stroiizdat.
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Bifurcational model of rock bottom

heaving in mine workings

A. Shashenko, A. Solodyankin & S. Gapeev

National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: The process of rock floor heaving in workings of coal mines in Ukraine is researched. Analy-
sis of “in-situ” measurements and numerical simulation is made. The behavior of a geomechanical system
“working-rock mass” is established. The fact is proven that the process of a sill is linked to the elactoplastic
stability loss of rock mass around working. The bifurcational model of rock pressure phenomenon is offered.
Distribution of equivalent stress around workings before and after the moment of bifurcation point appear-
ance is obtained

1 INTRODUCTION 2 “IN-SITU” RESEARCHES

On the coal mines of Donbass rock floor heaving is
one of the most widespread sign of mining pressure
in works. Expenses on liquidation of rock floor
heaving are very large. From data (Koshelev, Igna-
tovich & Poltavec 1991), an extent of the deformed
working from the rock floor heaving is 45% from a
general extent.
For adequate description and prognosis of con-
duct of rock mass around of working on deep hori-
zons of mines, it is necessary to perfect theoretical
models taking into account more heavy terms.
A complex index while estimating state of work-
ing are deformations of the rock contour.
All rock pressure phenomena can be divided into
two groups on magnitude of working contour de-
formation and velocity of its increase. 1st group –
geomechanical phenomena which show in a work-
ing as displacement of a rocky contour with the
maximum magnitude up to 20-30 cm and which are
implementation of plastic deformation. These phe-
nomena can be adequately circumscribed on the ba-
sis of strict analytical solutions engaging continuous
medium models. 2nd group – phenomena with big-
ger plastic deformations. Depending on physical and
mechanical rock properties, number of geomechani-
cal and technical factors, the large moving can be
realized both by instant dynamic processes (mining
shots, sudden raising of soil) and during long period
of time (rock floor heaving) as a static processes.
Mathematical descriptions of both one and another
phenomena from positions of the generally accepted
elastoplastic or elasto-viscidly-plastic models of en-
vironment difficultly and for their research of the spe-
cial approaches and models are required.
OF CONFORMITIES TO THE
LAW OF ROCK MASS DEFORMATION
IN THE VICINITY OF A WORKING
Shashenko (1988) offered new approach to the
study of rock floor heaving problem in workings.
His approach based on a hypothesis about the elas-
toplastic stability loss of rock mass in the vicinity of
the single working. It is a summary of many results
of “in-situ” researches of working contour dis-
placement. These researches allowed to select the
presence of four areas around of working. Every
area is characterized by different intensity of me-
chanical processes flowing:
I – area of elastic deformations;
II – area of plastic deformations;
III – area of rock floor heaving;
IV – area of stabilizing (2) or unstabilizing (1) of
rock floor heaving process.
On a Figure 1 the lines of displacements and
speeds of working contour displacements are re-
sulted for the mine “Belozerskaya” of “Dobro-
pol'eugol”. In workings of this mine ground rock
floor heaving is the characteristic display of rock
pressure.
The area of rock floor heaving (III) is distinctly
visible on the line of displacements speeds on Fig-
ure 1b. It is characterized by the rapid flowing of
process and sharp increase of displacements after
achievementt critical limit.
A fourth area completes the process of active de-
formation of rock mass near contour. Intensity of
deformations falls sharply. They either stabilize
(line 2) or slowly proceed in time (line 1).

71
 (a) (b)
U,mm  U/  t,
600.0 mm/days
1
IV 60
500.0
2 50
400.0
III 40
III
300.0
30

200.0
20
II II
IV 1
100.0
10
I I 2
0.0 t,days
0 t,days
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 2 7 9 24 36 48 58

Figure 1. Displacements (а) and speeds of displacements (b) of contour with in meters of “Belozerskaya” of “Dobro-
pol'eugol” (1 – undamping process and 2 – damping process).

3 LABORATORY RESEARCHES dependences from Figure 2. We can highlight three

OF CONFORMITIES TO THE LAW levels of deformations there: level І – resilient de-
OF ROCK MASS DEFORMATION formation of model; level ІІ – formation of unresil-
AROUND WORKING ient deformations zone around working; level ІІІ – a
loss of elastoplastic stability of rock mass – ground
Researches were executed on the special flat stand rock floor heaving. The third level of deformations
for workings with the arched form of section, lo- is characterized by that the considerable moving of
cated in a homogeneous rock mass. floor in working u corresponds a small increment of
As equivalent material mixture of sand, technical the external loading dP / du .
vaseline, paraffin and graphite was used. Composi- Such mechanism of rock floor heaving comports
tions of mixtures correspondent to the properties of with the vectorial picture of markers displacements
rock mass in “Dobropol'eugol'”. on the model (Figure 3). Results discovered that
On the model of rock mass, containing working, during rock heaving basic deformations take place
weight was put with an interval in 1 kg. Rising de- in floor of working and affect deep layers.
formations of mass registered on every stage by Executed “in-situ” and laboratory researches, well
camera. By shots the high-quality picture of mass show us the picture of rock floor heaving develop-
behaviour was built. The process of model deforma- ment. It also shows that a general physical model is
tion was studied by the special markers which were the basis of this phenomenon.
inflicted on the side surface of the model.
u, мм
8 4 DETERMINATION OF AN ANALYTICAL
7
TASK ABOUT THE ELASTOPLASTIC
STABILITY LOSS OF ROCK MASS IN THE
6
VICINITY OF THE SINGLE WORKING
5
level III
4 Beginning of rock floor heaving of working is al-
3
ways related to formation of area ІІІ. Its characteris-
tic feature is very hasty growth of deformations dur-
2
ing short interval of time. It takes place after
1 level II achievement of critical values by deformations.
0
level I
dP/du From the power point of view there is next process.
0 2 4 6 8 While a working advances back from face, at the in-
Figure 2. Dependence of floor heaving on the intensity of significant change of the tense state, there is a rapid
an exterior loading. emitting potential energy. It is used for additional
destruction of structural connections in a rock mass
It was set that the mechanism of geomechanical and loosening. After it the mechanical system finds
processes corresponds the physical model of elasto- the balance state again.
plastic stability loss. It is evidently characterized by

72
 (a)
(c)
Figure 3. Vectors of angular points displacement on measured grid for homogeneous model at loadings: (a) 0.00 kN, (b)
2.61 kN, (c) 4.56 kN, (d) 7.04 kN.
This process is characterized by the significant
change of one parameter (moving on the contour of
working) during an insignificant increase of other
(components of tensions on an external contour). In
physics such transients are named as loss of balance
stability. In this case, the elastoplastic stability loss
of balance in rock mass occurs.
According to Shashenko (1988) the task of criterial
equations determination for the prognosis of rock
floor heaving is solved. For the solving of this taskthe
a simplified approach was used which is showed in
Ishlinskiy (1954) and Leybenzon (1951). The feature
of this approach is that the parameter of flowing is
entered only in scope terms which take into account
the changes of border form during rock floor heaving.
Solving of elastoplastic task lies in basis of re-
searches. In general case at the loss of equation sta-
bility of the distorted internal contour it is possible
to write:
73
(b)
(d)
r  1  d cos  , (1)
where d – constant,  – polar corner.
Thus, on a tense ground-state some protuberant
state is laid on. It is caused by the change of internal
scope terms. This circumstance is showed on a
Figure 4. ( K – coefficient, taking into account in-
fluence of face of working on external scope terms,
K – a small increase of coefficient K , causing a
change of internal border geometry).
As a result of solving analytical task (Figure 4), a
criterion is got:
 v rL*2 ln 2 rL*  2  0 , (2)
where  v – is an average value of relative increase
of volume within the limits of the area of plastic de-
formations (APD); rL* – is a relative critical radius
of plastic deformations area.
 (a)
kH
L L
k H P0 rL
Figure 4. The solution scheme for problem of elasto-plastic stability losses: (a) an initial state of system ( rL  rL ); (b) the
*
disturbing state of system ( rL  rL ).
The criterion (2) defines a possibility of rock
mass transition from one equilibrium limit state to
another. This process is accompanied by rock floor
heaving.
This process is accompanied by ground rock ris-
ing. Its physical essence consists of the following.
Subject to the condition of rock floor heaving will
happen in making.
V rL*2 ln 2 rL*  2  0.
It is possible to write down in expression (2):
rL*  1   v0.4 .
In Shashenko, Solodyankin, 2007 on the basis of
base decision (2), other criterion is offered. Here for
the estimation of possible of rock floor heaving dis-
placements of contour are examined:

u*y  0.006 14.7  1  67.2 v exp  
  1  
  1 , (5)
  NB  
where u*y  U / R0 – size of critical displacements
of soil of contour which the out of control process
of rock floor heaving begins at; U – absolute value
of displacements of contour of making,
rL2  krem 21   
B , N     , 
1  rL2  H
index of terms of development; k rem  Rrem / Rc –
remaining assurance factor; R0 – radius of work-
ing, Rrem – remaining strength of rock on a con-
(b)
( K  K )H
( K  K ) H P0 rL
*
tour,  = R р /R c – factor of brittleness of rocks;
R p , Rc – standards of rocks tensile strengths on
monaxonic tension and compression.
The offered criterion allows already on the stage
of planning to estimate possibility of rock floor
heaving in working and plan measures on the de-
cline of harmful influence of this phenomenon.
(3)
3 NUMERICAL MODELING
OF A DEFORMATION PROCESS
AROUND AN UNDERGROUND WORKING
(4)
At reaching critical sizes of this area the third level
occurs. Thus there is a fast transition of system from
the second energy level to the third one. The transi-
tion is accompanied by major displacement of work-
ing contour. This process is termed as losses of
elasto-plastic stability, or rock floor heaving.
The numerical modeling of a rock floor heaving
process is carried out with use of finite element
method (FEM) at the basis of the third models of the
rock failure.
The size of rock floor heaving is accepted on the
basis of the real dependences of u  f T  , the typi-
cal type of which is resulted on a Figure 5. On this
line three characteristic temporal intervals are se-
Rc lected: T1 – period of realization of the elastoplastic
–
deformations, T2 – period of active development of
process of rock floor heaving of rock and T3 – pe-
riod of passive development of process of rock floor
heaving.
The temporal interval of T3 is broken on the ar-
74
eas of Ti , length of which is accepted the equal size
of T2 . The size of rock floor heaving ui and picture
of the stress-strain state corresponds to every inter-
val аround the working. Modeling of development
of process of rock floor heaving in time is executed
successive introduction of size of ui .
The additional displacement of ui forms the addi-
tional tense state. This tension is laid on basis and
added up on the basis in accordance with the idea of
Ishlinskogo-Leybenzona. Additional moving, simi-
larly put incrementally and their size increases from
a zero to the maximum with some increment.
The model allows to imitate development of
process in a time and considers floor heaving as dis-
crete quasistatic process.
Calculations started with the solution of a prob-
lem for a homogeneous rock mass. Nonhomogene-
ity of structure of a rock mass from task to task was
increasing. The generalized scheme is presented on
Figure 5.
It is shown, that sizes of APD in floor exceed
original one in 2-3 times at value of a floor heaving
being 0.3 m (Figure 6). Figure 5. The generalized solution scheme.

I (a) (b)

II (c) (d)

75
III (e) (f)

Figure 6. Configuration APD: (a), (c), (e) up to the floor heaving; (b), (d), (f) after the floor heaving, І – homogeneous
rock mass including a coal seam; ІІ – rock mass including a coal seam and seam of sandstone in roof (distance between
coal seam and sandstone is hsandstt = 10.0 m); ІІІ – rock mass including a coal seam and seam of sandstone is floor (dis-
tance between coal seam and sandstone is a sandst = 7.0 m).

REFERENCES Shashenko, A.N. 1988. Stability of the underground working

Ishlinskiy, A.Y. 1954. Consideration of questions about
stability of equilibrium of resilient bodies from point of
mathematical theory of resiliency of. Kiev: Ukrainian
mathematical magazine. Vol.6/2: 140-146.
Koshelev, K.V., Ignatovich, N.V. & Poltavec V.I. 1991.
Maintenance of interfaces of working. Kiev: Techni-
cian: 176.
Leybenzon, L.S. 1951. About application of harmonic
functions to the question about stability of spherical and
cylindrical shells of. Moscow. Scientific bulletin. Vol.1:
50-85.
in a unhomogeneous a rock mass. – Diss. of doctor of
technical science. Dnipropetrovs’k: 507.
Shashenko, A.N., Tulub, S.B. & Sdvizhkova, Y.A. 2002.
Some tasks of statistical geomechanics. Kiev: Pul'sari:
304.
Shashenko, A.N. & Solodyankin, A.V. 2007. Criteria of
estimation of stability of floor of the underground work-
ing. Dnipropetrovs’k. Scientific bulletin of the Natіonal
Mining University, 1: 44-49.

76
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Numerical modeling used for designing

of coal mine roadway support

T. Majcherczyk & Z. Niedbalski

AGH-University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Mining and Geoengineering, Krakow, Poland

ABSTRACT: Design of optimal support for underground headings in hard coal mines, particularly for the
conditions with intensified rock pressure is a serious challenge for engineers and coal companies. Not only
already existing technological practices are continually being improved but also numerous novel solutions
related to such problems are being implemented. The paper presents results of numerical analysis carried out
in order to design optimal support for headings driven at the depth of 1100 m and 1300 m.

1 INTRODUCTION hence allowing to assume proper support schemes

for actual conditions.
Underground heading drivage below the depth of
1000 m enhances serious complications and diffi-
culties related to the following phenomena: consid- 2 DEPTH-RELATED CHANGES
erable values of primary vertical stress, large de- AROUND THE HEADING
formation pressure, increased range of stress con-
centration zones around tectonic disturbance, raised Depth of working occurrence is one of essential
temperature of rocks, increased seismic hazard, or factors affecting stability of headings and, subse-
frequent influence of numerous exploitation edges. quently, selection of a particular support type to be
Complex mining and geological conditions, as well applied. In order to determine quantitative variations
as mining at considerable depths, force engineers to in the volume of damage zone, numerical analysis
apply specific technological solutions (Hoek 1995 was carried out using Hoek-Brown criterion (Hoek
& Majcherczyk 2008). 2002, 2007). At the same time, the actual layout and
Underground heading designers customarily re- properties of lithologic layers of workings designed at
sort to practical experience obtained in adjacent the depths of 1100 m and 1300 m were assumed. The
headings of a particular seam or working level. Also results of the analysis are presented as maps of
guidelines elaborated for a given mining basin or a maximum principal stress with marked plastic zones.
specific mine prove useful in such instances (Engi-
neer Manual 1980 & Rock Mechanics Technology
Ltd. 2004). Also it is possible to use test results of
underground research (Majcherczyk 2007, 2008).
The situation looks slightly different in the case of
designing opening-out headings, which provide
access to subsequent working levels, as then no
precise prospecting of mining and geological condi-
tions is available. Hence, rock properties can only
be estimated on the basis of bore holes located at
large distances from one another. In such conditions
it is possible to determine a proper support type only
by means of statistical (Sheorey 1997) or numerical
analysis (Jing & Hudson 2002).
This paper presents the results of numerical
analysis carried out in order to design optimal sup-
port for headings driven at the depth of 1100 m and
1300 m. The computations helped to determine
dislocation and damage zones around the headings, Figure 1. Support scheme for Cw-1 heading.

77
2.1. Cw-1 heading at the depth of 1100 m schist were deposited. Table 1 presents the assumed
strata parameters.
Rock mass in the vicinity of Cw-1 heading was
An analysis of principal stress  1 points to stress
significantly heterogeneous. The roof and immedi-
ate floor of the heading mainly consisted of argilla- concentration in walls (at the distance of several
ceous schist and sandy shale with different thick- meters) amounting to 42 MPa (Figure 2). Increased
nesses. The suggested support scheme for this head- stress at a certain distance from the heading’s con-
ing included a series of LP10/V29-type steel frames tour results from rock mass plasticity; hence it is
(yield Re  480 MPa) with the spacing of 1.0 m related to rock mass damage and relief. The trans-
mission of load by rock mass occurs only outside
and two 5-meter long string roof bolts in each field
plastic zone. Also in the floor, increased stress is
between the frames (cf. Figure 1).
recorded at the distance of approximately 4 m,
The numerical model assumed that the walls of
reaching the value of nearly 40 MPa. Such a distri-
the heading contained 0.6 m of argillaceous schist,
bution of stress may lead to considerable disloca-
1.9 m of coal and 1.3 m of sandy shale. In the im-
tions of walls and floor. The range of plastic zones
mediate roof there was also 7-meter thick argilla-
in the roof reaches approximately 3.2 m, and dam-
ceous schist with variable sand inclusions, above
age occurs mainly as a result of shear. In the walls,
which sandy shale deposit with the thickness of
damage zone reaches the range of 5.3 m, whereas in
14 m having a thin coal inclusion of 0.4 m was
the floor – approximately 4.3 m. Despite such an
located. Above this layer, sandstone was deposited.
extensive damage zone, only in the case of the floor
The floor consisted of a thin 1-meter layer of argil-
and, rather insignificantly, in the case of the walls,
laceous schist, below which there was a 5.9-meter
destruction occurs simultaneously as a result of
layer of sandy shale. Further on, 11.6 meters of
shear and tension.
sandstone and 6.5 meters of sandy argillaceous

Table 1. Parameters of rock layers for numerical model of Cw-1 heading.

Linear elastic Compression Empirical Empirical

Bulk density  Poisson’s
Rock layer modulus E strength R c Hoek-Brown Hoek-Brown
3
[kN / m ] ratio 
[MPa] [MPa] Parameter m Parameter s
coal 12.032 1800 0.30 6.104 0.821 0.0004
argillaceous schist/
sandy argillaceous 25.805 5000 0.26 44.458 1.094 0.0014
schist
sandy shale 26.178 7000 0.24 51.459 1.436 0.0018
sandstone 25.514 11500 0.22 56.789 2.908 0.0075

Figure 2. Volume of plastic zone around Cw-1 heading.

78
 In the case of Cw-1 heading, coal-mine tests (in disproportion was the assumption of spring-elastic
situ) were carried out after the heading construction. model of rock mass for the computations. In the
The tests embraced, inter alia, measurement of case of fracture zone range, a lower value was ob-
fracture zone range and volume of roof-bolt loading tained from numerical analysis.
(Table 2).
2.2. Cross heading at the depth of 1300 m
Table 2. Comparison of in-situ test results with numerical
analysis results for Cw-1 testing gallery (seam 401). Numerical analysis assumed a strata layout, in
which the following layers are deposited above the
Analyzed/measured Coal-mine Numerical working floor: 3.5 meters of argillaceous schist and
volume tests (in situ) analysis 0.60 m of sandstone. Immediately in the heading’s
Range of fracture roof there appear 0.4-meter layer of sandstone,
zone f s , [m] 4.70 3.20
2.4-meter layer of coal and 7.2-meter layer of argil-
Maximum axial force laceous schist. Further strata include: 7.8 m of sand-
in a roof bolt N k , 105 280 stone, 6.5 m of sandy shale, 0.7 m of argillaceous
schist, 2.0 m of sandstone, 0.2 m of coal and 2.7 m
[kN]
of argillaceous schist. The heading’s floor consists
of argillaceous schist layer with the thickness of
The comparison of roof-bolt loading obtained 5.5 m, in which 1.0 m of coal is deposited. Below
from numerical analysis and coal-mine tests clearly there is argillaceous schist with a 0.8-meter thick
indicates that the value of roof-bolt loading in the coal layer. The values of physical and mechanical
former case (i.e. determined by means of numerical parameters assumed for the analysis are presented in
computations) is higher than the one measured in
Table 3.
situ. What was decisive for the occurrence of such a

Table 3. Properties of strata assumed for numerical analysis.

Hoek-
Young’s Compression Hoek-
Poisson’s Brown
Rock type modulus E GSI index strength Brown
ratio  constant
[MPa]  с [MPa] constant s
mb
coal 3500 40 0.30 10.54 1.374 0.0013
argillaceous schist
10000 50 0.26 60.73 1.677 0.0039
(sandy)
sandy shale 15000 60 0.24 94.00 2.157 0.0117
sandstone 17878 65 0.24 71.55 4.298 0.0205

In order to achieve working stability at the depth
of 1.300 m, having in mind a predicted considerable
volume of plastic zone and serious dislocations, a
slightly different scheme of support was assumed,
i.e. a LPZ 11/V32 (yield Re  480 MPa) – type of
full framing with the spacing of 0.5 m, alongside
with two rows of rope bolts in the roof and one row
of steel bolts in each wall. Additionally, bolting
with steel binding joists fixed alternately at every
second frame was assumed (Figure 3).
Numerical analysis indicates that a plastic zone
appears in the excavation’s contour: up to 2.5 m in
the roof, to 3.5 m in the floor, and up to 2.0 m in the
walls (Figure 4). The values of maximum principal
stress reach 50÷55 MPa. It is located in the floor-
side part of walls, as well as in the upper part of
walls, at the distance of approximately 1.5 m from
the heading’s contour.
The calculated values of dislocations range be-
tween 0.070.08 m in the floor and walls, and
0.05 m in the roof (Figure 5). Additionally, a predic-
tion can be made that fixing the support simultane-
ously with mining the excavation will also result in
massive loading of bolts, since the axial force will
reach its maximum value almost at all length.

79
Figure 3. Scheme of cross heading’s full support.

Figure 4. Plastic zone around the cross heading.

80
Figure 5. Map of dislocations around the cross heading.
3 CONCLUSIONS
Following conclusions may be drawn on the basis of
the analysis presented above:
1. Support of headings should be designed indi-
vidually and specifically, assuming the existing
mining and geological conditions, as well as the
intended use and estimated lifetime of a given work-
ing. In this respect, particular attention should be
paid to designing headings located in complex
mining and geological conditions.
2. Implementation of novel schemes of support
should be based on a series of coal-mine tests,
which should allow to verify earlier-accepted as-
sumptions and to evaluate actual behavior of par-
ticular elements of support and surrounding rock
mass.
3. In the case of designing headings in completely
new (i.e. earlier-unrecognized) conditions, for in-
stance, in new, deeper excavation levels, analytical
or numerical calculations prove to be the only way
to select the most effective support scheme. None-
theless, during excavation, a routine evaluation of
geomechanical properties of rocks and a regular
control of interaction between strata and support
should be made. If necessary, some needful altera-
tions in support scheme should be implemented.
4. Support of headings excavated at considerable
depths and adjacently to the rocks of low strength
81
and deformation properties should be reinforced by
means of support with bolts in the heading face. The
application of full frames will allow to limit the
volume of dislocation, especially in the floor,
whereas bolting with binding joists will guarantee
frame stability. Reinforcing roof strata with roof
bolts will help to diminish the range of fracture zone
and, ipso facto, to reduce support loading.
REFERENCES
Engineer Manual 1110-1-2907. 1980. Engineering and
Design. ROCK REINFORCEMENT. Department of the
Army U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Hoek, E., Carranza-Tores, C. & Corkum, B. 2002. Hoek-
Brown failure criterion – 2002 edition. Proceedings
North American Rock Mechanics Society. Meeting in
Toronto. http://www.rocscience.com/hoek/references.
Hoek, E., Kaiser, P.K. & Bawden, W.F. 1995. Support of
underground excavations in hard rock. Balkema: Rot-
terdam: 215.
Hoek, E. & Marinos, P. 2007. A brief history of the devel-
opment of the Hoek-Brown failure criterion. Soil and
Rocks, 2. http://www.rocscience.com/hoek/references.
Jing, L. & Hudson, J. A.2002. Numerical methods in rock
mechanics. International Journal Of Rock Mechanics &
Mining Sciences, 39: 409-427.
Majcherczyk, T., Małkowski, P. & Niedbalski, Z. 2007.
Measurements of roof support load in headings: in situ
research. Technical, technological and economic as-
 pects of thin-seams coal mining: International Mining
Forum / eds. Eugeniusz J. Sobczyk & J. Kicki. London,
[etc.]: Taylor & Francis: 37-46.
Majcherczyk, T., Małkowski, P. & Niedbalski, Z. 2008.
Rock mass movements around development workings in
various density of standing-and-roof-bolting support.
Journal of Coal Science & Engineering (China), 3.
Vol. 14: 356-360.
Majcherczyk, T., Niedbalski, Z. & Małkowski, P. 2008.
82
Symptoms of rock pressure: in situ research. New chal-
lenges and visions for mining: 21st World Mining Con-
gress. Poland, Kraków-Katowice-Sosnowie. E.J. Sobczyk
& J. Kicki. London [etc.]: CRC Press/Balkema: 167-176.
Rock Mechanics Technology Ltd. 2004. Coal mine road-
way support system handbook. Research Raport 229a,
HSE Book: 67.
Sheorey, P.R. 1997. Empirical Rock Failure Criteria. A.A.
Balkema, Rotterdam/Brookfield: 176.
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Calculation substantiation of the yield lock model

of the polygonal yieldable support with elongated props
by means of experiment

I. Kovalevska & V. Fomychyov

National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
A. Vyvcharenko
OJSC “Pavlogradugol”, Pavlograd, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: Computer modeling of geomechanical system “rock massif-polygonal yieldable support with
elongated props (“PYSEP”) is substantiated on full diagram of deformation of all its components with a
model of yield lock that allows to ensure stability of the computation process with formed wide base of
considered parameters of the system. Spatial geomechanical model of displacement around in-seam opening
of thin-seam massif of weak rocks is substantiated, taking into consideration finite-elements pattern of real
geometrical parameters of a frame support, step bearings, laggings and support area with appropriate condi-
tions of their contact and real mechanical characteristics. The model is performed with help of finite-
elements method based on modern computer programs and their applications.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 STAGES OF MODELLING

Accumulated experience of computer modeling of Nevertheless, task of adequate reflection of construc-

stress and strain state of a rock massif that contains
an opening and its support, indicates on the neces-
sity of preliminary creation of geomechanical model
for consecutive solving of a line of tasks with com-
pulsory testing of gained results to determine if they
correspond to classical regulations of mechanics of
underground constructions and natural observations
in concrete mining-geological and mining-technical
conditions. This analysis is needed not only for
control of modeling process and elimination of
possible technical errors in technology of calcula-
tions execution but also it is always needed to
constantly look for a compromise between computa-
tional ability of computers, performance of software
and tendency for maximum degree of presentation
of real object. With regard to construction of the
support, this requirement for modeling of the system
“rock massif-support” acquires increased currency.
The difficulties lie in the reflection of real design
features of the support elements, linear dimensions
of which are many times smaller than the average
dimensions of the coal-containing strata compo-
nents, and that requires smaller finite-element mesh
and considerably increases time needed for calcula-
tions even when using quite powerful computer
equipment.
tion of a frame support “PYSEP-15.0” in system
“rock massif-support” was considered in the previous
researches. Real cross section of a frame made of
special profile SCP-27 (special curved profile) with
precise reflection of construction of the yield lock,
step bearing and interframe shield made of metal
mesh, and also shape of the frame support have
been modeled.
Special profile SCP is made of steel-5 (Geleskul
1982) with following mechanical characteristics:
rated yield point  y  270 MPa, modulus of elastic-
ity E f  21 10 4 MPa, Poisson’s ratio  f  0.3 .
These characteristics are accepted for calculation
when modeling the full diagram of deformation of
steel-5, that includes elastic stage (    y ), area of
almost ideal yield (    y ) and stage of metal
strengthening until it reaches the value of temporal
tear resistance  t  560 MPa (  y     t ).
Reflection of the full diagram of steel-5 deforma-
tion allows to consider occurrence and development
of plastic deformations in a frame that are often
observed in mine conditions. Such approach con-
tributed to increase of adequacy of modeling to a
real object. But construction and operating regimes
of the yield lock required conduction of special

83
researches in order to make a full diagram of defor-
(а)
(b)
Figure 1. Stress and strain state of the system “rock massif-
support” with full reflection of the yield lock’s design:
(а) distribution diagram of vertical stresses σ у ; (b) distribu-
tion diagram of axial stresses  z .
At the first modeling stage of the yield lock, an
attempt was made to precisely reflect its structure
with regard to the support “PYSEP-15.0”. Resulting
from a quite labor-intensive and long process of
adaptation of the software with the features of real
construction of the lock, initial and boundary condi-
tions of its modeling, it was possible to perform a
calculation of stress and strain state of the system
“rock massif-support”: distribution diagram of the
vertical stresses  y (Figure 1a) and axial stresses  z
(Figure 1, b); distribution diagrams of the shown
stresses  (Figure 2a) and horizontal stresses  x
(Figure 2b). But the calculation of stress and strain
state of the system was successful only in elastic
condition until the support subsidence (until the yield
lock actuation) that is characterized by little disloca-
tion of the opening’s contour. An attempt of model-
ing of full diagrams of deformation of all elements of
the system “rock massif-support” has discovered
instability of the calculations performance technology
using finite-elements method (FEM) because of, as it
appears to us, static unbalance of a frame in the area
84
mation of the material it is made of.
(а)
(b)
Figure 2. Stress and strain state of the system “rock massif-
support” with full reflection of the yield lock’s structure:
(а) distribution diagram of calculation stresses  ; (b) distri-
bution diagram of horizontal stresses  x .
of lock joint. Analysis of the given situation has
discovered that because of “point” contact of end
sections of the props and roof beam with each other
in the lock and a small area of this contact, a possibil-
ity of deformation (dislocation) of the frame by a big
value emerges (along coordinates X, Y and Z) with
quite little increment load that malfunctions in the
program and stops stress and strain state computation.
The situation gets even more complicated while
modeling the yielding process of the lock when roof
beam slides relatively the prop because of existing
geometry of the frame, the area of their contact on the
sector of the lock changes arbitrarily with increase of
free dislocation of the frame (static imbalance) in any
direction. Also perspective of development of given
geomechanical model is needed to be taken into
consideration in order to reflect real scheme of the
bolts installation, possibility of plastic flow of ar-
mouring metal of the bolts and frame, emergence of
areas of not only softening but also loosening in
adjacent rock massif, taking into account rheological
factors and rock fracturing. Thus, consideration of all
mentioned factors led to essential complication of
geomechanical model that objectively increased
instability of technologies of stress and strain state
calculations and real indefiniteness of time of over-
coming of the given difficulties of modeling. There-
fore, it seemed more rational to idealize construction
of the yield lock that would allow to stably continue
(а)
(b)
Figure 3. Stress and strain state of the frame support with
simulators of the yield locks: (а) distribution diagram of
calculation stresses  ; (b) distribution diagram of horizontal
stresses  x .
3 PRELIMINARY RESULTS
Simulation of the idealized yield lock design was
performed in two stages. On the first one – a pad was
placed in the area of the yield lock location, it is made
of easily-deformable material that under influence of
compression forces in the frame ensured its yielding.
With that, stability of process of stress and strain state
system calculation was gained with full diagram of
deformation of its elements, and to prove that, some
distribution diagrams of deformations and disloca-
tions in a frame support were shown on the Figures 3
and 4. Analysis of distribution diagrams  y and  x
has shown their correspondence to classical regula-
tions of mechanics of underground constructions:
roof beam of the frame is under influence of local
85
calculations of stress and strain state of the system
“rock massif-support”. But simplification of the lock
design is not supposed to deviate its deformation-load
characteristics when working in the yielding mode.
Given condition, as it seems to us, will allow to fully
adequately simulate the work of the yield lock.
(а)
(b)
Figure 4. Stress and strain state of the frame support with
simulators of the yield locks: (а) distribution diagram of
vertical stresses σ у ; (b) distribution diagram of full displace-
ments U .
tensile stresses and little compression stresses  y ,
and the props are subjected to considerable compres-
sion stresses  y because they accumulate all vertical
load on themselves; horizontal stresses  x have a
quite high value of compression in roof beam (accu-
mulates side pressure of rocks on itself) and sign-
changing stresses  x act along the contour of the
props and this is provided by their bend deformations.
Shown stresses  (using which we perform further
strength calculation) indicate on the average level of
load on the roof beam (from 20% till 60% from yield
point of steel-5) and high load on the props with
formation of limited plastic areas in zones of their
bearings and at the level of height of the zone of
people passage. Artificially increased scale (for
presentation) of full dislocations (Figure 4b) indicates 0.8 Pmax
on bending of the props at height of 0.8…1.5 m with  ly  sin  ,
2F
range of movements of frame into the workings’
space U  20...30 mm. These results do not contra- where F – cross-section area of SCP;  – angle of
dict visual observations of the support’s condition on position of the lock’s center relatively to the vertical
an experimental area of a conveyor footway at mine axis of the opening.
“Yubileynaya” OJSC “Pavlogradugol”. So, for standard type of the support PYSEP-15.0 and
Thus, simulating of a yield lock with deformational SCP-27 at the experimental area of conveyor passage
pads made of easily-deformable material does not Pmax  490 kN,   44 , F  34.37 10 4 m2. Then,
considerably deviate the pattern of load of a frame
support. accordingly to the formula we get the value of the
lock’s material’s yield point  ly  39.3 MPa, which
we choose for the calculation. Modulus of elasticity
4 NUMERICAL MODELS
and Poisson’s ratio we take as for steel-5
The second stage of the lock simulation is per- ( E l  E f  21 10 4 MPa,  l   f  0.3 ) and that
formed in order to achieve adequacy of the real elastic deformation characteristics would be constant
yield process in a numerical pattern. In this connec- along all frame’s contour.
tion deformation-load characteristics of the lock
presents dependence of reaction of its resistance P
from the value of yield U y (as a rule, in a vertical
direction along coordinate Y ).
A row of laboratory researches of the frame three-
link yieldable support, in particular on the stands of
Institute of Mining of A.A. Skochynskiy (Russian
Federation) shows (Figure 5a) the kind of work of the
lock made of special profile SCP that approaches a
mode of constant resistance (Melnikov 1980). Using
the same experiments it is established that having
correct assembly of the lock, frame support transfers
into mode of yield with resistance being
Py  0.7...0.8Pmax , that approaches maximum load
capacity of the frame Pmax . Described mode of quasi-
constant resistance of the yield lock can be quite ade-
quately expressed by a diagram of the ideal plasticity of
material (Figure 5b), that is located in the frame along
the coordinates of the locks installations. Parameters of
the material should express real deformation-load
characteristics of the lock for concrete typical cross-
section and a special profile SCP. Yield point  ly of
Figure 5. Substantiation of a yield lock model of a frame
the lock simulator should be such as if when having support made of SCP: (a) deformation-load characteristics
average normal stresses in cross-section area of SCP of the real construction of a lock; (b) full diagram of
(in the middle of the lock’s length) with load on the deformation of the lock simulator’s material.
frame equal to 80% from its load capacity, material of
the yield lock’s simulator would transfer into ideal Simulator of the yield lock is placed in a shape of
plasticity and ensure yield of the support. the cross-section of the appropriate special profile
SCP along coordinates of the support locks of real
length equal to 400 mm. This helps to simulate a
5 RESULTS solid frame (from left prop to right one) along the
support contour with two pads made of the lock
Calculation yield point of the material from which simulator’s material that differs from steel-5’s
the yield lock is made of is determined according to mechanical characteristics only by decreased yield
the following formula point. Such idealization of the yield lock has pro-
vided stability of the stress and strain state calcula-

86
tion procedure of the system “rock massif-support”
on all deformation diagram of the materials of all its
elements.
Conducted test of geomechanical model of the
system “rock massif-support” with simulator of
yield lock of the PYSEP support did not reveal
principle contradictions compared to modern re-
searches of dislocation processes of coal-containing
strata near in-seam opening on the one hand and
mine observations – on the other hand, and this
substantiates reasonability of application of de-
signed model for prognostic assessment of the
openings’ condition of block #3 of mine
“Yubileynaya” of OJSC “Pavlogradugol”.
Geomechanical model is opened for its improve-
ment (based upon results of mine researches) par-
ticularly for consideration of factors weakening the
rock and construction-technological features of the
building and maintenance of the openings.
REFERENCES
Gelescul, M.N., Karetnikov V.N. 1982. Reference book for
capital and development workings support. Moscow:
Nedra.
Melnikov, N.I. 1980. Bolt support. Moscow: Nedra.

87
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Design of mine working network on the basis

of their functional-structural description

V. Okalelov
Donbass State Technical University, Alchevsk, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: Mine working network is a complex multifunctional dynamic system, which is adequately
described by the complex of functional, functional-structural and structural-functional models. Functional
description of this system provides generating of project’s ideas using a theory of solving the invention
problems. Searching the options of material carriers of functions is provided by making and estimation of
functional-structural models of mine working networks. They reflect the interconnection between the work-
ings and technological functions performing by them. The original number of options of functional-structural
models is formed using morphological analysis, and separating the subset of preferable ones from it is car-
ried out on three private criteria using Paretto’s procedure.

1 INTRODUCTION modeling a procedure of forming the initial list of

Mine working network (MWN) is a main structural
element of coal mine. Nearly 70% of its capital
costs are expended onto its construction. In recent
years the cost of mining has increased significantly
and is 15-20 million UAH (1.8-2.5 million USD)
per 1 km of mining working (Gogol 2008). Hence,
even a slight decrease in the length of carrying out
excavation leads to significant savings in financial
resources for the renewal of mining works.
At the same time, practical data show that the to-
tal length of the ongoing and supported headings is
increasing. Thus, in “Dobropoleugol” company the
increase for the period from 1970 to 1990 is 43.7%
and if no measures are taken, the extent of heading
in 2010 can be 780 km, and in 2015-825 km (To-
polov 2005). On the basis of these data they came to
conclusion about the necessity to justify the best
optimal concentration parameters of mining works
before the project implementation that is not carried
out at the present moment.
2 MODERN CONTENT OF THE THEORY
OF OPTIMAL MINE WORKING
NETWORK DESIGN
One of the reasons for present situation is the imper-
fection of existing methods of designing optimal
networks of mine workings. Their analysis showed
that the methods based on mathematical program-
ming do not guarantee finding the global optimum.
For methods based on technical-economic com-
parison of variants and the economic-mathematical
options for MWN is complex and ambiguous. So far,
the dominant factor is using the experience and
intuition of designers that does not guarantee inclu-
sion in the initial set of options. An attempt to solve
this problem using combinatorial methods did not
produce the desired result, since on the one hand it
sharply aggravated the problem of the dimension of
the original set, and on the other – the imperfection of
individual criteria for its evaluation aimed at reducing
lead to formation of excessively large subset of
preferred options (up to 80% of the their original
number). In this case the procedure of phased optimi-
zation was extremely hard. Nevertheless, the general
approach to solving the problem by many researchers
has been recognized as very promising. It was em-
phasized that if we can develop a fairly simple proce-
dure of its implementation, it will be a major contri-
bution to the development of a general theory of
optimal design of complex systems.
Impact of the degree of favourable conditions of
coal layers and their individual parts onto the topol-
ogy of MWN didn’t find any adequate reflection in
the known methods of MWN. This factor influences
greatly the order of their processing and, conse-
quently, the configuration of MWN.
The proper attention is not paid to explanation of
the list of technological functions the mine workings
perform and their opportunities to be mixed that
doesn’t allow finding the specific project ideas on
maximum simplification for MWN and increasing
their reliability.
There are still actual questions during MWN de-
sign concerning the probability nature of the initial

89
information and reasonability taking into account
possible errors in initial data. Existing solution
methods for these questions are extremely complex
and labour-intensive to implement. As a result,
practically the dominant models are deterministic
models for MWN design.
In connection with the presented above the devel-
opment of improved methods for the optimal net-
work mining design is a highly relevant scientific
and technical problem.
3 RESULTS
The proposed design method of optimal networks of
mine workings is based on functional-structural
approach, which forms the basis of the functional-
cost designing of technical systems (Moiseyev 1988).
At the initial stage of its implementation the in-
formation supply for the design process is provided.
For mine workings networks it covers a prediction
of engineering-geological conditions that affect the
topology of the MWN and techno-economic pa-
rameters of the mine workings operation.
A particular importance in this case should be
given to identifying heterogeneous environment
conditions of coal beddings and their individual sites.
These problems are solved using the methods de-
scribed in the papers (Okalelov 1988, 2001 & 2008).
In the second stage the generation of principal pro-
ject ideas for mine workings network is made. With
Levels
I F1
II F2
III F21 F22
f211 f214 f221 f223 f231
IV
f212 f213 f222
Figure 7. General functional model of mine working network.
Function F 1 – is the main, F 21 and F 22 are the
main, the rest are secondary of III and IV levels.
An analysis of the MWN FM stipulates an excep-
tion of those functions from it which perform in a
specific context and are not required, as well as
this purpose, the generalized functional model (FM
MWN) is used, which is a logical-graphical represen-
tation of the content and interlinks of technological
functions performed by the mine workings network
(Okalelov 1992). It is presented in Figure 7 and
includes the following functions: F 1 – to provide the
coal production; F 2 – to provide the access from the
surface to mineral extraction area; F 3 – to provide
transfer of mineral to the surface; F 21 , F 22 , F 23 – to
provide opening, preparing and formation of produc-
tion face; F 31 , F 32 , F 33 , F 34 , F 35 , F 36 , F 37 , F 38 , F 39 ,
F 310 – to provide people’s movement, placing the
equipment, coal and material transporting, power
supply, rock transporting, ventilation of mines, water
supply, water pumping, safety for the layers with
dangerous emissions; f 211 , f 212 , f 213 , f 214 – to provide
access from the surface to transport, ventilation and
drainage horizons, access to coal layers; f 221 , f 222 ,
f 311 , f 223 – to divide coal field into the areas, to group
the seams, to prepare the seams; f 231 , f 232 , f 233 – to
form taking-out fields, sites (columns), to set the
heading direction; f 311 , f 312 – to provide people’s
transporting and escape way; f 361 , f 362 – to move the
rock to OKD and to put it out to the surface; f 371 , f 372 ,
f 373 – to supply with fresh air, to refresh the outgoing
air jet, to delete the outgoing air jet; f 374 – to provide
degasation of coal-rock massif; f 391 , f 392 – to move
water to main water storage and pump it out to the
surface.
F3
F23 F31 F32 F33 F34 F35 F36 F37 F38 F39 F310
f232 f233 f311 f312 f361 f362 f371 f374 f391 f392
f372 f373
combined with the implementation of related ones.
After that, the possibility of excluding the remaining
functions is revealed by finding the answer to the
question: how will the superior function be per-
formed, after the exclusion of inferior function,
90
which provides it? Technical contradiction occur-
ring then is overcome with the help of heuristic
methods of theory of inventive problem solving.
Analysis of great number of inventions in the field
of mine workings topology showed that the most
frequently used methods of inversion (vice versa),
fragmentation, taking out, local quality, integration
and versatility.
While generating ideas of the project then several
kinds of design decisions may be obtained each of
which corresponds to a functional model of its own.
Choosing the best of them at this stage using
techno-economic calculations is impossible because
of their complexity and lack of necessary informa-
tion. Therefore the individual evaluation criteria of
perfect functional model have been developed,
which characterize the degree of function concentra-
tion k kf , presence of negative affects for environ-
ment after their implementation k оп and level of
n 1
neutralization of these affects k on : kkf  1  Fi ,
п  1 i 1 Fi 1
kоп  1  Fоп / Fв  , kon  N nn / Fn  N оп  , where
Fi и Fi 1 – number of functions at I and i+1 levels;
n – number of FM’s levels; Fоп – number of
functions, resulting in negative affects; Fв – gen-
Table 1. General view of functional-structural model of MWN.
Main
System Secondary of
elements Fij Fij 1
the 1-st level
Secondary of f ijg fij 1g 1
the 2-st level
1 +
2 +
… … … …
Nэ + +
In Table 1 index + marks necessary functions,
performed by certain heading, and index + poten-
tially possible.
As the initial elements of MWN FM are the cer-
tain mining headings, performing the certain combi-
nations of technological functions, then it leads to
essential development of mining heading classifica-
tion which is adapted to the morphological analysis
procedure. These classifications are given in Table
2, 3, 4.
According to the conformity indicator of the
above subset there was determined the opening,
eral number of secondary functions for all levels of
MWN FM; N нп – number of neutralized negative
affects; N оп – general number of negative affects;
Fн – number of functions required for neutraliza-
tion of negative affects.
These criteria meet the standard requirements for
solving of multiobjective problems: the dimen-
sionless, independence, equivalence and presence of
sense. Therefore, for the integrated assessment of FM
their average k и is used. For the initial MWN k и is
equal to 0.400. Performed calculations showed good
sensitivity to the degree of perfection of MWN FM,
which realization a priori requires the least expenses.
After selecting the most advanced functional
model searching for the variants of the effective
implementation of all listed functions is performed.
This problem is solved by designing and evaluating
the functional-structural models of the network min-
ing (MWN FSM), which represent different variants
of combining the functions with the structural ele-
ments of the system. Their formation is made sepa-
rately for the opening, preparation and excavation
systems through morphological analysis. General
view of MWN FSM is presented in Table. 1.
Functions
Fi Fi 1
Fnm Fi 1, j Fi 1, j 1 Fn 1,m 1
f nmt fi 1 jg fi 1 j 1g 1 f n 1,m 1,t 1
+ +
… … … …
+
preparing and developing headings. Within each
group there are determined subgroups of main and
additional, principal and secondary headings.
Main and additional differ on the indicator of ac-
cess providing to the mineral. Main headings are
intended for transporting of mineral, and secondary –
for performing the rest technological functions. For
each group and subgroup combinations the topologi-
cal indicators are determined as well as variants of
combining the technological functions performance.
Based on this classification the original list of
mines and their characteristics are formed which
91
correspond to the specific geological and techno- cators, characterizing the spatial arrangement of
logical conditions of mining operations. For this openings, it is taken into account the optimal order
purpose, an area of rational using of mines and their of coal seams mining and their plots, bedding in
characteristics is determined. When choosing indi- dissimilar geological conditions.

Table 2. Classification of opening headings.

Classification of opening headings

Headings
Main and additional, principal and
secondary
Main and additional principal
Main and additional secondary
Main and additional, principal and
secondary
Main and additional secondary
Main and additional, principal and
secondary
Characteristics Features
Type Vertical, inclined, horizontal
Place of heading Through coal, through the rock
Combination variants of techno- F 33 , f 362 , f 373 ; F 33 , f 362 , f 373 , f 374 ,
logical functions performing F 35 , F 38 ; F 33 , f 362 ; F 33 ; F 33 ,
f 373 ; F 33 , f 371 , F 34 ; F 33 , F 35 , f 361 ,
f 311 , f 312 , F 34 , f 371 ; F 33 , f 361 , f 373 ,
f 374 ; F 33 , f 361 , F 34 , f 371 ; F 33 ,
f 361 ; f 371
The same f 311 , F 34 , f 371 , f 392 ; f 362 , f 311 , F 34 ,
f 371 , f 392 ; f 373 , f 312 ; F 34 , f 373 ,
f 392 ; f 361 , f 391 ; f 311 , F 34 , f 373 ;
f 311 , F 34 , f 371
Bedding place along the line of Central
stratum stretching
The same Flanking, unit-type
Bedding place along the line of Central, concerned (to upper or
stratum falling lower boundaries of mine field,
horizon boundaries)

Table 3. Classification of preparing headings.

Classification of preparing headings

Headings
Characteristics Features
Main and additional, principal and secondary Type Inclined, horizontal

Temporary The same Vertical, inclined, horizontal

Main and additional, principal and secon-
dary, temporary
Main and additional principal
Main and additional secondary
Main principal and secondary
Additional principal and secondary
Temporary
Main principal and secondary
Place of heading
Combination variants of
technological functions
performing
The same
Bedding place along the line
of stratum stretching
The same
The same
Bedding place along the line
of stratum falling
Through coal, through the rock
F 33 , f 361 , f 373 ; F 33 , f 361 , f 373 , f 374 , F 35 , F 38 ;
F 33 , f 361 ; F 33 , f 373 ; F 33 , f 371 , F 34 ; F 33 , F 34 ,
F 35 , f 311 , f 312 , f 361 , f 371 ; F 33 , f 361 , f 373 , f 374 ;
F 33 , f 361 , F 34 , f 371 ; F 33 , f 361 ; f 371
f 361 , f 311 , F 34 , f 371 , f 391 ; f 373 , f 312 ; f 311 , F 34 ,
f 373 , f 391 ; f 361 , f 311 , F 34 , f 371 ; f 373 , f 391 ; f 311 ,
F 34 , f 373 ; f 311 , F 34 , f 371
Central
Central, flanking, in the center of wing of
mine field, unit, panel
At the boundaries of taking-out fields,
central
Central, concerned (to upper or lower
boundaries of mine field, horizon bounda-
ries)

92
Table 4. Classification of development headings.

Classification of development headings

Headings
Characteristics Features
Main and additional, principal and secon- Type of heading Horizontal, inclined
dary
Additional principal The same Horizontal, inclined, vertical

Additional secondary, temporary The same Horizontal, inclined

Main and additional, principal and secon-
dary, temporary
Main and additional principal
Main and additional secondary
Main principal. Temporary secondary
Main secondary. Temporary principal
Place of heading Through coal, through the rock
Combination variants of techno- F 33 , F 34 , F 35 , f 311 , f 312 , f 371 ; F 33 , F 34 ,
logical functions performing F 35 , f 372 , f 373 , f 374 ; F 33 , f 311 , F 34 , F 35 ,
f 371 ; F 33 , F 34 , F 35 , f 311 , f 361 , f 371 ; F 33 ,
F 34 , F 35 , f 311 , f 372 , f 373 , f 374 , F 33 ; F 33 ,
f 312 , F 311 , F 34 , f 371 ; f 372
The same f 312 , f 372 , f 373 , f 374 ; f 311 , F 34 , F 35 , f 371 ;
f 312 ; F 34 , F 35 , f 371 ; f 312 , F 34 , F 35 , f 372 ,
f 373 ; f 312 , f 373 ; f 312 , F 34 , F 35 , f 361 , f 372 ,
f 373 , f 374 ; f 311 , F 34 , F 35 , f 372
Description on the number of Combined, individual
longwalls maintain
The same Individual

Main principal and secondary. Temporary Order of heading After longwall, before longwall,
principal, parallel to the main passed beforehand
Temporary principal, normal to the main. The same Passed beforehand
Temporary secondary
Main principal, secondary. Temporary, Cancel order Is cancelled after longwall developed,
parallel to the main is supported for repeated usage, is
cancelled following the longwall
Temporary principal and secondary The same Is cancelled after longwall developed

Main principal and secondary Placing relatively to the bedding Along stratum bedding, stratum
elements of stratum falling

After making a morphological list of openings ni – number of characteristics of elements т.

and their characteristics the conditions of their For pair-wise incompatible intersecting character-
incompatibility are formulated. Taking these condi- istics of related elements
tions into account, in the process of generating a set
of morphological variants leads to its significant
reduction. A preliminary assessment of the quantity
k

i p
mk

(N к ) of those variants is therefore necessary to
select the algorithm for generating preferred subsets
from them.
For pairwise incompatible non-intersecting char-
k mk
acteristics N к  N o   niu   ni , where N o –
i p i t
m
initial number of variants N o   ni , niu – number
i 1
of incompatible characteristics for i-th element
(heading); k – number of р- elements, which contain
pairwise incompatible features; t – element’s order
number, not containing incompatible characteristics;
i t
d

N к  N o   niu   ni   ni  niu  niu  ni 1 ,
is
 
where d – number of elements, which contains pair-
wise intersecting incompatible characteristics; s –
element’s order number, which contains intersecting
pairwise incompatible characteristics.
For all other conditions of incompatibleness the
upper limit N к is determined on the developed
algorithm, based upon graph’s theory in combina-
tion with matrix method and morphological analy-
sis. The developed algorithm allows determining the
number of technically performed variants of any
system that makes it universal.
Finding from the initial variety of variants the

93
subset of preferable is performed by using Paretto’s
procedure. For its realization there were developed
three private functional-structural criteria: compati-
bility degree of functions k cF , their width k шF and
concentration of structural elements k N
m m
c c п п
 N i Fi  N i Fi
i 1 i 1
kcF  , k rf  , t 1 -year of construction or reconstruction, UAH; Е –
N com Fcom N com Fcom
m expenditures; Т 0 – recoupment period of initial
 N i ni
i 1
kN  , (1)
N com ncom
where N ic – number of elements, performing і-th set
of functions combination Fic ; m – number of vari-
ants of functions combination; N com – total number
of elements; Fcom – total number of functions per-
forming; N iп – number of elements, performing і-th
set of potential functions combination Fiп ; N i –
number of elements (headings), maintaining the і-th
set of mine field parts ni ; ncom – general number of
mine field parts, maintained by all headings.
These criteria are obtained using matrix approach
and accordingly characterize specific weight of
filled matrix cells N com  Fcom and N com  пcom .
Criterion k cF characterizes the multifunctionality
level of of system elements, k rf – its adaptive ability
and k N – concentration level for mine works.
Applying only 3 local estimative criteria allows
determining of about 10-12% morphological variants
from the initial number into the number of more
preferable ones that makes it able to significantly
smooth the actuality of its dimension problem.
From formed subsets of preferable complexes of
opening, preparing and developing headings the
initial variety of variants of MWN FM is synthe-
sized, which includes all mentioned groups of
headings. Synthesis and estimation method for these
variants is similar to considered above. As a result
the subset of preferable synthesized variants of
MWN topology is formed where it is chosen the
optimal variant using the criterion (2).
n
 
То m
   P Bi Ц ti  Cti    P A j Ц tj  Ctj
t  0 i 1 j 1
Т1
  K t1 1  E t1 ,
t1  0
where Р(В i ) and Р(А j ) – probability of developing
the stocks on the i-th site with favourable and j-th
site with unfavorable bedding conditions; n and m –
number of favourable and unfavorable sites within
the mine field thereafter; Ц ti and С ti , Ц tj and С tj –
price and totally mined cost price per excavation of
1 ton of coal at i-th favourable and j-th unfavourable
sites relatively, UAH.; Z пр.t – industrial reserves,
developed in t-year after a mine put into operation
or its reconstruction, tons; K t1 – capital expenses in
accepted standard for benefit ability of capital
capital expenditures, years; Т 1 – period of mine’s
construction, years.
Risk level estimation for realization of the opti-
mal variant is made by generating of quasirandom
values of total effect Э с from development of de-
posit, which is calculated using the optimal criterion
(1) due to excluding from the probable total income
the value of given initial capital costs.
Combination of factors and indicators which in-
fluence Э с is generated using planning principles
for experiments and morphological analysis.
In the complex of formed values Э с a theoretical
law of their distribution is set. After that for mini-
mum hurdle in terms of investor value of the total
income Эс min the probability of its unconfirmed α
is calculated, which is taken into account when
calculating the potential damage from denial У 1 or
agree to invest the project У 2 : У1  1     Эс min ,
T1
У 2    K t 1  Е t1 , according to these results the
t 0
final decision on reasonability of investment into
realization of optimal MWN project is accepted.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the obtained results we can conclude the
following:
– it is proved that mine workings network
(MWN) is adequately described by complex of their
functional and functional-cost models;
– project’s ideas generation is more effective on
the basis of analysis of organization level of func-
tional models of MWN and their estimation using
functional criteria;
– the developed classification of mine headings
 Z пр.t 
allows forming of morphological variants of their
 networks and determining the subset of preferable
ones from them using developed functional-
(2) structural criteria;
– determining from the subset of preferable vari-
ant is made by means of proposed optimal criterion,
based on the internal income standard and distribu-
tion of probabilities of an arbitrary number of joint
and mutually exclusive events that characterize the
94
different degree of homogeneity and complexity of
the conditions of coal seams bedding;
– risk level estimation for realization of the opti-
mal variant is made on the basis of analysis of
theoretical distribution law for quasirandom values
of total income from project performance and prob-
ability of its non-confirmation volume from the
investor’s point.
REFERRENCES
Gogol, L.I. & Gorelenko, V.Ye. 2008. Problems of price
formation in coal mining industry. Ugol Ukrainy: 14-15.
Topolov, V.S., Gryduschiy, B.A. & Petrenko, S.M. 2005.
95
Coal mining industry of Ukraine: Energy resources,
perspectives, state, problems and development strategy.
Donetsk: Ltd Co Alan: 408.
Moiseyeva, N.K. & Korpunin, M.G. 1988. Principles of
theory and practice of functional-cost analysis. Mos-
cow: Higher school: 320.
Okalelov, V.N. & Frumkin, R.A. 1988. Methods for
determining the comparative valuability and order of
exploration of coal sites. Ugol Ukrainy, 11: 27-29.
Okalelov, V.N. 2001. Prediction method of enlarged cost
parameters in market conditions. Ugol Ukainy: 44-46.
Okalelov, V.N. 2008. Prediction method of technical-
economic parameters of longwall and mines operation
applicable to estimation of coal deposits. Alchevsk:
DonSTU. Issue, 26: 33-49.
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Conditions for safe underground gasification

of lignite in Poland

J. Kudelko & J. Nowak

KGHM CUPRUM LTD. – Research & Development Centre, Wroclaw, Poland

ABSTRACT: The paper contains the analyze of possibilities and conditions for underground gasification of
lignite. Standing regulations with regard of lignite deposit utilization as well as requirements concerning
keeping the sustainable development policy while implementing this method are presented. Particular atten-
tion was paid to geotechnical problems encountered during lignite mining in Polish deposit conditions. Geo-
technical protection of safe lignite utilization by its gasification involves many issues such as presence of
underground water, predicted land subsidence and deformation, mining technology etc. Great importance is
attached to surface facilities and buildings safety and to protection of urban areas. The analyze showed that
underground gasification of lignite gives a great chance to utilize the big part of resources which are very
difficult to extract using other methods, due to the surface conditions. It offers also a diversification of en-
ergy source.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 GEOLOGY OF LIGNITE DEPOSIT AREAS

Methods of lignite utilization by its gasification
have been known for a long time and have been
successfully applied during last decades, especially
the underground gasification. Most of output in this
method development comes from numerous studies
and applications carried out in former Soviet Union
countries. Those achievements were implemented in
dynamic development of many countries.
Currently the research studies on using the under-
ground gasification of lignite are carried out in
Poland funded by the science grants but also by
KGHM Polska Miedź SA. The dominating opinion
in the company says that the word experience
should be utilized in order to shorten the research
period before implementation of commercial instal-
lations. In light of previous technological achieve-
ments such approach will substantially accelerate
the possibility of practical application of under-
ground gasification of lignite (PZWB).
One of the barrier, in implementing this method,
is a way of reporting the lignite resources and legal
procedure while applying for exploration and min-
ing concession. Standing regulations concerning the
above issues is very favorable for the open pit min-
ing methods. According to these regulations, under-
ground gasification of lignite is regarded as lignite
mining through unconventional method.
IN RESPECT OF PZWB IMPLEMENTATION
Geology of lignite deposit areas in Poland is very
complex. The lignite beds are usually horizontal or
with little inclination but also a disturbed beds are
encountered. Thus the techniques of underground
gasification specific for horizontal beds will domi-
nate. They are much more difficult in practice than
the ones applied in case of deposits having big
inclination.
The lignite may have a form of many beds or one
very thick bed, for example 35 m ore more, but also it
may be divided into several layers. Typical is high
humidity of lignite beds, reaching 40-50%, what in
turn causes problems with dewatering and dosing the
vapor necessary in gasification process. Moreover, in
the overburden multi-layer complex systems of dif-
ferent soils such as: sands, clays, muds, aggregates
i.e. mostly crushed formations, occur. Very often the
over-lignite beds are aquifers, what is a great chal-
lenge while draining them and preparing the opera-
tion of underground gas generators. Complex struc-
ture of the overburden requires such location of gas
generators to have the impermeable soils within the
zone of continuous deformations, therefore at the
proper distance over the high temperature sectors. It
is aimed to protect the tight bed from the thermal
impact and the structural changes. If it is impossible,
the additional engineering methods of sealing the
zones over the gas generators should be used.

97
 Separate and very important issue is a protection
of surface and underground water reservoirs. Since
the researches show attenuation of contamination 30
meters from its source, it is deemed that minimal
distance from the reservoir should be 40 m. Utiliza-
tion of such 10 m long safety zone is, however, not
always sufficient. Additional analyze of geological
and water conditions of the deposit area where
gasification is planned becomes necessary. In such
cases model studies using advanced software, bas-
ing on finite elements method, are the most justi-
fied.

Table 1. Hydrogeological conditions.

Utility aquifers and main under-
ground water reservoirs
Porosity of surrounding rocks
Water inflow
Filtration properties of rocks
Beds occurring below utility aquifers (minimal distance 40 m),
absence of main underground water reservoirs in close vicinity of
prospective extraction field (minimal distance – 2 km)
Rocks above and below the deposit sholud have smaller gas perme-
ability than the lignite bed, Thickness of rock with low permeability
surrounding the lignite bed should be 1-2 m for 2 m thick lignite bed
or 2-4 m for 3-10 m lignite bed
Maximum volume of water necessary gas production is 0.5 ton per
1 ton of gasified lignite, water surplus should be pumped out
Lignite bed porosity vs. surrounding rock porosity should not be
smaller than 18:20

One of the crucial issue while using PZWB
method is protection against excessive subsidence,
especially of non-continuous nature. In many coun-
tries using PZW installations, the surface subsidence
problem is of smaller importance due to location of
the site where the extraction is carried out or be-
cause of specific outcrop structure. It may be a
depopulated land or located on mining area, where
extraction using other methods takes place or the
overburden is formed of soft rocks. However, in
Poland the population is high, the surface infrastruc-
ture is complex: roads, numerous buildings, rail-
ways, power supply lines etc. In such situation the
land subsidence is not acceptable.
The overburden occurring over the lignite deposit
is formed of loose soil beds. These are sands of
different granulation, often water saturated, clays,
silts, muds and others. Layers of such soil are often
interrupted, have numerous lens and admixtures and
structural discontinuities. Under such conditions,
subsidence is integral process accompanying this
type of extraction. In case of PZW the subsidence is
bigger because the over lying soils are the subject of
additional deformations resulting from thermo-
consolidation processes i.e. changes of humidity,
swelling and shrinking, cracking and uncontrolled
water flows.
3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
AND PZWB METHOD
Objective with regard of sustainable development is
an effort to maintain the balanced relations between
technical progress, environmental protection and
economic development. PZW method is relatively
cheap, however, in case of adverse deposit parame-
ters costs of its application increase. Also protecting
the environment from its negative impact may be
expensive. In this instance the location of deposit is
of vital importance, Table 2.

Table 2. Site conditions for PZW installation.

Area required for PZW minimal area for pilot installation is 50-100 ha (0.5-1 km2), for commercial
installation installation over 100 ha, changing location
Safety conditions Minimal distance from: residential areas (1-3 km), rivers and lakes
(1-3 km), protection areas (5 km), operating mines/mining areas
(5 km), closed mines/workings (3 km), power lines and railroads (1-3 km)
Legal conditions Preparing the opinion on environmental impact, identifying land property,
getting concession for deposit exploration, geological study concerning
probable mineral reserves, public consultation, delimitation of mining area
and getting concession for deposit extraction, buying the land

98
 When planning the location of area for under-
ground gasification, the critical elements of infra-
structure and environment, present over the deposit,
must be taken into consideration. Among these
elements are: land development (buildings, telecom
and power lines, gas mains, roads, railroads), level
of land use, distance from old mine workings and
operating conventional mines, environmental condi-
tions (soils, forests, protection areas, lakes, rivers).
All those factors may be decisive with regard of
possibility of using the method in agreement with
environment and community development.
Currently high capacity installations for under-
ground gasification are widely used. However, they
are not suitable for very big deposits, which, when
mined using open pit method, give 20-30 million
tons per year during many years. Conventional
method does not need also great volumes of back-
filling material preventing the subsidence. While the
PZW method does not guarantee the development of
whole big deposit but only a part of it, due to the
demand for huge amount of backfilling material.
In such case constructing many smaller installa-
tions spread over the big area seems to be reason-
able. It is important to diversify the energy sources
and to limit the power loses on big transmission
lines.
Underground gasification systems give the wide
range of products with different application such as
energetic gas, heat, power energy, liquid fuels (oil
and gas) and numerous valuable but less commonly
used products. For first Polish implementations the
most reasonable is production of energetic gas,
power energy and heat energy manufactured in the
co-generation systems.
4 GEOTECHNICAL PROTECTION IN PZWB
METHOD IMPLEMENTATION
Like in every mine, the geotechnical issues are
extremely important in case of underground lignite
gasification. They decide about the possibility of
using this method. Geotechnical processes occurring
during the lignite mining from Polish deposits con-
cern many elements of their development. Geotech-
nical protection aimed to assure the safe utilization
of lignite reserves using this method refers to un-
derground water, predicted land subsidence and
deformations, mining system and environmental
protection.
When PZW method is used, the effective drain-
age of the part of lignite deposit destined for gasifi-
99
cation is of great importance. In some cases not only
drainage will be necessary but also silting-up the
extremely permeable aquifers. It may be necessary
to maintain the water inflow on the level enabling
the proper gasification process. Otherwise the syn-
gas parameters will be on inadequate level.
Under Polish conditions extremely important is
backfilling the voids formed as a result of gasifica-
tion. The geological structure and processes occur-
ring inside the overburden layers show that these
voids will be formed generally in the lignite bed and
inside the overburden. It is a result of roof collapse
due to the stability loss. The overburden falling into
the voids and solid products of gasification are
porous. Blow gases flow well through the empty
spaces despite the rubble formation, and at the same
time the loosen overburden and empty rooms shift
upwards. In such case the backfilling may be held
even in the over lignite zone. It requires the proper
identification of room location in order to fill it with
backfilling material as fully as possible. Both hy-
draulic and pneumatic methods may be used there.
When the beds are thicker and there are several gas
generators (lignite beds) caving results in adding the
post-reaction voids what in turn allow for better
filling them. Thus the backfilling effectiveness is
better.
Further subsidence protection may be achieved by
using the proper organization of mining operations.
Gasification may be carried out along the line
courses, leaving the temporary, safety pillars be-
tween them. After gasification of lignite along two
lines and backfilling them, the gasification of pillar
between two lines can be started. Such organization
of mining effectively prevents the subsidence and at
the same time allows for efficient utilization of
deposit as well as reduction of loses.
Using adequate and properly selected geotechnical
solutions is a condition for correct operation of the
installation and protection against adverse impact on
the environment.
5 CONDITIONS FOR IMPLEMENTING
THE METHOD IN POLAND
The basis during implementation of PZW method
and constructing the installation for underground
gasification are the project assumptions which
describe the function, power and period of enter-
prise in details and thereby specify the minimal
level of lignite reserves. When it is planned to ex-
tend the project it is necessary to provide the possi-
bility of mining further mining fields.
Table 3. Specification of qualification criteria for lignite beds destined for underground gasification.
Qualification criterion
Type of lignite
Physical & chemical properties of lignite
critical for gasification process
Thickness of lignite bed
Depth of lignite bed
Inclination of lignite bed
Rock mass and surrounding rocks tectonics
Lithology of overburden rocks
Water conditions
Reserves volume
Preliminary safety conditions
Planned installations for underground gasification
must meet the requirements of:
– Geological and mining law;
– Power energy law;
– Environmental protection law;
– Building law;
– Land development plan.
Consistency with above legal document impose
many, difficult to meet, conditions, which imple-
mentation may continue over even several years.
The possibility of using underground lignite gasi-
fication in Poland meets with big public expecta-
tions. It mostly results from the belief that this
method can totally replace open pit mining, widely
used now. Disadvantage of the latter, in public
opinion, is the degradation of environment. Most
often it is caused by shortage of knowledge, among
local community, about proper procedure of carry-
ing out mining activity and about its effects. There
is also lack of common knowledge concerning the
legal requirements with regard of planning and
monitoring such projects. Before launching any
project the vide information campaign should be
carried out among local population about safety
issues concerning social and environmental aspects
of the investment.
Under the shortage of information the method of
underground gasification is regarded as equal alter-
native for open pit mining. However, it is not al-
ways reasoned.
Characteristics
xylite, xylite-earthy, earthy, bituminous
Preferred lignite with ash content below 20%, and low
sulphur content
More than 2 m, optimal – 4 m and more
Recommended more than 150 m
preferowane pokłady poziome lub o niewielkim kącie
nachylenia
Preferred absence of cracks and big tectonic distur-
bances (faults)
Preferred grounds of small permeability (clays, silts,
muds)
Preferred beds laying below utility aquifers (minimal
assumed distance – 40 m), absence of main under-
ground water reservoirs in the vicinity of planned instal-
lations
– research installation; minima reserves of 75,000 –
450,000 tons of lignite,
– commercial installation; min. 3.5 million ton sof
lignite.
Preferred absence of surface facilities, rivers, lakes,
protected areas
Poland has quite big reserves of lignite. Thus all
available and technically processed methods of its
extraction should be used. It is also possible to use
the PZW method as supplementary with relation to
open pit mining on the same deposit or its part.
Anyway the correctly elaborated technical design is
necessary.
The method of lignite deposit evaluation if it
qualifies for gasification, presented here, is only a
preliminary one. Different engineering measures are
possible to improve the gasification conditions
resulting from geological and hydrogeological
conditions. However, additional engineering meth-
ods may be expensive thus the final decision about
applying the gasification depends on the cost-
effectiveness of the project. The latter will change in
the course of time depending on costs, prices, tech-
nical progress etc. Each project requires complex
economic evaluation in order to identify possible to
obtain profits offered by this method.
In case of PZW installation the biggest impact on
costs have drillings made to build the exploitation
(air blow and syngas extraction) and drainage wells.
Therefore the most productive is gasification of
lignite beds having great thickness.
Therefore economic, technical, legal and social
factors decide about PZW method implementation.
100
6 СONCLUSIONS
Popularity of underground lignite gasification
method consistently increases. It is a result of Clean
Lignite Technologies development. Probably in
Poland it will be implemented within several years,
what is a consequence of its development in many
countries. Operation of gasification systems for
example in China (and other countries) in the com-
mercial scale, gives a chance for constructing, in a
short time, such installations also in Poland.
Implementation of this method requires meeting
many legal conditions concerning mining, power
energy and building operations. Extremely high
expectations concern the environmental issues.
Polish environmental standards are currently com-
patible wit European Union ones. The EU also
controls observing them.
Mining activity subject the special requirements.
Basing on to date experience concerning the prepa-
ration of underground gasification it may be con-
cluded that:
101
1. Construction of commercial installation in Po-
land is possible within 6-8 years.
2. The conditions for PZW installation implemen-
tation are as follows:
– proceeding formal and legal action in coopera-
tion with relevant authorities and elaboration of
necessary regulations,
– finding the social acceptance for new method,
– training the technical staff for handling the gasi-
fication system,
– carrying our reasonable strategy of lignite de-
posit development (including their protection) with
regard of environmental protection policy.
REFERENCES
Pre-feasibility study for pilot installation using under-
ground gasification of lignite deposit and project com-
mercialization. 2010. KGHM CUPRUM – CBR, Wro-
cław (not published).
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4
Control and power supply
of highly efficient mining plough systems
M. Lubryka & J. Lubryka
Elgór + Hansen Company, Kopex, Poland
ABSTRACT: The paper presents experience gained during development, implementation and commission-
ing of high performance plough units rated to new generation of machines as well as outlines specification of
the power supply and control systems for coal plough units.
1 INTRODUCTION
Detailed analyses of the balance on the market of
power and fuels demonstrate that demand for coal,
gas and coking grades shall be gradually increasing
(Tor 2008). Even under circumstances of the current
economic crisis one can clearly see that reserves of
crude oil and natural gas are still less and less whilst
the hard coal still remains quite cheap and reliable
energy carrier that guarantees safety of power sup-
plies to Poland and improves fuel balance in other
countries of the European Union. However, the
indispensable provision that the verified and bal-
anced reserves of coal are used in the appropriate
manner is the wise and efficient management of the
possessed coal deposits. Reasonable means that the
management is aimed at limitation of coal losses to
the minimum amount, which is achieved by extrac-
tion of thin seams, whilst efficient mining technolo-
gies are understood as those that are modern, safe,
highly productive and reduce involvement of human
personnel in mining operations (Tor 2008).
Such definition of trends and demands to the min-
ing technologies encourages application of mining
plough units due to their obvious advantages
(Myszkowski & Paschedag 2008):
a) possibility to effectively extract thin coal
seams;
b) less disintegration of the virgin coal and, con-
sequently, possibility to extract coarser coal grades;
c) possibility to extract with shallow webs with
quick advance or power roof support in areas with
the hazard of brittle roof;
d) simplified and more lightweight design of the
mining equipment;
e) improvement of occupational comfort and safety
owing to automation of the extraction process.
Automation and control facilities are the most
important components of the highly efficient plough
103
technology that is essentially based on electrohy-
draulic control of the powered roof support (Mysz-
kowski & Paschedag 2008). Operation of the
plough-based set of equipment is carried out from
the dedicated control panel that is placed either in
the end tail gate or on the mine surface – no person-
nel is needed on spot to directly operate the plough.
Operators at the control panel are on-line informed
about essential operation parameters associated with
the equipment status and are able to make correc-
tions of these parameters (Stopa 2008). The plough-
based technology for extraction of thin seams is
successfully applied in Germany, Russia, China, the
USA, Czech Republic and Kazakhstan (Materiały
reklamowe).
Over the years 2006 to 2008 the plough-based
technology was thoroughly examined with the aim
of its application to extraction of newly developed
seams at the “Zofiówka” Colliery of the Jastrzębska
Coal Company plc. as well as Lublin Coal “Bog-
danka” plc. In case of the both mines the analysis
has led to the decision to launch coal extraction with
use of high-performance plough systems.
Innovative solutions of explosion-proof and intrin-
sically safe design developed by Elgór+Hansen and
intended to supply extraction machinery with electric
power have proved their applicability under tough
conditions of underground excavations. In addition,
the acquired operation experience with simultaneous
tracing the newest research and scientific develop-
ments have enabled company to offer, within a rela-
tive short time period, dedicated solutions that not
only guarantee high level of safety but also meet
requirements of applicability of the delivered equip-
ment for the high-performance plough units.
The attention must be paid that the innovative
approach covers also automation of the machinery
operation with computer control as well as connec-
tion of computers by means of IT networks in order
to achieve full-speed and comprehensive data ex-
change. The degree of technical advance of com-
puter networks in the mining industry, availability
of access to networks and popularity of such solu-
tions are on a very high level, both on the side of
technological processes and the equipment that is
intended for automatic control of the same. That is
why manufacturers, designers, users and operators
of modern equipment have to cope with really
demanding challenges.
2 POWER SUPPLYING AND CONTROL
EQUIPMENT FOR THE HIGH-
PERFORMANCE PLOUGH UNIT
Technological solutions that were implemented in
high-performance plough units enforced application
of medium voltage to supply machinery incorpo-
rated into the unit. Elevated supplying voltage not
only improves reliability of the power supplying
means to the machinery but is also conducive to
enhancing of occupational safety and demonstrates a
series of additional advantages (Morawiec 2009):
1. Makes it possible to deploy a part of electric
power supplying equipment, in particular portable
flameproof transformer station, outside the longwall
length or within a substantial distance from the
same, which allows to decrease:
a) ambient temperature in excavations;
b) extraction expenses due to reduction of the
amount of electric equipment.
2. Eliminates problems associated with installa-
tion of more powerful drives in the machinery of the
unit,
3. Allows to use hose cables with smaller diame-
ters.
As early as in 1999 Elgór+Hansen focused its at-
tention on designing and implementation of equip-
ment for the voltage of 3.3 kV. Approving assess-
ments, gained experience associated with operation
of flameproof contactor switches, thyristor starters
and transformer station are the reason for continu-
ous perfection of products offered by the company
with particular attention paid to improvement of
operational safety and selection of the best available
and the most advanced subassemblies that make up
together really high-performance longwall extrac-
tion units as well as plough-based units, ready for
challenges of 21st century.
2.1 Transformer stations of the explosion-proof
design
Transformer stations offered by Elgór+Hansen for
to supply plough-bases sets of equipment meet
104
really high technological demands, guarantee opera-
tional reliability and definitely improve occupa-
tional comfort and safety of maintenance service-
men in mines. Power supplying systems of plough
units are supplied from transformer stations encap-
sulated into d31 casings, so called “large” ones that
can house stations equipped with transformer with
the power of 1750 kVA, 2100 kVA and 2600 kVA
where the transmission ratio is 6/3.3 kV.
All the aforementioned transformer stations are of
the explosion proof and dry design, with the resin
insulation of the rowing type and dedicated for
purposes of the mining industry (Rozporządzenie
Ministra Gospodarki 2003). Individual segments of
the stations are mechanically connected with use of
flameproof bolted flanges which not only assures
bodily integration but also assured correct and safe
operation of the entire station.
The upper voltage chamber (GN) of stations in
the d31 enclosures are equipped with protections for
the power transformer and a compact connecting
switch with the insulation SF 6 400A, which sub-
stantially improves ability to protect protection the
power supplying circuits in a reliably and efficient
way. The GN chamber is furnished with a fast
earthing switch that has been introduced as a man-
datory standard for all the range of the offered
transformer stations. It is the chamber that serves
simultaneously as the medium voltage distribution
bay and decides about supply capacities as well as
reliable and correct operation of the entire trans-
former station.
Chambers of low voltage (DN) of the transformer
station involve innovative solutions that enable
transmission of the entire power offered by the
station from the fully protected outlets to the com-
mon connection for the switching appliances –
parallel supplying via two, three or four cables and
or hose cables at the outlets.
The applied protection means of electric power
functionalities as well the adopted standard for
control and collaboration with technological units
benefit from application of explosion proof (intrin-
sically safe) electric circuits, which makes it possi-
ble to supply the equipment that is operated in
potentially explosive areas. The transformer stations
are equipped with the explosion proof (intrinsically
safe) system that is meant for safe repositioning
(ON/OFF) of the main switch on the primary (GN)
side. All transformer stations are also furnished with
a fast earthing switch installed on the secondary
(DN) voltage that guarantees extremely high level
of operation safety for the personnel (Rozpor-
ządzenie Ministra Gospodarki 2003). The station
can be relocated in underground areas of mines by
means of the wheeled undercarriage with use of
fixed transportation holders.
Figure 2.1 presents a typical schematic (one-wire)
diagram of a transformer station on the example of
Figure 2.1. Schematic (one-wire) diagram of the transformer station type EH-d31-2600/6,0/3,3/02.01.
2.2 Switching appliances of explosion proof
(intrinsically safe) designed intended to handle
individual appliances of the plough unit
Specific examples of the appliances that are used for
high-performance plough units are the following
devices that have been recently introduced to the
commercial offer of E+H: a flameproof contactor
switch with four outlets, a switch with a thyristor
starter as well as a transformer with power of
160 kVA and transformation ratios 3.3 kV / 1 kV
and 3.3 kV / 0.5 kV (Morawiec 2009).
The flameproof contactor switch, type EH-d03-
W/3.3/I/01.xx or type EH-d03-W/3.3/I/02.xx
(ELGÓR+ HANSEN Sp. z o. o.) as well as the
switch type EH-d03-WR/3.3/I/01.01 (Elgór + Han-
sen Sp. z o. o.) with a thyrisor starter represent
appliances that make difference as compared to the
range of switching equipment for the voltage of
3.3 kV that has been offered to date. That new
equipment incorporates circuit breakers with fast
earthing switches capable to earth wires at the
power supplying connector as well as additional
protecting switches (circuit breakers) that make it
possible to install the appliances everywhere, re-
gardless to the short-circuit hazard of the power
supplying network in underground areas of mines.
The switching equipment is equipped with a system
of mechanical and electric interlocks that also sub-
stantially improves occupational safety of mainte-
nance staff employed for mining enterprises (Roz-
porządzenie Ministra Gospodarki 2002).
The installed switching appliances have also fast
earthing switch at every output, which is the solu-
105
the unit EH-d31-2600/6,0/3,3/02.01 with the trans-
formation ratio 6/3.3 kV.
tion that sets up new standards in the area of safety.
To supply the entire set of the integrated longwall
machinery with the voltage of 3.3 kV with no need
to deliver other supplying voltages, different from
3.3 kV, to the extraction area the range of the dedi-
cated electric equipment can be supplemented with
the flameproof transformer unit of the type EH-d03-
160/3.3/0.5(or 1.0)/0.2/4/01. The unit was devel-
oped in 2006 and offers the output power of
160 kVA and transformation ratio 3.3 kV / 525 kV
or 3.3 kV / 1050 V. Apart from four three-phase
outlets for 500 V or 1000 voltages it is provided
with two fully protected outlets with the voltage
230 V and output load of 500 VA as well as one
fully protected outlet for the voltage of 24 V and
output load of 500 VA. This unit, similarly to the
new generation of switches for 3.3 kV, is furnished
with a disconnecting switch and an earthing switch,
the both installed on the power supply (primary)
side Figure 2.2 (a) and 2.2 (b) present the schematic
diagram for the new generation of switching devices
for the voltage of 3.3 kV as well as the schematic
diagram of the transformer unit and the switch with
a thyristor starter. In turn, Figure 2.2 (c) presents the
schematic diagram of the power supply system for
the entire set of the plough-based extracting ma-
chinery operated in the Hard Coal Mine
“Zofiówka”, whilst Figure 2.2 (d) comprises the
schematic diagram for a similar power supply sys-
tem for the extraction set but deployed at the Lublin
Coal “Bogdanka” plc.
 Q
Q

T
T
F
Q F
Q

K
K

42V
42V
3,3kV 3,3kV

Figure 2.2 (a). The schematic diagram of the four-outlet contactor switch of the type EH-W/3,3/I/01.xx and the schematic
diagram of the contractor switch type EH-d03-W/3.3/I/02.xx intended for reversible supply of main motors intended to
drive the coal plough.

Q T
F

T Q

F F
Q

T
K T
K

V T
K F

K K K K K K K K

42V
3 ,3 k V 3 x5 0 0 V l u b 3 x1 0 0 0 V 3 x2 3 0 V 42V 24V

Figure 2.2 (b). The schematic diagram of the contactor switch type EH-d03-WR/3,3/I/01.01 furnished with a thyristor
starter as well as the schematic diagram of the transformer unit, type EH-d03-160/3.3/0.5(lub1.0)/0.2/4/01.

Figure 2.2 (c). The schematic diagram of the power supply system for the high-performance longwall set of equipment
operated in the Hard Coal Mine “Zofiówka”.

106
Figure 2.2 (d). The schematic diagram of the power supply system for the high-performance longwall set of equipment
operated at the Lublin Coal “Bogdanka” plc.

2.3 Control system for the plough-based
extraction set
The control system for the machinery incorporated
into the high-performance plough-based extraction
set represents an advanced and highly sophisticated
h) intrinsically safe system for loud-speaking
communication, signal transmission and interlocks,
for this purpose the UGS-01/2 from Elekrometal
was used at the Hard Coal Mine “Zofiówka”.
Urządzenia zasilające E+H

microprocessor system that is meant to carry out the WIZUALIZACJA

LOKALNA BUCYRUS PMC-R
Elektro-hydrauliczne

following operations (Czechowski 2008): Urządzenia E+H

WIZUALIZACJA
sterowanie obudowami

a) direct control, łączeniowe CENTRALNA BUCYRUS PMC-LD

System modemów
transmisyjnych - obudowy

b) visualization, Układ łączności BUCYRUS

E+H
BUCYRUS PMC-V
MCU
c) keeping logs of events,
głośnomówiącej i Wizualizacja lokalna
blokad PZS + PZP Komputer w systemów PMC-R, PMC-D
obudowie

d) keeping historical records, Układ pomp wodnych do

chłodzenia i zraszania
STEROWANIE przemysłowej;
Wizualizacja
urządzeń w ścianie
BUCYRUS PMC-LD
System modemów

e) diagnostic operations. Sterowanie automatyczne

struga;
transmisyjnych - strug

Deployment of the extraction system components

BUCYRUS PMC-D
Pozycja struga;
Oświetlenie ściany Informacje z przekładni

on a large area entails application of a field structure LEGENDA:

of the control system with use of industrial IT

BUCYRUS
E+H
INNE

networks as data transmission carriers. The plough-

based extraction system is made up of a number of
subsystems that are responsible for individual tasks
associated with control and visualization, namely:
a) control system for the electric equipment deliv-
ered by Elgór+Hansen;
b) local visualization system for the electric
equipment delivered by Elgór+Hansen;
c) central visualization system for the electric
equipment delivered by Elgór+Hansen;
d) visualization system for the plough position
and for diagnostics of the driving gear PMC-D from
Bucyrus;
e) control system for the hydraulic jacks (powered
roof support) PMC-R from Bucyrus;
f) local visualization system PMC-V from Bu-
cyrus;
g) system of transmission modems PMC-LD from
Bucyrus;
Figure 2.3 (a). The mimic diagram of individual subsys-
tems within the high-performance longwall extraction set.
Information processing within the system is car-
ried out in accordance with the hierarchic structure,
starting from the level of control subsystems for
individual components, through parameterization of
the equipment, diagnostic procedures, enrolling
current events to the system logs, visualization,
keeping local and central records up to the level of
central management for the entire technological
process.
By its principle the system analyses a number of
relationships and attempts to the maximum possible
number of cases, situations and states of both the
machinery themselves and the heavy-duty surround-
ing environment (Czechowski 2008). By the logic

107
structure the control system is subdivided into two
mutually interconnected parts: control and visualiza-
tion.
S te r o w a n ie
A u to m a t y c z n e
L o k a ln e
R e w i z ja
D i a g n o s ty k a
R e je s tr a c ja i a r c h iw iz a c ja c e n tr a ln a
R e je s tr a c ja i a r c h iw iz a c ja lo k a ln a
In t e g r a c j a z in n y m i s y s te m a m i
Figure 2.3 (b). Tasks to be carried out by the control
system for the plough-based set of extraction machinery.
2.3.1 Control system for the electric
equipment delivered by Elgór+Hansen
The system has been designed as a set of general-
purpose functional appliances that mutually com-
municate with each other via a serial data bus:
a) the control unit of the type EH-O/06/02 (pro-
grammable logic controller PLC);
b) the control unit of the type EH-O/06/03 (PC
computer of the industrial design /IPC).
The system follows the rule of the field control.
Individual controllers (with purposefully adjusted
configuration) have been placed at the control panel
of the plough operator, at the drive of the push-plate
armoured face conveyor (AFC), as well as at the
main drive of the plough and inside the compact
stations. The designers have put stress onto opera-
tion and control simplicity as well as easiness of
possible extensions and alterations that can be
implemented in future.
One of the major functions that is to be carried
out by this control subsystem is to assure operation
reliability and safety embedded into the control
algorithm for the technological process. It is why
the system was provided with an independent ana-
log hardware system for the emergency stop func-
tion. Selection of subassemblies for assembly of the
control system was performed with the prevailing
criterion of reliability, surety that the operation
parameters shall be continuously maintained with
simultaneous high degree of integration. As much as
possible, the application software for individual
components performs also the testing functions,
including both self-tests and dedicated tests for
subunits.
Individual switching devices, including switches
for movement signals and switches that incorporate
thyristor-based starters have been connected to a
common industrial network that is operated under the
master-slave principle, where the diagnostic informa-
tion is passed through the central controller and is
then visualized and stored by means of the central
visualization system developed by Elgór+Hansen.
All the devices and modules that are embedded
therein are furnished with the built-in firmware
T ra n s p o rt intended to perform basic functions of monitoring and
S p in a n ie control for individual, componential communication
processes to resources of the PLC and the system,
with issuing addresses for each individual modules as
W iz u a liz a c j a
well as to execute communication services to enable
remote diagnostics and test operations.
The system communication between separate
units and the controller employs the system bus to
the standard RS485 and the MODBUS RTU proto-
col. In turn, communication between controllers is
also based on the bus to the standard RS485 along
with the PROFIBUS DP protocol. On the level of a
singe unit the device controllers serve as masters
while all the functional modules are considered as
slaves and are identified by their types and the
preliminarily assigned addresses. The structure of
connections within the network of controllers is
based on a similar solution that is made up of one
master (supervising) station and a number of slave
(subordinated) units. The system has been designed
for the transmission rate of 9.6 and 19.2 kBits / s.
The next stage for development of the control
system for the coal plough consists of accurate
definition of the control algorithm. The algorithm
takes account for correlations between all the input
and output signals, e.g. status of sensors received
from the EH-O/06/02 devices, information from the
Bucyrus control system, status of actuators incorpo-
rated into the switching devices, etc., These signals
have served as a basis to develop the application
software for the central controller and for local
control units. A part of tasks that are to be per-
formed by the control process have been assigned to
individual local controllers where the information
between controllers are exchanged with use of the
network protocol.
2.3.1.1 The programmable logic
controller EH-O/06/02
Owing to implementation of an industrial program-
mable controller, the control device of the type EH-
O/06/02 enables execution of complex logic input
and output functions within the control system where
they are used. The device can receive signals form
explosion proof (intrinsically safe) external sensors
connected thereto as well as from external actuators
(e.g. solenoid valves, signalling /warning/panic
devices, separators, other systems, control circuits of
108
flameproof connecting switches, systems for visuali-
zation and data transmission, etc.).
2.3.1.2 Industrial PC, type EH-O/06/03
Owing to implementation of an industrial PC, the
control device of the type EH-O/06/03 enables
execution of complex logic input and output func-
tions within the control system as well as functions
intended to supervise the entire control system that
is made up of many subordinated (slave) subassem-
blies and is capable to implement various transmis-
sion interfaces and various transmission protocols.
The device can receive signals from explosion
proof (intrinsically safe) external sensors connected
thereto as well as from external actuators (e.g.
solenoid valves, signaling /warning/panic devices,
separators, other systems, control circuits of flame-
proof connecting switches, systems for visualization
and data transmission, etc.).
2.3.1.3 Industrial PC, type EH-O/06/04
Owing to implementation of an industrial PC along
with a full-screen display, the control device of the
type EH-O/06/04 enables execution of complex
functions associated with visualization of the con-
trol processes as well as parameterization of the
control functions for the entire control system. In
addition, it is capable to implement various trans-
mission interfaces and various transmission proto-
cols.
2.3.1.4 Digital control panels EH-O/01/05
and EH-O/01/06
The control panels of the types EH-O/01/05 and
EH-O/01/06 present digital electric devices of
explosion-proof (intrinsically safe) design and they
are used to control circuits of the mining machinery.
The panels collaborate with explosion-proof circuits
of the ia category, but operation of the control
panels with circuits of the ia category is also al-
lowed. The devices have been designed in accor-
dance with requirements of the EU Directive
94/9/EU (ATEX). Parameters of the explosion-
proof design and intrinsically safe features make it
possible to classify the control panel to the group I
and category M2, therefore the device can be used
in areas with potentially explosive atmospheres.
The EH-O/01/05 control panel has the modular
design, i.e. types and number of control instruments
and indicating devices are adjusted in accordance
with the specific requirements of the control system
where the panel is to be applied. To the terminal
strip one can connect rectifying diodes or other
109
terminating components. The panel communicates
with the supervising (master) unit by means of an
intrinsically safe interface for data transmission,
compatible with the RS485 and CAN standards. The
panel is capable to implement various data transmis-
sion protocols, such as Modus RTU, Profibus, CAN
2.0B and CANOpen.
The control panel is meant to switch on and off
any specific electric circuit within the control sys-
tem of the dedicated mining machine and to provide
information with use of LED indicators whether the
desired operation status of electric circuits has been
achieved or not.
2.3.2 Description of the logic workflow associated
with operation of the plough-based set of
extraction machinery and executed by the
control system from Elgór+Hansen
The following operation modes have been pre-
scribed and then implemented within the control
system dedicated for the plough-based set of extrac-
tion machinery:
– automatic mode;
– local control mode;
– inspection /tensioning;
– transportation.
The extraction set can be controlled from the con-
trol panel of the underground control station of the
plough operator, from local control panels deployed
at specific drives or from the control room on the
mine surface. The system described in Section 2.3.2
serves merely as an example and can be modified in
accordance to requirements of various customers.
2.3.2.1 Automatic mode
When the automatic mode of operation is selected
the set of extracting machinery can be activated
from the control room of the plough unit located on
the mine surface. After depressing the button
“Załącz Automat” (“Automatic On”) individual
pieces of equipment are subsequently switched on in
accordance to the start-up sequence and with pre-
scribed time intervals between activation of individ-
ual devices. The pumping unit is switched on the
first, then the crusher, the push-plate haulage con-
veyor and the push-plate armoured face conveyor.
Setting of each individual device in motion is pre-
ceded with an acoustic warning signal as well as
with activation of the motor cooling system.
The plough itself is started up with use of separate
push buttons. The mandatory condition to do this is
preliminary actuation of the AFC (armoured face
conveyor). Prior to setting the coal plough in motion
an appropriate warning signal is produced. The
initial direction of the plough operation is defined
by the plough operator.
In the automatic operation mode the plough
reaches end of the longwall, then stops and auto-
matically reverses its motion towards the opposite
direction after a predefined time interval that is
defined as a system parameter.
2.3.2.2 Local control mode
In the local control mode individual pieces of the
extraction equipment are switched on by means of
local control panels deployed at each drive. Starting
sequence and hierarchy of individual devices is
predefined by the extraction technology and must be
carried out in the same manner as in case of the
automatic mode, i.e. pumping unit → crusher →
haulage conveyor → AFC → coal plough.
The pumping unit, the crusher and the haulage
conveyor are started up from the control panel that
is placed nearby the extraction equipment in the end
tail gate at the drives.
The AFC and the coal plough are activated from
the control panel on the main drive. In this case it is
possible to use a router to hand over control of the
plough to the operator’s control station and the
operator is capable to see full visualization of the
plough position within the longwall.
Setting of each individual device in motion is
preceded with an acoustic warning signal as well as
with activation of the motor cooling system.
When the local control mode is activated, the
plough reaches the longwall end and stops. Its
restart towards the opposite direction is possible
after the operator depresses one of the switching
pushbuttons.
Even if the plough is started up with use of the
‘high speed’ pushbutton the machine starts initially
at low speed and then, after a time period that is
predefined by the operator within the system pa-
rameters, the high speed operation mode can be
activated. When the plough approaches its driving
unit at high speed the machine switches over to the
low speed mode within the already predefined
distance from the driving unit. However, the opera-
tor can decide to cut the entire longwall at low
speed and start the machine up with use of the ‘low
speed’ pushbutton. If so, the control system shall
abstain from switching the plough to the ‘high
speed’ operation mode.
2.3.2.3 Inspection /tensioning
The inspection and tensioning mode enables indi-
vidual operation of each drive within the set of
extraction equipment. However, the mandatory
110
provision to start up the crusher, conveyors or the
plough is to keep the pumping unit running, there-
fore it is the subassembly that is switched on with
the positive feedback to maintain its continuous
operation, in contrary to all the other drives.
Operation of the equipment for inspection or ten-
sioning is activated form local control panels of
individual devices. During inspection /tensioning of
the armoured face conveyor it is disabled to switch
the plough and only one motor can be set in motion
at a time. Inspection /tensioning of the plough chain
disables actuation of the AFC. Also in case of the
crusher inspection it is impossible to switch on the
haulage conveyor and vice versa – inspection
/tensioning of the haulage conveyor prevents the
crusher from being switched on. Activation of any
piece of equipment is preceded with an acoustic
warning signal.
2.3.2.4 Transportation
The transportation mode enables to set in motion
solely the conveyors. However, the mandatory
provision to start up the conveyors is to keep the
pumping unit running, therefore it is the subassem-
bly that is switched on with the positive feedback to
maintain its continuous operation. The possibility to
activate the crusher of the plough is disabled in this
mode. Setting the conveyors in motion is preceded
by a warning signal.
2.3.2.5 Stop and shutdown of individual devices
within the set of extraction machinery
Individual components of the extraction set can be
switched off in the following cases:
a) depressing the “OFF” pushbutton for individ-
ual devices depending on the operation mode and
with respect to the shutdown sequence of mutually
dependent devices;
b) depressing the ‘emergency stop’ pushbutton;
c) triggering of appropriate sensors depending on
the operation mode and importance of each sensor
for the equipment, d) tripping of protections on the
electric power lines;
e) switching of the downstream device that is pre-
ceding in the start-up sequence;
f) failure of data transmission,
g) lack of control signals form the contacts of the
system intended to control powered roof support
units, both in the local and automatic control modes;
h) no acknowledge of the switchover completion
from the activated contractor.
2.3.3 Description of the visualization system The central visualization covers all the devices
provided by Elgór+Hansen and intended that are included into the plough-based set of extrac-
to trace operation of the plough-based set tion machinery and carries out the following major
of extraction machinery functions:
– visualization of the control system status;
The system intended to visualize operation of the
– visualization of equipment incorporated into the
electric equipment for the plough-based set of
train of the electric equipment;
extraction machinery was subdivided into:
– visualization of devices incorporated into the
a) local visualization system;
control system;
b) central visualization system.
– parameterization of the control system;
The local visualization system, by its nature, is
– central data storage;
dedicated exclusively to a single unit, e.g. a compact
– viewing of historical information for the pur-
transformer station or a transformer unit. The scope
poses of maintenance analyses.
of information that was subjected for visualization
has been limited to one operator and appropriately
structured to make the local diagnostics easier for
the operator. The microprocessor system that is
responsible for local visualization procedures may
be differentiated depending on which device opera-
tion is to be visualized. For instance, local visualiza-
tion for switches and starters of the plough-based
extraction machinery is carried out by means of the
KSK-1 appliance from Somar while a LED display
EH-P05/03is used for the transformer unit. As for
some other appliances, such as control units EH-
O/06/02 or EH-O/06/03 the procedures of local
visualization indicate status of individual devices of
the equipment by means of dedicated LEDs. In
addition, the visualization system based on the
KSK-1 device enables to keep records on the ma-
chine operation on a local data carrier. An example Figure 2.3.3 (b). The main screen for central visualization.
of a local visualization screen is shown below.
3 CONCLUSIONS

Comprehensive and thorough analyses for efficiency

Figure 2.3.3 (a). The example of a main screen for local
visualization.
The central visualization is based on the device
type EH-O/06/04 that is made up of a computer
along with a full-screen display and an intrinsically
safe keyboard.
of coal extraction from thin coal seams are currently
being carried out in many countries. The experience
acquired for extraction from low longwalls with use
of coal ploughs provides the proof that the plough
technology is a reasonable method for extraction of
such seams due to technical reasons. In addition,
application of the plough technology is backed by
essential economic arguments that confirm the tech-
nology as the most beneficial for extraction of coal
seams with their thickness up to 1.5 m (Stopa 2008).
The Polish mining industry has to deal with and will
continue to extract still more and more seams of such
a thickness, therefore number and technical level of
plough-based extraction sets shall be continuously
improved. It is why permanent perfection of power
supply and control systems dedicated for such
equipment is becoming a hot issue. Manufacturers are
enforced to offer more advanced power supply and
control systems purposefully dedicated for high-
performance plough-based sets of extraction machin-
ery to be up-to-date with the offer of the solutions that

111
are capable to perform all the demanded technical
tasks and meet the cost-effectiveness criterion. It must
be emphasized that the plough extraction technology
presents new challenges that must be withstood by
each component of the equipment set. Only meeting
the challenges guarantees successful performance of
mining enterprises which, in turn, is directly and
proportionally transformed to economic healthiness
of companies that are leading suppliers for the mining
industry. The new challenges inflict a great leap
forward in terms of technology but it is also a mental
conversion that will definitely change scope of opera-
tion tasks for maintenance staff of coal mines. Conse-
quently, amendments to the existing regulations and
rules of mining operations are expected. In this con-
text, standardization and modular design of the
equipment present major directions for further devel-
opment of the Elgór+Hansen company.
Since the very beginning stage, when the Polish
mining industry only initiated the renaissance of the
plough extraction technology, Elgór+Hansen has
been actively participating in research and devel-
opment jobs on the power supply and control
equipment. It is why the company presents here the
offer of broad and extensive collaboration in that
area with all the existing and new partners as well as
with all possible stakeholders.
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roku w sprawie bhp, prowadzenia ruchu zakładu
górniczego oraz specjalnych zabezpieczeń przeciwpo-
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dnia 02.09.2002 roku wraz z późn.zm.) w zakresie
zapewnienia bezpieczeństwa ich użytkowania w
warunkach zagrożeń występujących w ruchu zakładów
górniczych. (Ordinance of the Minister of Economy of
28th June 2002 on occupation health and safety,
operation rules for mining enterprises and special fire
protections for underground mining enterprises, with
further amendments, Journal of Laws, No 139, pos.
1169 of 2nd September 2002 with further amendments)
with regard to assurance of safety of their operation
under conditions of hazards that occur during operation
of mining enterprises).
Rozporządzenie Ministra Gospodarki, Pracy i Polityki
Społecznej z dnia 28 lipca 2003 r. w sprawie zasadni-
czych wymagań dla urządzeń i systemów ochronnych
przeznaczonych do użytku w przestrzeniach zagrożo-
nych wybuchem (dyrektywa 94/9EWG–ATEX)
w zakresie grupy I – urządzeń przeznaczonych do
użytku w zakładach górniczych, w których występuje
zagrożenie metanowe lub zagrożenie wybuchem pyłu
węglowego. (Ordinance of the Minister of Economy,
Labour and Social Policy of 28th July 2003 on essential
requirements to protective equipment and systems in-
tended for operation in potentially explosive areas (Di-
rective 94/9/EEC – ATEX) for the equipment of the 1st
group – appliances dedicated for use in mining enter-
prises with the hazard of methane inflow or the hazard
of coal dust explosion).
Morawiec, M., Jędruś, T. & Macierzyński, D. Bezpieczeń-
stwo eksploatacji sieci średniego napięcia w aspekcie
konstrukcji i wyposażenia urządzeń dla podziemnych
zakładów górniczych węgla kamiennego (EmTech
2009) Ossa 2009 (Operational safety of MV electric
grids in the aspect of designs and assembly of machin-
ery for underground enterprises of the coal mining sec-
tor. EmTech 2009, Ossa 2009).
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Possibility of production complex

of sufficient gasses in Ukraine

V. Bondarenko & M. Tabachenko

National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
J. Wachowicz
Central Mining Institute, Katowice, Poland

ABSTRACT: The questions of complex technologies use of energy production are considered. Technological
schemes of generator gas production oriented on biogas creation from different sources including stations of
underground coal gasification are offered. The different methods of coal gasification are presented. Such
developments allow at high-quality new level to product power and chemical raw material and provide
efficiency functioning of all of the system.

1 INTRODUCTION earthly surface is not almost violated and this gases

The most important direction of increase the func-
tioning power and heat efficiency in Ukraine is
application the combined (compatible) production
on one gas-productivity enterprise which will be
used the gases of underground and surface gasifica-
tion and also biogas.
Only at new building of such enterprises the
economy of traditional fuel at the combined produc-
tion arrives at 25-30%, and annual charges diminish
on 20-26%. Thus approximately contamination of
environment diminishes on 30-45%.
Separate technologies of gas production by un-
derground gasification, surface gasification and
biogas are created and used in the industrially de-
veloped countries, such China, Australia, Japan,
South Africa.
Nowadays the use of restoration energy sources in
Ukraine is on the initial stage. Their particle make
about 0.5% power potential. At the same time bio-
mass power potential is estimated in more than
7.5 mln.t. / year accumulates in the agro-industrial
complex of Ukraine.
Counts show that biomass power potential would
satisfy to a 10% general consumption energies in
Ukraine.
Scientific experience allows forecasting, that the
use of biomass as raw material for the gases produc-
tion is the perspective additional of fuel source.
At processing gaseous fuels can be got mainly
two types: biogas, the basic combustible component
of which is methane, and generator gas.
UCG gases is especially attractive in ecological
advantages, as during underground gasification an
is ecologically acceptable type of fuel.
2 UNDERGROUND COAL GASIFICATION
Underground coal gasification can be examined as
one of examples of generator gas reception which
carry out new principle – combination of coal ex-
tracting with its simultaneous processing in the
unique technological process.
For today’s day in the world there is the new inter-
est to development of new mine and borehole under-
ground coal gasification (BUCG) technology.
BUCG interest is conditioned that the prices on
electric power, gas and oil grows constantly, that is
why a price on gas from underground coal gasifica-
tion in this situation will appear considerably below
than price on natural gas. Accordingly power and
thermal energy, produced from UCG gases, will be
cheaper of analogical products, got after use of natu-
ral gas. UCG gases is especially attractive in ecologi-
cal advantages, as during underground gasification an
earthly surface is not almost violated and this gases is
ecologically acceptable type of fuel.
The history of realization the underground coal
gasification technology in Ukraine can be dividing
on two stages. The first stage was begun from
1930 year, when two stations of «Pidzemgaz»
worked in our country: Lisichanska and Gorlivska.
The enormous reserves of natural gas and oil were
discovered in 60th. On a background such enormous
oil reserves which seemed inexhaustible in those
years, underground coal gasification appeared
unnecessary and not perspective. That’s why sta-

113
tions of “Pidzemgaz” were closed.
The first power crisis in 1973 year stimulates in-
terest of underground coal gasification. All country
which have a large coal reserves in the world began
intensively to conduct experimentally industrial
experiments on perfection of underground coal
gasification technology.
In the National mining university (Dnipro-
petrovsk, Ukraine), beginning from middle of 60th
for a present time, developed at the level of inven-
tions on principle new technology of borehole
underground coal gasification with preparation
underground gasgenerators from a surface and in
mine terms (Kolokolov 1991).
Basically, an unworked seam of coal in the
ground is accessed by two drilled wells, into one of
which an oxidant is fed, the coal is ignited and part-
combusted, and a product gas flows from the other
well, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Technological scheme of underground coal
gasification from a surface: 1 – coal seam; 2 – injection
wells; 3 – production well; 4 – movable ignited devices;
5 – air pipeline; 6 – gas pipeline; 7 – heat – utilization;
8 – combustion face; 9 – goaf; 10 – adjutage of the di-
rected boreholes; 11 – surface.
This technology can be realized thus. From a sur-
face, to crossing with a coal seam 1, the directed
(oriented) injection wells 2 and production well 3
are bored. Inclined parts of boreholes are fastened
by pipes with cementation of annulus space. Hori-
zontal parts of boreholes, bored on coal are not
strengthened. Coal seam ignition is conducted by
the special ignited cartridges which refer by air to
the place of ignition.
As far as coal seam gasified the serve of blowing
and gas discharge are carried out from mobile
controlled retraction injection point. Coal gas which
appeared is burned in the special free piston genera-
tor (FPG) setting.
Now in the Kharkov city are develop the original
constructions of free piston generator, Figure 2.
114
This new modern highly productive setting, owns
a high efficiency, small sizes, does not pass vibra-
tions on foundation, works reliably with simple
service. FPG can be set near by boreholes and to
generate here electric power and heat power.
The necessity of building of gas pipelines falls off
in this case, and energy (for example, electric) is
passed to the users on send-offs.
Figure 2. Scheme of equipment situate and power diagram
of engine with free pistons.
For the increase of efficiency of the above-
mentioned technology of BUCG developed by us
row on principle new technological decisions which
consist in the following.
1. The constructions of underground gasgenera-
tors which provides coal seam gasification with the
controlled retraction injection point and gas dis-
charge are improved.
2. The criteria of BUCG technology fitness are
extended with providing of technological schemes
adaptation with gasgenerator preparation from
surface or in a mine conditions at economic and
uneconomic coal seams gasification in difficult
mine conditions.
3. The process of coal seams gasification is con-
ducted without burning out of combustible gases
which appeared.
4. The germetization of deformed rocks and goaf
due to the artificial injection stowing is provided.
5. For goaf germatisation we can use next mate-
rial: coal and rocks dust, clay and ashslags. Thus
escape of germatisation material from a gasgenera-
tor on a surface will not exceed 0.1 g / m3. Insignifi-
cant part of germatisation material which darts out
on a surface with the products of gasification will be
caught in superficial purification options.
6. The coal gas calorific value and volume of
gasification products grows due to burning out of
carbon in the ashslags (on 20-30%), ash (25-35%)
and coal-rock dust (30-60%). On the whole taking
into account all technological decisions, a calorific
value grows to 10-15 mJ / m3, that in 4-6 times
higher than on the former stations of “Pidzemgaz”.
7. The technological schemes of clean coal tech-
nology are developed on traditional power enter-
prises. The ashslags, and extraction rocks from
underground mine enterprise can be used for mak-
ing stowing. After this we can see improve ecologi-
cal situation.
8. Using direction drilling we can reduce capital
costs. It allows sharply improve a landscape and
fertile seam of surface in the district of underground
coal gasification.
9. The technology of gases division is used for
separate some components of gas for a serve them
in a separate kind to the users and, in particular,
back in an underground gasgenerator (for example,
СО 2 for the receipt of combustible gas for the
reactions СО 2 + С = 2СО).
10. Technology of BUCG foresees a serve in the
underground gasgenerator of smoke wastes tradi-
tional fuel of power complex. In an underground
gasgenerator smoke gases (СО 2 , Н 2 О) are under act
of high temperature (1000-1300 оС) at a contact
with an incandescent carbon, pass to combustible
gases (СО, Н 2 , О) on reactions:
2СO2  CO  O2 ;
CO2  C  2CO  O ;
H 2O  C  CO  H 2 .
It is a new and original decision allows sharply to
intensify the process of underground coal gasifica-
tion; effectively to contest with a green house effect;
from wastes to get profits at incineration of the
additionally got combustible gases; returning of
smoke gases in an underground gasgenerator im-
proves an ecological situation in a region.
11. A technological block “underground gasgen-
erator – heat utilization complex” creates the incor-
porated structure of two productions in the reserved
technological cycle with the use gases and thermal
energy which get from physical heat utilizations of
BUCG gases. The construction of the directed
boreholes is changed for this purpose.
Thus one part of the overheated vapors follows
115
again in an underground gasgenerator for the in-
crease of his work efficiency, other – in a steam-
turbine for the power production.
12. Building of such blocks will allow deciding
the followings tasks:
– providing of reliability of electric power and
heat supplying of adjoining settlements and indus-
trial enterprises;
– organization of cost-effective production, elec-
tric power and heat (as compared to a low cost-
effective mine boiler room and necessity of electric
power purchase from a state grid);
– complex decision of ecological and social ques-
tions;
– creation of afore-mentioned technological com-
plexes satisfy strategic directions of fuel and energy
complex of Ukraine development.
13. Technology and technician of BUCG becomes
universal as compared to traditional energy. It is
related to that in converting actions (converting of
hard coal into a gaseity) is never used mechanical
mediator (for example, wallface combine); electric
energy becomes a general mediator, and technology –
without machine.
Certainly, it follows to establish, that presently
technology of BUCG in Ukraine is not claimed. Our
official engineering and scientific idea which is
responsible for a technical process is so conserva-
tive and convinced, that subsequent development of
energy – in the traditional mining by mine and
opened methods.
However in the world looks to development of
energy quite another. In Europe, for example under-
ground and surface gasification of coal is used all
wider and wider. Technical decisions are developed
in the National mining university on untraditional
development of hard combustible minerals is neces-
sary for Europe. We accept more active participat-
ing in an international project, where involved 12
companies from Germany, Great Britain, Belgium,
France, Poland and other countries. The experimen-
tally industrial tests of underground gasification
technology was conducted on experimental mine
“Barbara” in Poland.
14. Underground coal gasification is a high-
quality jump in development of productive forces,
which allows blocking a raw material and ecological
crisis.
3 SURFACE GASIFICATION
Modern technical potential of artificial gas production
from coal presented by many industrially mastered
technologies, proper names of firms, – producers of
basic equipment of technological process – gasgen-
erators (Lurgi, Koppers – Totcek, Vinkler, Teksako).
Last years there were 248 gasgenerators units of
different type in exploitation, in particular in the south
Africa republic – 92, the USA – 18, China – 6, to
Czech and Slovakia – 62, Germany – 32 (Kolokolov
2000 & Kreinin 2006).
Superficial coal gasification, peat and biomass in
the world got considerable development in 50th
years of the twentieth century. In this period made
more than milliard m3 of power and technological
gas (Kreinin 2006). In connection with stormy
development of natural gas industry this direction of
hard combustible minerals processing was con-
stantly abbreviated.
In 1990 year considerable development was got
by coal gasification for the electric power produc-
tion, which used of binary cycle at which combusti-
ble gas was utilized in a gas turbine, and the prod-
ucts of combustion are used for the vapors genera-
tion for a steam-turbine. After 1993 year in different
countries it was entered in exploitations 18 power-
stations with superficial hard fuel gasification by
power from 60 to 300 MWh. Presently the use of
superficial hard fuel gasification is considered the
most perspective direction in surface gasifcation.
Growth of hydrocarbon fuels cost, which takes a
place the last years, stipulates considerable interest
in the whole world to the use of alternative energy
sources.
Figure 3. Gasgenerator on the generator gas production:
1 – metallic corps; 2 – cone; 3 – pipe; 4 – snuffled the air
serve in the burning zone; 5, 6 – air-tight doors.
116
Ukraine owns the considerable peat reserves, coal
and biomass which presently practically not utilized
for the production of electric and heat power. The
coal reserve in Ukraine makes 2166 million tons.
Peat is obtained mainly used as a fuel in commun-
ally – domestic sector. The supplies of subbitumi-
nous coal are estimated in 3.5 milliard tons.
The basic criteria of the use of surface gasgenera-
tors presently are their simplicity of making and
exploitation, reliability and low cost. Such gasgen-
erators construction was developed, in the institute
of technical physics “National Academy of Science
of Ukraine”.
A gasgenerator (Figure 3) consists of corps 1 with
the internal diameter of 600 mm, corps 2 with grate,
pipes 3 with nozzles 4 for the air blowing serve.
Doors which are closed are located in overhead and
lower parts of corps, 5 and 6 accordingly for the
load of fuel and delete of ash. As a fuel waste-
woods are used. A gasgenerator product gas with
next composition СО – 21%, Н 2 – 17%, СН 2 – 2%,
N 2 – 48%, СО 2 – 12%. A temperature in the burn-
ing zone makes from 1000 to 10000 оС. An ash
concentration in generator gas makes 2-3 g / m3.
Total potential resources of wood wastes, includ-
ing a cortex in forestry and woodworking industry
makes 984 thousand tons in a year (Falshtyns’kyy
2009). Neither forestry nor woodworking and cellu-
lose – paper industry cannot use all of wood wastes
and can or to supply or use for an own energy sup-
ply.
In surface gasgenerators technology the petrol
and diesel wastes utilization is widely used. Ser-
vices enterprises and service centers, transport
companies and build enterprises often throw out
exhaust fuel, or pay a large money for it regenera-
tion or utilization.
Heat generator, that work on exhaust fuel allow to
burn it without an additional regeneration and
cleaning. Transport charges are thus saved at an
export on the place of regeneration, the risk of
environment contamination really diminishes.
The general view of gasgenerator is shown on
Figure 4.
Such fuels as peat, subbituminous coal and bio-
mass are low-caloric – characterized the large vola-
tile escape, that can substantially promote work
efficiency of the offered new gasgenerator enter-
prises. The basic elements of gasgenerator is a steel
cylinder combustion chamber, in which a plate is
situated and filled by exhaust fuel. Air in a combus-
tion chamber is given an axial ventilator tangentially
with the crack ducting in an order to create an
involutes gas stream above the surface which evapo-
rating.
In the developed countries on the last few years
technology of biomass gasification got development
with the receipt of electric and thermal energy.
Produced gas from gasgenerators burned in a gas
engine or in a coal cauldron. The examples of reali-
zation the biomass gasification technology and
wastes with subsequent burning of generator gas are
power-stations in Australia, Belgium, Finland,
Netherlands, Great Britain and other countries.
Figure 4. Gasgenerator which works on exhaust fuel: 1 –
corps; 2 – pipe; 3 – combustion chamber; 4 – mixer; 5 – an
electric motor; 6 – tank with fuel; 7 – pump; 8 – pallet; 9 –
bolt; 10 – ventilator; 11 – screen; 12 – place of gas mov-
ing; 13 – lid; 14 – plate.
Therefore, the public policy of Ukraine on an en-
ergy supply predict substantial expansion of the use
of untraditional energy sources of volumes. In
Ukraine in 2010 year must be the economy of
traditional energy resources on 8-10% from their
general consumption. According to strategy of
untraditional energy development in the EU coun-
tries “White Pape” 2010 year biomass will cover an
about 74% general payment of refurbishable energy
which will make an about 9% general consumption
of primary power mediums sources (Pivnyak 2002).
Obviously, biomass will be the most mighty sector
of the use of refurbishable energy sources.
Thus, technology of biomass gasification with the
purpose of making the cogenerating energy (elec-
tric, thermal) attained a high level and while does
not bring in large payment in world energy.
117
Technologies of biomass gasification own con-
siderable potential and prospects of development.
They allow to carry out making of electricity and
heat-energy with high-efficiency to 45%. In addi-
tion, they own the row of ecological advantages.
4 BIOGAS PRODUCTION
Nowadays the problem of quality rising and as
result efficiency of biogas using gradually goes out
on the foreground of development of the proper
technology. The basic elements of the biogas setting
are: chamber of зброджування (methane-tank), a
device of stationary temperature support is in meth-
ane-tank, device which provides biomass interfusion
in methane-tank, device of accumulation and biogas
storage (gasholder).
Figure 5. Scheme of setting for the biogas production.
As a result of anaerobic fermentation (bioconver-
sions) appear: a biogas, which consists of methane
(65-80%), carbon dioxide СО 2 (15-25%), carbon
monoxide CO (2-3%), nitrogen (N 2 ), oxygen (O 2 ),
sulphurhydrogen (Н 2 S), and high-efficiency envi-
ronmentally clean disinfected fertilizer. One ton of it
is equivalent 3-4 tons of nitric-phosphoric fertilizers
which are produced industry. In the process of meth-
ane fermentation pathogenic microorganisms perish
and the unpleasant smell of wastes is neutralized.
The method of biogas reception is widely wide-
spread in a number of countries with a warm cli-
mate, a high enough temperature, conditioned
natural terms, is needed in which for the effective
flowing of bioconversion (India, Brazil, Chinese
Folk Republic and other). Most active activity of
bacteria at temperature 35-45 оС.
Fluidizers anaerobic fermentation serve as the
effective mean of agricultural and stock-raising
wastes processing (leaves, stems of plants, weeds,
straw, sunflower wastes, corn heads, pus of different
farms and dung of poultry factories), and also com-
munal wastes on purification buildings and other.
Their application allows to decide three tasks,
important from the power, agricultural and ecologi-
cal points of view, namely: to get a biogas; to con-
vert wastes into high-showy profits (fertilizers); an
environment impact.
In the conditions of Ukrainian continental climate
(especially in cold times of year) continuous during
throughout the year exploitation of bio-setting
which require a stationary positive temperature (35-
45 оС) is economic advantageous at heating of
methane-tanks due to utilization of warmth of hot
generator gas at borehole underground coal gasifica-
tion. The got biogas which contains to a 70-80%
methane allows at his addition to generator gas of
underground gasification substantially to rise the
heating value of this gas (Figure 6) essence of this
technical decision consists in the following.
The area of coal seam 1 is opened by injected 2
and production 3 boreholes which on a coal seam
connect between itself by hydraulic fracturing or
filtration connection, forming the gasification chan-
nel which transforms after coal ignition on a com-
bustion face 4. On a borehole 2 to the combustion
face 4 the air blowing are given which here reacts
with coal, forming generator gas which is produced
on an earthly surface on a borehole 3.
Figure 6. Technological scheme of biogas production with
heating of reactors in cold season of year.
On an earthly surface generator gas follows to the
purification setting 5, where it is purged from coal
particles and phenols, after this skip through heat-
exchange 6. In the last hot generator gas gives the
warmth to water or air which is given in the capac-
ity of heat-exchange 6. Cool gas in heat-exchange is
sent to the main pipeline 8, and water or air pipeline
7 send to the biological reactors (methane-tanks) 10
in the heating cavity 11 between two reactor walls
which surrounds the bioconversion reactor 12.
118
Formed biogas in reactor 10 selected in it overhead
part which carries out the role of gas-exchange,
(gasholder), from where methane on the pipeline 9
send to the main pipeline of productive gas 8, where
interfuses with generator gas of underground gasifi-
cation. As a result of this mixing in eventual produc-
tive gas which sent to user, maintenance of methane
which owns the most calorific value of combustion
from combustible all of the tools is increased, that
makes productive gas. The same substantially the
general calorific value of combustion productive gas
rises to 10-15 Mj / m3.Unnecessary heating con-
ducter from an interwall cavity 11 methane-tanks 10
by a pump 13 (if heating conducter is water) or by a
ventilator on a pipeline 14 again follows for the
repeated use in heat-exchange 6, completing a
technological rotation. Past in a biological reactor
biomass which does not have a bad smell and disin-
fected as a result of fermentation process are
unloaded and send to the user as a valuable and
environmentally clean fertilizer as mash or, powder
grainy mass, packed up in the proper container.
Thus, the station of underground coal gasification
due to passing heat utilization of generator gas,
provides support in a biological reactor permanent,
in spite of seasonal changes, temperatures on a
necessity levels. Thus the necessary terms of high-
efficiency process of biomass fermentation and
biogas receipt which is folded to 80% from methane
are created. The station of “Pidzemgaz” becomes a
clean complex of mine power enterprise. Such
enterprise can be as the standard of highly remu-
nerative industrial enterprise of XXI century.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The necessity of alternative energy sources research
is dictated by the rising of natural gas, oil and coal
costs. Due to the mining in deep mine in remote
districts, and also by the worsened geological condi-
tions and increase of distance of their transporting
makes power costs unbelievable high.
BUCG can become an alternative to traditional
energy, successfully working out technological and
social problems, and can become the active ecologi-
cal hospital attendant of our degrading environment
as a result of negative influence of existent power
complex.
Surface gasification is one of perspective tech-
nologies of energy reception from biomass. Interest
to gasification technologies is more displaced from
a production only of thermal energy to possibility of
the cogeneration production of thermal and electric
energy. Most attractive for the commercial use with
the purpose of making of electric power there are
presently technologies of atmospheric gasification
in a circulatory boiling seam.
By the source of biomass as a power medium for
the biogas production there can be wastes of plant-
grower and stock-raising. Technology of biogas
reception is exhaust enough in countries with a
warm climate and cannot be realized in a continen-
tal climate (in Ukraine) without heating of reactor.
Our technology of biogas production allows the
joint (combining) production of BUCG gas and
biogas at thermal support of temperature in meth-
ane-tanks (concrete or metallic) due to the utiliza-
tion of thermal energy – BUCG gas has large pros-
pects. In spite of obvious advantages and benefits of
energy production from biomass, bio-power tech-
nologies develop in Ukraine very slowly.
119
REFERENCES
Kolokolov, O.V. & Tabachenko, N.M. 1991. Geotech-
nological methods of mineral deposits mining. Kiev:
200.
Kolokolov, O.V. 2000. Theory and practice of thermo-
chemical technology of extraction and processing of
coal. Monograph. Dnipropetrovs’k: NMU of Ukraine:
281.
Kreinin, E.V. 2006. Coal as source of substitution of
natural gas. Ecological systems, 1: 45-49.
Falshtyns’kyy, V.S. 2009. Improvement of technology of
borehole underground coal gasification. Monograph.
Dnipropetrovs’k: National Mining University: 131.
Pivnyak, G.G., Zemba, A & Dudlya M.A. 2002. Rational
use of energy and environment. Dnipropetrovs’k: Na-
tional Mining University: 193.
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Researches of influence of depth of an in-seam working

on displacement field of rocks in its vicinity

G. Symanovych  K. Ganushevych
National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
V. Chervatyuk
OJSC “Pavlogradugol”, Pavlograd, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: Laws of displacements of stratified massif of weak rocks around in-seam working with in-
crease of its depth are presented and degree of influence of strength and deformation characteristics of adja-
cent rock layers on these displacements is presented as well. Sufficient independence of stress field of a rock
layer from condition of the adjacent layers is discovered: reduced strength layers with increase of H trans-
form into limiting (out-of-limit) state virtually regardless of strength characteristics of adjacent harder rock
layers; stress field in rock layers with higher strength characteristics almost does not depend on the adjacent
layer transformation into limiting state; stress field in a coal seam, in the second layer of bottom and the third
layer of roof, is quite stable compared to condition of adjacent rock layer.

1 INTRODUCTION widespread usage and it has the most universal

Modern methods of prognosis of rock pressure
manifestation are being constantly improved to-
wards more thorough consideration of features of a
support interaction with a rock massif containing a
working and its physical and mechanical character-
istics. These studies are extremely important for the
development of general concepts about interaction
of “massif-support” system and surveys of optimal
parameters of given interaction, taking into consid-
eration final aim, which is the control of steadiness
of the working using low-cost technologies. So,
supporting process should be continuously con-
nected with geomechanics of border zone rock
massif.
During determination of tasks of geomechanics, it
is constantly required to face a problem of calculation
of systems that have complex geometrical configura-
tion and irregular physical structure. Rock massif and
its host rocks have a big number of characteristics,
computation of which with help of mathematical
modeling is possible only with use of finite-difference
computational schemes. At present time, finite ele-
ment method (FEM) has become factual standard
during solution of geomechanical tasks.
Resulting from analysis of works dedicated to
finite-difference modeling of geomechanical proc-
esses close to underground workings, following
tendencies of given research trend is clearly ob-
served:
First of all, finite-element method is the most
capabilities. But there is a possibility to use combi-
nation of FEM and BEM (boundary-element
method) in order to receive more reliable solution
during determination of complex geomechanical
tasks that simultaneously consider many factors of
rocks mechanical characteristics, non-uniformity of
massif structure and geometrical parameters of the
object. Basic complexity of application of such
combination lies in objective reflection of physical
essence of the process at the border of abutment of
the model elements that are being explored by
various finite-difference methods.
Secondly, many tasks require 3-D formulation of
a question for more reliable reflection of geome-
chanical processes, what is being observed on a
modern stage of rock massif condition evaluation.
Thirdly, a bigger number of works is dedicated to
calculation of non-uniformity of mechanical charac-
teristics of massif and its structure that quite essen-
tially influences on the results of calculation of the
field of stress and strain state around the workings
and this was determined during research of a wide
sphere of tasks.
Fourthly, number of works in which not only plas-
tic and rheological characteristics of rocks are consid-
ered but also a whole diagram of their deformation
(limiting and out-of-limit states) is steadily growing,
that, in authors opinion, increases reliability of calcu-
lations and advances geomechanical model to real
object. Listed points have made up methodological
basis of the performed investigations.

121
2 GEOMECHANICS OF SYSTEM “MASSIF-
SUPPORT”
In the previously executed work (Bondarenko 2006)
there were stated results dedicated to researches of
stress and strain state of the system “stratified mas-
sif-support of a development working” with linear
connection of stresses and strains within its ele-
ments.
At the first stage all basic factors that influence
stress and strain state of the system were analyzed
and the evaluation was given to them according to
mining-geological and mining-technical conditions,
for example, considered for mines of Western
Donbass.
Geomechanical substantiation of model using a
line of initial parameters and ranges of their variation
were performed:
– depth of an in-seam working and its location
relatively to a coal seam;
– structure of a coal-containing strata of adjacent
rock layers, interval of change of their mechanical
characteristics and properties of a coal seam;
– mining and technical parameters of in-seam
working: shape and dimensions, type and parame-
ters of the support, supported area and their me-
chanical characteristics;
– research of stress and strain state of the test ge-
omechanical models to substantiate their dimensions
based on the conditions of stabilization of stress
components on the borders of the model according
to initial non-hydrostatic condition;
– testing of geomechanical models to determine
qualitative conformity of their stress and strain state
to modern notions and results of researches of rock
displacement processes close to a mine working;
– substantiation of contact conditions along strati-
fication planes of rock layers of coal-containing
strata.
It is well known that the most applicable numerical
methods for solving of complicated geomechanical
tasks of similar class, despite their high precision, do
not possess a generality of this solution. Thus, meth-
odological approach for solving of the given task is
necessary, the aim of which is the search for the set of
conditions of the widest application area of research
results with a condition of minimal admissible vol-
ume of calculations dedicated to searching of various
variants of combination of geometrical, mechanical
and load-bearing parameters of system “stratified
massif-support of the development working”. It is
quite hard to execute the second condition though,
because in order to increase the correspondence of
solution results to real mining-geological and mining-
technical conditions, it is necessary to analyze a big
number of variable parameters in all range of their
122
variation. That is why on the second stage of the
research, the geomechanical substantiation of struc-
ture of coal-containing strata of rocks in the vicinity
of an in-seam working is performed and this most
adequately reflects mining and geological conditions
of coal seams at Western Donbass mines. Stress and
strain state results of several models of coal-
containing strata structure with variable mechanical
characteristics of rock layers and at different mining
depth have been received. Based upon the stress and
strain state calculations, there was given a substantia-
tion to the adequate model of coal-containing strata.
On the third stage, laws of change of stress and
strain state system were explored, triggered by varia-
tion of deformation characteristics of rock layers with
specified interval for Western Donbass.
The fourth stage is dedicated to laws of change of
stress and strain state system with increase of depth of
in-seam working. Influence of deformation character-
istics of adjacent rock layers is simultaneously esti-
mated for various depths. Tendencies of occurrence
of limit-state of roof, wall and bottom rocks of the
working are determined depending on the above
stated geomechanical parameters and also strength
characteristics of rock layers.
Thereby, conducted researches in quasi-elastic
process, using finite-element method, made up first
part of geomechanical processes modeling near in-
seam working. When limiting state occurs, further
description of displacement process of coal contain-
ing strata is performed according to full rock massif
deformation diagram, that, according to modern
views, contains stages of softening and “ruining”
breakage (Bondarenko 2007, 2009 & Vinogradov
1989).
3 RESULTS
Displacement field of rocks that contain the working
essentially depends on the condition of surrounding
coal-containing strata that is defined by correlation of
strength characteristics of rock layers and depth of the
working. Analysis of laws of relation of wall rocks
displacement field with depth of a working is per-
formed, starting from variant of decreased strength
and deformation characteristics of all adjacent rock
layers of the system (Figure 1). At H  200 m, some
part of the coal-containing strata is located in prelimit
state, therefore the displacements are quite moderate
(230-480 mm). At H  400 m, biggest part of the
adjacent rock layers transfers into limit state that
provokes increase of displacements in massif, includ-
ing the contour of the working. This change of state
of massif’s part triggers clearly expressed non-linear
connection of displacement with stratification depth.
For example, with increase of H by two times (from
200 to 400 m), displacements in roof of a working
increase in 2.7…2.9 times, in wall rocks and bot-
tom – 2.5…2.8 times; in quality sense, distribution
diagram of displacements distribution along work-
ing’s contour slightly changes with smaller gradient
of change of displacements in roof and bottom. At
H  600 m, displacement field changes even more
both in qualitative and quantitative relations and this
is connected with transfer not only into limit but
also into out-of-limit states of overwhelming near-
to-contour area of coal-containing massif:
(а)
(b)
Figure 1. Distribution diagram of displacements in system
“stratified massif-support of working” at decreased strength
and deformation characteristics of all adjacent rock layers:
(a) Н = 200 m; (b) Н = 600 m.
123
– distribution diagram gains more asymmetric look
relatively to vertical axis of the working: displace-
ments of bottom and walls of the drift slightly prevail
from the side of seam rise;
– displacements of roof and bottom are so big (up
to 2.8 m in roof and 1.8 in bottom) that rock practi-
cally fills up entire cavity of the working, that is
explained by process of loosening of a considerable
volume of the massif in vicinity around the rock;
– displacements of rocks under props of the frame
reach 0.7...1.2 m from each side, that also leads to
entire loss of support stability and of the working in
whole.
(а)
(b)
Figure 2. Distribution diagrams of displacements in system
“stratified massif-support of a working” at decreased strength
characteristics and increased deformation characteristics of all
adjacent rock layers: (a) Н = 200 m; (b) Н = 600 m.
 Listed factors testify about impossibility of exploi-
tation of a working in considered mining and geo-
logical situation without application of corresponding
technical measures for support stability increase.
Increase of modulus of deformation of all adja-
cent rock layers from 0.3 × 104 MPa to 1 × 104 MPa
with their decreased strength leads to the following
results (Figure 2). General tendency of increase
influence Eir ,b is such that displacements of a
massif in any point decrease at any depth of the
working: at H  200 m – in 1.5…2.3 times in roof
(а)
(b)
Figure 3. Distribution diagrams of displacements in system
“stratified massif-support of working” at increased of
strength and decreased of deformation characteristics of all
adjacent rock layers: (а) Н = 200 m; (b) Н = 600 m.
124
and walls of working (displacements practically do
not change in bottom); at H  400 m – in 1.7…2.3
times; at H  600 m – in 2.1…2.2 times in roof, in
1.7…1.9 times in walls and in 2.0…2.5 times in
bottom. Therefore, there is a conclusion follows that
in out-of-limit state of adjacent rock layers, influ-
ence of their deformation characteristics increases,
especially in the working’s bottom. Here the value
of rock heave makes up 370…650 mm and allows
to exploit the working after appropriate recovery
operations.
(а)
(b)
Figure 4. Distribution diagrams of displacements in system
“stratified massif-support of working” at increased strength
and deformation characteristics of all adjacent rock:
(а) Н = 200 m; (b) Н = 600 m.
 Increased strength characteristics of all adjacent
rock layers radically change not only stress but also
strain state of coal-containing strata.
At decreased deformation characteristics of all
adjacent rock layers, the following features of
change displacement field with increase of H are
established (Figure 3):
– with different depth of working, qualitative dis-
tribution diagram in massif is virtually constant;
– displacements of rock contour of the working
even at H  600 m are relatively small (in roof – up
to 490 mm, in bottom – up to 430 m, in walls – up to
170 mm) that is conditioned by predominantly pre-
limit state of coal-containing strata;
– for this reason, almost linear connection of dis-
placement value in any point of a massif with depth
of a working is observed.
Increased deformation characteristics of all rock
layers (Figure 4) do not change previous conclu-
sions, taking into account that value of displacement
of a working’s rock contour decreases in roof and
walls in 1.7…2.0 times.
Change of deformation characteristics of the
roof’s second layer changes just a little the dis-
placement field with all its features revealed earlier.
In conclusion of this stage of researches, influ-
ence of strength and deformation characteristics of
the second rock layer on tendencies of change of
displacement field with depth increase of a working
is estimated. It is established that influence of de-
formation characteristics of the second layer of roof
with different combinations of strength properties of
adjacent rock layers with increase of parameter H is
analogical to previously described variants.
As to the strength characteristics of the second
layer of roof – their diverse influence depending on
state of first rock layers of roof and bottom are
discovered. At increased strength characteristics of
the first layers of roof and bottom, transfer of the
second rock layer of roof into limit state because of
its decreased strength contributes to increase of
displacements of rock contour of the working up to
20…28%. This is partially conditioned by prelimit
state of rock layers that adjoin the working even at
depth of 600 meters. When the first layers of roof
and bottom transfer into limit (out-of-limit) state
with depth increase – increased strength of the
second layer of roof allows to restrict the displace-
ment of rock contour of the working by 29…56%.
125
4 CONCLUSIONS
Results of conducted researches of tendencies of
increase of rock massif displacements into a work-
ing’s cavity with its depth increase, have allowed to
formulate a line of conclusions:
– various variants of distribution of strength and
deformation characteristics of adjacent rock layers
cause different level of their influence on displace-
ment of rock contour of the working with increase
of mining depth. The defining factor is the condition
kind of adjacent rock layers at specific value of
parameter H: prelimit, limit, out-of-limit;
– at increased strength characteristics of adjacent
rock layers, their partially prelimit state predetermines
close to linear connection of displacements with pa-
rameter H, at which fluctuations of their deformation
properties in range Eir ,b  0.3...1 10 4 MPa change
displacement value up to 70…100%;
– at lowered strength characteristics of rock layers,
dependence of displacement of a working’s contour
on H becomes nonlinear when limit state of any of
layers occurs and intensity of increase of displace-
ments grows by several times.
The established laws will serve as a basis during
development of prognosis method of exploitation
condition of in-seam development workings that are
driven within stratified massif of weak rocks.
REFERENCES
Bondarenko, V.I., Kovalevska, I.A., Symanovych, G.A. 
Fomychyov, V.V. 2006. Computer modeling of stress and
strain state of thin-seam rock massif around in-seam work-
ing. Book 1. Prelimit stage of formation of system “rock-
support”. Dnipropetrovs’k: System technologies: 172.
Bondarenko, V.I., Kovalevska I.A., Symanovych, G.A. 
Fomychyov, V.V. 2007. Modeling of limit and out-of-
limit state of stratified massif around in-seam working.
International “Forum of miners”. Dnipropetrovs’k: Na-
tional Mining University: 56-62.
Bondarenko, V.I., Kovalevska, I.A., Symanovych, G.A. 
Fomychyov, V.V. 2009. Interconnection of stress and
strain components of system “massif-support” with
strength characteristics of wall rocks. ІІІ International
scientific and practical conference “School of Under-
ground Mining”. Dnipropetrovs’k: Art-Press: 99-105.
Vynogradov, V.V. 1989. Geomechanics of massif condi-
tion management near mine workings. Kyiv: Naukova
dumka: 192.
This page intentionally left blank
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Research of influence of support resistance

of the stope in the immediate roof condition

V. Buzilo., V. Serdyuk & A. Yavorsky

National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: The article covers results of studies of support resistance effect on stress-strain state of stope’s
roof rocks. It is shown that modification of support resistance at the face and character of shearing forces,
moments of deflection take place within roof stratum. Increase in support resistance at the face space helps to
avoid tension stresses near the longwall face in the lower part of a roof layer. In turn, it reduces the risk of its
crushing and development of sudden outbursts from coal layer.

1 INTRODUCTION high cost which cannot always be paid while operat-

As it is known, displacement of rock massif during
underground coal mining takes place as layer-by-
layer movement. In this case, each bed is not a
rigidly restrained thin plate that has nonuniformity
of basic load from overlying rocks and nonuni-
formity of normal reaction from underlying rocks.
Maximum value of basic load and reaction is avail-
able within massif. They drop down to zero over
stripped area gradually rising over stripped area
where their maximum value becomes equal to
gravity forces. Under all other conditions the char-
acter of distribution of basic load and reaction
depends on coal-overlying unit structure and tech-
nological parameters. It is known that lower layers
fall near mined bed. Thus, the two design models
are formed while mining coal-overlying unit (Pol-
tavets & Savostyanov 1994): thin plates not rigidly
restrained from both sides and those not rigidly
restrained from one side. The latter are layers lo-
cated directly above the seam, and called roof stone.
Under all other conditions basic load on the roof
stone including technological parameters depends
on its thickness as well as on thickness of overlying
rocks. Thus, to determine modification of conditions
of roof stone rocks it is required to determine pa-
rameters of load curve and reaction for all layers of
coal-overlying unit from daylight area.
As it is a known, safe and efficient operation in
stopes depends on ability to control rock condition
within face space. As a rule, powered roof supports
consisting of bearing elements (mostly they are two
hydraulic legs, a bed, and console with a hood) are
used for that today. Lately, a tendency to increase
bearing force of hydraulic legs with similar support
has been initialised. It considerably increases steel
intensity of powered roof supports resulting in their
ing. Practice of mining with the help of powered
roof supports that have increased resistance often
leads to emergencies connected with rigid support
caving. Specific literature pays much attention to
interworking relationship of stopes supports (Kiya-
shko 1984). But it is impossible today to answer
questions connected with bearing force distribution
between support legs. Thus, problems concerning
effect of bearing force of support legs in state of
roof rocks are current and well-timed.
2 BASIC PART
To determine supposed interaction mechanism of
roof stone there is modeled stress-strain state of
rocks while mining coal layer С 7 within mine field
of Zapadno-Donbasskaya mine (prospecting bore
#8231). There was longwall mining to the rise with
the longwall’s length being 150 м, roof control is
defined as cave-in, width of the shearer is 0.8 m,
and rate of face advance is 2 m / day. Coal-
overlying unit was divided into 28 beds according to
rock types during modeling process. Calculations
for each bed were divided into two stages. At first,
parameters of load curves depending on varying
abovementioned technological parameters were
determined for each of them. Key parameters of
load curves for beds located nearby mined bed if the
rate of face advance is 2 m / day are in Table 1.
Chain of detailed calculations of load curve parame-
ters and indices required to determine stress-strain
state of roof stone rocks is specified in paper
(Savostyanov & Klochkov 1992).

127
Table 1. Parameters of load curves for lower beds of coal-
L3 3 Bk  k 
overlying unit. Yx    cos x  1 (4)
 f K I
3
1 k3  2L 
Thick- If rate of advance is 2 m / day
ness Physical pa- K  E0 if 0  x  a
of bed Geometrics (m)
rameters (МPа)
(m) f2  x
a d0 S2 ghp K  E0  E n   En if a  x  f 2 (5)
0.7 1.0 0.8 19.1 17.0 b2
2.0 2.9 2.0 24.3 21.1
12.0 12.8 8.5 31.2 15.0 K  En if f 2  x  L

Design of simulation model of interaction be-
tween main roof and roof stone with 0.7 m thickness
is shown in Figure 1. Not rigidly restrained console
experiences basic loads from the main roof, normal
reaction from coal layer, and reaction from support.
Central point of overhanging beam (Figure 1) was
determined taking into account its thickness and rate
of the face advance. Reaction of support is shown as
trapezium with running values of r1 and r2 .
Shearing forces, bending forces of its fault were
calculated on the basis of parameters of basic load
curve. The calculations took into account below
mentioned expressions (Savostyanov & Klochkov
1992). In the expressions, the f(K) is the modulus of
deformation which is modified along the layer
length according to the expression (5).
To determine effect of stope’s support, the stress-
strain state of support of roof rocks was calculated.
While simulating support, resistance near face and
near border of face space varied from 50 tf / m2 to
250 tf / m2, and technological parameters of mining
as well as rate of face advance stayed to be invari-
able.
Figure 2 shows lines of behaviour of shearing
forces within the bed of roof stone depending on
support resistance of stope. The lines’ data study
shows that the most important modifications of
shearing forces take place when support resistance
near longwall face is more than that near the goaf.
Thus, if support resistance near face is 250 tf / m2
then shearing forces of the face increase from 250 tf
to 800 tf. With it, shear stress of shearing forces
increases from 535 tf / m2 to 1700 tf / m2, practi-
cally thrice. Then increase in shear stress will take
place within lower fourth of roof stone layer.
800

600

400
Crosswise forces (tf)

200

0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-200

-400

-600

Distance from border of massif (m)

if support resistance at the face is 50 tf/m2, and at the goaf is 50 tf/m2

if support resistance at the face is 250 tf/m2, and at the goaf is 50 tf/m2
if support resistance at the face is 50 tf/m2, and at the goaf is 250 tf/m2

Figure 1. Design model to calculate stress-strain state of

roof stone rocks. Figure 2. Lines of deflection moment modification and
shearing forces of roof.
3 k
Ox    Bk sin x (1)
1 L Over the central part of the face space the shear-
ing forces change sign, and maximum value is
L 3 Bk k within upper fourth of roof thickness. Here maxi-
Mx   sin x (2) mum value of shear stress is 850 tf / m2. The most
 1 k L
favourable conditions from the viewpoint of roof
2 L2 3 Bk k stone continuity take place when support resistance
c   sin x (3) at the goaf is more than support resistance at the
 f K I
2
1 k 2 2L face space.

128
 Under standard conditions if support is not avail- lines of behaviour of moments of deflection for the
able the moment of deflection along the length of bed within roof stone depending on support resis-
layer changes sign. Within massif the moment of tance modification.
deflection is negative. Compression stresses origi-
nate in lower fourth of layer, and tensile stresses Table 2. Maximum normal stresses by moment of deflection.
originate in the upper part. If support is available
Normal stresses by moment of
then behavior of moment of deflection varies. Fig- deflection (МPа)
ure 3 shows behavior of stress condition of roof Support At the face At the goaf
stone if there is support with different resistance at resistance

Compression

Compression
the face and the goaf. Thus, if there is support at the (tf / m2)

Tension

Tension
face with important support resistance and small (at the faceat
support resistance at the goaf near the face then the goaf)
tensile stresses take place within upper layer of roof
stone, and compression stresses are within lower
part of layer. It has favorable effect on rock continu- 50-50 51 13 26 7
ity while mining with the help of coal shearer. If 250-50 123 32 28 7.2
support resistance at the face is small, and support 50-250 49 12 43 10
resistance at the goaf is important then character of
stress distribution from moment of deflection varies. Studies of data from Table 2 and lines show that
Near the face tensile stresses take place within increase in support resistance at the face influences
lower part of roof stone layer, and compression significantly both behaviour of moment of deflec-
stresses are available within upper part. It increases tion and its value. If support resistance at the face
the risk of roof stone cave-in while mining with the increases from 50 tf / m2 to 250 tf / m2 then moment
help of coal cutter. Besides, if there is adhesion on of deflection at the face increased from 360 tfm to
the contact between rock and coal seam the over- 839 tfm, more than 2.3 times. Maximum compres-
burden recasting during stress increases the risk of sion stresses by moment of deflection increased
coal and gas outburst during mining. On the con- from 51 МPа to 123 МPа. If rock strength of roof
trary, if we mean goaf, compression stresses origi- stone is 25 МPа at the distance of 1m from the face,
nate within lower part of roof stone as a result of then roof stone crushing in its lower part should
moment of deflection, and tensile stresses originate happen.
within upper part of the layer.
400

200
Moment of deflection (tfm)

0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-200

-400

-600

-800

-1000

Distance to border of massif (m)

2
if support resistance at the face and goaf is 50 tf/m
2 2
if support resistance at the face is 250 tf/m , and at the goaf is 50 tf/m
if support resistance at the face is 50 tf/m2, and at the goaf is 250 tf/m2

Figure 4. Lines of behaviour of moments of deflection

Figure 3. Behavior of stress condition of roof stone.
Moments of deflection and maximum stresses by
moment of deflection are estimated for the consid-
ered conditions. Normal stresses are estimated for
distinguished points at the face and the goaf where
moments of deflection have maximum value. Esti-
mation results for maximum normal stresses by
moment of deflection are in Table 2. Figure 4 shows
along the length of roof stone.
As the data from Table 2 show, if support resis-
tance increases at the goaf then moment of deflec-
tion modifies twice. But in this case, at the face it
shifted to the face that is this maximum shifted to
the face when support resistance increased. Before
increase in support resistance was at the distance of
1m. After increase in support resistance up to
250 ts / m2, maximum shifted to the face at the
distance of 0.2 m. Thus, if support resistance con-

129
tinuous increasing at the goaf and support resistance
continuous decreasing at the face then maximum at
the face will shift to massif, and moment of deflec-
tion will change a sign at the face, and tensile
stresses will originate within lower part of roof
stone. Line shown in Figure 3b will appear. Within
layers prone to sudden outbursts of coal and gas it
may result in dynamic phenomenon development.
Regular operation in stope requires prescribed
limits for value of roof stone lowering which to
some extent depends on support resistance. Practice
of mines shows that roof lowering at the face border
is always more than main roof lowering. In other
cases when main roof lowering rises to roof rock
lowering then support load at the border of mining
will rise sharply. If so support will be fastened
“rigidly” and then damaged. In mining practice
value of roof stone lowering at the border of face
space attempts is engaged to be controlled at the
expense of pliability of supports. In this connection,
it is required to make preliminary forecasts of both
main roof and roof stone lowering values.
To determine effect of support resistance on value
of roof stone lowering there were estimated both the
lowering and equivalent stresses within lower part
of the bed. The estimation results are in Table 3.
Typical sections and those along the whole length of
roof stone are shown as lines in Figure 5.
Table 3. Roof stone lowering and equivalent stresses
within typical section.
Lowering (mm) and equivalent
stresses (МPа)
Support resis-
(at the face-at
tance (tf / m2)
At 1m dis-
the goaf)
At the goaf
tance of the face
Lowering
Lowering
Stresses Stresses
50-50 51 22 287 16
250-50 83 51 405 72
50-250 41 18 234 17
Studies of Table 3 data help to state that within
considered limits of the stope’s support resistance
the most favourable conditions for continuity of bed
are in variation two when support resistance is
greater at the goaf than at the face space. For all
variations, lowering of the face at the distance of 1m
is within accuracy of estimations. But in variation
three, when support resistance at the goaf higher
compared to face space, insignificant increase in
main roof lowering may result in rigid support
fastening at the goaf.
130
Roof stone lowering at the goaf under main roof
sharp lowering helps to avoid rigid support fasten-
ing.
200
Stresses (MPa)
100
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500
Distance to border of massif (m)
if support resistance at the face is 50 tf/m22, and at the goaf is 50 tf/m2 2
if support resistance at the face is 50 tf/m ,2and at the goaf is 250 tf/m2
if support resistance at the face is 250 tf/m2, and at the goaf is 50 tf/m2
if support resistance at the face is 250 tf/m2 , and at the goaf is 50 tf/m2
if support resistance at the face is 50 tf/m2, and at the goaf is 50 tf/m 2
if support resistance at the face is 50 tf/m , and at the goaf is 250 tf/m
Figure 5. Lines of behaviour of equivalent stresses and
roof stone lowering with 0.7 m thickness.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The research helps to come to the following conclu-
sions:
1. Support resistance modification in the stope
effects stress-strain state of main roof rocks;
2. Increase in support resistance at the face space
helps to avoid tensile stresses at the face within
lower part of roof stone. In turn, it reduces danger of
its damage and development of sudden outbursts
from a coal seam;
3. Increase resistance at the border of face space
in the case of sharp increase in main roof lowering
raises probability of support rigid fastening;
4. If support resistance increases greatly at the
border of face space, tensile stresses originate
within roof stone over the face under the layer by
moment of deflection. It results in increased prob-
ability of sudden outburst development during
shearer’s operation and roof stone failure.
REFERENCES
Savostyanov, A.V. & Klochkov, V.G. 1992. Control of
rock massif state. Kiev: NMK VО: 274.
Poltavets, V.I. & Savostyanov, A.V. 1994. Mechanism of
roof stone formation and its interaction with overlying
rock mass. Ugol Ukrainy, 3: 24.
Kiyashko, I.А. 1984. Processes of underground mining.
Kiev: Head Publishing of Vyshcha Shkola.
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4
Improvement of mining methods with consolidating
stowing of iron-ore deposits on big depths
A. Kuz’menko
National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
A. Furman & V. Usatyy
CJSC “Zaporozhsky irone-ore plant”, Zaporozh’ye, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: the paper contains results of modeling by polarization-optical method of stability of tall rooms
and by mine observations during improvement of mining methods parameters with consolidating stowing on
big depths in difficult mining-geological conditions of South Belozersk deposit of iron ores.
1 INTRODUCTION
One the basic issue of underground mining of ore
deposits is the reliability of rock massif manage-
ment and selection of ore extraction technology.
Indispensable condition of any mining method is the
ability of the massif to preserve long-lasting stabil-
ity during mining. Preservation of project parame-
ters of a room depends on permissible horizontal
spans, vertical and incline outcrop. Physical and
mechanical properties of ores and host rocks have
significant influence under definite mining and geo-
logical conditions.
Zaporozhian iron-ore plant has been processing
ore deposits of South Belozersk deposit for more
than 30 years constantly improving the technology
of mining operations, decreasing dilution of rich ore
and increasing its coefficient of extraction.
The thickness of the ore deposit “Glavnaya”
changes in range from 10 to 120 meters. The deposit
is located with angle of 65-700 and dips in north-
eastern direction. Coefficient of strength of ore,
according to Protod’yakonov’s scale, varies from
f  2  5 in south part of the deposit, to f  4  8
in north part. Rocks of the foot and hanging wall are
presented by ferruginous quartzite, shales of various
compound and sandstones. More than 50% are pre-
sented by rocks with coefficient of strength equal to
f  8  10 and reaches f  15 in north part of the
deposit. Near 70% of shales have coefficient of
strength equal to f  4  8.
In general, mining operations are carried out on
depth of 640-940 m, and the safety roof is devel-
oped on depth of 305-340 m that is left under water-
bearing level.
During mining of steeply-falling and quite thick
131
deposit, the room mining method is applied with use
of goaf stowing with consolidating materials. Min-
ing methods are constantly applied at the plant and
focused on increase of a room’s size and implemen-
tation of new mine equipment.
2 PROBLEMS
Application of mining methods of ore deposits with
consolidation stowing requires unification of the
rooms in a technological block, having divided them
based on order of their mining at a level and adja-
cent level. This is necessary for safe execution of
stoping and stowing operations. Thus, the chambers
are divided, based on the order of the deposits min-
ing, into primary, secondary and third order.
During mining of the deposit “Glavnaya” of
South Belozersk deposit, room mining method is
applied with blast-hole drilling of an ore from sub-
level openings. Height of the chambers reaches
100 m with width of 30 meters. After the ore extrac-
tion, the chambers are filled with a consolidating
stowing. During change of the chambers parame-
ters, their constructive dimensions and shapes did
not correspond at the adjacent levels. In these condi-
tions, it was necessary to take the shape of a cham-
ber such, that we would not loose the ore deposits,
keeping stability of the roof that consists of a rock
conglomerate – left ore, host rocks and backfill
massif.
During the improvement of mining method, the
roof of secondary chambers of lower located level
had a tent shape that repeated shape of bottom of the
above located level. These chambers are mined after
the backfill in the primary chambers gets sufficient
strength against surface exposure of an artificial
massif and resistance to seismic influence.
With change of mining method parameters, the
roof of the chamber took various shapes depending
on the order of an ore extraction. Selection of physi-
cal and mechanical characteristics of the backfill,
Figure 1. Order of mining of chambers in survey axes of levels 480-580 and 548-640 m.
3 ANALYSIS OF RESEARCHES
AND PUBLICATIONS
Stress and strain state of different-module massif is
determined both by analytical and calculation meth-
ods and by physical modeling with application of
polarization-optical method. Analytical methods
require considerable expenses of time and are hard
to solve due to interconnection of many factors.
Received results do not always correspond to in-
strumental mine measures. Tasks of such kind
should be resolved using numerical methods, they
forecast the stress and strain state of a massif around
an opening quite reliably. But it is hard to carry out
for the display of the whole picture of stress forma-
tion in different-module massif that is violated by
mine operations and that was formed from an artifi-
cial massif.
In connection with high labor intensiveness of a
mathematical model design for a complex multicon-
tour object, in concrete case, method of polariza-
132
shape and dimensions of the chambers that provide
stability of the goaf, is impossible without sufficient
information concerning stress-strain state of the
undermined different-module massif around cham-
ber (Figure 1).
tion-optical modeling was adopted. It allows to
solve private task of the stresses distribution with
observance of geometrical similarity in any place.
For given mining-geological conditions with dif-
ferent orders of ore deposits mining along the strike,
the most acceptable and efficient method is the po-
larization-optical method.
Researches of stress state of the system “ore mas-
sif-consolidating backfill” are performed with con-
secutive reproduction of full history of stoping and
backfilling at a deposit.
4 FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM
For reproduction of mining-geological conditions of
mining of South Belozersk deposits and modeling of
different-module massif, two models made of igdan-
tin were made. Content of igdantin was 20-25%,
30% of glycerin and 40-45% of water. Backfill of a
goaf was imitated by filling of foam-like igdantin
with loaded model, but at this, elasticity module was
5-6 times lower than elasticity module of an ore
material in the model.
Modeling was performed on a big polarizing unit
IGD of A.A. Skochyns’kyy and on polarizing unit
ИМАШ-КБ-2 using white colour. Height of the
model was 580 mm, width 615 mm, thickness
20 mm. Dimension of the goaf did not exceed
250 mm of height and 70 mm of width that allowed
to provide correct limit conditions. Scale determina-
tion of the material’s strip was performed using sensi-
tive colouring on the samples which were cut out of
the model and loaded with their own weight under
conditions of flat stress state. Then the model liber-
ated from horizontal stress was being x-rayed by
polarized light. Stresses in optical models are pre-
sented by interference colour of predominantly first
order. Gauging of the model is performed on the
sensitive paint and when there is no side support
gauging model was being x-rayed by polarized light.
In order to follow identity of the stress fields in the
model and in natural conditions that is defined by
equality of side thrust coefficient   0.5  0.6 , some
pads are injected into the sides that allowing to in-
crease model’s thrust from   0.44 to   0.55.
Figure 2. Distribution of isochromatic lines of stresses in different-module massif around the chambers with cogged form
of the roof.
133
Elasticity module of different-module material made
up E  1.15  1.3 kg / m2, volume weight of igdantin
is   1.1 g / m3.
Consecutive mining and backfill of the chambers
are carried out in levels of 340-480 m and 480-640
m with vertical chambers. Below level of 640 m and
above level of 340 m mining was performed accord-
ing to the project of experimental technology. Area
of an ore deposit above level of 340 m was being
mined by low horizontal chambers and below level
of 640 m in models – by inclined chambers. Mining
of the low chambers was initialized having ratio of
elasticity modules of the backfill material ( E3 ) and
the massif ( E M ) equal to 1:10 and 1:15. Mining of
the levels was performed having ration equal to E3 :
E M  1:6 that allowed to approximately express
interaction of backfill and massif taking into ac-
count process of backfill consolidation process.
Colour and order of interference stripes were
marked according to the height of the model and
gauging lines were drawn then according to the
stripes.
 Models were registering pictures of isochromatic tween chambers #4, 5 and 6, between levels 480-
and isoclinic lines at every stage. Their position 580 m and after consolidation of backfill in cham-
were being registered every 100 from 00 to 900 . bers #4 and #5 – chamber #8.
Tangential stresses  xy ,  x ,  y ,  min ,  max
and coefficient of stresses concentration k max
were determined according to specially developed
program.
Possible variants of chambers configurations,
their disposition in ore deposit and order of the re-
serves extraction were taken into account.

5 RESULTS OF RESEARCHES

Initially, extraction of an ore deposit was simulated

in the boundaries of the levels of 325-480 m and
then extraction of primary chambers were carried
out on the level of 480-580 m. After backfilling of
the chambers #2, 3 and #4, the secondary chamber
#5 were extracted between chambers #3 and #4
which was filled up as well. After that the consecu-
tive extraction and backfill of chambers #6, 7 and
#8 on the level of 548-640 m were performed, and
then the secondary chamber #9 on the level of 480-
580 m between chambers #2 and #3 was extracted
and filled up. Graphics of isochromatic lines,
stresses and their coefficient of concentration are
shown on Figures 2 and 3.
Analyzing of distribution of isochromatic lines of
stresses in different-module around the chambers
with cogged form (Figure 2), it should be men-
tioned, that this index has the biggest value at in-
clined planes of an ore massif. Extracted chamber
practically does not suffer tangential stresses while
located surrounded by backfill massif. These
stresses are located beyond the limits of filled
chambers in massif, especially in ore pillar between
filled chambers.
Ore deposit is located on the contact with a back-
fill massif in unloaded state and this favourably
influences stability of walls of backfilled chambers
and formation of strong layer along the contact.
Confirmation of above stated analysis of
isochromatic lines change in complex configuration
of mining operations front in vertical cross-cut of
ore deposit is the distribution of normal stresses in
different-module massif around the chambers with
cogged shape of the roof (Figure 3).
Order of the chambers mining using second vari-
ant, as in the first variant, was simulating mining-
geological situation in limits of levels of 340-480 m.
Then chamber #1 at level 548-640 m was mined and
backfilled. After chambers #2 and #3 were mined,
and with that, chamber #2 had not been backfilled
until mining of chamber #3. A pillar was left be-
Figure 3. Distribution of stresses in different-module mas-
sif around chambers with cogged shape of the roof.
Analysis of isoclinic lines and isostatic lines
showed that the backfill of the chambers in limits of
the mined level does not influence distribution of
stresses in massif and constructive elements. The
backfill accepts the load of hanging wall only after
mining of under and above located levels. Thus,
transfer of load is carried out on the footwall out of
area of a rock foot-wall drift location. Trajectory of
stresses takes intermediate position between back-
filled and untouched ore massif. The backfill de-
creases dimensions of influence zones of worked-
out area. Zone of significant influence presents area
extended along strike and has width equal to triple
thickness of the deposit. Intensity of stresses in mas-
sif and on the contour of the chamber is quantita-
tively characterized by picture of isochromatic lines.
Considering stresses in ore massif along lines, it
can be noticed that there is a tendency to decrease of
component stresses while moving towards the goaf.
In operational areas they do not exceed 0.8 H ,
decreasing under backfill and backfilled chambers
down to 0.4 H and even less. During mining of
chambers at level of 640-740 m by previously cho-

 
134
sen schemes, maximal stresses relate to hanging cient is f  15  16.
wall. With combination of ore draw points from Fall of the roof and backfill massif happened in
chambers of hanging and foot walls at level of chamber 1/19 of level of 465-580 meters in amount
740 m, their concentration decreases from of 50-70 thousand tons of rock mass (ore, shales,
2.5 H to 1.5 H . In chambers with inclined bot- backfill). The ore in this chamber was composed of
tom, including interchamber pillar, zones of relief hematite and martite with strength coefficient from
prevail, except for area of hanging wall. Backfill on f  3  5 to f  8  10 with separate areas with
all position has a zero f  10  12 . Interburdens of 3-5 meter-thickness of
Comparing received results of stresses and coeffi-
cients of concentration it is not hard to notice that hematite, fractured, unstable ore with strength coef-
these values are higher in second variant than in the ficient being f  3 occur at level of 480 m. Shales
first one. Maximal coefficient of concentration ex- with strength coefficient f  7  9 , middle fractur-
ceeded value 3 in area of transport level. Concentra- ing, stability being from middle till lower than mid-
tion coefficients are equal to 2 in pillars between dle occur in the footwall. Quartzite of middle frac-
chambers #1 and #2. This is 1.5 time higher than in turing and stability with strength coefficient
the first variant. With the second variant the size of f  14  16 occur in hanging wall of the deposit.
the abutment zone is 40 meters in area of draw points
of all chambers at the level. Areas of increased pres-
sure were located at the level of draw points of all
chambers of the level 640 m. Compressive and tan-
gential stresses do not exceed elasticity limit of ores
in chambers’ bottom of level 480-580 m, that is the
result of protective effect of the backfill.
From the above stated it follows that it is safer to
mine the chambers under loaded massif than under
untouched massif.
Thus, order of chambers mining at a level deter-
mines distribution of stresses and formation of
abutment pressure at the bottom and roof of a
chamber. Figure 4. Areas of falls in chambers of level of 480-580 m
Generalizing results of modeling on equivalent in projection on hanging wall of ore deposit.
materials on polarization-optical method it can be
concluded that stress state of different-module mas-
sif has direct dependence both on configuration of a
chamber and front of stope, and also on mining
depth and physical and mechanical properties of
backfill massif and ore.
This found confirmation during analysis of cham-
bers condition at levels of 480-640 meters during
ore breaking by borehole charges. Influence of
technological parameters of mining, physical and
mechanical properties of ore, host rocks and backfill
material on deviation of project geometrical dimen-
sions of chambers is determined by factual indices
of mine documentation. Volume of an ore caving on Figure 5. Areas of falls in chambers of level of 480-580 m
the given level is shown on Figures 4 and 5. in projection on hanging wall of ore deposit.
It is determined that amount and volumes of
chambers cavings depend on the ore strength coeffi- Increase of parameters of a chamber by 20%
cient alteration. Chamber’s ore is hematite-martite thanks to falls are noticed at levels of 480-580 me-
of low fracturing, middle stability with strength ters: chambers 2/15ю, 1/11ю, 1/7ю, 1/4ю, 3/13ю,
coefficient equal to f  2  3. In this place, the ore 1/2ю, 3/15ю, 5/13ю, 1/14ю, 3/1с, 2/8с. Fall of rock
is fractured and unstable. Shales of various middle and bottom of the chamber at the contact with back-
fractured and stability with strength coefficient of fill massif happened in chamber 1/20ю of level of
f  7  9 . Hanging wall is presented by quartzites 465-580 m. Analogical events were observed in
of middle fracturing and stability, strength coeffi- different-module massif and while mining of ore

 
135
deposits at level of 548-640 m. In general, hanging
wall’s rocks were falling – chambers 4/13ю, 2/6ю,
4/5ю, 2/18ю, 4/9ю, 2/14ю, 2/22ю и 4/21ю.
As it is seen from the data shown on Figures 4
and 5, dependence of deviation of chamber’s pa-
rameters on the ore strength along strike of the de-
posit is clearly observed. In northern part of the
deposit, where strength coefficient of ore reaches
f  15 , there are almost no falls from walls and
roof. And on the contrary, in south part, where coef-
ficient of ore strength reaches f  2  3 , consider-
able amount of falls occurs. It should be added that
fracturing of massif also contributes to falling even
more than rocks strength. With significant fracturing
of massif, walls and roof of the chambers get bro-
ken, even with considerable strength of an ore.
6 CONCLUSIONS
As a result of performed researches of stress-strain
state of different-module massif by polarization-
optical method on photo-elastic equivalent materi-
als, following conclusions can be made:
136
1. Areas of the roof, transcending the chamber’s
walls, have 2 times greater equivalent stresses than
in central part of the roof and 1.5 times greater than
near the bottom.
2. Maximal values of concentration of normal
(compressive) stresses are related to haulage level of
640 m and to left pillars between chambers #1, 2
and 3. Areas of increased pressure are located at the
level of draw points of all chambers of the level of
640 m. Compressive and tangential stresses do not
exceed ore elasticity limit in chambers roofs of level
of 480-580 m due to protective effect of the backfill.
3. Order of chambers mining on a level and their
backfill order determine distribution of stresses and
formation of abutment pressure near bottom and
roof of a chamber.
4. Generalizing results of modeling on equivalent
materials by polarization-optical method, it can be
concluded that stress state of different-module mas-
sif has direct dependence both on configuration of a
chamber and front of stopes, and on operation depth
and physical-mechanical properties of the backfill
and ores.
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

New generation concrete – new approach

in designing of underground structures

P. Czaja & J. Hydzik

Faculty of Mining and Geoengineering, AGH – UST, Kraków, Poland

ABSTRACT: A continuous increase of demand for mineral resources requires the opening up of new depos-
its, which results in the necessity to sink new shafts and dip roads from the surface. The application of new
materials, especially of HPC and SCC, to build new underground constructions in difficult mining and geo-
logical conditions may significantly influence the changes in the construction of lining, increase the durabil-
ity and lower the construction costs. The possibility analysis to make such concrete structures in difficult
shaft conditions was carried out in laboratory tests and in numerical computations. This article was made
according the results of the project #11.11.100.197.

1 INTRODUCTION million tons, which constitutes a 92% growth in the

A continuous increase of demand for mineral re-
sources requires the opening up of new deposits.
This results in the necessity to sink new shafts or
dip roads from the surface and other underground
workings from which commercial minerals are
mined. Concrete is one of the main building materi-
als that is applied both in civil and underground
engineering. Thanks to recent developments in
building and material chemistry, the production of
concrete has undergone several changes. The sup-
plementation of ordinary concrete with suitable
mineral additives and chemical admixtures im-
proved the quality of both the concrete mix and the
hardened concrete. As a result new group of materi-
als – known as new generation concrete – has ap-
peared, among which the most popular and most
frequently applied are high-value, self-consolidating
and light high-performance concretes, etc. Concrete
that has extraordinary properties, such as shear
strength of 200 MPa, composite concrete, self-
cleaning or even transparent concretes are still in
experimental phase.
The introduction of new generation concretes into
underground construction and especially into shaft
sinking which is dominated by ordinary concrete
will result in a complete change in the concepts of
designing and constructing underground linings.
2 POLISH UNDERGROUND ENGINEERING
AT THE BEGINNING OF 21ST CENTURY
The world output of hard coal increased by 8.8%
last year and exceeded the magical figure of 5 000
last 25 years (Coal Fact 2007). Poland, as the 8th
coal producer in the world (Coal fact 2007) with its
output of 95 million tons which accounts for 56% of
EU coal production, is the biggest producer in EU.
The same pace of development is visible as regards
the production of steel, which is the result of a
dynamic growth of the building and car industries.
At the same time, there is a growing demand on
the world metal market for copper, aluminum, zinc,
lead, nickel, titanium and others. Both in the case of
steel and non-ferrous metals, the increase of produc-
tion of steel depends on the mining of metal ores
and (in the case of steel) production of coke. The
demand of the mining construction industry as
regards the opening up of deposits and the prepara-
tion for further exploitation can be analyzed against
the background of these industries.
In the Polish model of underground mines the
opening up of deposits was carried out mainly by
vertical shafts. In recent years, due to a more and
more frequent application of belt conveyors to
transport the winning and suspended railway to
transport material and people, there has been a well
justified interest in opening up coal deposits from
the surface by means of inclined shafts. Such sys-
tems are already working in Poland in the Janina,
Sobieski and Marcel hard coal mines. An inclined
shaft is being planned to be applied in the Janina
hard coal mine to open up coal deposits at the depth
of 800 m.
Polish mining construction industry, as the only
one in Europe in the last 5 years, has sunk a shaft
from the surface to the depth of 1250 m for the
Polish copper mining. At present two more shafts
are being planned to be sunk from the surface for

137
the KGHM Polska Miedź copper company and at
least two more for coal mining. In the last five years
3 shafts have been deepened and several more shafts
are inevitably going to undergo the same operation.
The majority of the recent coal output comes from
sublevels, which is not a good solution. In order to
change the situation many shafts will have to be
deepened. Moreover, zinc and lead ore mining,
which has been developing recently due to the high
price of these metals, will require significant in-
vestments as regards the construction of vertical or
inclined shafts.
The number of shafts that have been closed down
shows the scale of the restructuring operations in
hard coal mining. According to the Agency of
Industry Development – the Katowice branch, 35
mines have been closed down since 1990, including
the whole of the Wałbrzych Basin and the majority
of mines in the Dąbrowskie Basin. Thus 2785 km of
138
The output of 100 million tons of hard coal, 30
million tons of copper ore and approx. 5 million
tons of zinc and lead ore requires an immense con-
struction capacity in the field of underground engi-
neering. It is estimated that a total of 400 km of
workings in rock and approx. 2700 km of dog
headings in coal will have to be made in all the
companies. What is more 21 new working floors, at
least 4 shafts from the surface and the deepening of
8 existing shafts will have to be completed. The
range of tasks for the coal and copper underground
mining has been presented in tables 1-4.
galleries and 100.8 km of shafts have been liqui-
dated. The cost of restructuring and closing down
operations in the Polish mining industry has
amounted to over 790 million zl in the last 15 years.
Besides the operations in the Polish mining indus-
try, the tunneling industry for transportation needs
has been recently slowly expanding. Such invest-
ments of the recent years should be mentioned as: a
traffic artery in Warsaw (900 m), street tunnel
(230 m) and tram tunnel (1200 m) under the railway
station in Krakow. In the Żywiec region a road
tunnel Laliki (760 m) together with an emergency
tunnel is being built. In the nearest future a tunnel
will be constructed under the St.Bronisława Hill in
Krakow and two tunnels (1930 m each) between the
villages of Milówka and Węgierska Górka. There
are also plans to build:
– a tunnel in Mikuszowice, a district of the town
of Bielsko Biała,
– a tunnel under the Martwa Wisła river near
Gdańsk,
– a tunnel under the Świna river in Świnoujście,
– an underground car park in the centre of Ka-
towice.
With so many tasks of the underground engineer-
ing, attention should be paid to technological and
engineering development in material science, and
particularly to new materials such as new generation
concretes.
3 NEW GENERATION MATERIALS – NEW
APPROACH TO THE FUNCTION AND
CONSTRUCTING OF UNDERGROUND
LININGS
Due to the existence of new materials, particularly
highly resistant concretes that are significantly
watertight and other that have both low thermal
conductivity and high resistance, the approach must
be changed to the role of the linings of underground
workings (shafts and horizontal workings) con-
structed in unusual mining and geological condi-
tions. In the case of artificial freezing of the rock
mass, the preliminary lining plays both the role of a
structure-bearing element and an efficient thermal
partition that lowers the thermal flow between the
frozen rock mass and the shaft face. The implemen-
tation of a suitable lining structure and adequate
materials eliminates completely the necessity to
apply treatments aiming at the protection of the
fresh concrete in the final lining against low tem-
peratures and particularly to increase its thickness
with the aim to rise the amount of heat released at
the initial stage of hydration. Similarly, at signifi-
cant depths with very high temperatures of the “in
situ” rock the lining of a working may constitute a
sufficient thermal partition that protects the working
against overheating. In both cases the key to success
is the use of the new materials and a completely
new approach to designing and constructing the
linings of underground workings.
Recently there has been a growing interest in new
139
generation concrete. It is a multicomponent compos-
ite with specific and selected qualities of both the
fresh concrete mix and the hardened concrete. High
performance concrete with both normal and light-
weight aggregate and the self-compacting ones is
the most popular and common.
3.1 High Performance Concrete (HPC)
The conventional boarder line between an ordinary
and high performance concrete is based on its com-
pressive strength and equals approx. 50/60 MPa. In
the traditional concrete technological reasons force a
comparatively high water-cement ratio of about 0.45-
0.6, while already in the case of W/C = 0.4 a 100%
hydration of cement occurs and there is no excess of
water (Aïtcin 2000). A small amount of make-up
water and a significantly big contact surface between
the grains of the components of the fresh concrete
mix result in a rapid increase of initial strength.
High performance concrete is a durable material
and resistant to destructive environment. Investiga-
tions (Giergiczny et al. 2002) dispelled any doubts
as regards the water resistance of high performance
and self compacting concretes. It was proved (Aït-
cin 2000) that in the case of concrete with W/C =
0.4 the water flow practically stops regardless the
density of the sample and value of the pressure. A
very low permeability caused by a very tight micro-
structure results in the increase of resistance to
chemical aggression. Generally, HPC with a low
W/C ratio, due to the lack of unbound water is
highly frost resistant: F200 or even F500 (Aïtcin
2000, Ajdukiewicz 2000, Neville 2000 & Giergic-
zny et al. 2002). Thanks to these properties high
performance concrete constitutes a durable material.
Apart from positive qualities high performance
concrete has some drawbacks, among which is its
brittleness. It is caused by a high modulus of elastic-
ity which increases together with the growth of the
compression strength. The problem may be solved
by the introduction of fibre to the concrete (Giergic-
zny et al. 2002). In order to prevent undesired con-
traction that is caused by little amount of water and
significant amount of mineral additions, water
curing of concrete is desired in the first few days.
The notion of high performance concrete includes
also lightweight concrete with the density of up to
2000 kg/m3 and self compacting concrete with some
specific properties of concrete mix.
3.2 Self Compacting Concrete (SCC)
The development of superplastificators and the im-
plementation of new technologies resulted in the
technology of self compacting concrete. The term
refers to the concrete that, apart from certain strength
and durability features, has specific rheological
properties of the mix which enable the formation of
concrete without vibrational compacting. The typical
features of this type of concrete are – first of all –
fluidization, homogeneity, almost complete elimina-
tion of the air from the concrete mix and the ability to
fill tightly the mould and cover completely the rein-
forcement (Giergiczny et al. 2002).
SCC is particularly useful in the cases when tradi-
tional compacting through vibration is troublesome
or even impossible due to, e.g. the lack of access or
dense reinforcement. It can be successfully applied
as the architectonic concrete since it has a smooth
surface thanks to thorough self compacting.
3.3 Lightweight Aggregate Concrete (LWAC)
Lightweight concrete has the density ranging from
800 kg/m3 to 2000 kg/m3 and is made with a full or
partial application of lightweight aggregate. Due to
the fact that lightweight aggregate is commonly
accessible and it can be used in the production of
high performance concrete, it is more and more
commonly applied in the building industry.
The density class of lightweight concrete is often
considered as the equivalent of the compressive
strength and heat conductivity (Domagała 2003).
Generally, the higher the density the higher the
strength and heat conductivity. A low weight of
lightweight concrete is its obvious advantage since –
depending on the type of the aggregate – the weight
of a structure may be lowered even to 45% (Doma-
gała 2003 & Siwowski 2005) as compared to ordi-
nary concrete.
High performance light concrete, despite a very
porous aggregate, shows low absorbability and high
watertightness and freeze resistance. The investiga-
tions (Kon 1998) proved, also in the case of high
performance concrete with pollytag aggregate, the
durability assumptions.
Heat-insulating properties are characterized
mainly by thermal conductivity λ. Concrete with the
density ranging from 1600-1800 kg / m3 has thermal
conductivity of 0.7-0.8 W / (m K). Due to low
thermal conductivity, together with low expansion
and modulus of elasticity, lightweight concrete is
more resistant to the stress resulting from the
changes of temperature.
A rough texture of the aggregate grain surface
and the penetration of the fresh grout into the pores
of coarse aggregate determine a very good adher-
ence of the cement matrix to the aggregate pile.
Moreover, the water absorbed by the aggregate
grains in the process of mixing in time becomes
accessible to unhydrated cement grains. As a result
140
the aggregate is strengthened and tighter, and the
resistance of the aggregate-cement grout contact
layer is increased (Neville 2000).
4 THE RANGE OF POSSIBLE CHANGES IN
SHAFT LINING STRUCTURE
The substitution of the previously applied shaft
lining of ordinary concrete with high performance
concrete results in several benefits such as: the
decrease of the thickness of the single concrete or
concrete-panel lining, the possibility to substitute
the lining combined with insulation layer with a
single lining made of watertight concrete, the possi-
bility to replace a tubing-concrete lining with a
concrete-panel lining made of high performance and
waterproof concrete and finally, the improvement of
monolithic lining quality by the application of self
compacting concrete. The decrease of the lining
thickness results in diminishing of its volume and
consequently in the decrease of the breakout volume
(Czaja 1999, 2001, 2002). According to investiga-
tions (Hydzik 2007) the change of the type of con-
crete may lower the costs of constructing a shaft by
as much as 15%.
Such solutions have already been implemented in
the case of the Leon IV shaft, where in the course of
shaft deepening a two-layer lining with an insulation
foil in the middle was substituted by a suitably
durable and waterproof one-layer concrete lining
(Kostrz et al. 2000) and in a copper ore mine, where
self-compacting concrete was used to construct
some sections of a shaft (Kapelko & Kapelko 2006).
5 THE POSSIBILITY TO CONSTRUCT
CONCRETE LINING IN DIFFICULT MINING
CONDITIONS
At present shafts are constructed with the applica-
tion of the rock mass freezing. Thus the construction
of a lining made of new generation concrete re-
quires the consideration of the fact that the concrete
must set and harden in the temperature above zero
degrees while the temperature around the shaft face
is kept under zero degrees and the final lining struc-
ture must be waterproof and technically feasible to
be made in the shaft face.
The presented idea (Hydzik 2007) of concrete-
panel lining structure in shafts sunk with the freez-
ing method enables the application of high perform-
ance concrete in negative temperatures. The inten-
sive heat exchange may be prevented and favorable
conditions for curing of the final lining can be
achieved by means of fairly simple technological
operations, such as:
– the substitution of panels made of ordinary con-
crete with prefabricated segments of high perform-
ance lightweight concrete with low heat conductiv-
ity  < 1,0 W/(mK) (endurance class LC50/55-
LC80/88);
– constructing a filling layer behind the lining with
the use of lightweight aggregate concrete with high
insulating power, heat conductivity  = 0.3 ÷ 0.6
W / (mK) and compression strength f c = 6 ÷ 15 MPa;
– if the composition of the preliminary light-
weight concrete lining does not guarantee the re-
quired heat resistance, it is possible to increase it by
constructing a thin (up to 5 cm) additional warming
layer on the interior surface of the additional panel,
made of heat-insulating material such as foam,
mineral wool, etc.
Such a procedure should result in the decrease of
the heat exchange intensity between the frozen rock
mass and the interior of the shaft. The solution is
presented in Figure 1.

T, O
C I T, O
C
II
l I-3 l II - 3 Heat-insulation
T I- 3 TII - 3
l II -4
l I-2 T II -4
+20
+20 l II - 2
T I- 2 NC T II - 2
+10 +10 T 3 >0
r, m r, m
0 0

- 10 T1 <0 - 10
HPC
l I-1 l II - 1 LC
- 20 - 20
T I- 1 TII -1
Freezing Shaft axis
Freezing Shaft axis
Casing Casing

Figure 1. The concept of shaft lining made of new generation concrete.

(I) previously applied ordinary concrete lining, (II) lining made according to the new concept.

low temperatures of the freezing mantle and it will

protect the frozen rock mass against the warm air
from the shaft face generated mainly during the
hydration of the cement in the concrete in the final
lining layer.

AIRSPACE HPC PRELIMINARY ROCK MASS

LINING

W B3 B1 I1 G3 G2 G1
B4 B2 I2

Figure 2. Structure model of the shaft final lining section (cm).

Key: 1 – freezing box casing; 2 – foamed polystyrene
insulation layer; 3 – airspace; 4 – HPC sample; 5 - insulation
layer R = 2 m2K / W; 6 – stone plate; 7 – wet sand; 8 –
temperature measuring points.
A correctly designed layer of the preliminary lin-
ing will have a double function. It will protect the
layer of the high performance concrete against the
Figure 3. The distribution of temperature measuring
points.
The possibility to construct such layer was inves-
tigated on a laboratory model and then verified in
the course of numerical analysis. The subject of the
investigations was the influence of negative tem-
peratures from the frozen rock mass on the curing of

141
high performance concrete. The model was built in
a box freezer which was divided for particular
media: frozen rock mass, light weight concrete
preliminary lining with heat resistance
R = 2 m2K / W, the layer of final lining made of
high performance concrete and the airspace. The
30
20
Temperature, OC
10
0 B2
0 5 10
-10
-20
Time, days
Figure 4. Temperature distribution in the HPC being cured, the heat insulation layer, the frozen rock mass and the air-
space.
The preliminary lightweight concrete lining with
the additional heat-insulation layer with total heat
resistance R = 2 m2K/W was sufficient to ensure
suitable conditions for curing the concrete in the
final lining. In the first 48 hours there was an in-
crease of temperature to approx. 30 ºC and then it
stabilized to about +5 ºC despite the fact that the
rock mass temperature was – 10 ºC.
On the basis of numerical reverse analysis of the
thermal phenomena that occurred in the laboratory
models, a heat function ( qv ) for the concrete being
cured was worked out:
qv  440  e 0.00005t   25 .
With the application of (1) a numerical analysis
was carried out for shaft conditions, which investi-
gated the influence of preliminary lining heat resis-
tance on the temperature distribution in the final
lining while curing.
The figures below present the examples of tem-
perature distribution for the two extreme cases of
shaft linings sunk in a frozen rock mass: for pre-
scheme of the laboratory stand is given in Figure 2
and the measuring points in Figure 3.
The temperatures in the measuring points (Figure
3) were recorded for 28 days. The results of meas-
urements are given in Figure 4.
G1
G2
G3
I1
I2
B1
15 20 25 30 B3
B4
W
liminary lining made of ordinary concrete with
R = 0.16 m2K / W (Figure 2) and for lightweight
concrete preliminary lining with an additional layer
of insulation foam with the resistance of
R = 1.45 m2K / W (Figure 5).
The results of the numerical experiment con-
firmed that the higher the resistance of the partition
between the final lining and the frozen rock mass,
the higher the increase of the hardening concrete
temperature. In the first case (Figure 5) the distribu-
tion of temperatures in the lining was uniform and
the heat from the hydrating cement caused the
growth of the rock mass temperature. However, in
(1) Figure 6 a barrier against low temperatures coming
from the frozen rock mass formed by the prelimi-
nary lining is clearly visible. Moreover, a higher
heat resistance of the preliminary lining does not
allow for an excessive defreezing of the rock mass.
Thus, in the case of passive freezing, it is not neces-
sary to keep such low temperatures of the freezing
medium.
142
 JOB TITLE : Obudowa wstepna z betonu zwyklego (*10^1)

FLAC (Version 5.00)

1.325
LEGEND 7 2 1

19-Feb-07 10:24 1.275

step 17280
Thermal Time 1.7280E+05
2.728E+00 <x< 7.526E+00
1.225
9.002E+00 <y< 1.380E+01

Temperature
-1.50E+01 1.175

-1.00E+01
-5.00E+00
0.00E+00 1.125
5.00E+00
1.00E+01
1.50E+01 1.075
2.00E+01
2.50E+01
3.00E+01
1.025

Contour interval= 5.00E+00 4

6
interface id#'s
0.975

0.925
A5304F82235122
14856
3.000 3.500 4.000 4.500 5.000 5.500 6.000 6.500 7.000

Figure 5. Temperature map of a final lining section after 12 hours since the assembly.

JOB TITLE : Model numeryczny z obudowa wstepepna z dodatkowa warstwa izolacyjna (*10^1)

1.325
FLAC (Version 5.00)
7 2 1

LEGEND
1.275

19-Feb-07 12:00
step 17280
Thermal Time 1.7280E+05
1.225
2.853E+00 <x< 6.571E+00
9.626E+00 <y< 1.334E+01

Temperature
-1.00E+01 1.175

0.00E+00
1.00E+01
2.00E+01
3.00E+01 1.125
4.00E+01
Contour interval= 5.00E+00
interface id#'s
1.075

1.025

4
6

0.975
A5304F82235122
14856
3.250 3.750 4.250 4.750 5.250 5.750 6.250

Figure 6. Temperature map of a final lining section after 12 hours since the assembly.

143
6 CONCLUSIONS
The application of – among others -new generation
concrete in the shaft sinking and final lining build-
ing technologies instead of the hitherto applied
materials results in:
– the increase of the shaft lining durability,
– a definite decrease of the breakout and lining
material volumes,
– the possibility to replace a very expensive tub-
ing lining (made of cast iron) by high performance
and waterproof concrete lining,
– the improvement of working conditions (the
increase of the temperature at the shaft face being
frozen).
The research that has been conducted is only the
first step in this field. Further investigations, and
particularly an attempt to implement the new ideas,
may significantly change the attitude to the applica-
tion of the rock mass artificial freezing method not
only in the shaft construction but in the generally
understood underground engineering.
PREFERENCES
Aïtcin, P. 2000. Trwały wysokowartościowy beton – sztuka
i wiedza. Conference Beton na progu nowego milenium.
Polski Cement, Kraków.
Ajdukiewicz, A. 2000. Rozwój badań i zastosowań betonów
wysokowartościowych. Konferencja Beton na progu
nowego milenium. Polski Cement, Kraków.
Coal Fact 2007 Edition – Internetowy serwis World Coal
Institute. www.worldcoal.org.
144
Czaja, P. 1999. Analiza skutków zastosowania betonów
wysokowartościowych w budownictwie szybowym.
Kraków (not published).
Czaja, P. 2001. Beton wysokowartościowy w budownictwie
podziemnym. Conference materials „Przemysł wy-
dobywczy 2001. Wydawnictwo Scriptum, Kraków.
Czaja, P. 2002. High Strength Concrete in Underground
Construction. The Conference Proceedings Geotechnika –
Geeotechnics, Slovak Republic.
Domagała, L. 2003. Właściwości betonów lekkich z
kruszyw ze spiekanych popiołów lotnych. Inżynieria
i Budownictwo, nr 12.
Domagała, L. 2005. Problemy projektowania i wykonaw-
stwa betonów lekkich z kruszyw spiekanych. Przegląd
budowlany, 12.
Giergiczny, Z., Małoplepszy J., Szwabowski J., Śliwiński J.
2002. Cementy z dodatkami mineralnymi w technoligii
betonów nowej generacji. Górażdże Cement, Heidelberg
Cement Group. Opole.
Hydzik, J. 2007. Zastosowanie betonu wysokowartościo-
wego w obudowach wyrobisk podziemnych drążonych w
sztucznie zamrożonym górotworze. PhD thesis, Krakow
(not published).
Kapelko, A. & Kapelko R. 2006. Doświadczenia ze stoso-
wania betonów samozagęszczalnych SCC do budowy
szybu górniczego. Conference: Dni Betonu, Wisła.
Kon, E. 1998. Wysokowartościowy beton lekki z
kruszywem pollytag. Cement – Wapno – Beton, 3.
Kostrz J., Olszewski J., Czaja P., Witosiński J. & Deja J.
2000. Zastosowanie betonów odpornych na silną agresję
siarczanowa i magnezową w budownictwie podziemnym.
Budownictwo Górnicze i Tunelowe nr 3.
Neville, A. M. 2000. Właściwości betonu. Polski Cement,
Kraków.
Siwowski, T. 2005. Przykłady zastosowań betonów niekon-
wencjonalnych w polskim mostownictwie. Geoinżynieria.
Drogi, mosty i tunele, 4.
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Results of the 3-D simulation of the transversely

isotopic rock mass stress state around a longwall

S. Vlasov  A. Sidelnikov
National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: The results of the stress researching in the longwall, that were obtained applying three-
dimensional incremental computer model of the stratified transversely isotropic rock mass, are presented in
the article. The incremental simulation of the longwall advance within 3-D computer model of the stratified
transversely isotropic rock mass allows to establish regular occurrence of the stress state formation around
the longwall depending on stope disposition along an extraction pillar. The stress curve along a longwall
depending on a stope disposition along an extraction pillar allows to assess the coal seam’s stress and strain
state ahead of a stope. Parameters and results of the three-dimensional simulation of the rock mass are valid
for Western Donbass conditions.

1 INTRODUCTION 3 PURPOSE OF THE ARTICLE

A priority tendency of Ukraine’s coal mining indus- The purpose of the article is to research the laws of
try development is increase production efficiency at vertical rock pressure distribution in a mined coal
decrease of a general share of capital expenditure seam depending on the stope disposition along an
and operational costs. Therefore in current eco- extraction pillar based on three-dimensional com-
nomical conditions the increase in volumes of a coal puter model results of the stratified transversely
mining output due to adoption of highly effective isotropic rock mass with the incremental longwall
mining technologies and use of a modern highly movement along an extraction pillar.
productive mining technique is expected at the
operating mining enterprises. But the intensification
of the coal extraction technology has defined a wide 4 SIMULATION METHOD
range of the mining problems connected with nega-
tive rock pressure manifestation in development By means of a software package SolidWorks 2009,
openings and stopes. It extremely decreases coal computer model for conditions of longwall #874 at
output and significantly increases production cost the mine “Zapadnodonbaskaya” of OJSC “Pavlo-
and industrial accidents rate. Applications of highly gradugol” has been built. Initial technological and
effective technologies and methods of rock pressure mining-and-geological data are presented in Table 1.
management in the longwalls requires knowledge of
stress distribution laws in a rock mass depending on Table 1. Initial data for modeling.
stope position along an extraction pillar. Parameter Value
Longwall length, m 190
Powered support КД-80
2 ESSENCE OF THE PROBLEM
Angle of dip, degree 0-2
As a result of a stope advance and increase in the Extraction thickness, m 0.95-1.05
size of a goaf, there is a redistribution of the stress Support of the drift КШПУ-13.2
and strain state in a rock massif. The knowledge of Title of the coal seam С8н
distribution law of a vertical rock pressure in a face
Depth of mining, m 460
part of a coal seam allows to estimate the stress state
of the coal mass ahead of the stope that is an impor-
The model’s geometry parameters and rock mass
tant technological parameter that influences process
physical and mechanical parameters were defined
of a deposit extraction.
according to (Sidelnikov 2009). The simulation
parameters are specified in (Vlasov 2010).

145
5 BASIC PART gradugol” makes: P0  11.0 МPа; k  0.15 ; values
of function F z ; L  in the interval z  [–85; +85]
Stress state distribution of the rock mass around the
longwall depends on stope disposition along an are presented in Table 2.
extraction pillar and is in interrelation with the roof
fall mechanism that is stated in (Vlasov 2010). It Table 2. Values of function F z ; L  in the interval z 
means, that stress state distribution picture in the [–85; +85] depending on a stope position.
coal seam along a longwall and along an extraction Stope position,
pillar changes depends on presence and size of the F L  , МPа Dispersion, %
m
rocks’ hanging in a goaf. Generally, the dependence 5 15 ±6.6
of stress change along an extraction pillar is possi-
15 21 ±5.0
ble to present in the following form
25 28 ±10.0
 
 y  F z ; L   P0 e kX  P0 , X  0;  , (1)
35
45
36
40
±10.0
±7.2
where  y – vertical component of the underground 55 42 ±10.0
65 45 ±4.5
pressure, МPа; F z ; L  – function of vertical com- *S = 0 30 ±6.6
ponent of underground pressure distribution on a S=1 40 ±5.0
working face plane along a longwall z depending on S=2
position of a stope along an extraction pillar L , S=3 45 ±10.0
МPа; P0 – vertical component of the underground S=4
pressure in an untouched rock mass on the given
*Value of the parameter S is defined according to
depth of mining, МPа; k – indicator of a stress formula (2).
damping, m-1; X – value in meters on a co-ordinate
axis that is directed along an extraction pillar, L  75  50n
4S  0, (2)
X  0;  , value of X  0 corresponds to a face 10
plane.
Vertical component of the underground pressure where L – any stope position, m, L  [75;  );
in an untouched rock mass on given depth of mining n – any multiplier, which is selected, so that the
is defined according to geostatic underground pres- inequality (2) is carried out, n  0, 1, 2,..., N .
sure theory that is proven by experience of mining Starting from the stope position 75 m, as it was
operations in Western Donbas conditions. already marked in (Vlasov 2010), obviously ex-
pressed periodicity is observed. Therefore, to define
n the stress values on the working face plane in any
P0    i H i , MPa
i 1 stope position along an extraction pillar, it is neces-
sary to take parameter S, which characterizes the
where  i – volume weight of an i rock, МN / m3; stope position within one period irrespective of a
H i – layer thickness of an i rock, m. longwall disposition along an extraction pillar.
Proceeding from the above-stated, this parameter
The function F z ; L  in the interval z  [–85; should satisfy the equation (2).
+85] (the longwall length is in the interval of [–95; However, taking into consideration of a three-
+95] is described by straight line that is parallel to dimensional stress state and coefficient of rock
abscissa axis, value dispersion is not more than massif structural loosening, according to the theory
10%. In the specified interval, the vertical compo- of limiting stress state (More-Kulon’s theory of
nent of the underground pressure practically does failure) transition of a coal seam face to a limiting
not change along a longwall. Therefore, the distribu- state occurs with achievement of the underground
tion function of the underground pressure vertical pressure vertical component F L  of limiting value
component on the working face plane along a long-
wall z depends only on a stope position along an equal  ext
y .
extraction pillar L .
Subject to the condition of F L    lim
y , exten-
Numerical values of the parameters entering into
the formula (1), for conditions of mining seam С8н tion of limiting area X 0 , counting from a working
on the mine “Zapadno-Donbaskay” OJSC “Pavlo- face plane deep into a coal massif along an extrac-
tion pillar, it is possible to find, having expressed

146
from the formula (1) value X and having accepted for about 35 m, the maximum of underground
 y   ext : pressure practically constantly is located in a coal
y
massif at a distance of 1.2-4.5 m from a stope plane.
Exceptions are longwall positions, for which S = 0.
1 F z; L   P0
X0  ln ext , (3) It is necessary to notice, that at transition to position
k  у  P0 when S  0 , the transitive of 3.5-4.5 m long takes
place in which the maximum of a longwall advance
Taking into account (3) formula (1) for case moves to a working face. After passage of this zone,
F L    ext
y will become the stress distribution in a seam corresponds to the
law presented in Figure 3.

 y   ext
y  P0 
k  X  X 0 
 P0 , X  X 0 ;    . (4)

On boundary of transition from area of a limiting

state into the area of permissible loads, there is a
maximum of an abutment underground pressure
ahead of stope. Accordingly, the distance from a
plane of working face to this maximum is defined
by the formula (3), and from the formula (4) it is
evident, that the maximum of an abutment under-
ground pressure ahead of stope cannot exceed a
maximum permissible stress which is possible for
the given rock massif stress and strain state. On a
working face plane, at presence in a face part of a
coal mass of limiting area, the underground pres-
sure’s vertical component will be approximately
equal to ultimoate uniaxial compression strength of Figure 1. Underground pressure’s vertical component
a coal seam in a mass taking into account its fractur- distribution in a coal seam at a withdrawal of longwall
from a face entry: 1 – 5 m; 2 – 15 m; 3 – 25 m.
ing, heterogeneity and partial faulting. According to
(Fisenko 1976) for such zones and strongly frac-
tured massifs, the coefficient of structural loosening
is in limits of 0.1-0.3 (bigger value corresponds to
normal fracturing, smaller – diagonal).
For considered geological conditions, according
to a technique stated in (Alekseenko 1988, 1987),
the strength pattern has been constructed for coal
(seam С8н ). For a range of stresses which occur in a
horizontal plane in a face part of a coal seam, the
limiting underground pressure’s vertical component
value  ext
y is about 30-36 МPа. Ensuring 10%-
accuracy of calculation, value of  lim
y can be ac-
cepted equal to 33 МPа. Then, according to data Figure 2. Underground pressure’s vertical component
given in Table 2 and the formula (1), position of the distribution in a coal seam at a withdrawal of longwall from
abutment pressure’s maximum will change from 0 mounting room: 1 – 35 m; 2 – 45 m; 3 – 55 m; 4 – 65 m.
to 4.5 m from a working face plane deep into a coal
mass depending on position of the stope along an In intervals along a longwall where z  [–95;
extraction pillar. Absolute value of a maximum will –85) and (+85; +95], that is at a distance of up to
make 33 МPа, that is approximately equal to 3 P0 . 10 m from extraction drifts in a seam, there is an-
Graphic dependences of stress distribution along the other picture of the stress distribution. For stope
extraction pillar for longwall sector in the interval of position of 15-25 m from a face entry, the under-
[–85; +85] are presented on Figures 1-4. ground pressure’s vertical component on the work-
From Figures 1-4 it can be seen, that starting from ing face plane changes from the 11.0 to 19.0 MPa.
a position of a longwall advance from a face entry Starting from the position of 25-35 m, the pressure
in the working face plane does not practically de-

147
pend on longwall position along an extraction pillar
and makes up 24.0 МPа ± 10%. Exception are
working face positions, for which parameter S = 0.
For such cases pressure on working face plane is
equal 18.0 МPа ± 10%. Graphics of the stress dis-
tribution in a coal seam at the end 10 m of a long-
wall area, depending on a stope position along the
extraction pillar, are presented on Figure 5.
Figure 3. Underground pressure’s vertical component
distribution in a coal seam with S = 0.
Figure 4. Underground pressure’s vertical component
distribution in a coal seam at: 1 – S = 1; 2 – S = 2-4.
From Figure 5 it is clear that at a distance of 6-8
m from a stope plane deep into a coal mass on the
end 10 m of longwall area, there is unloading zone
in which the vertical component of an underground
pressure is in limits of 0.70-0.75 P0 . In extent, this
zone occupies distance equal to 60-65 m. This
phenomenon is explained by combined influence of
the longwall and development working on the
boundary sites of a seam. In a direction of under-
ground pressure’s vertical component, coal’s de-
formation properties surpasses 4 times mustone
properties which lies down in seam’s bottom.
Therefore, in the specified area there is intensive
148
“pressing-in” of a coal seam in bottom that causes
considerable bottom heave within a drift’s cross-
section. According to the results of simulation, the
bottom heave value with a stope withdrawal up to
45 m makes up 0.05-0.30 m, for the following
positions – 0.40-0.50 m. The results received during
medeling, are well proven by the experience of
mining on a seam С8н in the conditions of mine
“Zapadno-Donbaskaya”. In natural conditions,
bottom heave in development workings of 874
longwall was 0.40-0.60 m. As well as in real condi-
tions, in a used model of rock massif each previous
layer of rocks is the elastic basis for each following.
At a certain correlation of these layers deformation
properties, the unloading of longwall’s sides from
an underground pressure can occur in various ways.
So, in considered conditions, the energy reserved by
a side of an elastic deformed coal seam, started
pushing bottom rocks into a development working’s
area. This fact explains the presence of an unloading
zone in a coal seam along drift. The maximum value
of a bottom heave is observed in an alignment with
longwall, minimum – on boundary of combined
influence of stope and development working, that is
on distance 65-70 m from working face plane and
makes 0.05-0.10 m. The influence zone of only a
development working is observed further. Along all
length of drift starting from distance of 65-70 m
from a stope plane with width of up to 10 m on each
side, area of increased stresses are dragging which
are caused by presence of the cavity of a drift itself.
In this area the underground pressure’s vertical
component is in limits of 1.25-1.35 P0 .
Figure 5. Underground pressure’s vertical component
distribution at the end 10 m of longwall areas: 1 – longwall
withdrawal to 15 м; 2 – for longwall position S = 0;
3 – longwall withdrawal more than 25 m.
 At the end area of a longwall at a distance of 4-
6 m from a drift and at a distance of up to 10 m deep
into extraction pillar from a working face plane, in a
zone of combined influence of longwall and devel-
opment working, presence of tangential stresses
takes place. Absolute values of these tangential
stresses in a seam and in the seam’s roof presented
by siltstone (thickness about 8 m) and are commen-
surable with rock’s shear strength (Figure 6).
In the specified range of tangential stresses rock
rupture is possible. The real life studies conducted
in 874 longwall, confirm presence of secant frac-
tures both in a seam and in a roof. These fractures
and cutter breaks settled down parallel to an extrac-
tion drift’s axis at a distance of 5-8 m from devel-
opment working, and they obviously emerged in a
rock massif which is located ahead of a stope.
The results received during simulation, are well
proven in real life researches of stress and strain
state distribution around a longwall.
Figure 6. Distribution of tangential stresses on the end
areas of a longwall.
It means that the applied model of rock mass ade-
quately and with sufficient accuracy for practical
application describes all processes of stress redistri-
bution that occur in a rock massif during mineral
extraction.
6 CONCLUSIONS
During incremental three-dimensional computer
simulation:
 it is established, that change of a stress’ vertical
component in a mined seam along an extraction
pillar, except for 10 m of an end areas of a longwall,
exponential dependence are described as follows
 kX
 y  ( F ( z ; L )  P0 ) e  P0 , X  [ 0;  ),
149
in case when the face part is in a scope of admissi-
ble stresses, and

 y   пр
y  P0 e
 kX

 P0 ,
 1 F z ; L   P
X   ln пр
0
;   ,
k   P
 y 0
when in a face part of a coal seam, the limiting state
of a coal massif takes place;
 it is defined, that the distance from a working
face plane to a point of the maximum abutment
pressure ahead of a longwall has logarithmic de-
pendence
1 F ( L )  P0
X  ln ,
k
пр
 у  P0
where X  0 , if X  0 accept X  0 .
 it is established, that on end 10 m of longwall,
pressure in a plane of working face to a position of a
longwall withdrawal from a mounting room of 25-
35 m increases from Р 0 to 1.8Р 0 , and for the subse-
quent stope positions along an extraction pillar,
pressure practically does not change and makes 2.0
P0  10%;
 the zone of combine influence of development
working and a longwall and law of stress distribu-
tion in this zone are established. Along a longwall,
the zone of combine influence of development
working and a longwall embraces end 10 meter-
areas, along an extraction pillar this zone extends on
distance of 65-70 m from a working face plane. And
in considered geological conditions in this area the
unloading zone in which the underground pressure
makes 0.70-0.75 P0 is observed.
REFERENCES
Sidelnikov, A.A. 2009. Substantiation parameters of the
rock mass 3-D simulation around the longwalls and
development faces. Dnipropetrovs’k: The geotechnical
mechanics, 82: 77-85.
Vlasov, S.F.  Sidelnikov, A.A. 2010. Research of the roof
fall mechanism applying three-dimensional model of the
stratified transversely-isotropic rock mass at a longwall
advance. Dnipropetrovs’k: Naukovii vіsnik, 2: 10-15.
Fisenko, G.L. 1976. Limiting state of rocks round devel-
opment workings. Moscow: Nedra: 272.
Alekseenko, S.F. 1988. Physics of rocks. An underground
pressure (the collection of tasks and exercises). Kiev:
Vischa shkola: 248.
Alekseenko, S.F.  Melejik, V.P. 1987. Physics of rocks.
An underground pressure. Kiev: Vischa shkola: 280.
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Effect of design of half-mask respirators on their key qualities

V. Golinko, S. Cheberiachko & Y. Cheberiachko

National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: An effort was made to show the difference in qualities of half-mask and example of filtering
material used to produce the respirator. There are listed the main reasons resulting in deterioration of protec-
tive value of means of individual protection of respiratory organs. There are recommended ways to improve
efficiency of half-masks. It helps to come to conclusion that the harder filtering layer is the less protective
value it has owing to working area variation. But respirators with hard filtering material can’t give hermitic-
ity along the contact line. Besides they are less comfortable in transit and service. Some manufacturers
produce respirators with rigid frame which excludes the deformation of material and provides adherence of
half-mask to face at the expense of soft filtering layer.

1 INTRODUCTION where  – nearness of fibers; Н – filtering layer

Respirators are one of the most reliable means to
protect respiratory organs. Their great variety is
aimed at meeting different demands of customer.
The main task of means of individual protection of
respiratory organs (MIPRO) is to provide high level
of air purification with minimal harm. The factor
that the filter is single-use is the reason for the half-
masks to be both most handy and easy-to-work.
Their action is based upon precipitation of aerosol
particles from environment with the help of filtering
layer fibers. There are several precipitation mecha-
nisms: diffusion precipitation, inertia precipitation,
tangential precipitation, electrostatic precipitation
etc. The more effective the mechanisms perform is
the higher protective efficiency of MIPRO deter-
mined on the expression (Basmanov 2002):
1 , (1)
KE 
Kp
where K p is a coefficient of penetration of harmful
substances into the undermask space.
As a rule, coefficient of penetration for respirators
is determined experimentally with the help of spe-
thickness, m;  – cumulative rate of aerosol parti-
cle precipitation resulting from each mechanism;
 – diameter of filtering material fibers.
Performance of all the listed precipitation of
mechanisms is determined by means of filtering
material parameters according to air speed and
particle sizes of aerosol. For example, the thinner
diameter of fiber is the bigger probability of precipi-
tation of smallest particulate solids which are the
most dangerous for a human. The thickness of
filtering layer is also very important: its increase
results in efficiency of polluted air filtration.
But each obstacle for air flow factors into resis-
tance increase to its move. The thicker the obstacle
is, the greater pressure losses on it. Each respirator
is not described only by protective efficiency but
also by breathing resistance value causing extra
energy input to overcome it. Pressure differential
through MIPRO helps to determine it by means of
specific plant. With it, the formula is used to rate it
for filtering material (Petryanov 1984):
4vH
p  , (3)
a    0 ,5 ln  
2

cific plants according to the most penetrative parti-

cle sizes (for example, spinhaler method of oil spray
with 0.28-0.32 um particle size). For filtering mate-
rials, it can be determined by the following expres-
sion (Lee & Mukund 2001)
where  – air velocity, m;  is absolute viscosity
of air N ,·s / m2;  – compensation factor depend-
ing on filtering layer formation.

 2 H  2 TASK DESCRIPTION
К p  ехр   ,
 (2)
 а  Half-mask is made of solid stock of specific filter-
ing material. Its basic features should align with

151
those of material used. But when end products are
controlled in a laboratory environment it becomes
apparent that results are lower compared to filtering
material patterns which have the same filtering area
(Table 1).
This brings up the question concerning the rea-
sons which result in degradation of quality level of
respirators.
One of possible ways to raise penetration coeffi-
cient of half-mask is to effect leak-in of polluted air
along the contact line especially in the area of
bridge of nose. Investigations show that its impor-
tance increases depending upon the increase of
filtering layer resistance (Golinko 2005). A part of
air flow with aerosol passes filter and enters under-
mask space through leakiness between obturator and
human face as their resistance is too weak to com-
pare with filtering mask itself. The problem solution
is to heighten an effect of obturation line or its
weaker parts with the help of extra layers of para-
metric material which can smooth over inequalities
on human face (Figure 1, Equip 2010).

Table 1. Basic features of end product and filtering material to produce it.

Study filtering Pressure differential Penetration factor of

Type of product under rate,  , (m / s) through product р , (Pa) test-aerosol, K p , (%)
Example of filtering mate-
0.0016 8.1 ± 0.5 1.12 ± 0.05
rial, elephlen
Respirator “Lepestok-40Е”
0.0016 10.9 ± 0.4 2.32 ± 0.05
made of elephlen
Example of filtering material
0.0016 24.7 ± 0.7 0.065 ± 0.004
ФПП15-1,5
Respirator “Lepestok-200”
0.0016 32.6 ± 1.9 0.35 ± 0.05
made of ФПП15-1,5
Example of filtering mate-
0.002 9.3 ± 0.4 1.09 ± 0.06
rial, elephlen
Respirator “Rostok-3” 0.002 11.4 ± 0.5 3.4 ± 0.05

(a) (b)

Figure 1. Design of obturation line: (а) rubber compactor and polyurethane are striped within bridge of nose; (b) polyure-
thane strip along obturator.
3 METHOD OF ANALYSIS
But not only interspaces between face and half-
mask result in graceful degradation of MIPRO.
Table 1 shows results of experiments with filtering
respirators made tight by means of obturation line.
To our opinion, we can’t take into consideration the
fact that surface of half-mask is not activated com-
pletely. Part of it is just excluded from filtration
process when determination of penetration coeffi-
cient values as well as pressure differential on
examples of filtering materials are performed with
consideration of active area of half-mask at large.
To test the listed assumptions there was determined
area of half-mask activated during filtration process
after it had been dusted in special chamber. Several
samples of single-use respirators “Lepestok” and
“Rostok” were taken for the experiment. One-by-one,
they were placed into test chamber and held on model
of head 11 with reliable pressurization of obturation
line (Figure 2). Definitely concentrated dust-loaded
air formed within special dust generator 9 was fanned
into the undermask space of the article under study.

152
Hence, air flow with 30 l / min consumption passes
through filtering half-mask. In such a way human
respiratory organs functioning was simulated cham-
ber. Aspirator 13 was used to produce exhaustion.
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
After the tests, dimensions of filtration working area
S wor were calculated with the help of areas of com-
paratively live sections determination. They were
taken from general area of half-mask S ger . Measured
data are in Table 2. As Figure 3 shows areas within
chin and obturation line completely pressed to face
were not active and decreased effective area of half-
mask.
But comparison of values of basic data of respira-
tors with similar ones which area is equal to work-
ing area of MIPRO under study shows that differ-
ence between their values is still available. Hence,
there are other factors resulting in quality degrada-
tion of the respirators.

Figure 2. Diagram of plant to study MIPRO on dust factor: 1 – primary filter; 2 – pressure stabilizer; 3 – manometer; 4, 6,
7 – control valves; 5, 8 – membrane; 9 – dust generator; 10 – micromanometer МКВ-150; 11 – test chamber with model
and respirator on it; 12 – adapter with АFА filter; 13 – aspirator ED-5; 14, 15 – liquid manometers.

Table 2. Results of determination of working area of respirators.

Study Pressure differential within example

Rate of working area of
Respirator filtration of filtering material which area is,
filtration ( k r  S w / S )
area, (m2) S w , (Pa)
“Lepestok-40Е” 0.0314 0.87 9.41 ± 0.8
“Lepestok-200” 0.0314 0.87 29.6 ± 1.1
“Rostok” 0.025 0.94 10.8 ± 0.7

Detailed examination of conditions of different
types of masks after dust-spraying shows darker
zones (especially within nasal region) and lighter
zones within active area of filtration. It helps to
come to conclusion that design of half-masks also
influences the equitability of air load distribution
over its surface. Due to lack of rigid frame inside
the half-mask in MIPRO under study some part of
material bends by the action of unloading. Depend-
ing upon intake of breath it can be excluded from
filtration process either completely or partially
touching cheeks. Hence, reload of some surface
areas of filtering respirator takes place, and it con-
tributes to rate increase of air and deteriorates pro-
tective efficiency.
Try to determine decrease of working area of fil-
tration at the expense of deformation of filtering
material of respirator. Figure 4 illustrates design
model of half-mask shown as sphere segment. Point
А is within chin, and point В is within bridge of
nose. In a first approximation, decrease of filtration
area at the expense of deformation of area of half-
mask and its adhesion to human face can be consid-
ered on the expression

153
S w  2 R  u L  u  , (4) p 2 EH
u , (5)
а 2 1   
where R – radius of sphere segment (of half-mask),
m; u – deformation value, m; L – length of sphere where E – elastic modulus of filter fabric material;
segment (of half-mask), m.  – Poisson's constant (0.5 is taken up).
(a)
5 CONCLUSIONS

Thus, if one can determine potential deformation of

half-mask it is possible to evaluate decrease of its
working area filtration. Taking into account the fact
that peak value of filtering material flexure is lim-
ited by human face (to do that it is necessary to
determine the distance from point С to human face)
(point E in Figure 4) compare it with the value of
estimated value of deformation. If value u is more
that distance СЕ then working area of filtration
should be determined because of the value. Table 3
shows values of estimated amounts of deformation,
(b) working areas of filtration of above-stated respira-
tors as well as values of their hypothesized pressure
differentials.

Figure 3. Half-masks: (а) “Lepestok”; (b) “Rostok-3”.

According to (Kornilov 2002) pressure differen-

tial р is connected with cover deflection within Figure 4. Pattern of variation of half-mask form under the
elastic deformation by means of the law effect of pressure differential.

Table 3. Determination of deformation as well as its working area.

Study design value of Pressure differential for exam-
Specified working
deformation of filter- ple of filtering material which
Respirator area of half-mask,
ing material of half-
(m2) square is S w , (Pa)
mask, (mm)
“Lepestok-40Е” 1.4 0.02657 11.6
“Lepestok-200” 1.7 0.02612 34.7
“Rostok-3” 1.3 0.0236 12.6

Value of specified working area of half-mask of filtering material deformation can’t be real.
turns out to be somewhat underestimated, which is Nevertheless, it helps to come to conclusion that the
confirmed by increased pressure differential in harder filtering layer is the less protective value it
terms of filtering material example. Assumed model has owing to working area variation. But respirators

154
with hard filtering material can’t give hermiticity
along the contact line. Besides they are less com-
fortable in transit and service. Some manufacturers
produce respirator with rigid frame excluding de-
formation of material and providing adherence of
half-mask to face at the expense of soft filtering
layer. Thus, research results show that shaped half-
masks with heavy-duty contact line are most useful.
REFERENCES
Basmanov, P.I., Kaminski, S.L., Korobeynikov, A.V. &
Trubitsyna, M.E. 2002. Means of Individual Protection
of Respiratory Organs Manual. Sankt Peterburg: GIPP
Iskusstvo Rossiyi: 399.
155
Lee, K. W. & Mukund, R. 2001. Filter collection. In
Baron PA Willeke K, editors. Aerosol measurement.
principles, tech-niques and applications. New York:
Wiley-Interscience: 197-229.
Petryanov, I.V., Koshchevev, V.S. & Basmanov, P.I. 1984.
Lepestok (Light respirators). Moskow: Nauka: 218.
Golinko,V., Cheberyachko, S., Kolesnik, V. & Ishenko, A.
2005. Assessment of protective efficiency of filtering
respirators. Dnipropetrovs’k: Naukovy Visnyk, 5: 86-
88.
Equip. 2010. www.equipdirect.com/ dustmask_respirators.
aspx.
Kornilov, О.А. 2002. Structural resistance. Кiev: Logos:
562.
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4
Modern rescue service as a factor providing a sense
of staff security (on example of coal mining)
P. Hetmańczyk, K. Tausz & A. Krowiak
Social and Economic Department, Central Mining Institute, Katowice, Poland
ABSTRACT: The article contains the results of research carried out among mining rescuers of coal mines.
Security of mine rescue is an important component of policies aimed at removing threats to health and life of
miners. This is also an important factor of social security.
1 INTRODUCTION
Aggravating geological conditions in the Polish coal
mining result in grouth of natural hazards. Their
intensity and scale is sometimes difficult to accu-
rately predict, but it can take action to protect the
most of the miners against the dangers that these
hazards pose. At this point, one can cite a fragment
of letter of the President of the Republic of Poland
sent to participants came to the XXI World Mining
Congress: “Talking Mining remember the man (...)
Miner deserves respect and dignity and safety must
be first on the profits of employers and owners”.
Concern for human being in the work environ-
ment has led to the international dimension in Prin-
ciples of Sustainable Development adopted the
Declaration on Environment and Development at
the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 in
the record: “Man is the subject of sustainable devel-
opment and has the right to a healthy and productive
life in harmony with nature”.
On 18 October 1961 in Turin was drawn Euro-
pean Social Charter, which entered into force in
1965. Poland has ratified this card in June 1997,
assuming, inter alia, the obligation to “pursue a
policy aimed at removing threats to health arising
from work in order to ensure the safety and health
work at the legal level and in practice”. Since the
values listed here are assigned the highest rank, one
of the best its guarantors is a mine rescue system.
This follows the fact that mine rescue is the most
important and most valuable link in the entire sys-
tem to assist victims. The increase in mining threats
and the observed increase in accidents at work-
driven increase in demands on emergency services,
both in terms of their size, efficiency of training and
exercises, as well as equipment and technical base.
The main element of the rescue system is the man: a
rescuer – a specialist with unique skills and con-
stantly perfected. Given that the operation is carried
157
out at increasingly greater depths, which implies a
growing threat, it would ensure the reliability of the
main element of emergency. This is a complex
problem that stems from the fact that now (see
Verifying the inventory of ..., 2008) 41.8% of rescu-
ers are between ages of 41-50, and only 5.1% is in
the age of 30 years. On the other hand, by 2015 60
thousand people will be engaged in the mining
industry. These two factors: the prospect of acquir-
ing pension for nearly half of the most experienced
rescue teams and the huge numbers of generational
replacement workers in mines, raise the question of
directions for the modernization of the mine rescue.
These directions shall appoint three problems:
– motivation to work in rescue, understood as a
complex of factors, ranging from recruitment
through the health status and on the prestige ending;
– the costs and benefits of extending training of
mine rescue;
– financial resources and their sources in terms of
optimizing security emergency.
In this paper we discuss the first issue, and therefore
motivation to work in the emergency in light of
current circumstances and needs.
2 SOME TECHNICAL
AND FORMAL CONDITIONS
Mining enterprises have an ever greater spending on
security, and yet number of accidents at work in-
crease. W. Bradecki and J. Dubiński in the study
titled “Effect of restructuring of the Polish coal-
mining industry on the level of natural hazards”,
points out, inter alia, the importance of the concen-
tration of production in the increase of natural
hazards (methane, seismic and bumps). However,
the concentration of production is an important
feature of modern mining and an important factor in
improving labour productivity and lower costs of
extraction. In this context, the functioning of rescue
services becomes even more important.
In the article 75 paragraph 1 of the Law on Geo-
logical and Mining is recorded the commitment of
the mining business to have a mine rescue, and
organized to ensure the continued opportunity to
participate in specialized professional rescue ser-
vices of the Central Mining Rescue Station, or other
entity to exercise professionally activities of mine
rescue. In the interest of entrepreneur is to provide a
high level of security emergency. This is particu-
larly important to the worsening mining – geologi-
cal conditions of mines. Interest should include,
inter alia, extension activities of the host on duty
rescue work directory for preventive work carried
out in high tolerated risk referred to document of
mine safety. Profession of mining rescuer and
equipment mechanic is included in the Minister of
Home Affairs and Administration of 6 April 2004
on the adaptation period and aptitude test in the
proceedings on the recognition of acquired in EU
countries, the qualifications to perform the mining
professions (OJ No. 76 pos. 725 dated 23.04.2004).
However, Minister of Economy by the regulation of
15.12.2005 has established rules for ascertaining the
qualifications of managers and specialists employed
by entities engaged in the exercise of professional
activities of mining rescue (OJ No. 261 pos. 2168).
The requirements demanded by the regulations to
the rescuers are very high. Their execution requires
skills and experience. In this situation we refer to the
results of analysis of the employment of specialized
personnel in the coal mining, from which it follows
that, in all employment categories (except the lower
supervision), more than half of employees is 41 years
old and older. 41.8% of the rescuers are in this age,
but the share of workers (without a hardware engi-
neer), among them makes more than 50%. It appears
to be a problem of urgent recruitment of candidates
for rescue services and create conditions in which the
work of new, young rescuers will give them satisfac-
tion. Meanwhile, a study by GIG among newly
admitted (in 2007 and 2008) to work underground
shows that only 6 of 220 young miners, consider (in
the future) taking training in rescue.
Minister of Economy in the regulation of 12 June
2002 on the mine rescue (OJ No. 94 of 2002, pos.
838, as amended) sets out the requirements to be met
by the candidate to work in the service of rescue.
§ 28. Mining rescuer can be a person who:
1) younger than 21 years old;
2) worked at least 12 months in the mining indus-
try in a given specialty;
3) has an adequate state of health and appropriate
psychological predispositions, as attested by spe-
cialized research;
158
4) completed a basic course for candidates for
mine rescue workers and passed the examination
with positive results;
5) knows Polish language in speech and writing,
to the extent necessary to exercise the rescuer of the
mining operations.
§ 29. Rescue equipment mechanic can be a min-
ing rescuer or ex- mining rescuer that:
1) is at least a basic vocational school;
2) has rescue experience of not less than 5 years,
and in the establishments looking for oil and natural
gas, and mineral-extracting industries through
drilling no less than 3 years;
3) completed the basic course for candidates for
life-saving equipment mechanics and passed a test
with positive results;
4) knows Polish language in speech and writing,
to the extent necessary to serve as mechanical
equipment.
3 SELECTED SOCIAL
DETERMINANTS
3.1 Motivation to work
From the five factors, that can encourage people to
work in rescue, most often mentioned by the rescu-
ers, is the possibility of rendering help and desire to
test themselves in difficult situations. The share of
economic factors – salary and converting practice
ratio – is a bit smaller. Meanwhile, in the opinion of
the mining field management, they are most moti-
vated to rescue job (Figure 1).
Among other factors that encourage such work, the
rescuers exchanged nine, one of which is the domina-
tion of the family traditions in the mining industry.
Eight other elements have equal importance in the
field to encourage work. Operating managers ex-
change two equally important elements – interesting
work and need to accolade.
The vast majority of rescue workers and manag-
ers of mining fieldconsider that the rescue work
gives them job satisfaction. Only 1.2% of rescue
workers and none of the mining field managers
recognize that there is no such satisfaction. The
greatest accolade of the rescuers turns family (which
implies with previously described stimulant for
work in rescue, as family traditions). The remaining
circle of people – colleagues in the mine, friends
and superiors give smaller accolade.
In the opinion of mining field managers, the
greatest accolade the rescuers give is to their col-
leagues and superiors in the mine. Family is men-
tioned only in third place but the values expressed
are quite similar (Figure 2).
 Rescuers component of rescuer work. Most respondents
0,9%
believe that the time for theoretical training is suffi-
23,8% cient and should not be changed. However, 1/3 of
38,5%
respondents (slightly more is in group of operating
managers) argues that it should be increased. A
difference of opinion occurred when evaluating the
20,1%
time spent on exercise. In this case, 63.0% of rescu-
16,8%
ers believes that it is sufficient and the increase is
Possibility of giving help Converting practice ratio required by 34.1% of rescuers and close to 70.0% of
Salary Desire to test oneself in difficult situations a mining field managers. Changes in the rescue
Other
miners should, according to the operating managers,
include the introduction of a wider range of simula-
Operating managers tion exercises and the regulations of the Labour
Code. Rescuers demand for changes of the main
10,9%
3,6%
16,4% training.

Rescuers

28,4%
30,9%
38,2%

Possibility of giving help Converting practice ratio

Salary Desire to test oneself in difficult situations
Other
71,6%

Figure 1. What encourages the most for working in the

rescue service. Yes No

Rescuers

15,7% 20,1%
Operating managers

17,6% 8,5%
43,5%

38,2% 56,5%

Colleagues Superiors Family Friends Acquaintance

Yes No

Operating managers

15,4%
28,2%

10,3%
Figure 3. Opinions concerning the age of a rescuer (either
21 is sufficient or not).

A candidate qualifying the rescue service must be

20,5%
25,6% at least 21 years of old. 71.6% of rescuers and
56.5% of operating managers consider the age to be
Colleagues Superiors Family Friends Acquaintance
sufficient (Figure 3). These responses can be inter-
preted in two ways. So we should either postpone
the age of 21 to 25 years, or after four years of
Figure 2. Who shows the greatest accolade to a rescuer? working as an rescuer relevant experience and
knowledge will be required. This issue requires
3.2 The personnel training and selection for ser- more thorough explanation in view of the further
vice criteria question that respondents answered – “if the annual
work experience in a particular specialty is suffi-
Theoretical training and exercises is an important cient to become a rescuer” 63.5% of rescuers and

159
78.3% of operating managers for this question have
given a negative answer.
To the question “what should be the practice time
to become a rescuer”, there is no just one answer.
Opinion of both mining field managers and rescuers
is that the minimum period is three years. An over-
whelming number of answers indicates a period of
three to five years (94.4% – operating managers and
74.1% – rescuers) – Figure 4.

Rescuers Operating managers

5,8%
5,3% 10,9% 5,6%

44,4%

34,5% 50,0%
39,6%

3,9%
2 3 5
2 3 4 5 6 and more years lack of answer

Figure 4. Opinions concerning the time of a work practice to be a rescuer (in years).

Presented here the sequence of views on the
length of time necessary to acquire professional
experience, conditioning for accession to the rescue
service indicates the need for practice as the main
criterion, and the age will be its derivative.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Rescue Mining holds a special place in the system
of work safety in the mine. The determinant of this
place is a crisis that leads to health and life, as a
result of human error, natural causes or defective
equipment. Mastering the crisis is not possible
without the participation of “rapid response teams”
which are rescue teams. Hence, the role and rank of
the mine rescue is not only in the tasks they have to
comply with but what also essential and perhaps
more important is the psychological condition, i.e.
the internal beliefs of each miner.

160
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Analytical determination of parameters of material

and thermal balance and physical parameters
of a coal seam work-out on mine “Barbara”, Poland

V. Falshtyns’kyy & R. Dychkovs’kyy

National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
K. Stanczyk & J. Swiadrowski
Central Mining Institute, Katowice, Poland

ABSTRACT: Based upon the mining-geological structure of a site of mine field, hydrological situation and
qualitative characteristics of coal, there has been made a diagram of calculation of material and thermal
balance of parameters of underground gasification process of experimental gasgenerator on mine “Barbara”
(Katowice, Poland). Speed of area work-out is determined as well as volume of received gases. Given article
is written as part of the realization of research project “HUGE – Hydrogen oriented underground gasification
of coal for Europe” and contains results of researches of collective grant of Educational and Scientific Center
of National Mining University “Steadiness of geotechnical systems: processes, phenomena, risks”.

1 INTRODUCTION profitability, therefore today the question of im-

There are many factors that induce qualitative
change of coal extraction technologies. The basic
ones among them are: increase of the average min-
ing depth, decrease in seams thickness, presence of
tectonic and natural areas of the increased rock
pressure, geodynamic and dynamic manifestations
in a massif and so on. Borehole underground coal
gasification (BUCG) is one of the radically new
technologies of exploitation and processing of coal.
2 COMMON INFORMATION
Given technology represents drilling of horizontally
inclined boreholes along the coal seam with inter-
connection between them. Further an ignition of
coal is carried out and the controlled combustion
face with balanced maintenance of oxidation and
reduction zones is created. This makes possible to
receive a mix of combustible gases with their sub-
sequent usage as the sources of electric energy and
chemical products.
Closed cycle of underground coal gasification
makes it possible to solve an actual environmental
problem of recycling, processing of fuel gases and
waste of power enterprises. UCG gas does not
demand additional preparation and is used as a
power resource for gaining of thermal and electric
energy at station “Pidzemgaz” by means of piston
units, steam-turbine or gas-turbine units.
Industrial realization of this technology proves its
provement of technical and technological decisions,
and also determination of air-blast mixture composi-
tion and end products is quite important.
Important components of researches of under-
ground coal gasification flow process is thedetermi-
nation of balance of physical and chemical proc-
esses, connected with change in chemical composi-
tion and qualitative properties of coal, and also
design features of underground gasgenerator. Con-
trollability, safety and processibility of artificial gas
production depend on interaction (balance) of the
system “underground gasgenerator”, chemical
reactions rate and physical processes during coal
seam work-out.
Material balance of underground coal gasification
shows comparison of income and expenditure of
substances masses or their volume indexes during
end-products capture. Qualitative and quantitative
parameters of generator gas are received based on
composition of air-blast mixture and coal character-
istics.
The thermal balance points on heat exchange in
underground gasgenerator system (received, used
and lost thermal energy). This balance is measured
by energy units (joules, calories) or in percentage of
a total amount of heat, that is presented in unit of
received gas, time unit or in mass unit of consumed
substance (coal).
Based on parameters of material and thermal bal-
ance it is possible to define numerical values of
efficiency, both separate components of gasification
process and all installation in general. These pa-

161
rameters serve as a basis for choosing of technical
and technological maintenance of gasification
process, surface complex of refining and processing
of BUCG products, previous estimation of effi-
ciency and profitability of the generator.
3 GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF UNDER-
GROUND GASGENERATOR INSTALLATION
Mining and geological factors play an important
role during underground gasification flow process
and may have both positive and negative influence
on gasification process. During designing and
exploitation of underground gasgenerator it is nec-
essary to consider following factors:
– water content of a seam and country rocks,
presence of static (dynamic) underground waters in
coal-rock massif;
– tectonic faults of a massif;
– chemical composition of a coal seam and rocks;
– mechanical and thermal properties of massif;
– geomechanical parameters of roof rocks, bottom
and seam, their change during work-out;
– thickness an dip angle of a coal seam, roof rocks
and bottom, structural composition of a massif.
A part of the mine field is accepted for research; it
is outlined by mine openings and has a shape re-
minding two perpendicular rectangles. Depth of
occurrence fluctuates within 15 m. The lithologic
difference of a roof is presented by sand, loamy and
clay rocks. The water-bearing seam of rocks is
presented by static waters and is located under
deposits on depth of 0.3 m. Next water-bearing
horizon is located in bottom of a coal seam on depth
of 20-40 m. Epected average water inflow into
gasification zone equals to 2.55 m3 / min. Coeffi-
cient of filtration: for a seam – 2.69 × 10-5 m / min;
for roof rocks – 6.79 × 10-5 m / min; bottom rocks –
4.46 × 10-5 m / min.
Figure 1. Copy of mine layout of experimental part of the
mine: 1 – main haulage working, 2 – mining workings,
that outline gasgenerator, 3 – planned place for combustion
face installation, 4 – collectors of condensate, 5 – gas
outlet pipe, 6 – outlet of gas through vertical prospecting
shaft.
162
Coal seam of a hard structure, of the same steady
thickness with dip angle 0-500. General extraction
thickness is 1.4 m. Thickness of rock layer – 0.1 m.
Coal moisture – 14.7%; ash content – 22.1%; vola-
tile matter content – 32.4%; combustion value –
21.6 mJ / m3 . Copy of mine layout presented on
Figure 1.
4 DETERMINATION OF MATERIAL
BALANCE PARAMETERS OF UCG
In order to perform coal work-out on the experimen-
tal mine gasgenerator of test mine site there will be
used a technological scheme of combined air-blast
supply and straight-flow thermal preparation of a
seam by pressure distribution of a mixture to the
combustion face and removing of BUCG gases by
means of absorption in the network of pipes with the
help of smoke sucker. Work-out of a seam is pro-
vided simultaneously on full thickness (m = 1.3-1.4)
with a zone of a combustion face having length of
0.8 m and square of 1.12 m2.
In order to research degree of influence of the men-
tioned factors on process UCG, modeling has been
carried out on a special stand installation with the subse-
quent transferring of the received results to natural
conditions according to the similarity theory.
On Table 1, there is a presentation of calculation
of material balance of UCG process with the ac-
count of mining and geological conditions, techno-
logical parameters of gasification process and prop-
erties of a coal seam for an experimental site of
mine.
According to the results of research, combustion
heat of UCG gas at level of 4.6-10.2 mJ / m3 can be
reached at specific water inflow in the zone of com-
bustion face not more than 0.75 kg of water / kg of
coal, at the water content in gas less than
252.8 g / m3. Increase of water inflow in the combus-
tion face up to 1.25 kg of water / kg of coal and the
water content in gas 300-400 g / m3 leads to decrease
of gas heat down to 4.0-7.7 mJ / m3.
Principle of change of a chemical compound of
UCG gases depending on specific water inflow in
the combustion zone of the underground gas-
generator is traced at the experimental site and
presence of pair in air-blast mixtures (steam-air,
steam-oxygen) is traced as well. Common flow of
such reactions is going with heat absorption:
H 2O  C  C  H 2  130 kJ / mole
CO2  C  2CO  173 kJ / mole
Flow of the reaction characterizes energy level of
UCG process, because it explains high concentra-
tion of carbon in generator gas during usage of
oxygen-carbon air-blast. It is connected, first of all,
with high – temperature regime of chemical reac-
tions flow.
With great role of water steam in process of gasi-
fication, increase of hydrogen concentration takes
place as well as decrease of concentration of meth-
ane and carbon that is connected with low tempera-
ture conditions of gasification process. Decrease of
combustion heat of a gas under such conditions can
be explained by flow of reaction of conversion:
C  H 2O  CO2  CO2  H 2  41.8 kJ / mole
This reaction contributes to increase of steam
amount in zone of gasification.
Having insignificant stratification depth of ex-
perimental mine site, even despite low atmospheric
precipitations, increase of water content in a coal
seam is possible. Chosen combined method of air-
blast supply and disposal of gasification products
contribute to discharging zone formation in gasifica-
tion zone and, consequently, surface water intrusion
into pores and cracks of a massif, that triggers a line
of negative consequences. Increase of humidity of
generator gas leads to decrease of its combusiton
value, complicates its purification and processing.
Output of combustibles (Н 2 , СН 4 , С) during gasifi-
cation of a coal seam, taking into account water
inflow into combustion face of the gasgenerator (kg
of water / kg of coal) with different components of
air-blast mixture is presented on Figure 2.
Thermal balance of underground coal gasification
process under conditions of experimental mine site.
Thermal balance is calculated on a basis of a
physical heat that is being formed during interaction
of the matters and heat of respective chemical
reactions during underground coal gasification.
Figure 2. Outlet of combustibles (Н 2 , СН 4 , С, %) during
coal seam gasification of mine, taking into account water
inflow into combustion zone of gasgenerator (kg of wa-
ter/kg of coal) with different components of air-blast
mixture (1 – air; 2 – steam-air; 3 – oxygen).
163
The purpose of the thermal balance calculation is
the determination of end temperature of received
UCG gases knowing their volume content, elemen-
tary coal composition, temperature of air-blast that
is being supplied, heat losses for heating of ash and
mud, host rocks, and vapor formation of water and
external water inflow.
Basic points of thermal balance of gasification
process are calculated according to the equation
based upon energy conservation law during under-
ground gasification of 1 kg of coal:
Q xy Q fу  Q fу  Qхg  Q1  Q2  Q3  Q4 ,
where Q xy – chemical heat of 1 kg of coal; Q fy –
physical heat of 1 kg of coal; Q fу – physical heat of
air necessary for gasification of 1 kg of coal; Q xg –
physical heat of gas that is gained during gasifica-
tion of 1 kg of coal; Q 1 – losses of heat for heating
of ash and mud that are formed during gasification
of 1 kg of coal; Q 2 – losses of heat for heating and
evaporation of water of external inflow, that are
presented for 1 kg of coal; Q 3 + Q 4 – loss of heat
for heating of the rocks with conditioning and
convectional heat exchange.
Results of the thermal balance calculation of coal
seam gasification on experimental mine site are
presented in Table 2.
Average temperature of air near external wall of
pipeline during transportation of UCG gas at dis-
tance of 1 m from borehole, in average will make
187.4 0С.
Determination of time and speed of coal work-
out. Time of coal seam work-out can be calculated
according to the following expression:
A
T , year
Vcomb
where А – amount of worked-out coal.
Based on the previous calculations, it is estimated
to work out 21.34 tons of coal at the given mine
site; V comb – linear speed of work-out process, m / s,
m / h, m / day.
Linear speed of work-out can be determined ac-
cording to the following expression:
Vm
Vcomb  ,m
  Scomb. f
where V m – mass rate of coal gasification, kg / s; γ –
density of coal, kg / m3; S comb.f – overall area of
combustion face, m2;
For given mining – geological conditions:
Scomb. f  m  lw. f  1.4  0.8  1.12 , m2
where m – thickness of coal seam, m; l w.f – l ength Results of calculation of physical parameters of
of combustion face, m coal seam work-out, taking into account various
components of air-blast are given in the Table 3.

Table 1. Parameters of material balance of underground coal gasification of experimental site of a mine.
Energy of zone
Type Minimal Moisture Water
Parameters of underground
оf Outlet of UCG gases from gasgenerator in % Effi- combusti of UCG inflow kg
of air-blast gasgenerator,
air- ciency, on heat of gas of
MJ
blast % UCG gas g/m3 water/kg
Oxi- Reco-
m3/t m3/h Н2 СН4 С N2 H2S CO2 O2 m3/h mJ/m3 of coal
dation very
14.8 5.05 12.48 51.48 0.6 13.49 1.8 53.4 4.206 8.412 4.395 205 0.5
Air 202.4 287.4
16.2 6.2 11.7 49.10 0.71 14.03 2.0 589.4 54.9 4.576 9.105 4.761 286 0.75
15.6 5.1 10.63 51.42 0.75 14.5 2.0 52.7 4.083 8.172 4.380 334 1.0
17.3 3.1 8.05 55.30 0.77 13.3 2.2 50.8 3.754 8.080 4.047 369 1.25
270.9 18.64 5.63 14.25 31.45 0.89 26.48 2.66 54.7 4.630 8.164 6.195 229 0.5
О2
56.89 20.50 6.50 15.08 27.42 1.03 25.80 2.72 56.6 5.296 8.320 5.764 298 0.75
N2 190.7 561.6
134.9 21.60 5.34 12.2 28.30 1.08 28.63 2.85 53.8 4.431 8.072 4.816 353 1.0
stream
79.11 22.04 4.03 10.04 29.04 1.1 30.79 2.96 51.2 3.823 7.861 4.450 405 1.25
241.0 32.31 6.18 5.4 20.15 1.05 31.40 2.97 60.1 7.230 9.671 5.853 245 0.5
О2 130.9 27.4 12.48 7.16 20.81 1.15 27.36 3.63 61.7 7.706 9.360 6.014 296 0.75
169.7 690.3
steam 30.06 33.1 5.38 2.12 24.07 1.18 29.85 4.26 59.4 7.343 9.056 5.602 351 1.0
80.0 34.08 3.42 2.1 23.57 1.25 31.05 4.53 57.6 7.045 8.704 5.310 402 1.25
24.12 12.92 23.43 25.10 0.63 10.60 3.20 68.1 9.964 10.790 5.851 187 0.5
264.1
О2 28.54 10.91 21.1 25.02 0.69 10.34 3.40 69.3 10.115 11.093 6.540 201 0.75
186.0 153.2 742.3
N2 29.41 10.4 20.0 24.15 0.7 11.78 3.56 66.4 9.680 10.754 5.675 239 1.0
110.9
29.98 9.32 19.75 25.2 0.73 11.42 3.60 65.7 9.188 10.508 5.491 262 1.25
266.1 26.57 8.49 35.54 0.61 1.05 24.68 3.06 67.7 9.961 15.372 7.616 209 0.5
О2
133.1 25.54 9.91 34.1 0.62 1.09 25.64 3.10 68.2 10.208 15.841 7.893 228 0.75
N2 187.5 758.6
47.91 24.2 5.38 34.4 0.64 1.13 27.78 3.47 65.4 9.536 13.811 7.504 275 1.0
СО2
85.18 23.15 7.33 35.25 0.63 1.22 28.90 3.54 62.4 9.370 12706 7197 304 1.25

Table 2. Thermal balance of process of coal seam gasification with different compositions of air-blast.
Composition of air-blast
Oxygen +
Oxygen + Oxygen +
Readings Air Oxygen Steam +
steam СО 2
СО 2
MJ MJ MJ MJ MJ
kg % kg % kg % kg % kg %
Combustion heat for working fuel 25.669 96.9 25.669 96.9 25.669 96.9 25.669 96.9 25.669 96.9
Heat content of a massif in the zone of oxidation (com-
0.636 2.4 0.636 2.4 0.636 2.4 0.636 2.4 0.636 2.4
bustion)
Heat content of air-blast 0.1801 0.7 0.1801 0.7 0.1801 0.7 0.1801 0.7 0.1801 0.7
Of all volume 26.476 100 26.476 100 26.476 100 26.476 100 26.476 100
Combustion heat of waste gas
4.6389 10.180 8.1310 10.977 8.0975
MJ / m 3 ofgas 71.1 78.75 74.7 78.9 76.1
18.830 22.080 20.730 22.861 20.890
MJ / kgofcoal

Heat losses:
0.0510 0.19 0.0520 0.19 0.0510 0.19 0.0520 0.19 00510 0.19
1. Heating of ash and coal dust
2.Heating and evaporation of moisture (water inflow
0.1582 0.59 0.1582 0.59 0.1582 0.59 0.1582 0.59 0.1582 0.59
and humidity of coal, rock)
3.Heating of host rocks (roof, bottom) 2.7980 10.6 2.7980 8.5 2.7980 13.6 2.7980 8.2 2.7980 9.21
Heat content of dry waste gas 4.3446 17.5 9.900 11.37 7.4126 10.9 10.100 12.12 7.3682 13.9
Of all volume 26.476 100 6.476 100 26.476 100 26.476 100 6.476 100
Temperature behind reaction area of channel of gasgen-
877 - 1086 - 917 - 1105 - 911
erator, 0С
Temperature of UCG gases at exit from gas exhaust
493 - 607 - 582 - 622 - 574
borehole, 0С

164
Table 3. Physical parameters of coal seam work-out.
Area of Mass rate of coal Volume Linear speed of work-
Type of air- Time of work-out
combustion gasification, weight of out
blast
face, m2 kg / s coal, kg / m3 m/h t/h hour day
Air 1.12 0.014 1270 0.0353 0.0502 420.5 17.3
Oxygen 1.12 0.016 1270 0.0392 0.0701 348.7 14.5
Oxygen-carbon 1.12 0.0165 1270 0.0401 0.0702 345.5 14.4

Table 4. Calculation of aerodynamic parameters of delivery network in order to choose compressor.

P1g Р2 g Q  Tm L dp Pn1.tf Pn2.tf V

MPa MPa
3
m /s kg / m3 K m m MPa MPa m/s
0.18 0.38 0.08 0.975 323 14.5 0.03 0.392 0.483 6.7-9.8

5 AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
UNDERGROUND GASIFICATION SYSTEM

Calculation of pressure loss in aerodynamic network

of underground gasgenerator (flexible pipe – heat-
resisting nozzle – combustion face) using combined
method (air-blast supply under pressure and disposal
of UCG gases during creation of discharging) is
performed according to the equation of polytropic
flow of mixture of gases (air-blast) in thermody-
namic system;
0.03739 Q   R  Tm  L
Pn.g  Р1n.ft 2 f  , MPa
dp
where P n.t – pressure of air-blast at the beginning of
the pipeline, MPa; Р1n .ft ,2 f – pressure of air-blast in
nozzle (nozzle #1 under experimental limiting
conditions P 1g = 0.18 MPa, nozzle #2 under ex-
perimental limiting conditions at P 2g = 0.38 MPa)
with holes for combustion face α = 45-550, MPa; Q
– air-blast consumption, m3 / s; ρ – density of air-
blast mixture (components), kg / m3; R – for air air-
blast mixture 287 kJ / kg.K.); T m – an average
thermodynamic temperature of air-blast, K; L –
length of flexible pipeline, m; d p – diameter of
flexible pipeline, m
Based upon computation data (Table 4) for ex-
perimental site of UCG of “Barbara” mine, there
will be required compressor unit with following
characteristics:
– consumption Q max = 320 m3 / h; 5.33 m3 / min;
0.08 m3 / s;
– pressure ρ max = 0.6 MPa; 6 atm.
Aerodynamic system of underground gasgenera-
tor including local resistances and temperatures
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Aerodynamic system of underground gasgenerator:
R – aerodynamic resistance, kµ; R 1 – narrowing with turning
around 900 (combustion face – gas outlet borehole), 8.5 kµ;
R 11 – common resistance for friction and temperature along
the length of gas outlet borehole (L = 14.5 m, d = 150 mm),
33.2 kµ; R 2 – widening with turn (gas outlet borehole –
pipeline, d = 220 mm), 2.63 kµ; R 3 , R 4 – turns of gas outlet
pipeline, 1.67 kµ, R 5 – widening (gas outlet pipeline –
smoke exhauster), 1.31 kµ.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Usage of air, air-blast, oxygen air-blast and oxygen-
carbon air-blast mixtures is proved to be effective
and safe for coal seam gasification under conditions
of mentioned experimental mine site. Presented
calculation of material and thermal balances of
underground coal gasification process is the basis
for choosing necessary equipment for underground
gasgenerator.
Important element of success of gasification
process is the amount of external water inflow into
combustion face. Based on insignificant stratifica-
tion depth, start-up of gasgenerator on experimental
mine site must be executed in period of minimal
precipitations.

165
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4
The research of stresses around the mine working
relative to a coal seam in the models made
of optical material
P. Ponomarenko
National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Results of experimental researches performed on flat models which are made of optically ac-
tive materials are presented. Rocks of the seam, roof and bottom differed by elasticity module. The models
were studied by method of “freezing”. Pictures of isochromatic lines were deciphered by method of stripes
on a polariscope.
1 INTRODUCTION
If a horizontal mine working is driven along the
seam of a deposit with various hypsometry then the
cross-cut of this working can be located along the
seam, above it or under it. As the strength of the
seam and host rocks can vary a lot, then stability of
this working is various.
For example, for study of stress-strain state of a
rock massif around a working with its different lo-
cation relative to a seam, it is required to use 8-10
experimental sites with length being around 20 m
and install measuring points and carry out the re-
searches. Even using the theory of rational planning
of an experiment, material, labour and time ex-
penses will be excessive. Thus, the most effective
are the methods of physical modeling that received
wide application during research of different ques-
tions of mining mechanics. This is explained by
their clearness and relatively not high material and
time expenses needed for their performance.
2 METHOD OF THE RESEARCH
One of the most widespread, accessible and clear
methods based on physical modeling is the polariza-
tion-optical method of research. It is based on fea-
tures of isotropic materials to gain capability of
double refraction under influence of stresses.
Special influence on this method’s development
is caused by fundamental researches of such scien-
tists as Frokht (1950), Feppl and Menkh (1966),
Trumbachev (1962) and others.
The models were made of optically active mate-
rial of polystyrene. Use of this material is explained
by the following:
167
1. This material is designed for the operation by
“freezing of stresses”.
2. With change of elasticity module by 8 times,
the “freezing point” changes from 146° to 122°.
3. Polystyrene has high optical sensitivity, insig-
nificant edge effect, high transparency and is almost
colourless.
Bottom and roof of the seam presented by clay
rocks, were modeled by СД-3 material, and carbon-
ate seam of a strong manganese ore was simulated
by СД-10 material.
Geometric similarity was determined with scale
being 1:100, and proportionality of physical con-
stant – by ration of Young moduluses of natural and
model materials. Elasticity module of the model
  22 was simulated in the same scale as the
stresses were.
The model was placed in a mechanical loading
device and pulled out under active load in heat
chamber with temperature of 150 °С during 2 hours.
Then, with closed door of the heat chamber, the
temperature was decreasing every hour by 5 °С.
Process of “freezing” was finishing at room tem-
perature, after that the model was extracted from the
load device and photographed in polarization-
optical device РМБ-56 in monochromatic light.
Pictures of isochromatic lines were deciphered by
method of stripes with help of compensation disks
on a polariscope ПКС-250. The distribution dia-
grams of maximal tangential  max were built by the
deciphered pictures of the stripes.
Method of stripes is much simpler and less time-
consuming comparatively to method of compensa-
tions and much more accurate than method of col-
ours correlation. It allows to receive high accuracy
of stresses determination in any point of interference
picture along difference of main stresses.
3 RESULTS OF THE RESEARCH
Method of researches considers various variants of a
working location relative to a seam (Figure 1).
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g) (h) (k)
Figure 1. Location of a working relative to a seam during
its drivage: (a) 0.5 R higher than the seam; (b) above the
seam; (c) with undermining of the bottom by 0.5 R; (d)
with undermining of the roof by R; (e) with undermining
of bottom and roof by 0.5 R; (f) with undermining of ottom
by R; (g) with undermining of roof by 1.5 R; (h) under the
seam; (k) under the seam by 0.5 R.
As an example, picture of isochromatic lines during a
working drivage under the seam is shown (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Isochromatic lines during drivage of a working
under the seam.
Following from the laboratory researches, the fol-
lowing is determined:
– only compressive stresses occur in a working at
168
any disposition of a working relative to a seam;
– compressive stresses take place in a bottom and
roof (Figure 1a, b, h, k) during drivage of an open-
ing above of under a seam and also along the seam
(Figure 1e);
– tensile stresses take place in bottom during
drivage of an opening along the roof rocks with
undermining of the seam (Figure 1c) and along
seam with undermining of a roof (Figure 1d);
– tensile stresses take place in a roof during
drivage of an opening along a seam with undermin-
ing (Figure 1f) and along bottom rock with partial
seam undermining (Figure g).
Thus, the most unfavorable disposition of an
opening relative to a seam of carbonate manganese
ore occurs when there are tensile stresses act at its
contour that can trigger rock collapses. So, during
drivage of workings it is necessary to install the
support right after the rocks exposure. Tensile
stresses in a bottom can trigger heaving, and in con-
nection with this, it is necessary to consider techni-
cal solutions focused on its prevention.
Analysis of isochromatic lines will allow to also
establish following: during drivage of an opening
along the seam with undermining of a bottom
(Figure 3), tangential stresses on the contact with
roof are equal to zero. But due to complexity of
manufacturing of model with point contact of an
opening and roof, wedge-shaped areas of upper part
in the model do not meet, and because of this there
are insignificant tensile stresses take place in the
bottom(  р  0.006 MPa).
Figure 3. Picture of isochromatic lines during drivage of an
opening along the seam with undermining of a bottom.
With moving from vertical axis to horizontal axis,
compressive stresses in a seam increase and reach
maximal values at the boundary of a seam and bot-
tom (  comp  0.185 MPa).
Insignificant concentration of stresses also takes
place at a verge of the seams (  сomp  0.099 MPa).
While moving from a horizontal axis, compressive
stresses decrease and reach zero value at the area of
vertical axis.
During drivage of an opening under a seam at a
distance equal to zero (Figure 2), picture of
isochromatic lines in the upper part of contour is
analogical to the picture of base model. Due to the
absence of contact of bottom rocks and a seam in
the upper part of the working’s contour in the seam
at the area of vertical axis, insignificant value area
of tensile stresses takes place (  р  0.013 MPa). In
bottom rocks, adjoining this area, the stresses are
equal to zero. This shows that at point contact of an
opening with roof in the model and insignificant
exposure of roof in natural conditions, stresses near
vertical axis will be equal to zero.
Stresses in lower part of the opening are absent.
With movement of vertical axis to the horizontal
one, tensile stresses increase and reach maximal
value (  сomp  0.074 MPa) when approaching hori-
zontal axis. Thus, load on the opening on the walls
of this model is lower by 0.07 MPa than in the pre-
vious model.
During drivage of an opening along bottom at a
distance of 0.5 R under the seam (Seam 2), picture
of isochromatic lines is analogical to the one, that is
in the model with distance from the seam being
equal to zero.
Results of the calculation show that when the
opening is located under the seam, the dimensions
of the zones of caved rocks in walls increase by
25% compared to an opening driven along the seam.
169
Also increase of horizontal dislocations of the open-
ing’s contour is observed. Dislocations of roof and
bottom, vice versa, decrease by 17%.
3 CONCLUSIONS
Results of optic modeling allow to conclude that
during drivage of an opening along a seam with
undermining of a bottom, strong carbonate ore func-
tions as a block, squeezes out weak rock into the
working. Value of stresses in an opening walls is
insufficient for breaking of strong carbonate ore.
Thus, dislocations of an opening walls are smaller
than in the second and third models.
And vice versa. During drivage of the working
under the seam, stresses occurring in the seam trans-
fer into bottom and because the bottom is composed
of weak rocks, the dislocations of an opening walls
are bigger than in the first model. Insignificant
stresses in bottom and roof (along vertical axis) do
not contribute to intensive dislocation of the rocks.
REFERENCES
Frokht, M.М. 1950. Photoelasticity. Moscw: OTIZ.
Feppl, L. & Menkh, E. 1966. Practice of practical model-
ing. Novosibirsk: Nauka.
Trumbachev, V.F. 1962. Study of stress state of rocks and
mine workings with help of optical method: author’s ab-
stract. Moscow.
Filatov, N.A. 1975. Development of modeling methods in
connection with complex researches of rock pressure in
underground workings: author’s abstract. Leningrad.
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Formation of gas hydrates while mine methane extracting

and possible methods of the problem solving

L. Shirin, Y. Korovyaka & V. Astakhov

National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: The paper supposes that in some cases formation of gas hydrates can become one of the most
important problems while mine methane extracting. On the assumption of studying methods aimed at hy-
drate control there are identified ways of their adaptation while solving the problem during mine methane
extraction. Results of studying conditions under which hydrating takes place will become strategic means
against hydrates during accompanying mine methane extraction.

1 INTRODUCTION 3 ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM STATE

Progressively increasing consumption of mineral
energy reserves makes Ukrainian scientists and
manufacturer solve the problem of integrated devel-
opment of alternative energy bearers. Mine methane
is one of the most promising directions for our
country.
Despite the direction promising for Ukraine mine
methane extraction is performed by some separate
mining enterprises. Available degasification tech-
nique cannot give ability to have adequately qualita-
tive gas. Lack of efficient ways of poor mine meth-
ane utilization as well as complex approach to its
production result in emissions. It depends on the
fact that underground coal mining technique can not
stipulate simultaneous mine methane recovery.
Complex approach to the problem which helps to
integrate coal mining process and methane extrac-
tion process will improve profitability of coal mines
and labour safety. Besides it will guarantee power
independence of our country.
2 PROBLEM DEFINITION
Results of analysis of mine methane commercial
extraction in Donbas’s bring into light a number of
the most expectable problems which did not take
place under degasification.
Expert evaluation of data on mines of Krasnoar-
meysk mining district shows that gas hydrates for-
mation is one of substantive problems while mine
methane extracting. The problem is not new for
enterprises engaged in commercial exploitation of
natural gas. The problem is solved with varying
success.
Probabilities of gas hydrate formation while com-
mercial extracting mine methane is quite possible.
Many components of mine methane (methane,
ethane, propane, isobutene, carbon dioxide, and
azote) (Table 1) have similar physicochemical
properties of hydrating. All the components form
hydrates, so called gas hydrates – solid crystalline
substances (looking like compressed snow), which
exist under high pressure if temperature is positive.
Table 1. Mean Chemical Composition of Mine Methane.
Content, % Element Content, %
Element (mol) (mol)
СН 4 87.2 С 5 Н 12 0.3
С2Н6 7.6 N2 0.4
С3Н8 3.1 СО 2 0.1
n-С 4 Н 10 0.8
izo-С 4 Н 10 0.5
Gas hydrates are formed by means of introduction
of crystalline structures into openings. The crystal-
line structures consist of molecules H 2 O and gas
molecules (М). General formula of gas hydrates is
МnH 2 O where value n varies from 5.75 to 17 de-
pending on gas composition and conditions of gas
hydrate formation.
Results of different operation schedules of mine
methane extraction, degasification and mine and
geological conditions of Krasnoarmeysk coal mining
district taking into account practice of “Krasnoarmey-
skaya-Zapadnaya #1”, “Dobropolskaya”, “Krasnoli-
manskaya”, “Belozerskaya”, and “Almaznaya” help
to determine a number of operational districts as well
as a range of physical conditions for hydrate forma-
tion.

171
 Thus, under mud-pulse action to increase effect of mission network slows down efficiency and mine
degasification operating fluid (most of all light safety sensibly. In some cases it may result in emer-
water) with 1 to 8 MPa pressure and 0.01 to 0.1 s gency.
intervals is delivered into coal seam. As a result
joint systems are formed through which gas gets
into the hole. Then formational pressure of after-
damp is sometimes 8 to 10 MPa. Under such pres-
sure availability of water or aquatic solutions of gas
makes it possible to form hydrates in the hole even
if temperature is positive (Figure 1). Similar physi-
cal conditions are available on application of hy-
draulic fracturing. In some cases high pressure of
gas dependent on mining and dynamic processes as
well as watercut of a hole may result in hydrate
formation. The process is possible even if external
effect is not available.

Figure 2. Curves of Hydrate Decomposition within “Wa-

ter-Methane, Ethane, Propane” Systems.

Figure 1. Conditions of Methane Hydrating.

4 RESULTS

Analyses of conditions of gas hydrate formation and

decomposition (Figures 1-3) help to suggest that is
some cases releasing gas creates high pressure в
systems of seepage blabs. If water is available it
results in hydrate formation. It factors into plugging
microcavities and fractures. Eventually either gas
production decline or ultimate extinction of gas
release is possible.
As for the systems of recovery the technogenic
hydrates may be formed in a face zone and in a
hole, in tails and in-field gathering lines, within
systems of commercial gas treatment as well as in
main gas transmission systems.
Negative development of gas hydrates within the
system of mine methane extraction can become
apparent become apparent in different ways. “Ice
plugs” within inby gas lines, holes, gas mains etc.
may considerably slow down throughput capacity of
gas transmission network, and gas discharge from
holes. In some cases it can completely isolate holes.
Such a change of physical parameters of gas trans-
Figure 3. Curves of KC-I Hydrate Decomposition within
Carbon Dioxide-Water System (■  o are Data from
Different Sources).
5 METHODS OF THE PROBLEM SOLVING
Majority of components of natural gas extraction
system is in operation schedules of mine methane
extraction.
Substructure of transporting pipeline in which gas
is transported owing to drawdown by vacuum pump
is an exception. Underpressure excludes gas hydrate
formation even temperature is low. The transporta-
tion method can be considered as one of the possible
solutions of hydrate formation problem while mine
methane extracting.
Such methods are used against hydrates in the
process of commercial extraction of natural gas:
– Inhibitor method.

172
 – Thermal method.
– Method with application of surface-active mate-
rials (SAM) etc.
On the basis of methods aimed at hydrate elimi-
nation there are determined ways of their adaptation
while the problem solving in the process of mine
methane extraction. Dewatering, raise of transported
gas temperature, transportation pressure reduction,
addition of inhibitors and SAM within the most
probable areas of gas hydrate formation are among
them.
Thermal method is one the first methods. The me-
thod principle is to raise gas temperature over hy-
drating limit within defined pressure. But more and
more often higher level of power consumption and
nonuniformity of positive effect make giving up on
it. Nevertheless the method may be quite working
while underground extracting mine methane when
outdoor temperature variations are completely
predictable and it is possible to use energy of proc-
ess loss (heat rejection from live electrical equip-
ment, underground air, rock massif etc.).
There are cases when it is technically impossible
to apply thermal method (if ice plug is formed
within the hole’s mouth). Then it is expedient to
apply inhibitor methods or method against hydrating
with the use of SAM.
Inhibitor method is in the use of solutions of non-
electrolytes, lower aliphatic alcohols and glycols
which induce sharp increase of induction period of
gas hydrate formation (mainly, they are low-
molecular water-dilutable polymeric compositions).
SAM ensures multiphase transport of hydrocar-
bonic systems in mode of hydrating without hydrate
173
detention within production pipelines.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Formation of operation schedules taking into ac-
count ability of hydrating will be upcoming trend
while extraction methane under the conditions of
Donetsk coal basin. Primary methods to solve the
problems of gas hydrate formation within live
operating schedules will be the elements performing
the simplest unwatering at the output of gas from
holes, more complex dewatering facilities within
gas transmission pipeline, adding inhibitors and
SAM within areas of probable hydrating.
Results of studying conditions under which hy-
drating takes place will become strategic means
against hydrates during accompanying mine meth-
ane extraction. They will be used while developing
operating schedules. Adoption of technology which
helps to improve qualitative composition of mined
methane will become one of the most progressive
energy-conservative methods to avoid hydrating
during transportation and further gas processing.
REFERENCES
Sofiyski, K.K. 1994. Unconventional Methods of Outrush
Prevention and Coal Mining. Moscow: Nedra: 192.
Istomin, V.A. & Yakushev, V.S. 1992. Gas Hydrates in
Nature. Moscow: Nedra: 236.
Manakov, А.Y. & Dyadin, Y.A. 2003. Gas Hydrates under
Higher Pressure. Magazine of Russian Chemical Soci-
ety Named after D.I. Mendeleyev, 3.
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Prediction of mining-induced seismic activity

with the use of neural networks on displacement field
of rocks in its vicinity

J. Kabiesz
Central Mining Institute, Katowice, Poland

ABSTRACT: In the course of mining hard coal seams under rock burst hazard conditions one of the most
important tasks to prevent the hazard is prediction of the time and place of occurrence of strong (E w ≥ 104J)
eismic tremors. The task is difficult and most often accomplished to an unsatisfactory degree. This contribu-
tion presents an attempt of applying neural networks with this end in view. The time series of seismic energy
emission recorded while advancing a longwall face with caving at one of collieries was investigated. It has
been shown that the GRNN-type neural networks may fulfil such a task with an efficiency of about 50%.

1 INTRODUCTION
The extraction of hard coal seams under the condi-
tions of the Upper-Silesian Coal Basin is often
accompanied by intensive seismic activity of rock
mass. This activity is directly connected with the
rock burst hazard (Dubiński & Konopko, 2000) and
impact of the dynamic results of seismic waives
propagation on the surface infrastructure (Mutke &
Stec 1997). It directly influences the work safety in
the collieries and the so-called public safety. In this
context the capability of reliable predicting the
seismic activity becomes an important issue within
mining activity and in particular when mining-
induced tremors possess a high energy. Under the
conditions of the Polish collieries there are known
cases of coal bumps connected with seismic tremors
with an energy of the order of 104J (Konopko 1994).
The circumstances and mechanisms of producing
the highly energetic seismic tremors are very com-
plex and complicated and the so far state of knowl-
edge on their interconnections does not allow un-
ambiguous predicting of the time and place of their
occurrence. The emission of seismic energy (seis-
mic tremors, seismoacoustic activity) makes up a
series of consecutive events that arrange to a time
series of characteristic specificity. There are known
from literature attempts of predicting selected ele-
ments of such series with the help of the classical
statistical analyses (Iwulski 2001, 2007; Lasocki
1993, 193a; Kornowski 2003; Kornowski & Kur-
zeja, 2008) as well as some unconventional methods
such as neural networks, fuzzy logic, fractal geome-
try etc. (Heping & Pariseau, 1993; Lu, Liang and Lu
1997; Wang, Li, Lee, Tsui & Tham, 1998; Yang &
Gao 1998; Niu & Xing 1999; Rudajev & Čiž 1999;
Kabiesz 2006). But their results are not satisfactory
particularly relative to the key element in ensuring
safety, i.e. predicting the time of tremor occurrence.
The most enhanced attempts in this field undertaken
by Kornowski (2003, 2004), Kurzeja (2005) and
Kornowski together with Kurzeja (2008) showed
limited possibilities of predicting such time series.
They showed in an objective way that: … it is im-
possible to predict the energy E i in a non-trivial,
linear way based on their previous values and/or
based on previous values of t i , as well as it is
impossible to predict the time intervals t i between
the tremors based on their previous values and/or
based on the energy E i of previous tremors. They
showed at the same time that the possibility of
predicting the total energy of seismic energy is
limited when the energy of seismoacoustic emission
is also taken into account in the data under analysis
AE – Page 138 (Kornowski & Kurzeja 2008). Dis-
regarding the problem of noise and interferences
such a statement should be understood in the fol-
lowing way: lowering down to the technically
possible limit of recorded tremor energies improves
effectiveness of predicting the time series of emitted
seismic energy. Thus the following question sur-
faces whether or not the so far achievements in the
field are sufficient. In the practice of the Polish
mining industry there are in common use methods
described in the so-called comprehensive method of
rock burst hazard assessment (Barański & Drze-
wiecki et al., 2007). Their effectiveness regarding
the tremor occurrence time is insufficient. Other
attempts also must be assessed in a similar way in
the scope. Such a state of affairs constitutes a suffi-

175
cient reason for seeking new possibilities of improv- and seismoacoustic impulse emission were used to
ing the effectiveness of predicting the seismic activ- learn the network. For the purposes of the presented
ity induced by longwalling. One of these possibili- considerations it was assumed identity of the hourly
ties is to apply neural networks as a prediction tool. emission of seismoacoustic activity in a form of
equivalent seismoacoustic energy with energy
400
emission AE. The assumption is permissible as the
l=192,23 logEw prediction subject includes selected elements of the
series of data (time series) corresponding with the
m.

300 moments of occurrence of the referred to tremors.

max,

l
The character of changes in the seismic emission
results from tremors centers;

between the moments of tremor occurrence is quali-

distance of rockbursts

200
tatively similar – it does fundamentally not depend
on whether we will present them as a total of the
100 energy of tremors and the equivalent seismic energy
AE or the energy of tremors and the quantity of
seismoacoustic impulses. The neural network learns
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
and builds its own structure “by analyzing” fist of
tremors energy; logE w all the qualitative changes in values of the training
data. The prediction also concerns qualitative,
violent changes in the value of a parameter under
Figure 1. Distances from the tremor centres that caused analysis.
rock bursts (Konopko 1994).
The presented analyses were aimed at determin-
ing the most important stages to be performed in the
procedure of predicting the tremors with an energy
2 FORMULATING THE PROBLEM
E ≥ 104J. The assumption fundamentally influences
the shape and form of the training data of the neural
Any rock burst hazard assessment must be based on
network as well as the way of training them.
data accessible in mining practice including infor-
The time series prediction is in fact a regression-
mation on the existing conditions of executing
type problem and it is possible to apply any arbitrar-
mining activities, thereof on the parameters describ-
ily selected neural network of a kind fit for prob-
ing the hazard’s symptoms. Longwalling produces
lems of the type to effectively forecast sequential
emission of a seismic energy EC in the form of
values of such a time series (Bishop 1995). In this
seismic tremors E w emitted in a form distinctly
methodology it is fundamental to determine:
separated in time (pointwise) and not so strongly
– kind and number of data to be analysed;
separated (because of their number) seismoacoustic
– form of input and output data;
impulses AE. In practice the second sort of emission
– kind of neural networks and their structure;
is combined in selected time intervals (equal to e.g.
– time interval of prediction, i.e. horizon of pre-
an hour or work shift) and then they use the notion
diction.
of hourly emission or shift emission. The emissions
The computer programme Statistica Neural Net-
constitute a continuance which within the domain of
time makes up the so-called time series. works developed by StatSoft Inc.  was used to
The state of rock burst hazard is first of all depend- analyse the data sets from a sample longwall ad-
ent on the quantity and energy of the highly energetic vanced in one of the Polish collieries.
seismic tremors. It is obvious that there are also other
circumstances that also decide about the fact of a rock
3 MATERIALS UNDER ANALYSIS
burst occurrence correlated with a given tremor, for
example placement of hypocentre relative to mine
Records of seismic activity (seismic tremors and
workings, character of the so-called near field, state
emission of seismoacoustic energy) covering a
of effort around the working, etc. which in the follow-
selected segment of face advance way of longwall
ing investigations will be omitted.
508 in seam 501 at the colliery KWK “Wesoła –
This contribution presents an attempt to apply
Mysłowice” (Figures 2 and 3) and results of analyti-
neural networks with the object of predicting the
cal predictions of distribution of stresses to occur in
time series of seismic emission with the aim to
the seam’s roof strata within the panel of longwall
foresee the moments of occurrence of single seismic
508 as well as the deformation curvatures k of the
tremors with an energy E w ≥ 104J (Konopko 1994).
The series of data on seismic tremor emissions E w 
Licence No. NNCP1052897830F40

176
sandstone and mudstone strata being a result of
underworking them.
Seam 501 in the locality of the longwall panel is
deposited at a depth of 730 m, possesses a thickness
from 4.5 to 5.4 m and a dip ranging from 4º to 6º in
the south-western direction. The longwall was
advanced on the strike and the second after longwall
37, and shortly after starting it was advanced along
with longwall 509. In the roof there are sandstone
and mudstone strata deposited alternately (Figure 4)
which build thick, fast and stiff complexes capable
of generating highly energetic seismic tremors. The
The seismoacoustic activity observations were
also conducted on the longwall and their results
were included into the material under analysis. The
hourly recordings of the activity in the form of
equivalent energy values were used. The overall
cardinality of a set created in such a way amounted
to 2636 data in each of the categories (energy,
longwall advance, time).
In the analyses there were additionally utilised
information items characterising the state of the
rock mass undermined by longwall 508, in particu-
lar its structural parameters and parameters poten-
177
unconstrained compression strengths R c of the
sandstones amount up to 72 MPa, of the mudstones
up to 50 MPa and of the siltstones up to 24 MPa.
On a 140-m long segment of the advance way of
longwall 508, starting from the 685th metre of the
longwall’s advance way, 3 tremors with energies of
the order of 105J, 39 tremors with energies of the
order of 104J, 213 with energies of 103J and 199
with energies of 102J were recorded.
Because of the limited volume of this contribution
only the list of tremors with energies of the order of
104J and 105J has been presented in Table 1.
tially connected with emission of seismic tremors.
An analysis of the stratigraphic structure of longwall
510’s roof showed that it incorporates sandstone and
mudstone strata with a thickness of ten and several
metres or more. Such strata are capable of produc-
ing highly energetic tremors and are, in mining
practice, referred to as tremor-producing strata. For
some selected such strata, situated 30 m, 55 m, 80 m
and 125 m above the top of seam 501 there were
computed (predicted) distributions of the stress and
curvature k.
Table 1. List of tremors with energies E w of the order of 104J and 105J recorded when longwall 508 was advanced on a
140-m long way.
Advance of longwall

Advance of longwall

Advance of longwall

Advance of longwall

Advance of longwall

Advance of longwall
Tremor energy Ew; J

Tremor energy Ew; J

Tremor energy Ew; J

Tremor energy Ew; J

Tremor energy Ew; J

Tremor energy Ew; J

face; m

face; m

face; m

face; m

face; m

face; m
No.

No.

No.

No.

No.

No.
1 5.3 30000 8 41.7 30000 15 85.4 200000 22 112.2 60000 29 124.8 10000 36 130.7 40000
2 17.1 50000 9 44.2 20000 16 90.6 30000 23 113.4 40000 30 125.4 10000 37 131.0 10000
3 25.4 2000 10 56.6 30000 17 91.7 80000 24 114.8 30000 31 126.9 10000 38 131.2 300000
4 26.3 80000 11 68.0 30000 18 106.1 30000 25 115.1 80000 32 127.4 200000 39 132.2 20000
5 27.0 2000 12 72.4 20000 19 107.3 10000 26 116.8 10000 33 128.2 60000 40 136.3 10000
6 35.0 80000 13 80.2 70000 20 111.6 20000 27 118.5 90000 34 128.2 10000 41 138.8 80000
7 37.7 60000 14 83.8 20000 21 112.0 30000 28 121.4 80000 35 130.3 30000 42 139.8 40000

wave;  – absolute increases of stresses; v0 –

velocity of longitudinal seismic wave in coal seam;
seismic wave velocity; v, %

50 H = 500 m
 z0 primary rock pressure (–H); a, b, c and d –
relative increase in

40 empirical coefficients (Table 2).

H = 700 m
30
Table 2. Values of the empirical coefficients in equations
H = 900 m
20 (2) and (3) (Dubiński 1989).
10 Depth
0
100 m 300 m 500 m 700 m 900 m
0 100 200 300 400 Coefficient
relative increase in pressure p, % a 53.72 39.39 36.90 43.36 46.57
b 0.848 0.894 0.854 0.725 0.584
Figure 5. Relationship between relative velocity increases c 0.165 0.255 0.315 0.738 1.273
v in longitudinal seismic wave and relative increases of d 0.850 0.878 0.885 0.692 0.512
stress  (Dubiński 1989).
A sample distribution of stresses in the overlying
The distribution of stress  z values was determined sandstone strata deposited at a distance of 125
by means of a proprietary computer programme metres from the top of seam 501 is presented in
SIGMAZ (Kabiesz & Makówka 2009) where, apart Figure 6. This distribution is a result of the influ-
from the natural deposition conditions of seam 501 ences of mine workings existing in overlying and
(depth, bulk density of overlying strata, dip, etc.) underlying seams 504, 404/5 and 405. For the
influence of old mine workings were also taken into purposes of training neural networks there were
account. The programme is based on empirically taken into account the stresses existing along the
proved relationships between the value of anomaly of section located at the half height of the map present-
seismic wave velocity A n and the stresses  in the ing distribution of the parameter. The map is pre-
medium of its propagation (Figure 5) as well as on sented in Figure 6. Analogously there were per-
spatial distributions the anomaly value in the vicinity formed computations to determine distributions of
of mining edge and in the vicinity of tectonic faults. maximum curvature values k max (Figure 7) based on
(Dubiński 1989). The empirical relationships are in the geometric theory of mining impact on ground
general expressed by the following formula: (i.e. the theory by Budryk – Knothe). In this attitude
the curvature is a derivative of inclinations T, i.e.
v  a b (1) second derivative of subsidence w.
  
d Tx
v  k x  1.65k max  Ay  C x (3)
 c 0  (2) x
0  
vp  z  T y
where v – absolute increase in longitudinal seismic  k y  1.65k max  Ax  C y , (4)
y

178
where k max – maximum curvature of surface in the x  0.5s  p
normal direction to the edge 2  (9)

2
k max  244   wmax (5)  y  0.5l  p
1  (10)

 0.512  0.5 22
Cx 1  e  2  e (6)
x  0.5l  p
2  (11)

 0.5 12  0.5  22
C y  1  e  2  e (7) l , s – extraction field dimensions, p – displace-
ment of mining impact (rim) for virgin rock mass:
 – dimensionless quantity equal to (8),  – dimen-
sionless quantity equal to (9) p  H 0.5 (12)
 x  0. 5 s  p for worked rock mass:
1  (8)

p  1 / 2 H 0.5 (13)
p. 405

p. 404/5

30MPa

25MPa
p. 501
20MPa

16MPa p. 404/5
p. 405

12MPa

10MPa

Figure 6. Distribution of values of stresses 125 m above the top of seam 501.

Like for the parameter of stresses there were se-
lected values of k max along the section at half height
of the map of distribution of the parameter, see
Figure 7. Of course, it is necessary to keep in mind
that the illustrations of the distributions of parame-
ters p and k max show differences between each other
for different horizons (i.e. the tremor-producing
strata) located over the top of seam 501. Different
intensities of mining influences disturb the primary
state of their deformation and effort.
4 MAPPING OF SEISMIC EMISSION
VARIABILITY
tremors with energies E w ≥ 104J induced by long-
walling by means of neural networks must be exe-
cuted in two stages. At the first stage one should
select the neural network that can best map variabil-
ity of the parameter to be predicted – it is hard to
assume that a network that can only poorly express
the complicated character of time series variability
will be capable of predicting its selected elements
efficiently. At the second stage the selected type and
structure of the network should be checked on its
capabilities of predicting the moments of occurrence
of seismic tremors with energies we are interested in
(criterion energies).

Predicting the time points of occurrence of seismic

179
4.1 Training data
The basic training data that were used included the
components of time series of seismic energy emis-
sion recorded during the aforementioned 140-m
long advance way of longwall 508. They encom-
passed 2636 data covering the hourly emissions of
mean equivalent seismoacoustic energy EC as well
as seismic tremors with energies E w ≥ 102J. As an
aid there were also used values of stresses  and
curvature k max corresponding with the longwall face
advance under consideration which were obtained
from numerical computations. Each element of the
time series of seismic energy was ascribed a unique
value of the parameters.
The rules of training neural networks require that
the training data fulfil two fundamental conditions:
– their values should be normalised so as to be
comparable with each corresponding parameter;
– the form of the data should well reflect the
character of their periodical changes (if such
changes occur).
In this connection the set of seismic energy values
of tremors was subjected to two sorts of transforma-
tion: logE w values were computed and then they
were transformed to pseudonominal values using
the following rules:
0 for E w < 104J (14)
4
±1 for E w ≥ 10 J (15)
At the second stage of finding the logarithms the
operation was performed on the set of hourly values
of equivalent energy of tremors and then the values
of the energies were summed taking into account
the following rules:
– the set of logarithm values for EC = E + AE was
determined in the following way: there were com-
puted compound sums of the parameters’ values
between sequential moments of seismic tremor
occurrence with energies E w ≥ 104J. The values of
emitted seismoacoustic energy given in the set
concern hourly intervals whereas the values of
seismic tremor energies, ascribed to a concrete time
moment (day, hour, minute), were placed in the time
series at the end of the previous hour if it occurred
within a time interval from 0 to 30th minute or at
the end of the current hour if it occurred within a
time interval from 31st to 60th minute of the hour:
– if E i took place in a time interval t n = (0–30th)
minute, then:
Ei  ECt (16)
k 1 
– if E i took place in a time interval t n = (31st –
180
60th) minute, then:
Ei  ECt  (17)
n
Next there were computed compound sums of
energy EC within each time interval between mo-
ments of tremor occurrences with energies
E w ≥ 104J observing the following rules:
– for i  1 :
 E1C =  Ewi  AEi  (18)
i 1
– for 1 < i ≤ k
i  n 1 i n
 Ei 1 +  Ewi  AEi  ,
 EiC 2 = C
(19)
i 1 i 2
where E wi – energy of an i-numbered seismic tremor;
AE – hourly energy of seismoacoustic emission
computed as a mean of indications geophones; EC –
hourly mean of both seismic tremor and seismoacous-
tic emission energy; t – hourly period of recording
seismoacoustic energy emission; n – number of
hourly periods of recording seismoacoustic energy
emission between the occurrence moments of sequen-
tial tremors with energies E w ≥ 104J; t n – time
interval of recording seismoacoustic emission in hour
n.
4.2 Mapping a time series – training a network
Training a network was executed by means of the
computer programme Statistica Neural Networks
developed by StatSoft Inc. testing networks of linear
type, MLP, RBF and GRNN. The following algo-
rithms of training were used:
– BP – Back Propagation;
– CG – Conjugate Gradient Descent;
– SS – sub-Sample, ascribing centres;
– KM – K–Means, ascribing centres;
– KN – K–Nearest Neighbour, ascribing devia-
tions;
– PI – pseudoinversion, linear optimisation of
smallest squares.
For the training there were used various sets of
training data (various sets of parameters in different
formal formats – see item 4.1). The parameters of
training networks were also optimised as much as
possible and according to the requirements set by the
programme applied. In general several hundred cases
were tested; results in the form of basic values of the
parameters (Table 3) and charts illustrating some of
them are presented in figures 8÷17. In the computa-
tions the period was assumed as equal to 600 and
diverse smoothing coefficients (for network GRNN).
Table 3. Parameters of the best networks generated for log(E w + AE) values.
Number of Prediction quality
Set error
neurons for set

Validation set

Validation set
Hidden layer

Hidden layer

Training set

Training set
Type of Kind of

Testing set

Testing set
No.
network Inputs learning

(1)

(2)
1 Linear 1 - - 0.3639099 0.6884013 0.6590744 0.7078979 1.268181 1.22722 PI
MLP
2 (3 layers) 1 2 - 0.4563972 0.5082703 0 0.8765147 0.9640325 0 BP50, CG51b
MLP
3 (4 layers) 1 9 6 0.4850833 0.4688632 0 0.9063654 0.9521778 0 BP50, CG51b
4 RBF 1 63 - 0.4722774 0.5073219 0 0.9180812 0.9409894 0 KM, KN, PI
5 GRNN 1 1400 2 0 0.5117463 0 0 0.996552 0 SS

predicted values
6 real values

4
logE values

2
C

-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000
cases

Figure 8. Diagram with logEC values real and predicted by the best linear network (example 1 in Table 3).

3
logE values

2
C

1 real values
predicted values

-1
0 200 400 600 800 1000
cases

Figure 9. Diagram with logEC values real and predicted by the best 3-layer network (example 2 in Table 3).

2
logE values

0
real values
C

predicted values
-2

-4

-6
-100 100 300 500 700 900 1100
cases

Figure 10. Diagram with logEC values real and predicted by the best 4-layer network (example 3 in Table 3).

181
Figure 11. Dependency graph of the Figure 12. Dependency graph of the 3- Figure 13. Dependency graph of the 4-
linear network in example 1 in Table 3. layer network in example 2 in Table 3. layer network in example 3 in Table 3.
6

real values
predicted values
5
logE values

4
C

2
0 200 400 600 800 1000
cases

Figure 14. Diagram with logEC values real and predicted by the best RBF network (Example 4 in Table 3).

4,8

4,2
logE values

3,6
C

3,0

2,4 real values

predicted values

0 200 400 600 800 1000

cases

Figure 15. Diagram with logEC values real and predicted by the best GRNN network (example 5 in Table 3).

Figure 16. Dependency graph of the RBF network in Figure 17. Dependency graph of the GRNN network in
example 4 in Table 3. example 5 in Table 3.

182
 An analysis of parameters of the networks pre- pseudonominal values 0 and 1 enriching the training
sented in Table 3 and the state of fitting of predic- data by the geomechanical parameter mentioned in
tions to real values (analysis of unit errors) allow chapter 3. It seems to be an interesting experience to
stating that the results of network learning are bad. train a network in predicting occurrences of tremors
The best representation of the time series under with energies E w ≥ 104J in the pseudonominal form
analysis was obtained by means of the GRNN 0 and 1; parameters logEC and k were included in
network. Therefore this kind of network was the set of the training data. Results of one of such
adopted to perform further analyses. In particular tests are presented in Figure 18.
the were tested the time series of logEC values,

0,2
real values
predicted values
0,0
pseudonominal values

-0,2

-0,4

-0,6

-0,8

-1,0

-1,2
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
cases

Figure 18. Diagram with pseudonominal values E w real and predicted by the GRNN network (example 1 in Table 4).

The quality of representing this form of time se- that there are not other solutions possible that might
ries is insufficient. The share of correct indications improve this type of representation.
of strong tremors (value-1) directly before or at the The best results in the sphere of representing the
real moment of occurrence of the events amounted time series were obtained in case of the series of
only to 3 of 26 events and 10 indications directly logarithms of sums EC, see Figure 19, Table 4 and
after such an event. The network also gave 2 false Table 5.
indications (“false alarms”). But it is not yet a proof

5
values logEC

3 Real values
Predicted values

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
cases

Figure 19. Diagram of values logEC real and predicted by the best network, i.e. GRNN (example 2 in Table 4).

Table 4. Parameters of the best GRNN networks.

Number of Prediction quality
Set error
neurons for set
network
Type of

Training set

Training set

Kind of
Testing set

Testing set
Validation

Validation

No.
layer (1)

layer (2)
Hidden

Hidden
Inputs

learning
set

set

1 GRNN 3 1400 2 0 0.09692 0 1.11e-16 0.9999179 0 SS

2 GRNN 1 1386 2 0.00975 0.197236 0 0.02124 0.4288579 0 SS

183
 In practice the representation quality was found
very good beginning with the 619th case (after the
declared value of network learning, i.e. the so-called
“period”) which truly represents the course of val-
ues logEC. Pearson’s correlation coefficient
amounted to 0.885. Also its value of the standard
deviation ratio is favourable (0.472). The parameter
was determined as a ratio of standard deviation of
prediction error to standard deviation of output
variable. The lower (closer to zero) value of the
measuring indicator indicates a better quality of
prediction, it is the less the larger is the variance
explained by the referred to model.
Table 5. Statistical parameters of prediction generated by a
GRNN network for parameter logEC.
Set
Training Validating
Mean 5.633741 5.617191
Stand. dev. 0.4593604 0.4602519
Mean error 1.333e-09 -0.001346
Error dev. 7.654e-05 0.2174023
Mean abs. error 5.671e-06 0.04445
Dev. ratio 0.0001666 0.4723551
Correlation 1 0.88498
The problem of overtraining a network constitutes
a separate issue. The notion is connected with the
network capability of unit representing a given case
without possession of the capability of generalising
a built-up model of the referred to event. The pre-
sented cases of training networks show such fea-
tures, as the values of the statistical parameters of
network training effects computed for the training
and the validating sets differ substantially. How-
ever, practical observations show that the character
of variability of EC emission , and in particular the
sequences of occurrences of highly energetic trem-
ors, are for each longwall different. It is difficult to
find a general or the so-called seasonal variability
trends. The fact is emphasised by numerous authors
Figure 20. Prediction of occurrence of a tremor with an
energy E w = 3·104J (position 35 in Table 1).
184
of the ones mentioned in chapter 1 of this contribu-
tion the same also indicates the case of longwall 508
being under analysis here. As a consequence of all
that it is necessary for the networks to separately
learn each case of longwall extraction and it is not
excluded that it may be necessary to train a network
(with modifications of dependency patterns and
parameters) in the course of advancing the longwall
face under consideration in changing conditions.
Thus the network’s capability of generalising the
phenomenon’s model is in this case of secondary
importance. An influence of overtraining on the
network’s capability of predicting the future events
(i.e. tremors to occur) may be another problem. This
remark should be treated with reference both to
long-term and short-term predictions. Some better
prediction results may be expected in case of short-
term predictions which for the question under con-
sideration constitutes the sufficient goal.
4.3 Predicting tremors
In order to obtain the required condition of practical
utility of predictions of the highly energetic tremors
the network must have a capability of signalling
them in anticipation. To check the GRNN network
on that (Example 2 in Table 3) 6 tremors with
energies E w ≥ 104J were selected – positions #42,
40, 39, 38, 37 and 35 from among the cases pre-
sented in Table 1. Next the network was trained
with the use of logEC data sets limited to corre-
spond accordingly with each tremor included in the
training data. At the same time there was assumed a
prediction horizon exceeding the moment of occur-
rence of each given tremor (with some exceptions)
by several sequential cases. A network was found
successful when the network indicated in its predic-
tion a drop in logEC value at the moment of tremor
occurrence (i.e. outside the scope of the training set)
or just before it. Obtained results are presented in
Figures 20÷25. The longer line of the diagram is
always represents the predicted vale.
Figure 21. Prediction of occurrence of a tremor with an
energy E w = 1·104J (position 37 in Table 1).
Figure 22. Prediction of occurrence of a tremor with an
energy E w = 3·105J (position 38 in Table 1).
Figure 24. Prediction of occurrence of a tremor with an
energy E w = 1·104J (position 40 in Table 1).
While assessing the forms of diagrams of real and
predicted values, presented in figures 20 to 25
including all the 6 tremors it is possible to state that:
– In case of the tremor with an energy Ew =3·104J
(Figure 20) the network did not show a drop in the
value of logEC after the real moment of its occur-
rence, identical with the end of the line of real value
diagram. It means that the prediction was unsuc-
cessful.
– In case of the tremor with an energy E w =1·104J
(Figure 21) the network showed a drop in the value
of logEC 4 positions (hours) before the real mo-
ment of tremor occurrence. Precise “further train-
ing” of the network may shorten the period of
anticipation. It may be assumed that the prediction
in this case was successful.
– In case of the tremor with an energy E w =3·105J
(Figure 22) the network showed a drop in the value
of logEC before the real moment of tremor occur-
rence with an anticipation of 4 positions (hours).
Also in this case it may be assumed that the predic-
tion was successful.
– In case of the tremor with an energy E w
= 2·104J (Figure 23) the network showed a drop in
value of logEC 9 positions (hours) before the real
moment of tremor occurrence. This period exceeds
the duration of a typical work shift and it is possible
to assume that the prediction in this case was unsuc-
cessful.
– In case of the tremor with an energy E w
= 1·104J (Figure 24) the network did not show a
drop in the value of logEC before the real moment
of the tremor occurrence. This prediction should be
recognised as unsuccessful.
– In case of the tremor with an energy E w
= 4·104J (Figure 25) the network showed a drop in
the value of logEC two hours before the real mo-
185
Figure 23. Prediction of occurrence of a tremor with an
energy E w = 2·104J (position 39 in Table 1).
Figure 25. Prediction of occurrence of a tremor with an
energy E w = 4·104J (position 42 in Table 1).
ment of tremor occurrence. From this point of view
this prediction was successful.
For the six cases of tremor occurrence with
E ≥ 104J the attempt to make a prediction by means
of a GRNN network it appeared:
– In 3 cases successful – the network signalled the
phenomena with a 2 to 4-hour advance,
– In 1 case moderately successful – the network
signalled the phenomenon with a 9-hour advance. It
is not to exclude a possibility of improving the
prediction but it is also not to exclude a random
character of the network’s indications.
– In 2 cases no indications were performed by the
network despite tremors took place.
In general it is possible to assume that in about
50% of the analysed cases prediction was success-
ful. This indicates a high utility level of the neural
networks in predicting seismic activity induced by
mining operations in relation to what one might
expect at this stage and encourages to make further
efforts in the field.
5 CONCLUSIONS
This contribution presents results of testing various
neural networks in the function of a tool for predict-
ing values of some selected parameters of time
series characterising seismic activity based on
records performed during advancing the longwall
under consideration. To this end there were used
sequences of values of seismic tremor energy E w ,
seismoacoustic emission AE, distribution parameters
of pressure p and deformation k max of sandstone
strata present in the roof of the referred to longwall
as well as various combinations of the parameters.
Depending on which of the sets of the parameters
were subjected to the analyses, in what form their
values were used and which kind of the dependency
patterns of the neural networks were applied there
were obtained predictions of different quality. In
particular the following should be emphasised:
1. The object of the presented analyses was to
predict the moments of occurrence of tremors with
energies E w ≥ 104J.
2. Selection of the kind and dependency pattern of
neural network as well as testing the network’s
capability of predicting should be performed in two
stages:
– stage I – selection of a network that best repre-
sents the time series under analysis
– stage II – verification of the network’s capabil-
ity of predicting the moments of occurrence of
tremors with energies E w ≥ 104J.
3. The data for training the network should be
normalised and their form should give the character
of the variability between the neighbouring occur-
rences of tremors with energies E w ≥ 104J.
4. The GRNN-type networks that performed gen-
eralised regression represented the time series under
consideration best of all.
5. The prediction horizon for the that type of net-
work for forecasting the moments of occurrence of
tremors with energies E w ≥ 104J should not be larger
than 1-2, i.e. it should not reach further into the
future than 1 or 2 sequential events within the time
series.
6. Effectiveness of prediction of the best perform-
ing network from among the GRNN-type networks
subjected to tests relative to the time series under
consideration amounted to about 50%.
7. Because of the complexity of the conditions
producing seismic emission during coal seam ex-
traction it should be assumed that for each case of
longwalling it will be necessary to individually
select the network and its training. It should be
assumed that the aforementioned rules of proceed-
ing with the aim of selecting and training the net-
work should be universal.
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4
The role of natural and technogenic components
in failure of geomechanical stability of the territories
which are in the influence zone of mining objects
V. Timoshuk, J. Demchenko & Y. Sherstuk
National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: The analysis of influence of natural and technogenic factors on geomechanical stability forma-
tion of territories is made, and the dominating role of technogenesis in its instability in the influence zone of
mining objects is defined.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the conditions of intensive technogenic influence
the natural-and-technical geosystem “objects of a
mining complex – the geological environment” can
be characterized by a complex of the interconnected
natural and technogenic elements. Character and
intensity of these elements defines directions and
the main parameters of system functioning.
In these conditions functioning of natural-and-
technical geosystem will be caused by a complex of
actions which, on the one hand, change an ecologi-
cal state of mining region, from another – define
corresponding reaction of the geological environ-
ment to technogenic influence which in turn in-
creases risk of negative engineering-geological
processes occurrence.
2 PROBLEM DEFINITION
For the decision of engineering protection problems
of the disturbed territories from adverse engineer-
ing-geological processes it is necessary to define
dominating factors of influence on the geological
environment.
Action of natural and technogenic factors with
definition of a role of each of them is considered on
example of development landslides processes within
the territories located in a zone of influence of ob-
jects is mining and steel industry of the Krivo-
rozhsky basin. The location site of village No-
voselovka of Shirokovsky area of the Dnepropet-
rovsk region concerns one of such territories. It is in
an influence zone of such objects as accumulating
pound “Voikovo” and “Obiednane”, mine dumps of
deads “Livoberezjni” of Open Society “PGZK” and
Open Society “Mittal Steel Kriviy Rih”, and also a
189
pond-store in beam Svistynovo of government en-
terprise “Krivbasshahtozakrittya” (Figure 1).
Sliding processes of a left-bank slope of Inguletz
river are fixed in the specified territory. These proc-
esses have occurred in 1989-1996 of and cover the
area about 3.5 hectares. Activization terms of engi-
neering-geological processes during the period from
1989 till now coincide with accumulation time of
changes in the geological environment under influ-
ence of artificial factors - increase water levels over
natural position on 70 metres in hydroconstructions
“Voikovo”, “Obiednane” and on 30 m – in a pond-
store in beam Svistunovo, and excess of water min-
eralization in these objects over a natural back-
ground in 15 … 20 times.
3 ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM STATE
Тhe analysis of major factors is made, considering
their interrelation in development of negative engi-
neering-geological processes for definition of char-
acter and directions of action of natural and tech-
nogenic components in geotechnical stability failure
of investigated territory.
The level regime of river Ingulets is characterised
by low summer-autumnal low water which is
changed by short-term liftings from downpours, low
winter low water and high and intensive lifting in a
spring high water according to hydrological super-
vision on the water posts located on river Ingulets,
nearest of which to village Novoselovka is water
post Mogilovka.
The maximum annual amplitude of water level
fluctuation of the river Ingulets near the village
Mogilovka makes 8.88 m, average – 3.36 m. On
supervision in 1962…1999 considerable lifting of
spring high water levels in the river over the mini-
mum horizons occurred in 1970; 1978; 1985 and
1996.
Directly in an alignment of the Novoselovka vil-
lage water levels in the Ingulets river in the Baltic
system of heights are fixed in 1985: a minimum level
of 24.70 m, a maximum level of 29.60 m, the maxi-
mum amplitude of levels of 4.90 m.
Figure 1. The geosystem “Objects of a mining complex –
the geological environment”.
Essential change of groundwater hydrodynamic
mode which can occur in natural conditions is the
second factor of possible development of landslips
within the referenced territory. However, other natu-
ral factors in the specified territory are not recorded
during the investigated period except for an action of
climatic and hydrological factors. Thus, recurrence of
the climatic and hydrological phenomena during
enough long time should generate quite balanced
geologic-hydrogeological system within territory
where Novoselovka village is located, that also
proves to be true centenary experience of its building.
Action of technogenic character factors in the
considered conditions appears more essential. So,
the technogenic component in a hydrological regime
of river Ingulets is defined by considerable dumps
of mineralized water surpluses from accumulating
pounds, pond-stores and other capacities during the
winter period. Annual volumes of technogenic water
dump reach 20 million m 3 that provides water level
lifting in river during dump from 50 to 100% con-
cerning size of water level growth in a high water.
Besides, after spring high water passage in May
washing of a river channel by pure water admissions
from Кarachunovskoe water basin is carried out.
Thus, in the general influence of a hydrological
component on village territory condition by water
level fluctuation in river Ingulets the technogenic
factor has considerable role.
On the other part, formation of hydrodynamic and
hydrogeochemical modes of underground hydro-
190
sphere under the influence of technogenic load ob-
jects (accumulating pound and a pond-store) on in-
vestigated territory is accompanied by a lifting of
groundwater levels (up to 12.0 m in the Neogene
aquifer) and growth of groundwater mineralization
(up to 8 g / l within Novoselovka village and 20 g / l –
on the nearby unbuilt area). Reduction of ground
slope stability in a consequence of decrease in ground
deformation and strength properties in the range of
their additional watering and of weathered limestones
leaching zone with cavern formation and suffosion
processes development can be consequence of it.
Considerable decrease in ground mechanical
properties of crushing zone of carbonate rocks can
be explained by leaching processes development in
the range of their watering as sulphuric acid and a
mechanical suffosion within caverns which were
generated.
In natural karstic conditions of a southern part of
Ukraine the established leaching gradient in the top
hundred-metre thickness of rocks makes from 80 to
320 mg / l on each 100 m of filtration way length. It
is fair for groundwater filtration conditions with an
initial mineralization up to 500 mg / l that corre-
sponds to ultrafresh and fresh water.
Thickness of weathered limestones composes the
first terrace above the flood plain in village No-
voselovka territory. Their thickness averages within
3.0 m. Taking into account character of limestones
bedding, estimated losses of substance in considera-
tion of their leaching in mass expression can make
130…490 kg a year on unit of leaching strip width
in weight of an order of 500 tons.
However in technogenesis conditions speed of ac-
tive karst formation can reach one and more orders
concerning time of natural development of carbon-
ate rocks leaching processes, and, accordingly, con-
cerning developments of karst formation processes
which are accompanied by carrying out of a fine-
dispersed part of rocks.
So, it is established by experimental researches,
that speed of leaching processes by sulphate-chloride
sodium water with a mineralization up to 5.0 g / l,
which is similar on structure to chloride calcium-
sodium water with a mineralization 2.9…7.8 g / l
which are widespread on an investigated site, can
reach sizes of 0.01...0.16 g / l per minute. For chloride
sodium highly mineralized solutions the same indica-
tor makes from 0.0004 to 0.05 g / l.
Concerning the considered conditions it can be
equivalent to scarcely full dissolution of carbonate
rocks which are located within a clastic zone of
limestones residual soil of the Ingulets erosion-
accumulative terrace.
Thereupon it is safe to say about possibility of
significant decrease in mechanical properties of
limy rocks thickness, and as consequence, about
possibility of deformation processes progress simi-
larly to deformation character established according
to numerical modelling.
4 MODELLING
The numerical model of investigated territory site in
the most dangerous direction from the point of view
of landslips activation has been created for an esti-
mation of ground slope stability (Figure 2).
The modelling technique supposed consideration
of set of numerical solution set which were carried
out proceeding from possible deformation character-
istics and strength properties changes of rocks under
the influence of soil massif watering. The fixed
growth of groundwater level has reached 5.0 m in
Neogene deposits of an erosion-accumulative ter-
race during the considered period.
Geomechanical condition calculations of a slope
area within territory of village arrangement have
shown, that in natural geological-hydrogeological
conditions the rock massif keeps the stability to
what elastic deformation character of numerical
model elements testified.
Figure 2. The deformation mode of model elements in
conditions when weathered limestone layer is watered:
1 – elastic deformation zone; 2 – plastic deformation zone;
3 – explosive deformation zone.
Possible changes of the is intense-deformed con-
dition of simulated rock massif are considered and it
is established, that geomechanical stability failure
and activation of sliding in investigated territory is
possible in conditions of considerably lowered
ground deformation characteristics and strength
properties in the range of its watering.
So, ground massif stability failure occurs at con-
siderable decrease in the modulus of deformation of
weathered limestones in Neogene deposit thick-
ness – from 30 to 3 МPa (Figure 1 and 2).
191
Figure 3. Shearing strain value in a simulated massif when
weathered limestone layer is watered.
It is necessary to notice, that similar changes in
deformation characteristics of ground layers located
above weathered limestones thickness, don’t lead to
considerable deterioration of ground massif stress
state and failure of its stability.
Besides, calculation of stress-strain state of a
simulated massif in conditions of possible coastal
zone undermining by river Ingulets has shown that
in this case in a soil massif also there will be no
considerable deterioration of its geomechanical
state.
Apparently from Figure 4, under the influence of
undermining there is only a zone in immediate prox-
imity to wash-out area which can cause occurrence
of only some rock slides without formation of con-
siderable landslip zones.
Figure 4. The deformation mode of model elements in
conditions when coastal zone undermined with river In-
gulets.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Among factors which cause development of land-
slips within investigated territory, it is necessary to
recognise as the main things decrease deformation
and strength properties of carbonate rocks within
their watering consequently groundwater backing in
Neogene aquifer, it is established by results of the
executed researches.
 The defining role in activation of negative engi-
neering-geological processes which take place in
village Novoselovka territory, in the absence of sharp
changes of natural components, belongs to tech-
nogenic factors which appear in geodynamic, hydro-
dynamic and hydrogeochemical modes formation.
Within the given natural-and-technical geosys-
tem, natural factors form preconditions of occur-
rence, display and intensity of development danger-
ous exogenic processes. And technogenic factors
cause increase of their development threat and
catastrophic activation with negative consequences
for the nature and a society which substantially in-
fluence on ecological safety.
192
REFERENCES
Rudko, G.І. 2006. The Geological Environment Resources
and Ecological Safety of Technical-and-natural Sys-
tems, Monography, Кyiv: Nychlava: 480.
Rudko, G.І. 2001. Technogenic-and-ecological Safety of
the Geological Environment. Monography. Lviv: Na-
tional University named by Ivan Franko: 359.
Regional Engineering-geological Conditions of Territory of
Ukraine. Information newsteller. 1997. State geological
information fund “Geoinform”, issue 1, edition 2: 92.
Pytieva, К.Ye. 1984. Hydrogeochemical Aspects of
Geological Environment Protection. Мoscow: Nauka:
218.
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Technology of support of workings

near to extraction chambers

M. Kononenko & O. Khomenko

National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: A range of problems of existing technology of supporting of workings in the conditions of

Closed Joint Company “Zaporizkij iron-ore mining enterprise” is considered. Results of theoretical, labora-
torial and industrial researches of the stress and strain condition of a rock mass around the cameras and
drilling orts are presented. New method of calculation of parameters of the combined support of face head-
ings which considers influence of cameras is offered.General instructions.

1 INTRODUCTION safety decrease of mining operations, the over-

Mining of deposits of iron ores on mines of Ukraine
is carried out basically by means of heading-and-
stall methods. By means of these methods from 70%
to 100% of rich iron ores are gained at the large
enterprises of Ukraine. Increase of rates of reserves’
work-out is essential for Closed Joint Company
“Zaporizkij iron-ore mining enterprise” (CJC
“ZOME”), where the ore mining is connected with
backfill of a goaf. The increase in volumes of output
and decrease of rates of opening and development
of new horizons leads to parity failure between
stoping and capital mining operations. In order to
resolve the arisen problem, in 2001 the State enter-
price “Research ore mining institute” (c. Krivoj
Rog) for CJC “ZIOME” developed and introduced a
new variant of heading-and-stall method. Its peculi-
arity is the presence of the high inclined bottom in
primary chambers. New shape of extraction cham-
bers allows to reduce quantity of hauling equipment
by 20% and to lower length of the development
workings by 16%.
Formation of the inclined bottom contributes to a
rock pressure manifestation in a nearby rock mass.
Mining workings which are driven in an ore massif
of the inclined bottom and in the secondary chamber
are concentrators of stresses. It is displayed in the
form of cavings, delamination and collapse of ore in
drilling orts of chambers on mine “Ekspluatatsion-
naja”. Questions of mining of deposits by means of
chamber methods and support of mining openings
were studied by S.G. Borisenko, I.S. Zitser,
J.P. Kaplenko, O.V. Kolokolov, V.F. Lavrinenko,
V.S. Nigmatullin, V.V. Tsarikovsky, E.P. Chistja-
kov, G.T. Faustov, O.Y. Homenko and others.
Absence of scientific researches in the given area
with reference to CJC “ZIOME”, contributes to a
expenditure of supporting materials and increase of
a production cost of ore extraction.
2 THEORETICAL RESEARCHES
There was a method improved that was offered by
authors in work (Lavrynenko & Lysak 1993) for
theoretical researches of the stress and strain condi-
tion of rocks. The massif’s state was investigated
according to spreading of isolines of normal stresses
 р . Studies of influence of depth of location of
primary chambers have been executed for existing
and new horizons of mine. These studies are pre-
sented on Figure 1a-c.
Relations of stresses  р for areas of their concen-
tration around the primary chambers were defined
by means of Microsoft Excel 2003, which were
defined for the purpose of further use in engineering
calculations. For a rock mass near to chambers,
relations of stresses changes with increase in depth
of location, look like:
– the maximum tensile stresses in foot wall of the
deposit
 р  1.262е0.0021Н , МPа
where Н – depth of location of the chamber, m;
– the maximum tensile stresses in the bottom of
chambers
 р  1.726е0.0016 Н , МPа
Researches of behaviour of a massif around the
chambers have allowed to make a conclusion that
breaking strains acts in areas where normal stresses
are more than maximum permissible on tension or

193
shear (Khomenko & Kononenko 2003). To perform
these researches, the chambers having similar geo-
technological conditions of mining were analyzed.
(a)
Figure 1. Isolines of normal stresses  р in a massif, that surrounds primary chamber at depth of Н к : (a) 740 m,
(b) 840 m and (c) 940 m.
(a)
Figure 2. Areas of breaking strains U к around the primary chambers at different depth Н к : (a) 740 m, (b) 840 m and
(c) 940 m.
For a rock mass, surrounding primary chambers
– values of breaking strains in footwall of ore
U к  0.0215Н к  36.4 , m
where  – volume weight of rocks, t / m3; Н к –
depth of location of chambers, m;
– value of breaking strains in the inclined bottom
of the chamber
U к  0.009Н к  4.6 , m
– value of breaking strains in hanging wall
U к  0.54Н к  93.73 , m
From the beginning of stoping, breaking strains
Changes of values of breaking strains U к within
zones of influence depending on increase of mining
depth, are presented on Figure 2a-c.
(b) (c)
(b) (c)
around the chambers are developing, and they
extend both towards footwall and hanging wall.
Face headings get into the area of breaking strains
of the sublevels 665, 690 and 715 m. Theoretical
researches of breaking strains in drilling orts have
allowed to set following relations:
– for a roof of drilling workings of level 665 m,
from the side of ore footwall:
U  0.0003  L2  0.0231 L  1.6838 , m
where L – distance from the chamber towards
footwall, m;
– for a roof of drilling working of level 690 m,
from the side of hanging wall:
194
U  0.0011  L3  0.0237  L2  where Н – depth of location of sublevel openings, m.
The further researches have allowed to receive
0.1377  L  1.8759 , m relation for hanging wall rocks that defines the sizes
of areas of destroying deformations taking into
where L – distance from the chambers towards account distance from chambers and depth of loca-
hanging wall rocks, m; tion of mining works
– for a roof of drilling workings of level 715 m,
from the side of hanging wall: U  2 10 9 Н 1,8621L2 

U  0.00005 L3  0.002  L2   394.73е  0 ,0151Н L  0.0453Н 0 ,5572 .

Received relations contain a certain error, there-
0.016  L  1.6141 , m fore results of calculations have some deviations in
Development of these researches allowed to es- results according to probability of approximation.
tablish laws of change of values of the destroying This fact stipulates necessity of check of results of
deformation, considering depth of location of cham- theoretical researches by means of laboratorial and
bers and places of drivage of face headings. Rela- industrial researches.
tion considers a location of the openings relatively
to chambers and haulage levels
3 LABORATORIAL RESEARCHES
4 ,5 3,6
 h   h 
U   д  L3   д  L2  The methods of laboratorial researches included a
 234   145.7  choice and preparation of equivalent materials,
, (1)
3,1 formations and preparation of models, carrying out
 h 
 д  L  0.8hд0 ,22 of experiments. Laboratorial researches were carried
 93.1  out on installation of modeling of a rock pressure by
instrumental measurement of values of a material
where hд – distance from ground of a haulage level deformation around the face chambers. For this
to sublevel’s ground, m. purpose, a cavity was formed in an equivalent
Relation, defines the dimensions of areas of de- material that was simulating the primary chamber
stroying deformations in a roof of drilling orts with scale of 1:500 Figure 3а-c.
taking into account distance from chambers and It is established, that on each 100 m of modelled
depths of location of openings depth, the model massif is deformed in hanging wall
on 3 cm, in footwall – 3 cm and in the bottom –
3.77
 H  1...2 cm. Deformation process spreads in a shape of
U    L3  31.9 H 1.3 L2  delamination and roof falls towards hanging and
 72,9  , (2)
foot walls, and formation of cracks in the bottom.
 0 ,37 0 ,38
 0. 7 H L  0.148H

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3. Character of deformation U к of a massif surrounding primary chambers at modelling of various depth Н к :
(a) 740 m, (b) 840 m and (c) 940 m.

195
 Relations of destroying deformations U к with
depth of location of chambers Н к look like:
– towards footwall
U к  0.03Н к  0.533 , mm
– in the inclined bottom of chambers
U к  0.02 Н к  2.867 , mm
– towards hanging wall
U к  0.03Н к  8.533 , mm
It is established, that on each 100 m of modelled
depth, the model massif is deformed in hanging wall
on 3 cm, in footwall – 3 cm and in the bottom –
1...2 cm. Deformation process spreads in a shape of
delamination and roof falls towards hanging and foot
walls, and formation of cracks in the bottom. Rela-
tions of destroying deformations U к with depth of
location of chambers Н к look like:
– towards footwall
U к  0.03Н к  0.533 , mm
– in the inclined bottom of chambers
U к  0.02 Н к  2.867 , mm
– towards hanging wall
U к  0.03Н к  8.533 , mm
Divergence of results of laboratory and theoretical
researches of change of values of massif deforma-
tions depending on depth, has not exceeded 7%.
The methods of industrial researches included ex-
amination of a principle of operation of an electronic
measure tape and an electronic tachometer of series
GPT-3000. Order of carrying out of measurements
in the conditions of the worked-out chambers and
parameters of deformation of support in drilling orts
of levels 665, 690 and 715 m near the chambers.
4 INDUSTRIAL RESEARCHES
Industrial researches were carried out in the condi-
tions of mine “Ekspluatatsionnaja” during mining of
ore reserves on levels 640…740 m and 740…840 m.
Actual dimensions of primary chambers after the end
of stoping were measured by means of laser devices.
The obtained data was compared with the design sizes
of chambers. The analysis of the design and actual
dimensions has allowed to receive parameters of
changes of values of massif deformations, around the
196
chambers, with increase of mining depth. Industrial
researches have allowed to receive empirical relations
of massif’s deformation value U к with depth of
location of the chambers Н к
– in hanging wall rocks
U к  0.07 Н к  45 , m
– in ore of the hanging wall
U к  0.0175Н к  11.033 , m
– in the inclined bottom of the chambers
U к  0.0125Н к  4.83 , m
Industrial measurements in drilling orts of levels
665, 690 and 715 m which are adjacent to worked-
out primary chambers, have allowed to determine
dependences of deformations values in the roofs of
the openings at some distance from the chambers:
– for the level of 665 m from the side of footwall
of the deposit
U  0.0001  L2  0.0036  L  1.4786 , m
– for the level of 690 m from the side of hanging wall
of the deposit
U  0.0005 L3  0.0087  L2 
0.0476  L  1.7057 , m
– for the level of 715 m towards hanging wall’s rocks
U  0.00007  L3  0.0028  L2 
0.0227  L  1.4616 , m
The divergence of results of industrial researches
with the laboratory and theoretical was exceeded by
8%.
5 TECHNOLOGY OF SUPPORT OF WORKINGS
The received results of research of the stress and
strain condition of a massif round primary cameras
and drilling mining works has allowed to develop
methods of parameters determination of the com-
bined support of drilling workings taking into ac-
count influence of cameras.
1. Size of destroying deformations in a roof of an
opening from the primary camera towards hanging
wall rocks
k 2 L2  k1 L3  k 3 L  0.8hд0.22
U 
2

0.148 H 0.38
,m

U   L 2  109 Н 1.8621L 
2
4.5 3.77

 394.73е0.0151Н  0.0453Н 0.5572 , m
 h   Н 
k1   д    Other parameters of bolting of a working are de-
 234   72.9  fined according to formulas (3)-(7). Installation
3.6 parameters of a grid of type “Rabica” or other sup-
 h 
k2   д   31.9 Н 1.3 porting means are implemented according to the
 145.7  sizes and the form of areas of deformations. After
3,1 detection of basic parameters, a working support
 h  passport is developed in a zone of influence of
k3   д   0.7 Н 0.37
 93.1  chambers according to the design diagram presented
on Figure 4.
2. Depth of a blasthole for a rockbolt

la  U  l  lп , m (3)

where l – value of the rockbolt’s depth in a steady

massif’s zone, equals to 0.3…0.5, m; ln – length of
a rockbolt protruding from a blasthole which de-
pends on its construction and thickness of the sup-
porting elements, equals to 0.05…0.2, m.
3. Rockbolts installation density
Р  U    kп
na  , pcs. (4)
Ра

where  – volume weight of ore or rocks within the

zone of a possible roof fall, kN /m3; k п – coefficient
of overload, equals 1.2; Pa – bearing capacity of a
rockbolt, kN; P – active perimeter of an opening
with diminished arc, m:
Р  3.18  1.33В , m (5)
Figure 4. The design diagram for support passport devel-
where В – width of a drilling opening in drifting, m. opment.
4. Distance between rockbolts

Ра
аа  ,m
U    kп
5. Length of a rockbolt
l у  l a  sin  , m
where α – deposit dip angle, grade.
Based upon the results of theoretical, laboratorial
and industrial researches, it is established, that
primary chambers have an influence on the support
of face heading which are located from the side of
hanging wall rocks. It has allowed to develop a
method to define the parameters of support of drill-
ing workings in hanging wall rocks. Value of de-
stroying deformations in a roof of workings from
primary chambers
6 CONCLUSION
(6)
The introduction of a rational way of supporting of
face headings taking into account influence of cham-
bers in the conditions of CJC “ZIOME” mines has
(7) allowed to lower the cost price of supporting of face
headings to 35%.
REFERENCES
Khomenko, O.Y. & Konenko, M.M. 2003. Substantiation
of supporting technologies of development workings
under conditions of CSC “Zaporizkiy iron-ore enter-
prise”. Dnipropetrovs’k: Naukovy visnyk NMU, 7: 15-
17.
Lavrynenko, V.F. & Lysak, V.I. 1993. Physical processes
in rock massif during imbalance. Moscow: Mining
Magazine, 1: 1-6.

197
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Bolting for mining workings in clay rocks and ores

V. Nikonets & N. Stupnik

Kryvyi Rih Technical University, Kryvyi Rih, Ukraine
I. Horbatenko
OJSC “Marganets ore-dressing complex”, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: Geomechanical processes research in the Earth’s depth in case of underground manganese ore
recovery allowed us to determine the following dependences of the: roof sinking speed at the conjugation of
stopes on the clay thickness of the ore layer; bolt length on the roof sinking speed at the conjugation of
stopes. On the basis of the carried research, a bolting consisting of bolts made of reinforced steel which are
pressed into the rock and ore with the help of the hydraulic unit was developed and introduced.

1 INTRODUCTION

The largest manganese ore deposit of Europe which

is a horizontal ore layer with the average thickness
of 1.5-2.5 m at the depth of 70-120 m is mined in
Ukraine. The ore deposit is mainly composed of
clay particles and disseminated small-size solid
manganese minerals. Soft bass with the average
thickness of 4-16 m occurs in the ore layer roof and
water-encroached sandy-argillaceous rock occurs in
the floor.

2 TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION

The deposit is mined by long narrow rooms, the ore

is broken by small-size combines and is surfaced
with the help of conveyors. The extraction drift
lining by circular hinged movable supports made
from mine special profile SCP-27 (special concave
profile). The working inner diameter is 3.0 m and
3.3 m, the support density is two frames per 1 m of
the mining working.
Because of insufficient bearing resistance of the
applied support, extraction drifts and their conjuga-
tion with stopes are repeatedly retimbered leading to
excessive material and labour costs.
In order to cut the costs some mine research has
been carried out which demonstrated that rock pres-
sure is affected by the following three factors: 1) clay
thickness of the ore layer roof itself, 2) occurrence
depth and 3) ore layer thickness (Nikonets 1989). The
first factor appeared to be the main one, so the de-
pendence of the roof sinking rate at the conjugations
of stopes on the thickness of clay occurred above the
ore layer was determined (Figure 1).
Figure 1. The dependence of the roof sinking speed at the
conjugations of stopes on the clay thickness of the ore
layer.
This research allowed developing, testing and in-
troduction of bolting for extraction drifts into pro-
duction. The bolting consists of bolts made of rein-
forced steel Ø22 mm the length of which is 1.0-4.0
m; the fencing (string) made of metal punching and
stretching plate the thickness of which is 3.5mm and
the bolt head plates.
The bolts are pressed into the rock and ore with
the help of the hydraulic unit across the whole pe-
rimeter of mining workings. The unit capacity is 10-
20 bolts per hour.
During the mine research, about 2500 m of mine
workings were fastened by bolting and combined
bolting and frame supports. The transport cross cut
condition in Mine #9/10 fastened by the bolting is

199
shown in Figure 2. The condition of the bolting and
frame support of extraction drifts in Mine #8 is
shown in Figure 3. The application of the bolting
allows to cut the material and labour costs by 1.5-
Figure 2. The transport cross cut condition in Mine #9/10.
During the mine research the optimal bolting den-
sity of 4 bolts / m2 was defined as well as the de-
pendence of the optimal bolt length on the roof sink-
ing speed at the conjugations of stopes (Figure 4).
Figure 4. The dependence of the bolt length on the roof
sinking speed at the conjugations of stopes.
The optimal bolt length was estimated in such
way in order to ensure the integrity of mine work-
ings which are beyond the stoping zone impact, and
also maintenance of stoping conjugations in the
stoping zone. In Figure 5 the condition of bolting
and frame conjugations of stopes in mined-out space
after the end of stoping operations is shown.
The research has shown that the length of the
zone of stoping impact, where high bearing rock
pressure is observed comes to 60-120 m, but the
length of the zone with the most destructive pres-
200
2.5 times. The application of the bolting and frame
support makes it possible to cut the frame support
density by 1.5-2 times and reduce the costs by
25-30%.
Figure 3. The condition of the bolting and frame support of
extraction drifts in Mine #8.
sure makes 25-40 m (Nikonets 2003).
Figure 5. The condition of bolting and frame conjugations
of stopes in mined-out area.
In this zone a frame support which had lost some
of its constructive flexibility along with fractured
surrounding rocks intensively deforms and col-
lapses. As stoping operations come closer to each
frame support the velocity of its deformation in-
creases and makes 7-18 mm / h at the conjugations
of stopes in most mines. The workers of stoping
brigades are drawn away for retimbering entries and
their conjugations leading to the reduction of stop-
ing efficiency.
The distinctive feature of a bolting is the fact that
it positively affects geomechanical processes in the
massif around the workings. There are no voids;
rock slabbing and its equilibrium state around the
workings are not disturbed. A bolting is a means of
artificial fastening of rocks around workings by
means of their reinforcement and pressing by bolts
which prevents the appearance of tension in rocks
beyond the rock pressure zone. Cone-shaped
pressed rock zones are generated around the bolts in
the rock pressure zone. As the bearing rock pressure
increases, these zones are overlaid by each other and
form a single zone of pressed rocks in which the
tension remains in small cones between the bolt
heads and they are not considerably significant in
behavior of the bolting massif (Yakoby 1987).
Thereby, if in case of applying a frame support,
the geomechanical process of rigid deformation
forming around the working zone starts right after
its installation in the stope and in case of bolting
application this process starts developing only in
proximity to sloping operation sites and has deceler-
ated character. The exploitation of the workings and
their conjugations is carried out without any dan-
gerous failures of the support and rock.
3 CONCLUSIONS
The main tasks of the bolting in the workings be-
yond the zone of stoping impact include:
– preservation of edge rock massif in its original
state;
201
– prevention of premature rock cleavage and for-
mation of rigid deformations;
– reduction of material and labour costs while fas-
tening the workings and their maintenance.
The main tasks of the bolting in the workings
within the zone of stoping impact include:
– deceleration of rigid deformation zone devel-
opment and velocity of rock contour displacement;
– preservation of workings height and prevention
of their retimbering;
– ensuring their maintenance.
The main directions of the further research in-
clude:
– replacement of working metal fencing from
punching and stretching plates by the fencing made
of glass cloth of mine production;
– improvement of bolt components the length of
which is more than 3 m.
REFERENCES
Nikonets, V.I. 1989. Directions for face supports selec-
tions and on mines of Pridneprovs’k manganese ore de-
posit. Krivoy Rog: Research mining institute.
Nikonets, V.I. 2003. Results of industrial tests of a bolt in
Nikopol’s basin. Krivoy Rog: Research mining institute.
Yakoby, O. 1987. Practice of rock pressure management.
Moscow: Nedra.
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4
The first Ukrainian corporative university
O. Khomenko & D. Rudakov
National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: The pre-conditions to establish a corporate university aimed at meeting the uranium industry
needs in Ukraine are analyzed. The university objectives are determined; the available base for its activities
and expected outcome are outlined.
Global trends in uranium industry development.
The global crisis has stepped up the change of the
world energy priorities to nuclear fuel. In addition,
the attention to uranium increased on the back-
ground of the gas confrontations between Russia
and Ukraine that affected consumers in Europe in
2009. The majority of nuclear programs have been
launched last years, which lead to rising prices for
nuclear fuel and relevant technologies. The most of
countries in the world including “old Europe” stand
at the door of “nuclear Renaissance” being accom-
panied with the boom of building nuclear power
plants. The new energy blocks are currently under
construction in the U.S.A., Canada, Japan, India,
Iran, Finland and other countries, with 20 of 53
blocks in the world being built in China. Here are 90
projects at the feasibility studies today. The inten-
tion to develop the nuclear industry actively have
announced Kazakhstan, U.S.A., Great Britain,
Slovenia, Austria, Vietnam, India, Turkey, Egypt,
Ukraine, Belarus, Netherlands, Sweden, Morocco.
After some decades of recession the nuclear indus-
try became on demand again.
The number of functioning reactors in the world
reached 439; additionally 136 new ones are projected
and about 300 reactors are planned for building. This
grows will face the exhaustion of nuclear fuel sources
due to increasing demand on uranium. Nowadays the
USA and Russia supply about one fifth part of con-
sumed uranium using nuclear fossils to be utilized,
with 1,150 tons coming from the USA and almost
9,000 tons from Russia last year. The U.S. Govern-
ment has even limited the uranium quantities to be
sold on the market trying to prevent prices from fall
and keep many projects active in uranium mining
(Koksharov 2010).
The estimated reserves of uranium in the world
exceed 5 million tons. The countries possessing
greatest amounts (in thousands of tons) are ranged
now in the following sequence: Australia (1234),
203
Kazakhstan (817), Russia (545), South Africa (435),
Canada (423), USA (342), Brazil (278), Namibia (275),
Niger (274), Ukraine (200), Jordan (112) and Argentina
(105). The geography of uranium mining has been
changed last years. According to the 2009 outcome,
Kazakhstan with 14,000 tons (20% of the world
consumption) left behind Canada (11,500 tons) and
Australia (11,200 tons) and became the world leader
in uranium supplies. Russia with 3,900 tons let pass
Namibia with 5,000 tons to the fifth place sinking to
the sixth place.
The Ukraine’s uranium base. Ukraine possesses
at least 12 explored in details endogen uranium
deposits concentrated near two centers called Kiro-
vograds’ky and Novo-Costiantynivs’ky. These
deposits can be exploited only by underground
mining. Regarding to the current extraction rates
they can provide the domestic nuclear plants for
more than 100 years. The reserves of 15 sandstone
deposits suitable for in-situ leaching (ISL) should be
taken into account too. There are four deposits
actually ready for ISL called Sadove, Safonivs’ke,
Novo-Gurievs’ke, and Surs’ke. The Ukrainian deposits
enable maintaining market attractiveness of produced
uranium owing to a number of reasons. Large size of ore
bodies allows companies to use effective extraction
systems; high strength properties of rocks and ores make
possible to excavate openings without timbering and
mine out large cleaning blocks; low inflows to under-
ground workings enable minimizing expenses for mine
drainage. Besides, the relatively low content of uranium
in ores and, respectively, in normally ventilated under-
ground working is favorable for the personnel from the
viewpoint of radiation safety conditions.
The current volumes of uranium production in
Ukraine amount to 800 tons or only 30% of domes-
tic needs. These quantities are produced by the
mines Smolins’ka and Ingul’ska of the State Enter-
prise “Direktsia” (1-st cascade will produce 1,500
tons/year from 2015 and 2-nd cascade will supply
2,500 tons/year from 2019). Hence the projected
rate of uranium mining here is expected to be
achieved in 7-10 years if the enterprise capacities
will be increased. After environment remediation
near tailing ponds the capacities of the stopped
hydrometallurgical plants in Zhovty Vody and
Dniprodzerzhinsk can be exploited too. Simultane-
ously the zirconium mining and dressing capacities
on Vil’nogirsk deposit (Dnipropetrovs’k region) and
JSC “Kryms’ky titan” (Crimea) have to be used;
this enables producing zirconium rolling of nuclear
clearance 0.005%. The uranium production growth
in the next 10 years is only possible owing to un-
derground ISL regarding to minimization of envi-
ronmental damage and higher safety for the person-
nel. The first step in short-term development has to
be post-prospecting of ore bodies in geological
formations on the shallow Ukrainian deposits suit-
able for ISL (Khomenko & Dronov 2009).
Problems of personnel education for the ura-
nium industry. Completing these plans requires
systematical education of high-qualified specialists
for all stages of the nuclear fuel cycle. Personnel
preparation for the uranium industry in the former
USSR was concentrated in some technical universi-
ties in Moscow, Leningrad, and Sverdlovsk. There-
fore this became a challenge for independent
Ukraine since 1991. Last decades the branches of
the State Enterprise “Direktsia” were mostly re-
cruited with students of technical and chemical
specialities graduated mostly from universities of
Dnipropetrovs’k region. They are National Mining
University, Ukrainian State Chemical and Techno-
logical University (Dnipropetrovs’k). Sevastopol
National University of Energy and Industry (Cri-
mea), Kryviy Rig Technical University. Regrettably
education of these students does not meet properly
the growing needs of the uranium industry and
branch specifics.
The analysis of teaching programs on special
courses in these universities reveals insufficient
attention paid to the uranium mining specifics. In
fact, the leading producers of the Ukrainian uranium
industry such as State Enterprises “Tsirkonium”,
“Smoly” (Dniprodzerzhinsk), the Ukrainian Re-
search Projecting and Prospecting Institute of Indus-
trial Technologies (Zhovti Vody) does not cooperate
sufficiently with the aforementioned universities.
Although there are a lot of research and educational,
projecting and geological institutions and establish-
ments related to the nuclear cycle, their efforts are
not yet coordinated appropriately to achieve the
energy sovereignty of Ukraine. So the planned and
currently doing re-structuring of the energy branch
requires active implementation of innovative ap-
proaches in education, personnel preparation and re-
204
qualification as well as wide using of advanced geo-
technologies in uranium mining. The available
educational network in Ukraine under clear general
coordination can manage with this challenge meet-
ing the nuclear industry requirements.
The economical crisis has affected first of all the
producers of raw materials and revealed personnel
problems have been accumulated in the Ukrainian
mining industry last two decades. This time finan-
cial success has been grounded on extensive factors
such as low-earned and qualified personnel, cheap
and accessible mineral resources, and stable eco-
nomical links with Russian enterprises and holdings.
Temporal global lowering of the demand on miner-
als resulted in re-assessment of the development
plans in the mining and metallurgical industries of
Ukraine. The worker figures in these branches are
reducing simultaneously with growing demand on
specialists experienced in uranium mining and
treatment. The considerable part of engineers and
miners is now ready to change occupation and
company, which can be used for recruiting them to
work in uranium and nuclear industries. This creates
one of important pre-conditions for development of
all elements of the nuclear fuel cycle in Ukraine,
which is not only a topical economical problem but
also the strategically important aim for Ukraine
from the viewpoint of energy sovereignty. Respon-
sible authorities have to use the international experi-
ence, particularly, activities of the National Re-
search Nuclear University (Russia) and Kazakhstan
Nuclear University. These corporative institutions
combine educational, research and industrial com-
ponents with establishing cooperative partnership
links (Khomenko 2009).
Ukrainian nuclear university as a corporative educa-
tional establishment. The main tool of innovation
activities has to be a corporative educational estab-
lishment specializing in the nuclear fuel complex and
solving systematically the problems in education and
training of specialists, development and implementation
of advanced geo-technologies of uranium mining with
keeping high environmental standards.
Development of the Ukrainian Nuclear University
(UNU) would be reasonable on the base of the
National Mining University (NMU). A number of
scientific schools in Earth’s sciences and mining
acknowledged around the world have been formed
in this well known high educational technical estab-
lishment during its 110 years history. At the same
time the UNU structure is open and can be enlarged
freely with other institutions and industrial enter-
prises not depending on kind of their property.
The UNU has to join the efforts of educational
and industrial partners to solve today problems of
the Ukraine’s nuclear industry such as optimization
of personnel preparation and enhancement of its
qualification, recruiting of qualified specialists into
this branch, scientific support of mining and indus-
trial projects with cutting-edge researches, creation
and development of corporative web-resources to
provide staff on enterprises, R&D departments in
institutes and companies, lecturers and students with
relevant information and data.
Educational activities of the UNU are intended to
be supported by nine Ukrainian educational estab-
lishments including five universities offering not
only available teaching courses in usual forms but
also innovative approaches using remote teach-
ing/learning. R&D projects and plans of the UNU
can be fulfilled by the Ukrainian research projecting
and prospecting Institute of industrial technologies
(Zhovti Vody) and Research ore mining Institute
(Kryviy Rig) as well as research teams at the afore-
mentioned universities. The leading industrial
stakeholders can be State Enterprise “Shid dressing-
ore plant” (Zhovti Vody), “Direction” (Kirovograd
region), and Zaporizhzhia nuclear power plant.
UNU educational participants. Nuclear industry
stakeholders, university lecturers and researchers in
Ukraine have acknowledged UNU creation as the well-
timed and expedient project to take part in. While mak-
ing the UNU structure the National Mining University
can become its coordinator responsible for primary
management and general links. The UNU bodies are to
be created in each partner of this corporative institution.
The NMU staff can take part in such important re-
search and educational projects as “Geological estima-
tion of uranium, zirconium, and rare-metal deposits”,
“GIS-technologies for prospecting and estimation of
uranium deposits”, “Technologies of unstable rock
timbering and dewatering of openings”, “In-situ under-
ground, heap, and block leaching of uranium”, “Ura-
nium-ore plant construction”, “Underground uranium
mining”, “Ventilation systems minimizing radon im-
pact”, “Technologies of uranium ore dressing” etc. These
activities are planned to be performed in cooperation
with partners from the U.S.A., Russia, Kazakhstan,
Uzbekistan, and China.
According to the UNU concept, Ukrainian State
Chemical and Technological University (Dnipropet-
rovs’k) as a partner is responsible for education in
chemical engineering, Kryviy Rig technical university
prepares mining engineers, Sevastopol National Univer-
sity of Nuclear Energy and Industry educates specialists
for nuclear power industry, Kirovograd Institute of
people’s development “Ukraine” is responsible for
teaching and training students in economics and laws.
The UNU system has to include industrial colleges and
technical schools in Zaporizhzhia, Dnipropetrovsk and
Kirovograd regions (Khomenko 2009).
Available base of UNU creation. The scientific
205
schools at the NMU headed by acknowledged
specialists are successfully developing on the de-
partments of geology and deposit prospecting, geo-
information technologies, hydrogeology and engi-
neering geology, construction and geo-
mechanics, open mining, underground mining,
mineral dressing etc. There are specializations for
students potentially meeting the needs of mining
enterprises and specifics of iron, manganese, and
uranium deposits.
Last years NMU was cooperating fruitfully in
education and research support with industrial
partners including JSC “Zaporizhzhia iron-ore
plant”, “Kryviy Rig iron-ore plant”, “Marganets
mining-dressing plant”, “Vil’nogirs’k mining-
dressing plant”, State Enterprises “Shid mining-
dressing plant” and “Direktsia” (Dnipropetrovsk
region) etc. This resulted in increasing numbers of
young peoples wanting be enrolled in mining speci-
alities at the NMU (Khomenko 2009).
Successful innovation activity of NMU has lead
to creation of Research and Education Center (REC)
“Geotechnical systems stability: processes, phe-
nomena, risks” founded with the support of Civilian
Research and Development Foundation (U.S.A.)
and Ministry for Education and Science of Ukraine.
REC became the first pilot project in Ukraine aimed
at solving topical problems of effective usage of raw
and energy resources as XXI century challenges.
Efforts of REC participants including recently
involved students and postgraduates with using
modern laboratory facilities focus on advanced
studies in geophysics, modeling of man-caused
processes in geotechnical systems, GIS-
technologies, physics and chemistry of rocks, and
geo-mechanics.
Besides, other scientific and technical bodies at the
NMU can take part in UNU creation, first of all, the
centers of blasting work problems, IT in mining, auto-
mation of technological processes in mining and metal-
lurgy, technical protection of information, environ-
mental safety, energy saving and management etc.
Also NMU has the long-term experience in coopera-
tion with partners in science, technology and education
support through double subordination institutes ac-
complishing R&D studies and projects for mining
enterprises, mining and metallurgical energy and power
supply, economics of industrial developments.
Since 2007 the first scientific and educational
web portal “Rudana” (http://rudana.in.ua) was
launched in order to combine the interests of stake-
holders, lecturers, researchers, and students. It
provides information on mining enterprises, compa-
nies, universities, colleges, projecting institutes and
non-government organizations as well as relevant
analytical reviews and innovations in mining and
technologies. Intended enlargement of this portal
can create a network joining all UNU partners [6].
Expected results. Successful implementation of
the proposed UNU concept enables solving the
mining industry challenges such as
– creation of an inter-university society of R&D
managers, scientists and lecturers ready to jointly
educate future specialists in the nuclear-fuel cycle
and enhance staff qualification meeting the growing
needs and demands of active, re-structured and new
enterprises of the uranium mining industry in post-
crisis time;
– furtherance of fired personnel re-qualification
through recruiting peoples to new jobs in mining
with advanced and environmentally accepted geo-
technologies providing relevant guaranties;
– implementation of the social partnership for
stakeholders of the nuclear-fuel complex interested
in high-qualification staff;
– preparation of socially active young citizens
able to critically assess information about living
near nuclear industry plants and sites.
The IT background for the UNU infrastructure
and simultaneously its uniting element has to be the
206
web portals like “Rudana” intended for exchange of
educational, scientific and technical data among
corporative university participants (Khomenko
2009).
REFERENCES
Koksharov, A. 2010. http://www.expert.ru/printissues/expert
/2010/05/uranovaya_lihoradka/
Khomenko, O.Y. & Dronov, A.P. 2009. Energy sover-
eignty of Ukraine and its environmental price. Scientific
Bulletin of Kryvyi Rig Technical University: 28-34.
Khomenko, O.Y. 2009. http://rudana.in.ua/showanalit _23_
lang.htm
Khomenko, O.Y., Shvyd’ko, P.V. & Rudakov D.V. 2009.
A corporative nuclear university as the educational
base of Ukraine’s energy sovereignty. Proc. of Int. Con-
ference “Miner’s Forum-2009”. Dnipropetrovs’k: Na-
tional Mining University: 19-24.
Khomenko, O.Y. & Shevchenko, S.V. 2009. Novelties of
the National Mining University in training of research
and educational staff. Kyiv: Vyscha shkola, # 2: 47-50.
Khomenko, O.Y. 2009. http://rudana.in.ua/showanalit_
30_ lang.htm
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Influence of the shape of portal support

of working junctions on its stress state

M. Rotkegel
Central Mining Institute, Katowice, Poland

ABSTRACT: Portal support of roadway junctions and crossings, on account of its advantages, became in
recent years a readily applied way of protection of the area of roadway mine working connections. Annually
in Polish coal mines about 30 sets of such support are installed – original, individually designed in order to
connect specific mine workings and expected loads. The Central Mining Institute is the creator of the
majority (about 2/3) of their designs. The current activities of mines related to the quest for savings induce
both the designers and producers to seek more and more cheaper support solutions. The effects of these
activities constitute numerous analyses and investigations conducted in the field of the work of portal
support of junctions and crossings, resulting in the reduction of costs of support and its optimisation. The
article presents selected directions and effects of conducting of these investigations.

1 INTRODUCTION and-mining conditions existing in the place of

installation. Modern CAD systems allow such a
The most frequent connection of roadway mine
solution, both commercial and author’s systems
workings is the one-sided junction at an acute angle.
(Bock 2009 & Prusek 2006). The fundamental tasks
In a specific case the connection takes the shape of a
of such support fulfils the basic construction (portal
somewhat deformed letter Y. Connection of curved
and abutment) thus transferring the prevailing part
mine workings is also possible (Rotkegel 2003 &
of loads originating from the rock mass. The frames,
Stałęga 2001). The support of the junction,
however, constitute an important supplement of the
according to the traditional execution, consists of
construction transferring the loads partly to the
arch large-size yielding frames; their width
abutment, and partly to the floor (Rotkegel 2003).
increases along with the approach to the junction’s
Such support is an efficient way of protection of
corner. Considerable overall dimensions of frames
mine workings in the zone of their connection. A
used in the place of the greatest junction’s width and
properly designed construction in comparison with
connected with it lower value of their load-bearing
the traditional support has many advantages. The
capacities overlaps the widest place of the mine
most important of them are favourable overall
working, in which the highest impact of the rock
dimensions that allow to minimise the values of
mass on the support occurs. Such a situation
breakout in the junction corner and the increased
frequently leads to maximum frame compaction
load-bearing capacity of the support, adapted to
(Rotkegel 2003).
loads resulting from geological-and-mining
An alternative solution constitutes the portal
conditions. An important advantage is the
support, accurately adapted to the overall
possibility to design the construction for practically
dimensions of connecting mine workings. In the
any connection of mine workings. Figure 1 presents
case of a junction it consists of the basic skeleton
an example of the construction described above.
construction as well as temporary and additional
frames. The basic construction forms the portal
stretched above the zone of connection of mine 2 STATE OF JUNCTION’S SUPPORT
workings and connected with it abutment situated in STRESSES
the place of interpenetration of mine working. These
sets consist of I-section or box beams, whereas the The form and shape of junction’s support, resulting
space in front of the portal protect frames called from the geometric parameters of connection of
temporary frames. All these elements are designed protected mine workings are exactly connected with
individually with regard to the shape and overall the state of the construction load and resulting from
dimensions of the connection as well as geological-

207
it state of stresses in individual support elements.
Generally we can state that along with the growth of
load values increase stresses generated in the
construction. In order to transfer the anticipated
loads and to ensure safe work of such support in the
design and construction process, the geometric form
of the skeleton (proportions between the portal and
abutment), sections for the basic construction
(Rotkegel 2005) and frames as well as the frame
Figure 1. Exemplary support of a connection of roadway mine workings (1 – abutment, 2 – portal, 3 – additional frames,
4 – temporary frames).
Figure 2. Distribution of stresses and deformed shape of
the model (stresses in Pa, stress range 0  Rm min ,
deformation scale 1).
The load acting on the support, caused directly
through the rock mass, generates internal forces
resulting from the form of junction’s support. The
vertical rock mass load acting on the abutment
directly or through the complementary frames
causes the origin of a normal component to the
portal’s plane, acting on the portal in the place of its
connection with the abutment. This causes
considerable additional influence on the portal.
Moreover, the vertical load acting on the
construction causes its deformation aiming at the
increase of its span. About the value of these
208
distance are selected. Most often for the basic
construction H-section IPB450, IPB500 or IPB550
is used, and in especially difficult geological-and-
mining conditions, closed cross-section 550 x 400 is
applied. The frames, however, manufactured most
frequently from V32 and V36 sections, rarely V29,
are installed using the clear interval from 0.4÷0.6 m.
In extremely unfavourable cases smaller clear
intervals are used, even equal to 0.33 m.
additional loads and their effects one can become
convinced when analysing among others the results
of model strength tests of the basic construction of
junction’s support. Figure 2 presents an exemplary
map of reduced stresses and deformed shape of the
model of construction subject to rock mass loads. It
results from the outcomes of the exemplary analysis
that in order to maintain the stability of the entire
support the construction must be modified with
respect to the way of supporting and expansion on
the rock mass and reinforcement of most loaded
beams (Rotkegel 2007 & Rotkegel 2006).
3 INFLUENCE OF PORTAL’S SHAPE ON THE
CONSTRUCTION STRESS STATE
It results from numerous model tests of portal
support of junctions that the influence of the
abutment on the portal causes considerable
deformations of the entire construction and growth
of stresses in its elements. The design of a safe
construction in such conditions requires the use of
additional means directed mainly towards full
stabilisation of the portal (Rotkegel 2007 &
Rotkegel 2006). However, possible is such
modification of the construction that would ensure
its full stability. A solution can be the application of
a portal lying in two mutually inclined planes
perpendicular to the floor. In order to assess the additional portal stabilisation, for example by help
efficiency of this solution, a comparison of of bolts (Rotkegel 2007, 2006).
constructions, in which the portal lies in planes
intersecting at the angle of 20° and 40°, was carried
out (Rotkegel & Bock). The investigations were
conducted using the finite element method by help
of the COSMOS/M programme (Cook 2002,
COSMOS/M – User’s Guide 1999 & Rusiński
1994). Two variants of construction were analysed –
the first – with constant abutment length and
increasing span of the entire construction and the
second – with constant construction span and
decreasing abutment length. Additionally, for full
comparison, the analysis of a typical construction –
with the portal lying in one plane – was carried out.
Figure 3 presents projections of analysed solutions
along with basic dimensions for both variants. All
models were built from the same sections; they were
supported and loaded in an identical way (Rotkegel,
Bock & Witek).
As a result of performed calculations among
others the distribution of reduced stresses and
deformed model shapes was obtained. In Figure 4, Figure 3. Analysed schemes of portal junction support
the maps of reduced stresses caused by the assumed with constant abutment length (from the left) and constant
load from the side of the rock mass were compared, span of entire construction (from the right) (a) portal in
one plane; (b), (d) portal bended at the angle of 20°; (c),
in models supported only on the floor – without
(e) portal bended at the angle of 40°.

(a) (b)

Figure 4. Comparison of deformation and distribution of reduced stresses in the model (a) with one-plane portal (from the
left) and in the model (b) with a portal lying in two planes crossed at the angle of 40° with maintained span of the entire
construction (from the right) (stresses in Pa, deformation scale 10).

As it can be seen, the change of the shape of
junction’s support influences the strain state of the
entire construction. The values of maximum
reduced stresses obtained during the linear analysis
decrease from 890 MPa to 571 MPa. The
modification of the shape of junction’s portal
support influences also the decrease of deformation
and displacements of the entire construction. These
displacements decrease from 195 mm in the basic
model to 90 mm in the model with the portal lying
in two planes crossed at the angle of 40°.
Complete results of the analysis carried out were
presented in Table 1. Apart from stresses and
displacements also the summary vertical supporting
reaction was collected, being the numerical
equivalent of summary support load and value of
supporting reaction in the place of support
stabilising the portal, required to maintain the portal
in the initial installation plane.
As it results from the presented analysis, the use of

209
a “two-plane” portal distinctly influences the
improvement of the deformation and stress state of
the entire construction. This influence grows along
with the increase of the angle of intersection of portal
half planes. The increase of the angle of portal half
planes causes the decrease of the portal’s roof part
and decrease of forces required to maintain the
portal’s vertical situating. Moreover, attention should
be paid to the fact that the change of portal’s shape in
both analysed variants does not cause the growth of
material costs.

Table 1. Results of comparative analysis of models.

Horizontal
Total Horizontal
Total Maximum reaction
construction portal
load stresses stabilising
Model Model description displacement displacement
the portal
F  RY ,  red , u , mm u x , mm R x , MN
MN MPa
A with a one-plane portal 5.142 890 195 166 2.931
with a portal lying in two
planes crossed at the angle
B of 20°, with maintained 5.400 727 170 140 2.727
abutment span
with a portal lying in two
planes crossed at the angle
C of 40°, with maintained 5.571 829 135 104 2.378
abutment span
with a portal lying in two
planes crossed at the angle
D of 20°, with maintained 5.253 647 139 114 2.509
span of the entire
construction
with a portal lying in two
planes crossed at the angle
E of 40°, with maintained 5.253 571 90 68 2.023
span of the entire
construction

4 INFLUENCE OF PORTAL’S AND
ABUTMENT’S SPAN ON THE
CONSTRUCTION STRESS STATE
The span of the construction has an obvious impact
on the stress state of its elements. Most frequently
the portal and abutment possess an approximate
span, however, in the case of big constructions it
appears that the abutment is considerably
overloaded and the portal is underloaded. This fact
leads to the ineffective use of load-bearing capacity
parameters. An alternative solution is shortening of
the abutment. This is connected with some increase
of portal’s span and decrease of the area of junction
protected by portal support. From this results also
the decrease of loads acting on the abutment and
necessity of installation of a greater number of
transient frames.
The analysis of the impact of the span of basic
portal support sets of the junction was carried out by
means of the finite element method using the
COSMOS/M programme, taking into consideration
physical non-linearity. For this purpose two support
models were built with distinctly different spans of
abutments, which obtained suitable, identical cross-
section and material parameters. In both cases the
reinforcement of most loaded fragments of the
abutment in the form of cover sheet metals was
applied (Rotkegel, Bock & Witek). The outlines of
tested supports were presented in Figure 5.
The models were supported and loaded in an
identical way. As a result of calculations among
other deformations, internal forces and reduced
stresses were obtained. A specification of results
was presented in Table 2. In the Figures 6 and 7
maps of reduced stresses in both support models
were presented.

210
Figure 5. Outlines of analysed solutions of junction’s portal supports.

Table 2. Results of strength analysis of the tested variant of junction’s support.

Relation of abutment’s Maximum reduced

Span of abutment Span of portal Summary load
span to the portal stresses
mm mm --- MN MPa
9000 9470 0.95 8.91 488.9
7570 9770 0.77 7.84 415.5

Figure 6. Map of reduced stresses in the model with a Figure 7. Map of reduced stresses in the model with a
larger abutment (stresses in Pa). smaller abutment (stresses in Pa).

It results from the presented stress maps that the
use of a smaller abutment causes the decrease of
maximum reduced stresses by 15% (from
488.9 MPa to 415.5 MPa). This effect results also
from the decrease of loads acting on a smaller
construction. The loads along with the shortening of
the abutment decreased by 12% (from 8.91 to 7.84
MN). However, the basic effect of these
constructional changes is the decrease of the range
of plasticised construction zones. In Figure 8 in an
identical scale, the comparison of distributions of
reduced stresses in both models were presented.
Using the black colour, the plasticised construction
fragments were denoted, for which  red  Re . As it
can be seen, in the case of a modified construction
(with a smaller abutment), the plasticisations have a
local character, whereas in the initial construction
(with a larger abutment) the zones of plasticised
elements comprise a considerable part of the cross-
section of abutment beams, what creates the danger
of exhaustion of the load-bearing capacity and
damage of the entire construction.

211

Figure 8. Comparison of plasticised zones of junction’s
support construction before modification (from the left)
and after modification (from the right), (stresses in Pa).
5 CONCLUSIONS
The presented solutions of modification of the basic
construction of portal support of junctions and
crossings allow a better adaptation of the
construction to a specific connection of roadway
mine workings. This is particularly essential in the
case of large-size constructions, in which the full
use of cross-section and material parameters is
difficult or impossible. Particularly this takes place
in solutions of portal support of junctions based on
identical span of the portal and abutment and on the
portal with beams situated in one plane. In these
cases necessary is the use of additional support
reinforcements and appropriate construction
expansion in the rock mass and full stabilization of
the portal (Rotkegel, Bock & Witek).
212
REFERENCES
Bock, S., Prusek, S. & Rotkegel M. 2009. Design and
control of working support in Polish coal mines based
on three-dimensional numerical modeling. 28th
International Conference on Ground Control in Mining.
Morgantown, USA.
Cook, R.D., Malkus, D.S., Plesha, M.E. & Witt R.J. 2002.
Concepts and applications of finite element analysis.
Inc. USA. John Wiley & Sons.
COSMOS/M – User’s Guide, Structural Research &
Analysis Corp. Los Angeles, USA, 1999.
Prusek, S., Rotkegel, M. & Skrzyński K. 2006. Computer-
aided design of support of roadway mine workings and
their connections (in Polish). Katowice. Przegląd
Górniczy, 3.
Rotkegel, M., Bock, S. & Witek M. Analysis of selected
ways of full use of load-bearing capacity parameters of
junction’s portal support (in Polish). Scientific Works
of GIG (in printing).
Rotkegel, M. & Daniłowicz R. 2007. Selected ways of
assurance of appropriate stabilisation of skeleton
support of workings junction (in Polish). Budownictwo
Górnicze i Tunelowe, 1. Katowice.
Rotkegel, M. & Daniłowicz R. 2006. Application of bolts
for the stabilisation of junction’s support (in Polish).
Quarterly Scientific Works of the Central Mining
Institute, 2. Katowice.
Rotkegel, M. 2003. Support of junctions and crossings of
roadway mine workings. From assumptions to the final
product (in Polish). Scientific Works of the Central
Mining Institute. Series Conferences, 45. Selected
problems related to the application of steel roadway
supports. Katowice.
Rotkegel, M. 2003. Exemplary course of creation of
support of roadway mine working connections (in
Polish). Katowice: Quarterly Scientific Works of the
Central Mining Institute, 4.
Rotkegel, M. 2005. Influence of the size of sections and
material grade on the strain state of support
construction of junctions of roadway mine workings (in
Polish). Katowice: Quarterly Scientific Works of the
Central Mining Institute, 1.
Rusiński, E. 1994. Finite element method (in Polish).
COSMOS/M systems. Warsaw: Wydawnictwa
Komunikacji i Łączności.
Stałęga, S. 2001. Theoretical and research bases of design
of skeleton support constructions of crossings and
junctions of development workings (in Polish).
Katowice: Scientific Works of GIG, 845.
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Clean energy from hard coal

A. Krowiak
Central Mining Institute, Katowice, Poland

ABSTRACT: Hard coal will become a basic raw material for production of thermal and electric energy in
many countries for several dozen of nearest years. Simultaneously the production and the coal combustion
cause large disturbances in natural environment, starting from degradation of terrain as the result of its ex-
ploration, through the emission of combustion gases to atmosphere, and finalizing on necessity of storing
and farm implementing of large quantity of wastes during its burning. It is obvious that we need to reduce
the diffculty of the burning process of the hard coal to be considered as the fuels of the future. Expression
quoted in the title of the article „clean energy from hard coal” means seeking for such new technologies of
its preparation and new methods of burning in order to minimize effects of its usage for the natural environ-
ment. These methods and technologies are sometimes called „clean coal technologies”. This article presents
the new technical and technological tendencies in range of clean coal technologies.

1 DIRECTIONS FOR REDUCING being processed with additionally leaching in the

THE DIFFICULTIES RESULTING
FROM THE COAL COMBUSTION
Generally speaking, from scientifical point of view –
research and constructional works are targeting to
decrease the arduousness resulting from the coal
combustion, Please find below the listed areas:
Area 1: The production of the carbon with higher
usable parameters and the smaller quantity of pol-
lutants in mines.
More often wet process of separating pollutants in
heavy liquids is applied, using the difference of the
specific gravity of coal and the waste rock, known
for decades of years. Improvement of this method
consisted of applying the multistage segregation of
liquids with different densities. It is obvious that the
deeper enriching the carbon is (targeting to obtain-
ment of the cleaner product), the larger losses of
carbon in mine are.
In order to enlarge the output of trade carbon
from raw coal, the muds’ flotation process is applied
to enable to return the smallest fraction of carbon
coming from wet method processes of enriching the
carbon.
Directions of the modernization of this method
assume the deeply selective flotation of the whole of
coal muds, with applying a new generation of collat-
ing – foam-creating reagents (Aleksa 2005).
The Modern technologies of enriching the carbon,
that are still in research and development stage, are
based on a deeper demineralization of coal, permit-
ting the content of mineral pieces below 1%. With
the help of traditional methods the enriched coal is
high temperature e.g. with sodium hydroxide, mol-
ten sodium hydroxide or acids. This way of obtain-
ing coal concentrate has the granulation below
0.3 mm, contains sparsenesses of sulphur, and ash
and it has very high calorific value (Meyers 2004 &
Oki 2004). Energy, processing such a fuel, should
be very effective both for energetic, and environ-
mental reasons (Sobczyk 2004).
The ecological fuel could be produced for house-
hold purposes and dispersed power industry. The
technology of receiving the low-emission ecological
fuel relies on briquetting mixture of coal with coke
by the means of eco-friendly adhesive, which could
be flour and the molasses. Thinned phosphorous
acid is added to mixture, which is the hardener of
adhesive. Prepared mixture is being passed to
presses in order to get the appropriate briquettes
under the influence of the pressure and the tempera-
ture parameters.
A variety of this variant is production of smoke-
less fuel, produced from the fines of parching and
energetic carbon. Coal is dried after the selective
grinding in driers, and sintering coal additionally
heated to temperature 200 ºC. Energy coal is being
directed to the reactor, where it is subjected to the
pyrolysis. Produced gas is steered to burning in
power boiler. Degased energetic carbon is mixed
with parching carbon and steered to producing
briquettes presses.
Area 2: Increasing the energy efficiency of energy
systems, permitting better utilization of energy con-
tained in carbon.
Developing and improving technologies using the

213
supercritical parameters of steam are one of essen-
tial elements of increasing the energy efficiency of
the power station heated with coal. It is possible to
get the thermal efficiency above 45% by applying
supercritical parameters of steam. However it re-
quires using materials for the pressure units made of
special grades of steel with increased durability
(heat resisting, ferrito-martensitic and asthenic
steels) in construction of power boilers. Works on
constructing energy systems for ultracritical pa-
rameters, permitting the temperature of 700 degrees
and the pressure of 37.5 MPa, still take place. En-
ergy systems will be able to achieve the energy
efficiency up to 51%.
The next direction of increasing the efficiency of
energy systems is application of hybrid systems
with coal gasification. In this system, coal is proc-
essed into gas, which after dedusting and sulfate
removal is provided to combustion chamber of gas
turbine, where it is burned, and hot exhaust gases
after their expansion in gas turbine are steered to
waste-heat boiler producing steam driving turbine
steram coupled with separate generator. The stream
produced in result of delivery of gas exhaust heat
from generator is additionally delivered to this
turbine. The oxygen is factor of carbons’ gasifica-
tion.
Area 3: Reduction and elimination of pollutants
in the combustion process as well as in the process
of cleaning of combustion gases emitted to the
atmosphere.
First issue in this area is the minimization of
emission of flying ash coming of combustion proc-
esses of the coal to atmosphere. There are several
applied methods, as the following ones: the electro-
filter, separation of particles of dust across utiliza-
tion the centrifugal force, wet dedusting method as
well as the fabric filters.
The electrofilters use the phenomenon of settling
down the electrified particles of dust on the elec-
trodes being under high voltage. This dust is peri-
odically collected from electrodes. By method of
separation using of centrifugal force, the exhaust
gas is provided on separators many times. There is a
separation of the particles of dirts from the air in the
separators.
The exhaust gases are rinsed in scrubber by
stream of water in the wet method. Fabric filter
consists of section of bags made of suitable fabrics,
which let exhaust gas go away. Dust settles down on
external sides of these fabrics, and cleaned air is
provided to exhaust stack.
In reduction of content of sulphur in exhaust gas,
traditionally, the wet or dry methods of desulfuriza-
tion are already applied. Using wet method leads to
absorption of SO 2 and production of suspension of
214
gypsum and the sesquihydrate of calcium sulphate.
The dehydration of gypsum suspension is processed
for further usable subprocessing. The calcareous
slide is blowed directly into combustion chamber of
the boiler by dry method. The thermal decomposi-
tion of carbonate of calcium and the bond of oxides
of sulphur in sulphides of the calcium which are
removed together with ash are proceeded in the
zone of high temperature 800-1200 ºC. The desulfu-
rization of exhaust gas by regeneratory method must
be applied. Exhaust gases including sulphur are let
through the active bed consisting of active coke
produced of hard coal, which absorbs the dioxide of
sulphur. From time to time this bed is regenerated
with recovery for usable purposes of dioxide of
sulphur.
There are the configurations of coal combustion
and utilization of the chemical loop at the stage of
tests and researches. Coal as well as calcareous slide
are delivered to reducer, where carbon is oxidised
by oxygen coming from CaSO4. The calcareous
slide is delivered to reducer, its role is to catch the
sulphur contained in the coal, combine with the
production of the sulphide of carbon (CaS). CaS is
produced in the reactor and then it is steered to
aeration, where it joins oxygen contained in air in
exothermic process, and afterwards producing
CaSO 4 goes back to the reducer. The exchange of
warmth obtained from cooling of reducer and with
aeration process of CaS, and then delivery this
warmth to traditional system water – steam is per-
formed in heat exchangers (Rozzuto & Mohn 2004).
Combustion of the carbon with low content of
sulphur is the obvious method of decreasing of
emission of sulphurs’ compounds to atmosphere,
and it is performed in the processing and enriching
the coal in mines.
The next issue is the elimination of nitrogen ox-
ides of exhaust gas (NOx). There are the following
methods: selective not catalytic and selective cata-
lytic methods of reduction of these oxides. These
methods depend on washing exhaust gas with am-
monia. It is required to hold the high temperature of
the reaction in not catalytic methods. The use of
catalysts in the form of platinum, rhodium, palla-
dium, titanium dioxide, pentoxide of vanadium,
molybdenum trioxide permits considerable lowering
of the temperature of reaction nitrogen’s oxides and
ammonia. The other method is steering the process
of combustion of carbon by means of special turbu-
lent burners delivering the coal dust to combustion
chamber. Then two-step passing of air is applied,
that is needed for burning of coal. The burner’s
principle of work is the following: air passes in
stoichiometric quantity, and the remaining air is
added just after the flame undergoes the defined
way of burning.
The technology of combusting of clean oxygen in
atmosphere is applied as the testing instalaltion.
Oxygen with the cleanness level of at the least, 95%
coming from oxygen plant, could be introduces
instead of air to combustion chamber. Thanks to that
operation exhaust gas does not in principle contain
nitrogen (http://uregina.ca/ghgt7/PDF/papers/peer/
054.pdf).
Area 4: The reduction of emission of dioxide car-
bon as well as its reduction without emission into air.
The methods of storing of dioxide of carbon sepa-
rated from exhaust gas are already experementally
working. It distinguishes here: sequestration of
dioxide of carbon in deep rocky levels, its storing in
the seas and oceans as well as carbonization
(http://rg6.polsl.pl/sekwestr/sekwestr.html).
The sequestration of the carbon dioxide in deep
rock layers, consists of overcrowding CO 2 to the
rocks in the liquid state after empty resources of
hydrocarbons, to deep water-bearing layers and deep
coal seams. It’s being stored in the seas or oceans
uses the high dissolubility of dioxide of carbon in the
water. Pressing CO 2 on depth of 1000 m assumes
dissolution of this gas in water. Its exposure to pres-
sure on the depth over 3000 m has to cause formation
of under-water reservoirs of CO 2 , with natural pre-
venting protection against the quick melting of gas in
water. The carbonization depends on the chemical
binding of dioxide of carbon with carbonates.
The basic problems connected with above men-
tioned methods of implementation of dioxide of
carbon are the following: the possibility of forma-
tion of secondary emission of dioxide carbon com-
ing out on surface of the ground, durable souring of
the resources of underground waters as well as the
possibility of disturbance in seas and oceans the
biological balance.
It would be the most economic and sensible to
utilise dioxide of carbon. Polish scientists from the
University of Maria Curie-Skłodowska drew up and
patented technology of production of liquid fuels of
the carbon dioxide. This technology is based on
artificial photosynthesis of water and the dioxide of
carbon which is subjected to the high-energy ultra-
violet radiation in presence of catalysts. As the
result of this synthesis, methanol, which can be used
in processes of more far synthesis to production of
liquid fuels e.g. to combustion engines, is being
created (http://www.focus.pl/newsy/zobacz/ pub-
likacje/zrobimy-paliwo-z-dwutlenku-wegla/).
Area 5: Usable waste disposal as the result of coal
combustion.
Fly ash, separated from the exhaust gases coming
from the combustion of the hard coal, is valuable
material to be applied in the different ways.
215
They are applied, among others as: additions dur-
ing the production of concrete, during the produc-
tion of aerated concrete blocks, additions during the
production of cements, binders applied in the road
engineering, fulfilment and the seal of floodbanks
and waste dumps, the soil reclamation and the
levelling of lands, during the production of granu-
lated burnt and not-burned aggregates, filling up of
emptiness after exploitation in the underground
mining, injection stabilizing the ground, to produc-
tion of the microsphere and mineral – organic com-
posites.
Adding of the fly ashes to concrete causes the
flux of the concrete mixture and improves its bond-
ability, reduces the threat of cracking and improves
the waterproofness of concrete (Glinicki &
Ładyżyński 2001).
Fly ashes are used as small aggregate and partly
binders as the universal application in construction
and production of aerated concrete blocks. The
binder is obtained as the result of grinding on drily
mixtures of lime, gypsum and ash. The initial mate-
rial is hydrated, saturated with gas and then burnt
down in appropriate autoclaves.
Adding of ash to cement, apart from increasing
masses of cement, influences the increase of the
frost resistance and resistance to the effect of ag-
gressive factors, reducing the shrinkage of concrete.
Addition of ash influences the reduction and even
the energy consumption of manufacture of cement.
The ashes are applied to stabilize an existing na-
tive ground in the road engeneering. Ashes, ac-
quired from burning in the fluidized beds, with the
reduction of sulphur dioxide by the means of cal-
cium compounds have special use for this purpose.
Using ash for production of road binders allows
considerable lowering of the cost of binder, reach-
ing the same parameters of stabilization, which are
obtained from the application of clean lime or
cement. Ash-cement mixture is applied in case of
sealing of floodbanks and waste dumps blends.
The mixture of ash with little content of cement is
improving endurance properties, moreover, applied
in the corps of the flood bank causes the creation of
aggregates, dedicated to big, clumped pieces which
are sealing the structure and are granting it very
good stability (Falaciński, http://iks_pn.sggw.pl/
z29/art23.pdf).
The ashes and cinders are applied as the substitu-
tion of earth mass at the soil reclamation and ground
the levelling. The fulfilment of the technical re-
quirements is condition of their utilization of to
these aims, established in dependence from the
future utilization of terrain the as well as protection
before unfavourable influence on environment, by
possible plugging the bottom of stockyard and the
protection before secondary dusting.
Granulated aggregates are used for production of
the lightweight concrete, constituting the substitute
of mineral aggregates in this concrete, it is produced
on the basis of cinders and ashes. The mixture of
ash, coal dust as well as the bentonite is mixed with
water, and then it is parching on movable agglomer-
ated stocker (Osiecka 2010).
Mixtures of ash and water are applied in the deep
mining for conducting of the fire prevention and
against methan by sealing and filling up of gunises,
that prevents coming into existence of endogenous
fires and it is reducing danger of ejection of meth-
ane and other gasses from gunises; separating the
fields of mining excavations fire and out of order
mining grounds, by performing of isolation extra
backfill stoppers; backfilling and filling emptinesses
up after exploitation what influences the reduction
of the size of deformation area of land (Frączek
2007).
The mixture of fly ashes, water and cement is put
into the soil, when empty spaces between grains of
soil require the fulfilment, in order to improve the
geotechnical properties of the ground: to increase
the resistance of ground to cutting, the carrying
capacity and the reduction of permeability (Glinicki
& Ładyżyński 2001).
Microsphere is coming into existence during
burning of solid fuels in energetic boiler, through
the fusion of some mineral elements of ash. The
quantity of the microsphere in fly ashes is within 0.5
to 5%. Imparting the microsphere from ashes is
taking place in the water environment, using the
difference of the specific gravity (the microsphere is
secreted from the surface of water).
Specific properties of the microsphere, but espe-
cially a low thermal conduction and the low volume
density, found application as follows: for production
of heat insulating ceramic materials, for producing
light building materials, for making acoustic
screens, for production of the moulds, for produc-
tion of mould powder, as the filler of plastics, the
production of fillers for painting, the production of
cleaning agents (Pichór & Petri 2003).
Fly ashes can be used as the component sanitating
and improving physical properties of sludges com-
ing into existence in council sewage treatment
plants. Fly ashes used in the technological process
of converting sludges are ruining micro-organisms
as well as they are eliminating unpleasant smells.
Produced composites on the basis of sludges and
ashes contain heavinesses of organic matter and
they can be applicable for improving and raclama-
tion of the soil of the farmlands and degraded
ground (Sobczyk 2004).
The afterreactionary gypsum is created in the proc-
216
ess of desulphuration of flue gases with wet calcifer-
ous – gypsum process, it is applied as the raw mate-
rial for production: of gypsum – cardboard panels for
the purposes in the general and industrial construc-
tion, of foamed – gypsumed elements for the pur-
poses of construction, of self-levelling floors e.g.
Afterreactionary gypsum can also be used: as the
adjuster of the time of binding cement – dispatched
to the cement plant or gypsum plants; in lines of the
granulation with ash, as the element solidifying in
mixtures for the purposes of engineering work and
in the soil reclamation.
Area 6: Coal gasification including underground
coal gasification
Achievement of the needed amount of the con-
sumed gas to the drive of turbines in electrical power
engineering arrangements or combustion in boilers is
the target of processes of coal gasification. There are
research works and practical implementations of the
production of liquid fuels of hard coal in the world,
but it won’t be the issue of this artcile. Generally
speaking, there is coal gasification in special installa-
tions and underground coal gasification.
Technologies of coal gasification are based on a
team of multidirectional thermal and chemical
transformations which are stealing in high tempera-
ture, mainly between the organic part of coal sub-
stance and gasifying factors, mostly between oxy-
gen and steam.
As a result of gasification, synthesis gas is com-
ing into existence (syngas), which composition
depends on the technology of gasifying, including
reactions of the conversion of the carbon monoxide
into carbon dioxide, with the simultaneous produc-
tion of hydrogen (Stańczyk 2008).
Underground Coal Gasification (UCG) is a
method of conversion of coal into synthesis gas in-
situ, being an equivalent of processes of gasification
conducted in surface reactors. During the UCG
process coal is reacting in high temperature with the
gasification factors which are air, oxygen, steam or
their mixture. A combination of gases consisting
mainly of H 2 , CO, CO 2 and CH 4 is an end product.
Creating so-called underground reactor is the first
stage of leading underground coal gasification.
Depending on the way of making a coal seam avail-
able, two preparation techniques of the reactor are
distinguished: the shaft method and the method
without shaft.
Shaft method, the older one, is presently consid-
ered as uneconomical and not very perspective one,
although it is useful in closing the mines. In the
method without shaft, preparing of the reactors con-
sists of performing drilling of delivery and production
channels and on the surface, and further joining them
with linking ducts (Borkiewicz 2008). There is a
problem of isolation of the underground generator in
order to prevent the proliferation of gasses and their
emission on the surface in underground coal gasifica-
tion. As a filling material of rock crevices, clay solu-
tions are applied on the basis of kaolin, to grout into
underground rocks, which under the effect of the
temperature are increasing its volume, effectively
insulating the underground generator. Except for the
gas energy of underground coal gasification, there are
a lot of chemical products suitable for an economic
application (Dyczkowski & Falsztyński 2008).
2 CONCLUSIONS
Hard coal will still be basic material for production
of thermal and electric energy in many countries for
next several dozen years. However more and more
restricted protection requirements of natural envi-
ronment are forcing, to limit the nuisances resulting
from its burning and seeking other ways of produc-
tion of the energy of coal, with omitting processes
of its burning in energetic boilers. There are many
applied methods existing in the field of reducing the
difficulty for natural environment of the coal com-
bustion at present and projected to initiating in
future. So far applied methods should still be im-
proved, and scientific centers should still work on
the new ways of reduction of the release of pollut-
ants into the environment.
It is necessary to use all real technical and eco-
nomical methods of getting the clean energy for the
mankind, in production lines.
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http://uregina.ca/ghgt7/PDF/papers/peer/054.pdf
http://rg6.polsl.pl/sekwestr/sekwestr.html
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4
Features of selectivity process
of borehole underground coal gasification
Y. Svetkina, V. Falshtyns’kyy & R. Dychkovs’kyy
National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Based Establishment of development of the new selective systems, providing high-speed of
borehole underground coal gasification (BUCG) process selectivity on catalysts, with account of kinetics and
equilibrium of chemical reactions on underground gas generator reactionary channel length are set.
1 INTRODUCTION
Kinetics of thermo-chemical reactions and physical
speeds of gas-condensate product transfer in an
underground gas generator presents large practical
interest from point of view balance of these proc-
esses and influence on them of the system which
they co-operate in.
It is important to set balance between physical
speeds of reagents transfer and thermo-chemical
reactions in the system time-varying and space that
established efficiency and reliability of borehole
underground gasification of coal (BUCG).
Borehole underground coal gasification it’s diffi-
cult thermodynamics process, consisting of co-
operation time-varying and space of the system
(rocks-coal mass) and thermo-chemical process
(chemical reactions and physical processes), which
consists in co-operating of carbon (by basic compo-
nent part of coals) with oxygen, contained in blow-
ing mixtures, and also in water steams.
As is generally known, full enough basis of
BUCG is studied, however investigation of its
kinetics is not enough. As a result of coal seam
gasification in under-ground gas generator reaction
channel length there are not even rocks of roof and
soil burning in a kind of a non izotermic process
(Figure 1 and 2), that the results in clay matter of
dehydrating and formation of low-basic aluminates
and calcium silicates.
The rock’s content of a gasifiable coal seam pos-
sesses high adsorption activity and tripping with
organic and polymeric compositions, that allows to
present the reactionary channel of gas generator as
chemical geo-reactor for the selective coal process-
ing and other combustible components in a genera-
tor gas, energy and chemical matters with the pur-
pose of receive of electric and thermal energy,
syngas and industrial products of chemistry.
219
2 RESULTS OF THE STUDIES
Based upon the analysis of “Podzemgaz” stations
works, experimental underground gas generators,
conducted stand and laboratory researches were set
that the productivity of gas generator depends on a
number of parameters both physical and chemical,
but composition of generator gases (high-quality
and quantitative indexes) largely depends on an
initial gas agent – blowing.
During the conducted researches material and
thermal balance of coal seam gasification processes
were made, with the account of features of the system
(water inflow, impermeability), thermodynamics
processes using different components of reagents
(blowing) and elementary coal composition.
On Figure 3 the dependence between UCG prod-
ucts formation and length of reaction channel is
presented. From experimental information it is
evidently that composition differs. On the basis of
results of experiments it is possible with a confi-
dence to talk about selectivity of process and man-
agement of this selection.
At development of one or another process it is
necessary to take into account following:
1. The change of pressure does not substantially
influence the equilibrium degrees of reagents trans-
formation at chemical transformation in the con-
densed phase.
2. The temperature decline of process in the case
of exothermic reaction results in diminishing of
reaction speed, and it is unprofitable, because the
degree of transformation of reagents falls and addi-
tional circulation becomes necessary.
3. The increase of temperature in the case of exo-
thermic reaction results in the increase of speed of
reaction and are not only basic but also by-reactions,
here selection of process follows as a rule.
4. At the small thermal effect of reaction the
change of temperature does not substantially influ-
ence the equilibrium degree of transformation.
The transferred factors show that a perspective
decision is the development of the new selective
systems, providing high-rate of selection of process.
For conduction of this reaction, selective reactions
application of catalysts is needed, probably these
reactions can be attributed to chemical transport
reactions, as a catalyst must be entered in a reaction
channel. Hard bearable matter is used as a catalyst,
the amount of which can be calculated, if the law of
gas motion and difference of partial pressures are
known Р above the oxidation and restoration
zones of BUCG process.

Figure 1. Parameters of temperatures distribution on underground gas generator reaction channel length.

(a) (b)

Figure 2. Parameters of temperatures distribution in the rocks contenting underground gas generator: (a) longitudinal
section of gas generator and (b) cross-section of gas generator.

At comparison of different heterogeneous reac-
tions it becomes obvious, that the difference of
partial pressures can very much vary, while charac-
ter of gas motion suffers less noticeable changes. As
a rule, the transportation of matter takes place in
case that the difference of partial pressures is great
enough. As it was already marked, such transporta-
tion of matter, which can be presented as moving of
gas between two equilibrium zones, has the special
practical value. In this case the value of Р can be
accepted as the equal difference of equilibrium
pressures which in same queue expresses reactions
through basic thermodynamic parameters.
At the set mode of gas motion, partial pressures

220
are the direct measure of amount of the carried
matter. We shall analyse now the influence of en-
thalpy and entropy of reaction (Н 0 and S 0 ) on a
value of Р as an example we shall consider the
reaction of the simplest type which is conducted
Figure 3. Parameters of gasification ifluence on length of underground gas generator reaction channel.
Оn Figure 3 seam thickness – 1.15 m, at enriched
blowing by O 2 (37%, 50%) and water inflow –
6.3 m3 / h: 1 – maintenance of O 2 in blowing and
BUCG products; 2 – maintenance of SO 2 in blow-
ing and BUCG products; 3 – maintenance of N 2 in
the BUCG products; 4 – maintenance of CO in the
BUCG products; L – length of reaction channel of
underground gas generator, m; % – percentage of
gases in blowing and in the BUCG products.
Figure 4. Change of thermodynamic parameters.
Conclusions received during the analysis of such
reaction, do not depend, however neither from the
221
under certain conditions: Р = 1 atm, T 1 = 1073°К
and T 2 = 1273°К.
At   В g   С g  ,
type of reaction no from the conditions of its con-
duction. Dependence of Р on the standard values
of Н 0 and S 0 , received by a calculation on the
basis of financial and thermal balance of BUCG,
presented on a Figure 4.
We shall consider a case, when at the transporta-
tion of initial hard phase endothermic and exother-
mic equilibrium overlaid on each other and a tem-
perature changes at permanent general pressure. The
hypothetical partial pressure Р* determined below
serves as a measure of the matters secreted from a
gas phase.
At the change of temperature pressure passes
through a minimum or maximum value depending
on what reaction prevails at the lowered tempera-
ture: exothermal and endothermal.
On a Figure 3 this process is presented evidently
enough. Motion of curves shows that during the
change of temperature, direction of matter transpor-
tation can change on reverse.
A difference of partial pressures at the tempera-
tures of T 2 and T 1 is determined for a transport,
carried out diffusion or in a stream, and included
here in the proper equation.
Thermodynamics interpretation will be strict only
at presence of the complete mixing of gas, i.e. when
gas flows quickly enough. Deviations from this
ideal case conduce to the change of temperature at
which the direction of transportation changes to
reverse.
In the case of BUCG pressure of the saturated
steam of catalyst assumes the role of a endothermal
transport reaction. In the next examples the speech
goes about clean transport reactions both at exo-
thermic and endothermic processes.
The transport of carbon through a gas phase by
the equilibrium of Boudoir plays an important role
at renewal of metal oxides, for example at the tech-
nical receive of iron and zinc:
C  CO2  2CO2 (1)
MeO  CO  Me  CO2 (2)
At a high enough temperature a carbon can be
carried by creation and decomposition of hydrocar-
bons, probably mainly methane. Because, from
other side, methane can react with metals with
formation of carbides, there is possibility to conduct
reactions between hard matters at their spatial divi-
sion. If to heat a metal and carbon in presence of
hydrogen, reactions flow on equation (3) and (4):
C  2 H 2  CH 4 (3)
Me  CH 4  MeC  2H 2 (4)
This equilibrium was utilized for the receiving of
carbides ТiС, ZrС, HfС, NbС and ТаС. Thus initial
matters (metal or oxide + carbon) are mixed up at
the lack of carbon from 15 to 25%. The missing
amount of carbon leads to higher transport reaction.
The transportation of carbon stops when all of
metal passes to the carbide and a carbidic phase is
satiated by carbon. Thus, composition of products of
reaction is regulated itself.
222
At such pressures of gas phase, when the trans-
portation of matter are conditioned by diffusion and
convection, in this case, it is also necessary to set
dependence of process of gas moving on pressure
by experimental way. Findings can be utilized and
for other transport reactions, if they are conducted in
comparable conditions.
Thus, mineral admixtures in coals and coal will
create the catalytic effect of type of transport reac-
tions. Replacing Ме in equation (3) it is possible to
regulate composition of appearing gas mixtures.
Application of catalysts during coal seam gasifi-
cation will allow to provide dirigibility of selectivity
of process, and also efficiency of thermo-chemical
reactions during coal gasification.
REFERENCES
Kazak, V.N. & Sheynin, V.I. 1963. Research of physical,
mechanical and thermal properties of rocks for the aims
of underground coal gasification. Science works Pid-
zemgas, 10: 17-21.
Kreinin, E.F. & Shirif, E.I. 1993. Mathemetical model of
processes burning and coal gasification in the channel
of underground gasgenerator. Magazine of Physicist of
burning and explosion, 2: 21-28.
Falshtynskyy, V.S., Dychkovskyy, R.O., Tabachenko, M.M.
& Lapko, V.V. 2007. Parameters of temperature field
distribution in the rocks containing underground gasgen-
erator. School of underground development: 216-224.
Fedoseev, S.D. 1963. About research of kinetics reactions
in unisothermal conditions. Lectures of Academy of
sciences of the USSR, 3: 638-641.
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Definition of rating of loading in spires

of multilayer winding of rubber-rope cable

K. Zabolotny & Y. Panchenko

National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: Scientific-research recommendations aiming at development of rating of methods of forcing

factors in spires of multilayer rubber rope cable of bobbin hoist is given here. This method stipulates absence
of longitudinal cable pressure and dependence of characteristics of hard layers upon parameters of multilayer
winding. Algorithms of applying rating methods for purposes of practical projection are elaborated here, too.
Scientific-research resulted in mathematical models of maximum loading and deformation upon which
engineering methods are based. More exact methods of rated forcing factors of multilayer rubber-rope cable
winding and engineering methods laid the foundation of methodical recommendation used in projects by
number of enterprises.

1 NTRODUCTION destruction of cable, the bobbins and other elements

The projects of Krivbasproekt DPI DP and OJC
“Ukrgiproruda” laid down the foundation of high
efficiency of skip lifts with carrying capacity more
than 100 tons for deep quarries and mines. They
were elaborated by scientists M. Novozhilov,
A. Drizhenko and other. But the produced bobbin
hoisting machines with metal cables do not provide
such carrying capacity.
The scientific bases of development and applica-
tion of rubber-rope cables (RRC) of elevating instal-
lations for deep mines are laid down by the founder
of the given direction Professor L. Kolosov. His
research and the works of his disciples confirm the
RRC use as main and balancing with created on
their basis powerful lifts for deep mines, quarries,
and deep-water lifting: bobbin and friction pulleys
(Kolosov 1999, Bel’mas 2003, Kolosov 1981 &
Ill’yin 1980). The experience of maintenance of
rubber-ropes cables as balancing proved to be dur-
ing 30 years the most reliable and safe and easy to
repair. OJC “Krivorozhskij Oremine Enterprise”
since 1996 began manufacturing rubber-rope belts
and cables with calculated durability for a term of
10 years at 5-multiple margin of safety and buckling
load up till 5000 N/mm2 (Kolosov & Safonov
1999).
In 2005 a project intended for hoisting tip-lorry to
the face of the quarry was elaborated for OJC
“Ukrgiproruda” at National Mining University, the
bobbin hoist with RRC-5000 being used as a variant.
The peculiarity of the bobbin lifting is multilay-
ered winding of rubber rope cable, which may cause
of the mine hosting machine. The definition of the
rational parameters of bobbin hoists was made by
K. Zabolotny, M. Polushina and L. Kolosov. Linear
mathematical models elaborated by B. Kovalsky
and U. Tarnapolsky were used for establishment of
radial loads. When modeling in the body of winding
of rubber-rope cable the longitudinal compression
of the ropes cable was supposed and the influence of
its interaction with surface of the bobbin on the
diametrical cable hardness was ignored. As a result
calculated radial loads of winding and constructive
parameters of winding (the width of the cable, the
initial radius of the bobbin) were not defined cor-
rectly. The analysis of physical experiments showed
that the problem should be solved by taking into
account nonlinearity of characteristics of the layer in
RRC package.
In connection with this a problem was put to im-
prove the method of rating of forcing factors in
spires of multilayer rubber-rope cable of bobbin
hoists in addition, to take into account constraint
belt on surface of bobbin and nonlinearity of mate-
rial of rope under the tension or compression. Loads
and deformations of RRC at multilayered winding
are accepted as basic parameters of the method and
the accordance of calculated and experimental
values: rigidity, deformations, radial loads of RRC
in the bobbin is taken as fidelity criteria. The calcu-
lated diagram of the multilayered RRC winding is
shown on the Figure 1.
– bobbin winding is the set of rings of ultimate
thickness, adjusted with pretension; while adjusting
movement of the rings and pressure is summarized;

223
 – stretching of the cable is applied in the middle
of a ring and is stable within its limits;
– the internal surface of the first layer of the tape
is rigidly fixed on the bobbin (border effect);
– longitudinal hardness when compressing RRC
is equivalent to that of rubber.
Figure 1. Assumptions are used.
Due to its complexity the problem is divided into
some stages of investigation: Stage 1. Definition of
characteristics of hardness of the RRC layers in
multilayered winding. We can see that properties of
hardness of a RRC layer in winding depend on
parameters td  t d , hd  h d ; t is step between
cables of rope; d is diameter of cable; h is general
thickness of rope, i – number of layers in package; j
is general quantity of layers; Erub, νrub are module
of elasticity and Poisson factor of rubber; Еr z, Еr у,
νr z, νr у are module of elasticity and Poisson fac-
tors of orthotropic material, modeling cable in
directions. Dimensionless integrated characteristics
of layer of RRC package such as factor of longitu-
dinal and cross diametrical hardness and factor of
expansion of layer of RRC package, are put into
operation:
 År z 1 Pt u h
Âr    ; Â ; K x ,
4 År td  hd u y  Årub uy  b
where P – pressure on the layer of RRC package;
u x – horizontal average expansion of the layer of the
given package; u y is vertical average compression
of the layer; b is width of the rope.
To determine the module of longitudinal hardness
it is necessary to determine the module of signifi-
cance of the cable hardness. L. Kolosov elaborated
diagrams of deformation of cables of various diame-
ters determined in physical experiments. For lack of
statistical estimations in the above mentioned ex-
periments a similar test of RRC-1300 cable was
made. The results showed, that the value of longitu-
dinal module of elasticity of the cable corresponded
224
to those received by Kolosov, longitudinal module
of elasticity of the cable in the load range was
constant År. z  145,4  5,0GPa , the factor of longi-
tudinal hardness for RRC-1300 В r = 6,658·103.
Methods of computer finite-element modeling
were used for the definition of factors of diametrical
hardness and expansion, depending on parameters
of RRC winding. For that purpose finite-element
model of RRS package was elaborated, and its
reliability was estimated too.
Calculation experiment for definition B and K. It
was assumed:
– IDC of material of RRC as plane deformation.
– Â  Âdh  f ; K  K dh  w ,
where B dh , K dh – factors of diametrical hardness
and expansion of a layer of a package respectively
without account of border effect; f, w – factors of
constraint of RRC layer in transversal direction,
with account for edge effect.
Package of one, two, three and four layers are
analyzed in a number of experiments. Finite-
element model of RRC is designed using of para-
bolic finite element PLANE 82 of program complex
of finite-element modeling of ANSYS/ED 6.1.
Boundary conditions: on the left border of the
rectangular symmetry condition must be observed;
on the lower border vertical moving must not be
allowed; on ordered pressure P must be provided;
the border effect is modeled in such a way that not
to let vertical and horizontal moving of the layer of
the lower border.
To estimate trustworthiness of the first assump-
tion the results of IDC modeling for plane deforma-
tion (Figure 2а) were compared with those for IDC
volumetric (Figure 2b). Error of calculation when
using hypothesis of plane deformation is less than
2%.
Figure 2. Finite-element model.
 To simplify a problem at the certain accuracy of
calculation a maximal step of the finite-element net
was determined in consecutive order (Figure 2c, d).
Border effect of the finite-element model was ac-
complished in border renditions, restricting vertical
and horizontal moving of the lower border of every
layer of RRC package (Figure 2e). In numerous
experiment the number of the layers of the tape in
the package was changed and the factors of resulted
diametrical hardness of every RRC package of were
determined.
For the purpose of estimation of reliability of fi-
nite-element modeling of the rubber rope cable the
following physical experiment was made. Packages
consisting of 2, 4, 6 and 8 layers were made of the
RRC-1300 cable, and placed between the plates of
5 ton testing UM-5А machine (Figure 3); after that
they were compressed at the range from 0.4 to
3.52 MPa with step of 0.26 MPa which corre-
sponded to operating loading of rubber-rope belts.
Figure 3. Testing of UM-5A machine.
While loading the deformation of the packages
was measured with the help of a dial indicator. The
surface of plates of the press remained dry or was
greased with malt, in according with constrained or
non constrained condition of packages.
In the process of testing l deformation were
measured and factors of diametrical hardness of
RRC package was calculated It was proved for non-
constrained condition of the package that distribu-
tion of factors of diametrical hardness of a RRC
package in a sample submitted to normal law,
confidential probability of 95% deviation of borders
of confidential interval from mathematical expecta-
tion being 0.9%. It was proved for the constrained
condition of packages that distribution of factors of
diametrical hardness of RRC package in a sample
submitted to the normal law; with confidential
probability of 90% deviation of borders of confiden-
tial interval from mathematical expectation did not
exceed 2.3%.
During physical experiment we come to the con-
225
clusion that the error at definition of the value of the
factor of diametrical hardness by means of the
method of finite-elements did not exceed 11%,
which confirmed adequacy of the model.
To simplify the problem and confirm the accuracy
of the calculation we used the developed finite-
element model and assumption to determine minimal
number of cables in RRB layer (Figure 2f, g) and
minimal number of layers in the package (Figure 2h,
i). The following calculation experiments were made:
1) Definition of B dh , Kdh . Geometrical parameters of
cables varied. It was found that in the absence of
constraint K dh slightly depended on geometrical
parameters of the cable and was assumed as to equal
0.951, approximating polynom being obtained for
definition of factors of diametrical hardness and
expansion of every layer of a package. 2) Definition
of B, K . The number of the layers on the belt in a
package was changed and then the factors of diamet-
rical hardness and expansion of every layer of the
package was determined. As a result matrixes [В] and
[ K ] were obtained. 3) Definition of f, w. Processing
of the experiment 2 matrixes fi , j и wi , j resulted in
obtained (Figure 4), and their approximating func-
tions as well. Taking into account these values we
definitively obtained the expressions for the factors of
diametrical hardness and expansion of RRB layer in
cross direction of the package with general number of
layers j:

B  Bdh  f  s1  s2  s3  s4 2  s5   s6  2  


k3

1 k1  k2i1  1 k4i j  
 k5  k6i1  k4i j  ;
k7



3
  7 
K  Kdh  1 12i1  14i  j 5  6i1 4i  j  ,

where   1 hd  1 ;   1 td  1 ;  s  ,  k  ,
  – coefficient vectors, values are obtained by
method of the least squares.
Figure 4. Definition of f, w values.
Conclusion: the representation of matrix В and K
is supposed as the product of vectors B dh and f i , j ,
K dh and w respectively (error does not exceed 6%).
Stage 2. Definition of loads and deformations of the
cable at a multilayer winding. Basic equations:
Rope submits to Hooke’s law under stretching
ui , j  U i
Ti , j  Br  Årub  h  t  m 
ri
where ri – radius of the middle line of і-layer; U i –
initial moving of i-layer; u i , j – moving of і-layer
when winding j-layer; m – general number of ropes.
When putting on the first ring according to
Hooke’s law the condition is performed executed
u1, j  Bi , j  Erub
q1, j   . initial moving, expansion of the body of winding;
0.5  t
For the rest of the rings of the body wining it is
where  i – radius of the middle line of і-layer,
resulted to initial radius of the bobbin;
     2   2 ;  i – initial moving of і-layer
resulted to the deformation from stretching of the
,
plumb part of the cable;  i , j – pressure in і-layer of
the package with general number of layers j reduced
to the pressure from the plumb part of the cable.
With the help of the Gaussian method of elimina-
tion for solving the system of equations we received
the resulted moving of the body of winding i , j .
Then we consecutively calculated resulted values:
tension, pressure and removing in the last layer,
tension and pressure in і-layer of the package with
general number of the layers j:

ui 1, j  ui , j

 j  F  , j ;  j   
F  , j ;  j1 
j
;
qi , j  Bi , j  Erub  . j
t  j 0,5 f j, j
 j, j   j
The equation of balance for the rings of the body j    j , j ; i , j  K i , j   i , j ;
winding is:   
T j, j i   i
 q j , j  r j  0.5 , where i  j ; if i 1 j 1  i      and
mt i
Ti , j 1, j  2  f1, j 1, j ;
 qi , j  ri  0.5  qi 1, j  ri  0.5 ,
m t
if i  2  j  1 
 i  f i , j   i 1  i , 
where i 1,, j 1.
The equation of balance is presented in the fol- where  – factor of strong length of cable (relation
lowing way of strong length of cable to the depth of lifting);  –
 A      B  , factor of plumb of cable (the relation of length of
plumb of cable to the depth of lifting). At every step
where [А] – matrix of hardness; {В} – load vector, of iteration anisotropic factor was chosen on mark
   – vector of the above-stated moving of the of longitudinal deformation of the given layer:
package layers if Ti , j  0 , then   1 , otherwise   Âr .
Bdh
   , The mathematical models obtained were realized
A1,1  2  f1, j  1  0 .5  f 2 , j  1  0.5 
1 in the languages of ANSYS/ED 6.1, MAHTCAD 11
according to definition of moving of a layer of the
where i  2  j  2 package RRC, factors of diametrical hardness and
   expansion of approximating polynoms, factors of
Ai , i  f i , j  i0.5  f i1, j  i0.5  ; constraint, loads and deformation of layers of the
i
cable with multilayer winding were accepted as
   components of the method of rating developed by
A j1, j1  f j1, j   j10,5  ,
 j1 the author which affords an opportunity to deter-
mine loading and deformation of the rope cable with
where i  1  j  2 Ai ,i1   f i1, j  i0.5 , multilayer winding.
For the purpose of confirmation of objectivity of
Ai1, i   f i1, j  i0.5 ; the above stated method, for better confidence in the
investigation and to avoid errors when reiterating
   ;    investigation, additional testing was made. In accor-
Bi   i  B j 1   j 1    j , j   j 0.5 ,
i  j 1 dance with the given program and methods of
testing a physical experiment was made on the

226
laboratory installation for multilayer RRC-1300
winding (Figure 5). Radial deformation of the
bobbin and deformation of compression of the spire
of friction of the cable on the bobbin itself was
determined and accepted as the main indices. It was
shown that the distribution of the deformation of the
first RRC layer in a sample submitted the normal
law, and at confidential probability of 95% devia-
tion of the borders of confidential interval from
mathematical expectation did not exceed 3%, confi-
dential probability being 95%.
Comparison of the theoretical and experimental
curves of distribution of pressure showed that under
confidential probability of 90% the deviation of the
calculated values of the deformation of compression
of the first layer, and as it was stated in the physical
experiment, was not higher than 8%. Changes of
tension of rubber-rope cable in a bobbin determined
by means of methods of U. Tarnopolsky, B. Koval-
sky and the author as to the assumption, both nu-
merical and qualitative are identical (deviation
being less than 3%).
Figure 5. Installation for multilayer RRC-1300 winding.
Elaboration of algorithms of application method
for practical designing showed that tension-
deformation condition of the resulted tension ,
pressure θ and expansion  depended on the follow-
ing parameters: a) the resulted thickness of a layer
was the most essential factor when parameter in-
creased (0.008    0.075) the values of resulted
pressure of the first layer θ 1 (from 4.2 to 1.2) and
maximal expansion of the cable with multilayer
winding  max (from 15 to 27%) decreased; b) when
we changed the factor of anisotropy ranging from
50    65, the resulted loading in first layer and
maximal expansion of the cable in the winding
decreased (6-25% and 3-10% respectively); c) when
we changed the general number of spires
227
15  j  100, the resulted loading in spires and
expansion of cable in winding increased by 1.5
time; d) when the factor of the strong length in-
creased 2    100, maximal value of the resulted
pressure in the first spire increased l to 13%, value
of maximal cable expansion in the winding  in-
creasing to 18%. As a result we developed algo-
rithm and fulfilled 4-factor three-level calculating
experiment which gave an opportunity to get mathe-
matical models in a form of polynoms of the 2-nd
order, describing dependences of maximal forcing
loads  1 (, , j, ) and deformations  max (, , j,
), which are used in basis of engineering technique
by choice of the project parameters of a bobbin with
RRC:
1  , , j ,    12.221  183.189    988.642   2 
 0.199   0,001 2  1.127    
 0.002  j  71.2  105   ;
max  , , j ,    76.067  668.140   4588.512  2 
 5.200    1.702  0.012 2  0.086 j 
 0.433103  j 2  5.8 103    18.759105   2 .
Using engineer methods (Figure 7) we showed
the influence of measureless parameters of winding
on the resulted pressure of the first layer and on
maximal expansion of the cable in winding.
Planes (θ = 2,  = 13%) corresponded to maximal
increasing of specific pressure and expansion of the
cable at the multilayer winding, determined by
Kolosov methods. Comparison the results we saw
that when we had 0.008    0.05, according to
Kolosov’s methods, the resulted rating loading
decreased up to 60%; when we had 0.05 
  0.075, the cable on specific pressure failed to
use its capacity completely (to 25-40%). The factor
of expansion by the procedure of L. Kolosov is
underestimated to 10-125%.
The methods indicated above were used for practi-
cal designing. In their project of auxiliary hoist on the
quarry of “Yuzhyj gorno-obogatitelnyj kombinat” the
authors estimated what kind of parameters of the
bobbin hoisting machine for the RRB-5000 rope must
be used. The project provides a shaft with depth of
250 m in combination with delivery drift. The hoist is
used to provide lifting of trailer cargo with weight of
1500 kN (Figure 8). Expectant annual effect, when
comparing with the variant of using multirope hoist-
ing machine with SHMP 1 – 5  4 tackle purchase
suspension, will make 900.000 UAH at the expense
of capital expenditures.
Figure 7. The influence of measureless parameters of winding.
Figure 8. Hoist usage.
2 CONCLUSIONS
In the well known models of tense-deformed condi-
tion of multilayer winding of rubber-rope cable of
228
bobbin machines the longitudinal compression of
ropes is unlimited, the characteristics of hardness of
layers of the belt from the number of layers being
accepted as constant. Disregarding these factors can
reduce calculated value of forcing loads by 2-2.5
times and cause the destruction of the cable, bobbin
and other elements of the mining hoist machine.
The improved method of calculation of power
factors includes the number of components and
helps to determine moving of RRC package layer,
factors of diametrical hardness and expansion,
approximating polynoms of factors of constraint,
loads and deformations of layers of the cable.
The novelty of our methods consists of the fol-
lowing: mathematical model of tense-deformed
condition of RRC multilayer winding takes into
account two essential factors: 1) compression of a
cable in the longitudinal direction is limited with
rubber matrix, 2) hardness characteristics of rings of
the rubber-rope cable depend on their total number
and arrangement in the winding.
Reliability of the offered method is based on high
degree of affinity of calculated parameters of its
main values to those values, which are received by
means of measurement in the process of physical
experiment. An error of the definition of the defor-
mation, comparing with the physical experiment, is
not higher than 11%, confidential probability being
90%.
The results of scientifically proved four factored
three-level calculation experiment on modeling
power processes of the multilayer winding of the
cable show that:
 tensely-deformed condition depends on the
parameters: resulted layer thickness, anisotropic
coefficient, the total number of turns spires, factor
of strong length of cable;
 account of complementary factors increases the
accuracy of definition of calculated loads up to
30-60% and expansion of the cable up to 10-100%;
 mathematical models for the maximal load on
the bobbin and for the deformation can be presented
in the form of polynoms of the second order and can
be used in engineering methods, which will cut
down the time of calculation of loads with high
precision (error does not exceed 12%).
229
REFERENCES
Kolosov, L.V. & Safonov, Y.L. 1999. Perspectives and
technical possibilities of rubber-rope cables for deep
water delivery. Mining Mechanics, 11 &12: 67-71.
Bel’mas, I.V. & Saburova, I.T. 2003. Model of stress-
strain state of rubber-rope cable at a transition section.
Hoist technique, 3: 93-99.
Kolosov, L.V. & Ropay. 1999. New perspective construci-
tons of mine ropes. Mining magazine, 6: 38-42.
Kolosov, L.V. & Obukhov, A.N. 1981. Analysis of stress
and strain state with damage of rope basis. Mine and
quarry transport. Мoscow: Nedra: 37-48.
Ill’yin, S.R. 1980. Research of dynamic of mine multirope
hoist as an elastic mechanical system. Dnipropetrovs’k:
National Mining University:170.
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

Design principles of the control systems

considering diversity of automation objects

N. Stadnik
Research institute of mines mechanization “Dongiprouglemash”, Donetsk, Ukraine
V. Tkachev
National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine

ABSTRACT: As it is generally known that mining and geological conditions of coal production are signifi-
cant for extraordinary variety that entails application of large manifold of mining machines. At the same time
control systems of mining machines, intended for automation of technological processes in mines, are cre-
ated, mainly, on the basis of common initial requirements, therefore they frequently have considerable re-
dundancy.

1 INTRODUCTION  
T  t y , t к , t b , t c , tu ,... , (2)

For creation and practical application of the automa- where t y , tк , tb , tc , tu – subsets of require-
tion systems of new generation the new method of
projecting was introduced. It allows synthesizing of ments, grouped in accordance with the orientation:
optimal functional structures, taking into account all correspondingly requirements on a management,
manifold of mining machines. It is offered to con- control, blockings, alarm system and information:
sider mining machines not as single devices, but as
a set of homogeneous according to their purpose 
t1y   y1 ,..., yf ,
t1к   к1 ,..., kg ,
control objects (HCO), with variable composition of
(3)
functional requirements, laid to automatic control
system of these objects. tu1   u1 ,..., ub ,

where  y1 – single functional operator (  i  1 , if a

2 IDEAS OF THE METHODS
requirement from the side of the object is laid and
The idea of the first method is that set of HCO and  i  0 , if a requirement is not laid).
set of functional requirements are subjected to de- Matrix of the general functional vector for all set
composition correspondingly to subsets: of HCO ( j is a number of hierarchy levels of
N  N1 , N 2 ,..., N m  , T  T1 , T2 ,...,Tm  and each automation objects):
subset of objects is characterized by integral reper-
tory of requirements N i Ti , that takes into account  1y ... 1y  y2 ... 2y ...  yj ... yj
1 z1 z` 1 z``
quantitative composition of subset objects and func- 1 1 2 2 j j
 к ... к  к ... к ...  к ... к
tional requirements to them. Integral composition of 1 y 1 у` 1 y```
HCO is equal to the sum of integral compositions of
 b1 ... b1  b2 ... b2 ...  bj ... bj ``
separate subsets. It enables to synthesize the initial T 1 x 1 x` 1 x RN. (4)
generalized functional structure of the automation
 c1 ... c1  c2 ... c2 ` ...  cj ... cj ```
system. 1 l 1 l 1 l

N iTi   n , Ti  n  N i  . (1)
1
 u ... u 1
 u ... u ...  u ... nj
2 2 j
1 n 1 n` 1 n`
...
Complete repertory of functional requirements
(CRF) to automation of homogeneous objects may The analysis of functional requirements shows that
be presented as a functional vector: part of them are general (universal) for all set of HCO

231
and can serve as a basis for the construction of the us – difference between useful (minimum suffi-
base functional modules. Some functional require- cient for coverage of CRF requirements) and surplus
ments are special and can serve as a basis for the integral repertory of functional requirements:
construction of the specialized functional modules. us  И int  И sur .
t 1o  t1o' t 1o' The optimal structure of ACS homogenous objects
1 2 m is a structure that provides the coverage of integral
1
t ê t1ê 1
t ê repertory of requirements of HCO by the complete
1 2 m least expenses S P on automation, which include a
1 1 1
ta t a' t a' functionally-integral value (FIV) S f and expenses
M 11  1 ; M 12  2 , M 1m  m (5)
t 1n~ t1n~ t 1n~ on maintenance of FIV S 0 : S P  S f  S 0 .
1 2 m
t`1e t`1e t`1e S f  T nC f (12)
1 2 m
... ... ...
where С f – cost of realization of one function
Decomposing of CRF HCO gives three types of (costs on production of automation facilities for one
the system functional structure: function), UAH/function, and has inversely propor-
– flexible on the basis of the base module and a tional dependence on the volume of the modules
number of additional M ia  (FSA):
 output  . The type of function on the basis of sta-
tistical researches can be determined with the help
M a' R N1 , of this formula: C f  A    k ( A – coefficient,
M a' UM 2a  R N 2 , conditioned by the level of technology, qualification

(6)
of personnel and unification of items etc in terms of
M a' UM 2a U ...UM ma  R N m . particular manufacturer).
 
Mathematical models of optimization task for the
structure of FSS and FSA:
– flexible on the basis of the specialized modules
(FSS): S P  T1  n1  C f1  T2  n2  C f 2 
FSS: (13)
M 1 R N1 , ...  Tm  nm  C f m  S 0 .

M 2 R N2 , It is necessary to find min S ( n1 , n2 ,…, nm ) or

(7) D
...
m
M m R Nm . min  A  Ti  nik on a set D consisting of ( 2m  2 )
D 1
– hard on the basis of a single functional module limitations:
on a hierarchical level (HS):
nm  N m
M m R N1UN 2U ...UN m . (8) nm  nm 1  N m  N m 1
nm  nm 1  nm  2  N m  N m 1  N m  2
Integral repertory of requirements of HCO D  ...
TИ  T  n  for the structures: nm  nm 1  ...  n2  N , ni  0i  1,2 ,...,m  2
m
m N  N1  ...  N m   N i
FSA: TИ  Т1  nm   Ti nm  ni 1  ; (9) 1
2
m FSA:
FSS: TИ   Ti ni  ni 1  ; (10)
1 S P  T1  N  C f1  T2  T1 N  n1 C f 2  ...
(14)
HS: TИ  Т m  nm . (11)  Tm  Tm 1 N  n1  n2  ,...,nm 1 C fm  S 0 .
Selection of basic functional structure is carried Objective function:
out on the basis of functional structure type criterion

232
 k us  0 , then HS structure is appropriate for such
m 1  i 
min  ATi 1  Ti  N   n  .
 set of HCO;
D 1    – if a criterion of functional structure type is
The comparison of models shows that for the
us  0 , then a functional structure must be flexible
same set minimum expenses in the FSA model are (FSS or FSA) or hard HS. A particular type is de-
termined by means of hereinbefore explained meth-
less than in the FSS model: let's assume that n1* , n*2
ods of optimization.
is an optimal set in the FSS model ( m  2 ), then Organization of the “dialogue” “center” – “pe-
riphery” is very important by the construction of
1
S opt  
n1* , n*2  A  T1 n1*   k
 A  T2 n*2  .k
control systems. There are two construction princi-
ples of automated control system in this plan: on the
For the FSA structure expenses are: basis of the centralized and decentralized control.
Traditionally automated control systems of techno-
     A  T  T n  ;
S 2 n1* , n*2  A  T1 n1*  n*2
k
2 1
* k
2
logical processes were constructed and continue to be
constructed on the basis of the centralized control. In
S opt n ,n  S n ,n  S n ,n  .
*
1
*
2
2 *
1
*
2
1
opt
*
1
*
2
such systems the information flows from information
providers are sent to the center. There they are proc-
essed, analyzed and sent back on the object as control
For the FSS structure expenses are: signals.
S n1 , n2 ,...nm   S n2 ,...,nm   In such systems a “center” per se is absent.


A  T1 N  n2  ...nm k  T2  n2k  ...Tm  nm
k
. Achievement of system targets is carried out as a
result of coordinated actions of separate control
devices which are guided by local criteria and solve
Solving the system of equations: local control tasks. All devices together solve a

 n2 1 
 S  A  kT N  n  ...  n k 1  kT n k 1
3 m 2 2  general system task.
On Figure 1a structure of the decentralized control
system is shown: a control object consists of n ma-
 

 S  A  kT1 N  n3  ...  nm k 1  kT3 n3k 1 chines ( M 1 , M 2 ,…, M n ), which participate in one
 n3
... technological process; the object has n entrances

 
( X 1 , X 2 ,…, X n ) on which different influences are
 S  A  kT1 N  n3  ...  nm k 1  kTm nm k 1
 nm given; X i – input flow (material energy flow, time of
and other), Yi – output product. The decentralized
1
k 1 system consists of “collective” of microprocessor
N  Ti
we get: n*i  1
, i  2 ,3,...,m . comptrollers MPCi that control separate machines.
m Final product of the technological process Y :
 Tj k  1
j 2 n
Y   Yi . (15)
i 1
The optimum will be attained at the limit of range
D , and not on the planes of polyhedron of limita-
tions D , but on its apexes.

n 2  0 Y1
 X1
n3  0
МПК
MPC 1
1

... Technological
Технологический Y2
 МПК
X2 object
объект
D : n m  N m MPC 2
2 (process)
(процесс)
n  n
 m m 1  N m  N m 1
... Xn Yn
 МПК
MPC n

nm  nm 1  ...  n2  N
n

The cited analysis of mathematical models of two Информационная магистраль

Infobahn

structures demonstrates:
– if a criterion of functional structure type is Figure 1. Structure of decentralized control system.

233
 Such notion of the object allows bringing the solving
of control problem to resource allocation problem of
n fer, time, control action etc. Distribution of the re-
input actions X   X i , so that the output product Y
i 1
has defined indices (productivity, quality, time). The
technological processes of mining practice always have
limitations (conveyors throughput capacity, skip wind-
ing, limited volume of accumulating vessels etc.). It is
necessary to distribute available resource of input ac-
tions X between consumers into parts X i so that to
provide minimum rejection of output quantity of the
final product Y from the given quantity Y3 .
I  Y  Y3 2  min ;
n
Y   Yi ;
i 1
Yi  f i  X i  ; (16)
n approach of solving the control tasks the system
X   X i  0 ; ( i  1 , 2, 3,…, n )
i 1
where I – control criterion,
n
X   X i  0 – limits.
i 1
Solving the assigned problem is done with the use
of cooperative behavior principle (MPC is used as
control devices). As a rule, all computational capa-
bility of a comptroller is not fully used; therefore,
having merged the comptrollers in an integrated
network, application of spare computational capa-
bility for solving of control tasks of all technologi-
cal process is possible.
For this purpose it is necessary to define the be-
havior rules of each of local comptrollers that en-
sure the concerted actions of all MPC for achieve-
ment of global (for this process) target function.
Functioning of MPC collective must be link through
limitations, formulated from the control tasks of the
whole object (process).
 f i  X i   Y3  df i  X i     0;
dX i
(17)
n
 X i  X ; i  1,2,3,..., n .
t 1
The first equation of the system (17) can be ex-
amined as a local criterion for i -comptroller. In the
n
case, when all I i will be equal to 0, at  X i  X
i 1
the extremum of global target function will be at-
234
tained and all resource X i will be allocated. By a
resource we will mean: energy, raw materials, trans-
source between the comptrollers in a network may
be carried out by a transmission of requests for the
X i resource in the line by every comptroller, and
also value of output product Yi  f i  X i  at every
stage of iterative process of problem solving. Each
controller, receiving this information from the line,
n n
accumulates  Yi and  X i , and then calculates
i 1 i 1
deviation of I i from 0.
This information can be used for forming of be-
havior rule of each comptroller in the group of
comptrollers, i.e. rule of alteration of X i requests
with the view of achievement of a zero value of
local target function. By using of the traditional
(18) is solved and as a result we can find the values
X 1 , X 2 ,…, X n and  , at which I i  0 and
n
X   X i . In the case of organization of the comp-
i 1
trollers group there is not a necessity to compute the
exact values of all variables beforehand. Main thing
is to define the tendency of X i alteration by each
comptroller so that the direction of X i alteration
provides approximation of I i to 0, and by achieve-
ment of I i  0 the X i alteration ends.
n
In the case when  f i  X i  is more then Y3 , it is
i 1
necessary to decrease the fi  X i  values for each
comptroller. Function fi  X i  determines direction
of X i alteration for diminishing (or increasing) of
fi  X i  value. Then the rule of changing the re-
quests by each comptroller takes the form
  n 
X k 1,i  X k ,i  C  1    f i  X i   Y3  
  i 1 
(19)
  
 f iX k ,i    2   X   X k ,i     ,
n
 i 1  
where k – stage number; C – stage iteration coef-
ficient (hereinafter stage coefficient). Coefficients
1 and  2 in the equation (19) are worked in for
providing of dimensionless of the result obtained,
that cover the argument by consideration of models
of the different physical nature objects. Basic ad-
vantage of such a decentralized control is that each
MPC determines only one X i value on the basis of
its own behavior rule, moreover independence of
control task solving from the amount of comptrol-
lers in the system is provided.
Another feature must be noted, which should be
taken into account by generation of mining ma-
chines control systems of new generation. The mod-
ern level of functional and parametric requirements
resulted in transformation of mining machines from
the electromechanical systems into mechatronical,
characterized by the fact that machines organically
contain an “intellectual” component. The last cir-
cumstance plays a very essential role by forming of
functional repertory of requirements of the automa-
tion systems.
3 CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of offered and designed with the par-
ticipation of scientists of Dongiprouglemash insti-
tute and National Mining University theoretical
foundations in collaboration with the a number of
235
scientific organizations control systems for the
whole family of mining machines of new generation
are created, including cutter-loaders, tunneling ma-
chines, conveyor transport etc, which by rights can
be attributed to the mechatronic objects. The most
striking representatives of such machines are cutter-
loaders UKD300, UKD400, KDK500, KDK600,
computer conveyor transport control system,
SAUKL, etc, equipped by the variable-frequency
drive feed, computer system of control, diagnostic
and monitoring. The noted coal mining combines
and other equipment successfully work on the mines
of Ukraine and Russia.
REFERENCES
Pivnyak, G.G., Stadnik, N.I. & Tkachev V.V. 2007. Automa-
tion of homogeneous control objects. Dnіpropetrovs’k,
NMU: 160.
Pivnyak, G.G., Protsenko, S.M., Stadnik, M.I. & Tkachev,
V.V. 2007. Decentralised control. Dnipropetrovs’k,
NMU: 108.
This page intentionally left blank
 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4
Increase of stability of development openings using
combined mining system for flat coal seams on big depths
V. Medyanyk & Y. Medyanyk
National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Parameters of improving safety methods of protection of repeatedly used development work-
ings by strips of variable rigidity while using combined system of flat seams mining on large depths are con-
sidered.
1 INTRODUCTION
The further mining of flat coal seams at the transition
to incline part of mine fields has led to substantial
growth of mining depth. For last 10 years average
depth of mining in such part of Ukraine as Donbass
area has reached 870 m. Preservation of the reached
level will lead to increase of average depth of mining
up to 1000 m and working depths up to 1500-1600 m.
In such conditions the deterioration of mining-and-
geological conditions and mining conditions are pre-
dicted and expected even to a big degree of prelimi-
nary contouring of reserves of functioning workings.
It entails change of ways of preparation and mining
methods, schemes of transport and ventilation.
For struggle against a negative rock pressure mani-
festation on deep mines of the Central area of Don-
bass the tendency of transition to the combined and
continuous mining methods is observed. In a greater
degree long-pillar systems are subjected to negative
influence of mining depth. The long-pillar system
which earlier was applied everywhere, at transition
of mining operations to big depths has started to lose
the advantages owing to significant break of time
between the end of working of panels and the prepa-
ration of new ones, that appreciably influences stabil-
ity of functioning workings and violates normal op-
eration of stopes. It leads to significant material and
labour expenses, increase of a traumatism and non-
observance of operations of safety and deterioration
of technical and economic parameters of exploited
sites. Despite the great volumes of repair works and
their high labour input, extent of developments with
an unsatisfactory condition remains significant.
2 SUBSTANTIATION OF THE RESEARCHES
Protection of mine workings takes a significant part
237
in forming of coal production cost and, accordingly,
its cost price. A decrease of expenses is probably
only due to rational planning and a reuse of working
headings. Correctly chosen way of protection of
developments, and their duly qualitative repair cre-
ate a potential opportunity for use onboard footways
repeatedly.
Thus, a choice of the scientifically-proved way of
protection of developments on big depths as well as
parameters of its technology is an actual scientifi-
cally-practical problem. Many proceedings of em-
ployees of institutes engaged in mining, workers of
mines and associations, etc. are devoted to the ques-
tion of protection of functioning workings in a zone
of an extraction influence. At solving the questions
of development protection on big depths there are
inconsistent sights concerning the character of de-
formation and stability of functioning workings that
demands statement of researches in concrete geo-
logical conditions.
For certain conditions of flat seams exploitation
by the continuous, combined and long-pillar mining
methods to protect drifts from a rock pressure it is
acceptable to use not only one method, but using
them in various combination or combinations of
various elements. Thus, the combined methods of
protection the developments deserve the special
attention. Thus, the primary goal should be solved: a
decrease of the general stress of the rocks containing
a mine working to a minimum to provide stability of
development working for the period of operation.
The adverse condition of drift can be explained
by getting an adjacent strata and a support in a zone
of a high abutting pressure. The author offers to
locate elements of protection of development work-
ing in such way that adjacent strata around it will be
relieved from stresses. Therefore, for maintenance
of the most effective protection onboard footway
(drift) on a site, where on the one side there is a
massif of coal and on the other – a pack, it is neces-
sary to relieve the raised abutting pressure from a
massif of coal on some distance from drift deep into
a massif, and also to remove a pack concentrating a
stress in a drift into the goaf.
In a basis of work the invention (Novikova 2003)
was made up where the technical task of improve-
ment of a development working's protection way by
formation a dome of natural equilibrium above a
working is solved. As the face advances, demanded
redistribution and a decrease of stresses concentra-
tion in a stratum of rocks above a working inside of
a crest are reached and due to this stability mainte-
nance of a working during the service raises. As-
signed task is solved by the way of protection of the
development working, containing erection behind
longwall on a berm of a working a constant quarry-
stone abutting strip from rock. As the face advances,
combined pack between the face and the goaf near
the opening and the goaf is formed, and at that, from
the side of the coal massif – yieldable and rigid
supports in it are formed, and they provide forma-
tion of natural balance canopy above the opening of
rock strata. Above mentioned technical solution
provides achievement of result due to creation of a
zone of low concentration of stresses inside of natu-
ral balance canopy above a working that permits to

Y
mudstone
L1 L2
sandstone

Figure 1. The design scheme for definition of the stress-strain state: L1 – a rigid security strip; L2 – yielding, m; L3 – the
unloaded coal massif; I n – width of a working.
Stress and strain state was defined using a method
of finite elements in the shape of fictitious loadings
with use of an analytical solution of a known Calvin's
formula regarding the influence of the normal and
tangential forces, which are evenly distributed on a
238
maintain the openings in the massif unloaded from
the raised support pressure. The insignificant rock
pressure, which arises from weight of the overlying
rocks located inside of a contour of a natural bal-
ance canopy, will be stably perceived by applied
constructions of a support of a working and near the
drift yielding stripes. In this case, necessity of repair
work and erection of support with high loading abil-
ity decreases.
For an opportunity of reuse of the development
working, which was driven at combined mining
method after an advance of longwall, it is necessary
to provide its operational stability with the way
described above. The task is the definition of pack's
rational parameters with the variable rigidity, that
protect a working from the side of a goaf, and the
yielding support created by a drilling-out of the coal
from a massif side.
Such sizes of rigid and yielding parts of a pack
and such width of a yielding support under which
the deformation of a working's contour do not sur-
pass admissible values are considered as rational.
In terms of safety requirement rules, the height of
working can decrease with cross section of 11.2 m2
from 3130 mm up to 2102 mm, and width – from
4180 mm up to 2468 mm.
The design scheme is resulted on Figure 1.

В L3 siltstone Х
segment in infinite elastic area (Medyanik 2002).
The task was solved using additional stresses.
Complete stresses were considered to be equal to the
sum of original stresses, which are caused by weight
of rocks, and additional, arising in a massif as a
result of formation of a working. By the data of task,
total stresses on a contour of a working are equal to
zero. It means that additional stresses on it are equal
to H in vertical and to H in horizontal direc-
tions (l = n/(1-n) – lateral thrust coefficient, n –
Poisson's factor). On contacts of cooperating ele-
ments of investigated object (roof-rigid part of back-
fill-ground; roof-coal seam-ground; support-rock)
conditions of compatibility of deformations were
set.
Boundary conditions on a free contour:
 n0   'n 0,  s0   's 0.
On contacts of interacting elements of system:
 sik    si l   0 ,  nik    ni l   0 .
* *
usil   u si k   0 , unil   uni k   0 .
* *
(3)
The initial system of the equations of a solved
task is formed using of finite-element approxima-
tion boundaries of observable area, which is shown
on Figure 2.
It includes seven areas: C1 – a rock mass in seam
roof, C2 – a coal seam, C3 – a yielding support,
C4 – yielding backfilling strip, C5 – rigid backfill-
ing strip, C6 – a goaf, C7 – a rock mass in seam
(1) floor. Boundaries of areas Сk (k = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
are approximated according to N k elements which
quantity depends on length of considered bounda-
(2) ries L1 , L2 , L3 .

 y

C1



C3 С2

x
C7



Figure 2. The scheme of boundary conditions.

Generally, the initial system of the algebraic Solving received system 2 N linear algebraic
equations with 2 N unknown fictitious forces which
equations, we find forces Psi and Pni , and then,
describes the set boundary conditions on free con-
tours of studied area and conditions of compatibility according to a principle of superposition subject to
of deformations – on adjacent ones, looks like: formulas of a base analytical solution, we calculate
displacement and stresses in any point of studied
N
ij j
N
ij j i 
area.
 Css Ps   Csn Pn  bs  The support of a working was considered as two-
j 1 j 1  layer construction – a metal part and the part of a
N N
, (4)
ij j ij j i rock mass attached to it. Thus by L.V. Novikova's
 Cns Ps   Cnn Pn  bn
 technique the valid form of a surface of steel sup-
j 1 j 1 
port was replaced with cylindrical one. Thickness of
i  1, 2 , 3,..., N . cylindrical surface d was considered equal to
height of a structure h , made the support, and the
The right parts of the equations bsi , bni and fac-
module of elasticity was replaced with resulted one.
ij ij ij ij The value of module was such that the cylindrical
tors Css , Csn , Cns , Cnn , are defined by formulas
of a base analytical solution. support was equivalent to rigidity of a real support

239
on a site which length is equal to a step of support
setting l0 , i.e. that the condition was satisfied:
Est I st  Eпрl0 3 / 12 , (5)
where Est , I st , – the modulus of elasticity of steel
and the moment of inertia of a support structure.
In considered concrete case the support КМП-
А3-22/11.2 is used for which d  0.0112 m,
Est  2  105 MPa, I st  0.566  105 m, l0  0.85 m.
The resulted module of elasticity defined on this
data has made 1.2 × 104 МPа.
Calculations were carried out at various values of
parameters rigidity L1 and yielding L2 parts of a
pack. Width L3 of a yielding support from a massif
varied also.
On the basis of possible boundaries of change of
Table 1. Results of the correlation analysis.
(u х ) max (u у ) max
(u х ) max 1.00 0.97
(u у ) max 0.97 1.00
K 2 = L 3 /L 2 -0.28 -0.25
K 21 = L 2 /L 1 0.71 0.77
K 31 = L 3 /L 1 0.81 0.82
On the basis of the multi-linear correlated analy-
sis of results of performed calculation correlation
for relational, maximal, vertical and horizontal de-
formations of support's contour are found (6, 7):
u x max  21.18  2.02K 2 
5.38K 21  35.37 K 31 (6)
u y max  197.60  4.44K 2 
60.41K 21  157.43K 31 (7)
Correlation factors of the established dependences
have values accordingly r2  0.931 and r2  0.990.
Calculation under formulas has shown, that at
L1  8 m, L2  5 m, L3  3 m deformations of a
support's contour in unsafe section of a working make
( u y ) max = 36.4 mm, and ( u x ) max = 357.6 mm.
The calculated values do not exceed the values
supposed “Safety rules in coal and shale mines”.
From this point of view parameters L1  8 m,
L2  5 m, L3  3 m can be assumed as rational for
considered geological conditions.
240
varied sizes in the attitude L1 / L2 in calculations
accepted value [1,6; 1,8; 2,0; 2,2; 2,25; 2,4; 2,5; 2,6;
2,75; 3,0; 3,3; 3,6; 4,0; 4,5; 5,0; 5,5; 6,0; 8,0; 9,0;
10,0; 11,0; 12,0], and attitude L3 / L2 belonged to
area [1/5; 1/4 1/3; 2/5; 1/2; 3/5; 2/3; 3/4; 4/5; 1; 5/4;
4/3; 3/2; 5/3; 2; 5/2; 3; 4; 5].
125 calculations have been executed in total. Re-
sults of calculations in the form of the maximal
change of support's contour height ( u y ) max and
width ( u x ) max for all considered variants are ad-
duced in the table of appendix A. The specified sizes
( u y ) max and ( u x ) max are caused only by defor-
mation of the support.
The analysis of the received data has shown that de-
formations of a support's contour are in close interrela-
tion with attitudes L1 / L2 and L3 / L2 (Table 1).
K 2 = L 3 /L 2 K 21 = L 2 /L 1 K 31 = L 3 /L 1
-0.28 0.71 0.81
-0.25 0.77 0.82
1.00 -0.65 0.27
-0.65 1.00 0.30
0.27 0.30 1.00
For confirmation of the formulated conclusion
concerning the rational parameters of strips of vari-
able rigidity providing a stability of protected de-
velopment working, we will result diagram of calcu-
lated stresses  yy in studied area of a massif.
On Figure 3 the stresses  yy are shown in vari-
ous sections of seam roof and on Figure 4 seam
floors are shown.
It is important, that above support zone of “natu-
ral equilibrium's dome” – a zone of unloading is
formed. Distribution diagram of stresses  yy are
symmetric concerning a vertical axis of a support.
One should note, that at other values of these parame-
ters a symmetry of stresses distribution is violated and
dislocations of contour's points increase.
For the solution of task an imitating mathematical
modelling (Finite-Element Method) is used. The
experimental-analytical approach was applied.
Loading ( P ) on a pack in mine was gauged and
the parameters of interacting elements of rigid sys-
tems were selected which provide loading at the
appropriate level. Additional loading ( P ) allows
considering the time factor and distance to a stope.
A number of assumptions are corrected by empirical
 factors (they are achieved by results of mine tool practical application of stresses distribution around
measurements). By that the reception of enough development working was achieved.
simple, convenient and suitable dependences for

Y Y

(а) (b)
Х
 уу , М Pа Х

уу MPa
75
70

70 65
60
55
60 50
45
Х, m
50
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 Х, m -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
(в) У=2 m
У =4m

 уу,М P а  уу, М P а

75 75

70 70
65
65
60
60
55
55
50 Х, m
Х, m 50
-1 5 -1 0 -5 0 5 10 15
-1 5 -1 0 -5 0 5 10 15 У = 15 m
У = 9 m

Figure 3. Stress in seam roof: Y = 2 m; Y = 4 m; Y = 9 m; Y = 15 m.

Y models are received. This is the same idea, as in a

Illushin's method, so a task of plasticity is solved,
Х and a Erzhanov's Method (programs of a solution of
physically nonlinear tasks).
 уу , М Pа Thus, we solve an elastic task with additional
loading, measured in mine conditions. It allows to
80
obtain real data of loading which are responded to
70 concrete conditions of displacement of rocks in
development workings.
60
For check of correctness of the basic theoretical
50 positions and reception of actual parameters of de-
velopment workings protection at various mining
40
methods on mine “Progress” SC “Torezantracit” a
Х, m
number of natural researches (Medyanik 2002,
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
У = -1 m Medyanik 2007 & Kolokolov 2004) was conducted.
Besides, the purpose of mine investigations was to
Figure 4. Stress in seam bottom.
check availability of offered technology and to es-
tablish the basic technical and economic parameters
(Medyanik 2008).
On free surfaces the conditions of equality to zero Researches were carried out in the 7th southern
of dislocations stresses are set, and displacements and the 16-th western longwalls of the southern
are defined from a condition of task solution. On a panel #1, seams h 8 “Fominskogo”, mines “Pro-
contacting surface there is condition of deformation gress” SC “Torezantracit”. These longwalls were
compatibility; Taking advantage of measurement mined to the rise using combined mining method.
results and using P , real displacement on elastic For comparison of results the investigations were

241
carried out also in the 2nd longwall of the southern
panel 3, mining a seam h8 “Fominskogo” using
long-pillar mining method. For obtainment of the
authentic and objective information about character
and laws of stresses distribution, “Working method”
was developed according to which natural re-
searches were carried out. Also the selection of the
equipment was made for erection of strips of vari-
able rigidity and was directly approved in mine
conditions. Parts of interface of the 7th experimen-
tal-industrial longwall of Southern Panel #3 (UP
#3), seam h8 with the 8th southern footway are
Figure 5. The 7th trial longwall of Southern Panel #3 (UP#3), seam h 8 with the 8th southern footway.
242
resulted on Figure 5. For determination of physical-
mechanical properties of stowing material labora-
tory some researches were carried out.
On the basis of the analysis of a condition of mine
workings on horizon 1213-1340 m of mine “Pro-
gress” a way of protection and development of the
8th footway of seam h8 “Fominskogo” as object for
statement and carrying out of experimental re-
searches is proved. Application of the offered way
of footway protection with strips of variable rigidity
has confirmed its reliability and efficiency on an
experimental site.
3 CONCLUSIONS
Values of displacement of adjoining rocks are ex-
perimentally established, loadings in various sites of
protective elements around a mine working pro-
tected by strips of variable rigidity at various parame-
ters of rigid and yielding parts of packs are certain.
The least displacements take place at the size of a
pack's rigid part of 8 m, yielding – 5 m and at unload-
ing by wells of 3 m. It is discovered, that creation of
strips with variable rigidity provides symmetric load-
ings of mine working support elements within the
limits of its yielding, and also favorable and identical
geomechanical conditions of conducting the mining
operations, characterized by absence of dangerous
concentration of stresses in rocks of mine workings’
vicinity are created in boundaries of all mine field.
Under such circumstances the footway can be suc-
cessfully used repeatedly as a ventilation footway,
meeting demands of Safety Regulations and corre-
sponding to normal operation of the following
stope. Results of mine experimental measurements
have confirmed the results of analytical calculations
received above, with divergence up to 20%.
Economic benefit of application of the combined
systems of mining and improvement of a develop-
ing workings protection way makes up 105.961
UAH (appr. 20.9 thousand USD). So, actual scien-
tific task regarding substantiation of rational pa-
rameters of a development working protection using
combined mining method of flat seams at big depths
243
is solved, also decrease of amount of development
and repair operations in workings while retaining high
output of a stope.
REFERENCES
Novikova, L.V., Zaslavskaya, L.I. & Medyanik, V.Y. 2003.
Substantiation of protection method of reused develop-
ment opening. Collection of scientific works of National
Mining University, 17, volume 1. Dnipropetrovs’k: RIK:
22-25.
Medyanik, V.Y. & Medyanik, Y.A. 2002. Maintenance of
development openings using combined mining method
at deep horizons. Dnipropetrovs’k. Naukovy visnyk, 6:
50-52.
Medyanik, V.Y. 2002. Protection of development openings
of deep mines. Collection of scientific works of NMU,
15: 122-126.
Medyanik, V.Y., Yavorskiy, V.N., Lapko, V.V. & Mamaykin,
A.R. 2007. Research of method of protection of develop-
ment openings by means of strips of various rigidity. Dni-
propetrovs’k. Naukovy visnyk: 33-37.
Kolokolov, O.V., Medyanik, V.Y., & Rasstriga, V.P.
2004. Determination of basic technological parameters
of combined mining system in conditions of deep mines.
Dnipropetrovs’k. Naukovy visnyk: 12-15.
Medyanik, V.Y. & Korsz, P.P. 2008. Repairless mainte-
nance of development workings at exploitation of thin
flat coal seams on big depths. Międzynarodowy kongres
XVII School of Underground Mining – International
Mining Forum. Poland. Kraków-Szczyrk: 571-578.
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4

The concept of automation and monitoring

of the production process in an underground mine

J. Kicki & A. Dyczko

Polish Academy of Sciences - Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute, Krakow, Poland

ABSTRACT: The paper outlines the evolution of production monitoring systems used in the Polish mining
industry, focusing in particular on control systems. A concept to put together a mine production management
decision-aid system utilizing IT solutions and production monitoring is discussed. The solution consists in
integrating within a Production Reporting Center, proposed by the authors, series of data supplied from a
monitored area and technological process visualization.

1 INTRODUCTION and geological conditions and inherent natural haz-

The paper outlines the concept of creating a system
integrating current control center solutions with a
number of production systems utilized in mines,
which encompass the most essential infrastructure
of an underground mine. In future, control systems,
apart from providing for communication, control
and monitoring will have to incorporate most of the
control functions, securing the safety and continuity
of production and so becoming a basic part of a
Manufacturing and Execution System (MES), ie. a
computer system for monitoring, maintaining and
controlling mine production (Krzystanek 2004 &
Wojciechowsk 2004).
The practice so far shows that most of advanced
IT systems implemented at Polish mines are the
spectacular and „easy” Enterprise Resource Plan-
ning (ERP) systems – in particular the financial,
fixed asset management and consumables account-
ing modules. Modules which are more complex,
such as production management, material consump-
tion planning – as more difficult – are usually left
out (Kicki & Dyczko 2008).
The ultimate objective of the proposed solution is
to fill the information gap which in the authors'
opinion exists between the financial-accounting
systems that are already used by mining companies
and systems aiding monitoring, maintaining and
managing of mine production.
Mine management is in fact, just as in any other
company, a continuous decision-making process
whereby all current problems are attended to and
solved just as they appear. It is important to note
that in the case of mining companies production is
done in high-risk environment of changing mining
ards (Kicki 2007).
The safe and efficient managing of an underground
mine demands appropriate work organization and
constant supply of current and objective information
on the status of the technological process and work-
force safety. The information is made available by
monitoring and visualization systems comprising
sensors located in underground workings, which
provide for monitoring of the technological processes,
and command executing units allow to influence the
course of the process (Boroń 2007; Mironowicz &
Wasilewski 2006; www.siemens.com/mining).
Monitoring and visualizing of the technological
process and mine safety which in the classic ap-
proach is done by a mine control center is aimed at
fulfilling the requirements with respect to the duties
of the Mine Manager as stipulated in the mining and
geological law and related regulations (Prawo ge-
ologiczne i górnicze Ustaw 1994; Rozporządzenia
Ministra Gospodarki 2006 & Rozporządzenia Rady
Ministrów 2004).
The volumes of data collected at a mine, which
constantly grows following the advent of new
measuring methods and techniques, markedly sur-
passes the analytical capability of a human being.
Systems that are to be designed not only have to
provide clear information about a technological
process but have to, by appropriate selection and
adequate level of detail, provide help to specific,
specialized mine services, particularly controllers,
officials and machine operators, in their decision-
making processes (Dec 1999; Isakow 2005;
Krzystanek 2004, Mironowicz 2000; Skoczynski
1974 & Wojtas 2004).

245
2 DEVELOPMENT OF MONITORING
AND VIZUALIZATION SYSTEMS IN
UNDERGROUND MINES
Formally the organization of the services of an un-
derground mine is regulated by the mining and geo-
logical law (Prawo geologiczne i górnicze Ustaw
1994), which are detailed in the instructions by the
Minister of Economy on work safety, mine opera-
tion and fire hazard provisions in underground
mines (Rozporządzenia Ministra Gospodarki 2006)
and the governmental instructions with respect to
material and equipment approved for use in mines
(Rozporządzenia Rady Ministrów 2004).
The regulations named above require the mine op-
erator to establish a mine control center. Paragraph 8
specifies: (Rozporządzenia Ministra Gospodarki
2006):
1. An adequately equipped and manned control
center shall be established at each mining opera-
tions.
2. The duty of the control center personnel is on-
going control of the status of the mining operations
and work safety.
3. The control center is to be manned in particular
by controllers who have approved higher mining
management qualifications.
4. Details of the scope of responsibilities of the
mine control center and its work organization are
specified by the Mine Manager.
The quoted regulation formalizes the method of
managing a mining operations and tasks the Con-
troller with specific duties with respect to produc-
tion process control that he performs on behalf of
the Mine Manager. In order for the Controller to
efficiently perform his function the Regulator re-
quires he is equipped with appropriate technical
means, as specified in paragraph 64 of the regula-
tion, which states that the control center should be
provided with (Rozporządzenia Ministra Gospo-
darki 2006):
1. External communication provided by at least
two independent operators.
2. Direct PBX internal telephone communication.
3. Emergency lines independent from the PBX
system allowing to:
a) inform the control center of a hazardous situa-
tion in an underground working,
b) set an alarm in endangered underground work-
ings from the control center,
c) communicate with personnel employed in un-
derground workings by means of a loudspeaker
communication system.
4. Remote monitoring of work safety parameters.
The requirements regarding the quality, operation
and powering of a mine control center equipment
246
are detailed in a governmental instruction (Rozpor-
ządzenia Rady Ministrów 2004). The installation of
the equipment is subject to, among others, the ap-
proval procedure in the course of which an approval
has to be obtained from the Director of the National
Mining Authority for the particular piece of equip-
ment to be used at mines (Cuber 2008).
According to the quoted regulations the main du-
ties of a Controller are (Rozporządzenia Rady Min-
istrów 2004):
– monitoring the production process in order to
detect abnormalities and deviations from plan;
– monitoring the status of safety at the mine for
the purpose of hazard prevention;
– initiating and coordinating rescue operations
and repair operations in case of breakdowns;
– recording the statistics with respect to on-the-
job personnel per workplace, production volumes,
breakdowns and technological downtime;
– recording safety-related parameters and their
analysis in order to assess the current state and
trends of mine safety and to forecast possible occur-
rence of hazards;
– recording and analyzing mining machinery and
equipment working time in order to improve their
utilization and work organization.
In practice two controller positions are main-
tained – an operations controller (principal) and a
safety controller.
Mine operations control is done from the main
mine control room equipped with adequate technical
means which should provide for (Mironowicz &
Wasilewski 2005):
– communications, in order for the personnel to
report to the controller, for the controller to alarm
endangered workings and for communication with
personnel employed in underground workings by
means of a loudspeaker communication system;
– remote monitoring of work safety parameters;
– direct PBX telephone communication;
– external telephone communication.
During the past few decades a remarkable devel-
opment of the communications equipment used in
control centers was observed, starting from analog
telephone exchanges through specialized relay tech-
nology based systems to currently used state-of-the-
art digital equipment (Cuber 2008).
In the 1950s to 70s control rooms were equipped
comprehensively, fulfilling all the legal require-
ments. Among the equipment undergoing most fre-
quent modifications one has to name the alarm-and-
communication system, which evolved from CSG-
58 system through AUD-80 to the currently used
STAR and SAT systems (Cuber 2008; Wojaczek &
Cuber 2004).
The problem which is given particular attention in
the coal mining industry was measuring of parame-
ters related to the safety of the operations, particu-
larly underground environment rock mass parame-
ters. Technical advancement resulted in developing
new systems and telemetry equipment which found
their way into mine control centers in way of ex-
panding the existing or building new ones, com-
monly called methane control centers and mine
geophysics stations. Very often they were located
outside the main control room, connected with it
merely by telephone (Wojaczek & Cuber 2003).
The concept of an integrated control center in
Polish mining operations which motivated the de-
signers of the systems named earlier – as well as the
authors – has not so far had many supporters despite
Figure 1. An integrated control system's structure – after (Boroń 1998).
The limitations listed above were noted by control
system designers as early as in the late 1970s and
were the reason for the then used electronic and
electromagnetic relay systems being replaced by the
first computer systems (Boroń & Mironowicz
2007):
The following can be used to illustrate the solu-
tions and systems used (Mironowicz & Wasilewski
2006):
– MINOS systems used in English mines;
– MCM-101 system used in American mines.
In particular MCM system (Mine Communica-
tions and Monitoring System) implemented in 1975
247
the undoubted weaknesses of the currently used
systems, among which the following can be named
(Cuber 2008 & Krzystanek 2004):
– no potential for truly efficient operation;
– no ergonomics in operating individual stations;
– no synchronization between the individual sys-
tems registering various parameters;
– high maintenance cost of the whole control sys-
tem mainly due to the necessity to:
a) maintain a large number of rooms to locate the
station equipment;
b) employ a relatively large number of personnel;
c) install a large number of data transfer lines to
the end units.
(Mironowicz & Wasilewski 2000) may serve as an
illustration of a comprehensive approach to the
problem of a mine control center. As the main com-
ponents of the system “intelligent” telephones and a
central unit were used. The central unit and the tele-
phones were connected by a single coaxial cable.
The cable was laid in a way allowing to close the
whole circuit in a loop in order to secure communi-
cation in the case it was damaged; at the same time
the cable was used as a source of radio waves
(“leaking feeder”) providing for multi-channel
communication between the units comprising the
system. The system comprised 298 analog channels
and a 3 MHz wide digital channel hosting several
hundred independent time channels for telemetric
data transfer (Cuber 2008).
In the 1970s a number of automatic methane
measurement systems became available in the mar-
ket. This has caused the necessity to arrange for the
position of a methane controller (by law in excess of
20 detectors) whose job it was to oversee the
equipment comprising the system and report to the
operations controller. With the increase in methane
hazard and a growing number of telemetric central
units in mines it turned out that it was impossible
for one person to man all the units. It was necessary
to employ additional personnel. Very helpful in
Figure 2. Examples of technological process visualizations using SD2000 system's NEO application – after (Wójcik
2008).
3 A CONCEPT DECISION-AID SYSTEM
FOR MANAGEMENT UTILIZING I.T.
SOLUTIONS AND PRODUCTION
MONITORING
The concept decision-aid system used in the process
of managing a mine, which utilizes IT solutions and
production monitoring presented below is to ulti-
mately enable the following (Dyczko 2004):
– direct and uniform access to information at all
248
solving this problem was the advent of IT equip-
ment and systems that allowed to archive and visu-
alize measuring data on carriers other than paper
tape which is prone to damage and does not provide
for easy data access, both current and historical
(Cuber 2008).
The control software most common in the market
today is ZEFIR (NT). Some mining operations use
SD 2000 system, some use other software (WIZ-
CON, PARAGON, SW/iP-3NT). An example of
technological process visualizations with the use of
SD2000 system's NEO application is shown in
Figure 2 (Wójcik 2008).
levels of management;
– complete integration of data within one system;
– ready-made forms and reports;
– current inventory of events in places of their oc-
currence;
– elimination of multiple entering the same data.
Monitoring and electromechanical equipment
management systems are fundamental tools ena-
bling to gather information about work status of
machinery and equipment.
 Technological processes related to mining a min-
eral resource rely on efficient equipment and ma-
chines that are controlled by appropriate technical
personnel. The systems are linked directly with
remote monitoring technologies, communicate with
the automation units installed on the machinery and
transmit their work parameters to a central data
collection unit. Management systems form a techno-
logical data transfer network.
The authors propose that at the initial stage of in-
tegration the decision-aid system encompassed the
following areas:
Figure 3. A way of describing business segments and their interactions. Source: own research.
The core of the system will be formed by a plan-
ning and production scheduling module which will
enable automation of computation of the most es-
sential component elements of the Technical and
Economic Plan of a mine. Ultimately the system
will enable flexible modifications of the created
schedules and their export to reports prepared for
various levels of management. At the same time a
visualization platform will be created by integrating
the planning and scheduling module with a digital
mine map and linking it to a database containing
mining and geological parameters of the deposit
mined (Dyczko & Kłos; Kicki & Dyczko 2008).
The database will provide for storing and managing
qualitative and quantitative models of the deposit
and will be the principal source of data used when
scheduling development and production. The idea of
shearing the most important data within the system
is presented in Figure 4.
As far as asset and operation management is con-
cerned the proposed solution will enable integration
of data related to the assets owned by the company
and to the adopted maintenance strategy. In result
this will lead to organizing the existing information
on production assets and creating mechanisms for
central asset management at different data aggrega-
tion levels. Such approach will enable optimizing
stock and purchases management and will form a
base for designing optimal production budgets. On
the operational level this will lead to implementing
249
– mineral resource management,
– scheduling of development and production,
– production resource management,
– production process monitoring,
– company asset registry coordinated with pur-
chasing strategy.
These areas aid production processes which are
carried out according to the business segment model
and links (interactions) between the segments. The
segment structure is outlined in Figure 3 (Kicki
2001).
a consistent and uniform IT platform allowing for
full identification of individual asset units, far-
reaching ordering of data and production process
monitoring (Kicki & Dyczko 2007; Kicki, Dyczko
& Stopkowicz 2007).
The most important element of the proposed con-
cept is creating a competent and empowered Pro-
duction Reporting Center, which would be tasked to
manage the production processes and monitor effec-
tiveness of production resource utilization, ie. de-
cide about who, when, what and by what means.
Such Production Reporting Center will utilize
state-of-the-art technology, among others wireless
tracking systems for personnel, material and other
essential moving objects. This is very important
from the point of view of human resource manage-
ment. It is also important due to the requirements of
the mining and geological law and worker safety.
Apart from that monitoring of work of essential
electromechanical machinery along the technologi-
cal chain (production faces, horizontal and vertical
haulage) is envisaged. Similar solutions are already
in place around the world resulting in measurable
business benefits. Figure 5 presents CATS (Central-
ized Asset Tracking System) manufactured by
Becker Elektrotechnika used in South African mines
which allows to track both people and machines,
providing information as to their location and direc-
tion of movement.
Figure 4. The idea of mine production management decision-aid system data sharing based on IT solutions and production
monitoring. Source: own research.
Material logistics system will encompass fixed
assets used in the production process in order to
enable continuous monitoring of actual production,
downtime and their causes, breakdowns and person-
nel work hours. Of equal importance is access to
data which bypasses reports that are currently com-
piled manually by production and stores personnel.
A full set of data will be obtained from reporting
and data transfer network based on fiber-optic tech-
nology as well as monitoring and visualization sys-
tems.
The critical condition for the proposed concept is
the assumption that at each stage management deci-
sions are made based on more than one source of
information. This concerns measurement and con-
trol functions, where it is critically important to be
sure that the invoked function was actually carried
out. As an example here registry, locating and track-
ing of personnel underground can be given. Redun-
dancy in the area of measurements, data transfers,
processing and reporting is in this respect necessary
(Kicki 2008 & Wojciechowski 2001).
250
Integration of the underground personnel and ma-
chinery tracking systems will be done using the
RFID technology and a fiber-optic network, to
which a visual monitoring and technological data
transfer system will be connected.
Such means of communication, combined with
the mine's Ethernet, will help consolidating the
technological and safety systems with surface sys-
tems such as SCADA, ERP or MES. In addition it
will enable constructing an unlimited communica-
tions network underground based on wireless com-
puter technology whereby maps, analysis reports,
manuals etc could be sent from the control center on
the surface to handheld computers (PDA) under-
ground (Wojciechowski 2004).
In the presented concept we assumed that com-
munication between moving objects would be real-
ized based on the leaking feeder technology,
whereas material logistics and personnel identifica-
tion would be based on RFID technology combined
with a fiber-optic network. At the same time techno-
logical data transfer system encompassing visual
monitoring would be based on a fiber-optic network
comprising central units collecting information from
electromechanical units, where the data could be
Figure 5. Examples of ID transmitters and Tag readers, and visualization and data display in CATS tracking system – after
(www.becker-elektrotechnika.pl).
In order for the described concept to be realized it
is necessary to equip all machines and equipment in
automation systems connected to the central control
unit, providing for integration of individual ele-
ments comprising transport, safety, water supply,
ventilation and energy supply systems. The design
of the whole setup must consider variability of min-
ing and geological conditions and natural hazards
inherent to underground mines as well as effects
human mining activity has on the environment
(Wojciechowski 2001).
4 CONCLUSIONS
The concept of a decision-aid system for production
processes based on IT solutions and production
monitoring described in this paper was presented for
implementation to a large mining company compris-
ing several operations in Poland and was met with
great interest.
Taking this into account the basic assumptions for
the system were worked out, where the following
areas were highlighted as most important:
– mineral resource management;
251
accessed from computer workstations located un-
derground.
– development and production scheduling;
– production resource management;
– production process monitoring;
– company asset registry linked to a coordinated
purchasing strategy.
At the same time designers of the solution were
obliged to provide for specific needs of the mines
were the system was to be implemented, and to
choose such component elements of the system that
would ultimately guarantee:
– flexible expansion of the system;
– integration with the existing solutions;
– possibility of integration with current and future
financial-accounting system;
As a measure of success of the implementation
the achievement of the following business benefits
were chosen:
– standardization of all reports generated by the
control center;
– direct and full monitoring of production proc-
esses at the Board of Directors' level;
– increased level of production process monitor-
ing – decreased risk of breakdowns;
– increased availability of machinery and equip-
ment resulting in increased production and sales
volumes;
– decreased reaction times in case of breakdowns.
Finally it must be stressed that the most important
element of the proposed system is not at all the pos-
sibility to integrate various systems and technical
solutions – this, as was shown in this paper – is
already a fact thanks to quick development of the
communications technology. In our opinion it is
most important from the point of view of managing
a modern mine to create and adequately empower a
Production Reporting Center in which the essential
information regarding production obtained from
monitoring and visualization systems will be ana-
lyzed and reported in real time.
We are certain that the possibility to have imme-
diate access to feedback reporting on actual produc-
tion and its relation to plan, making crucial produc-
tion decisions and reacting in real time to abnor-
malities and deviations in the production process
will allow to obtain a real picture of the utilization
of the available production capacity and will also
have a positive effect on work safety.
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 New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4
Methods of calculation of pressing
value of frame support’s props
A. Mamaykin, V. Lapko & L. Tokar
National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Method of calculation of support’s props pressing is presented. The method is conditioned by
joint influence of vertical load on a support and loosening weak rocks of a working’s buttom.
1 INTRODUCTION
Cost saving for mine support of mine workings that
are being exploited is one of the most current prob-
lems for mining enterprises of Western Donbass. It
depends on depth increase of coal seams as well as
deterioration of mining and geological conditions. It
results in decrease of stability of primary workings
(Bondarenko 2006, Kovalevskaya 2008).
Today support erection is the key method to en-
sure stability of workings and maintenance of them
in proper exploitation state. Impressing of props of
arc supports takes place with increase of mining
operations conditions of soft weakly-
metamorphosed rocks. Foot bearing is useful to
minimize impressing value.
The paper’s main objective is to develop calcula-
tion methodology of props impression value with
foot bearings.
2 GEOMECHANICS OF SYSTEM
“MASSIF-SUPPORT”
Geomechanical processes modeling in the vicinity
of in-seam working is performed taking into account
five parameters:  com
R ,B
– ultimate uniaxial compres-
sion strength; (  com ) /  com
R ,B 0 R ,B
– relative retained
strength at a stage of loosening; ( E R ,B ) c.i – condi-
tionally-instantaneous modulus of deformation;
M R ,B / E R ,B – relative drop modulus at the stage
of softening (indices “ R ” and “ B ” stand for roof
and bottom; L – reduced area of support’s prop.
Geomechanical processes modeling within in-
seam working is performed taking into considera-
tion cohesion losses along bedding plane of adjacent
rock layers. Dislocation of a mine working relative
to a coal seam is carried out with combined roof and
255
bottom breaking. Typical cross-sections of the
workings are performed having real geometrical
parameters of supports YMS-А3 and PYSEP made
of special profile, interframe shield with reinforced
concrete or wooden lagging and backfilled support
space.
While calculating value of impression of sup-
port’s props and estimation of its operation condi-
tion, the main source data are: previously marked
mechanical data of adjacent rock seams of roof and
x
bottom; H – calculation stratification depth; –

rheological index and geometrical parameters of a
mine working’s cross-section.
Calculation stratification depth H is calculated
according to the following formula:
H  H pr  K , (1)
where H pr – designed factual stratification depth
of or its part from the surface, m; K – stress con-
centration coefficient that considers difference of
rock massif’s stress state from nonhydrostatic state
conditioned only by its own weight of rock stratum.
Rated true depth of working distribution varied
within H  200...600 m, taking into account ending
mining of higher levels of mines of JSC “Pavlo-
gradugol”.
Mechanical data of neighboring rock seams are
chosen on the data of geotechnical investigation
within specific area of mine field. In the absence of
some data concerning rock characteristics (espe-
cially under the out-of-limit conditions) guide val-
ues of mechanical data of rocks of Western Donbass
are taken on data of Table 1 compiled on the re-
search by IGIM of NAS of Ukraine and NMU.
Design strength of neighboring rock seams to com-
pression R1R,2,B is determined by the equation (CD
1998):
R1R,2,B   com
R ,B
 Kc  K w  Kt , (2) neighboring rock seams (  com ) /  com
R ,B 0 R ,B
and
1,2 1 1

M 1R,2,B / E1R,2,B are chosen depending on rock type

where  com
R ,B
– value of rock strength to uniaxial
1,2 according to the Table 1 data.
compression in a pattern, MPa; K c – factor that Geometrics of typical cross-sections of workings
takes into account extra fault of rock mass by means with YMS-АЗ and PYSEP props are determined on
of unfastening surfaces without adhesion or if little the data from papers.
y
adhesion is available; K w – factor that takes into Forcing value U prop of supports into the rocks is
account flooded rocks loosening due to earth leak- determined on the formula
age on water mass of water-bearing formations;
K t – factor that takes into account decrease in rock y
U prop y

 U prop 
typ
 K1  K 2  K 3  L , (6)
strength as for uniaxial compression under steady
loading; it is determined by the following formula: 
y
where U prop 
typ
– value of support forcing into sill

Kt  1 
x
, (3) under standard conditions; K1 – influence factor of

design strength R1B,2 on contraction of roof; K 2 –
x influence factor of mechanical data E1B and
where – rheological index; it is determined ac-

cording to research by IGIM of NAS of Ukraine on (  com
B
1
)0 /  com
B
of the first rock joint; K 3 – influ-
1
the equation ence factor of standard drift size and a type of the
x
 0.8  0.326 log10  com
R ,B
. (4)
y
prop used. U prop 
typ
value is determined by the
 1,2
lines in the Figure 1 depending on designed depth
H of working distribution and design strength to
Design modulus of deformation of neighboring
rock seams is determined by the formula compressing R1B of the first rock joint under stan-
dard conditions of working maintenance: standard

E1R,2,B  E1R,2,B  
c .i 
x
1   ,

(5) drift size YMS-А3-13.8; design strength to roof
 
rocks compression R1B  R2B  10 MPa; relative
where ( E1R,2,B ) c.i – conventionally instantaneous value of residual strength of the first rock joint
modulus of rock deformation; it is determined on the (  com
B
1
)0 /  com
B
 0.15 ; design modulus of the
1
data of geotechnical investigation from the Table 1.
Mechanical data of out-of-limit deformation of first rock joint deformation E1B  0.6 10 4 MPa.

Table 1. Guide values of mechanical data of complete diagram of rock deformation.

Parameters
Rock Type
 com
R ,B
, MPa (  com
R ,B 0
) /  com
R ,B
EiR ,B 10 4 , MPa M iR ,B / Ei
R ,B
1 1 1
Shale 8…25 0.10…0.25 0.2…1.0 0.5…1.7
Sandy Shale 15…45 0.08…0.20 0.4…1.5 1.0…3.0
Sandy Shale,
25…55 0.05…0.15 0.8…2.0 2.0…5.0
Arenite

K1 – factor is determined by lines in the Figure 2 design modulus of deformation E1B and relative
depending on design strength to compressing R1B,2 of value (  com
B
1
)0 /  com
B
; and residual strength of the
1
the first and second rock joints of roof. K 2 – factor first rock joint. K 3 – factor is determined on the
is determined by lines in the Figure 3 depending on Table 2 depending on standard size of working as

256
well as a type of prop used. Reduced area of support S0
of working that is necessary for calculations is de- where S  – relation of chosen area of frame
S max
termined on the rule:
support to maximum possible design area of frame
S 1.35   support in mm2.
L  2 tg  S  , (7)
S2 4 

Figure 1. Lines to determine forcing Figure 2. Lines to determine of Figure 3. Lines to determine influ-
 y
U prop 
typ
of frame supports into sill influence factor K1 of design ence factor K 2 of the first rock
strenth effect to roof rocks forcing. joint mechanical data effect.
under standard conditions.

Table 2. Values of factor depending on standard drift size and a type of prop.

Type of Prop Area of drift size in clear up to support sit ( S clear , m2) and K 3 value
YMS-А3 7.9 9.2 11.2 13.8 15.5 18.3
K3 0.78 0.83 0.91 1.00 1.05 1.13
PYSEP 9.5 10.5 11.7 12.1 14.4 17.7
K3 0.96 1.01 1.08 1.10 1.21 1.35

(а) (b)
)

Figure 4. Actual state of working: (a) without support; (b) with supports.

257
3 RESULTS
Results of developed calculation procedure are con-
firmed by effect of field survey performed in mines
of Western Donbass.
Thus, prediction estimate of in-seam working op-
erating condition for mining and geological setting
used for estimates shows its acceptable state by the
factor of frame legs forcing into rock seams. With it,
demands concerning safe use of rail haulage, pas-
sages of workers and maintenance of ventilation run
of area are satisfied. Besides calculation of value of
frame legs forcing, it is necessary to determine lat-
eral reaction of support and a component under
estimation of loss of working cross-section if rock
heaving is available.
258
REFERENCES
Bondarenko, V.I., Kovalevskaya, I.A., Simanovich, G.А.
& Fomichov, V.V. 2006. Computerized modeling of
stress strain behavior of fine-grained rock mass in the
vivinity of in-seam working. Dnipropetrovs’k: System
technologies: 172.
Kovalevskaya, I.А., Mamaykin, А.R. & Fomichov, V.V.
2008. The study of influence of geomechanical parame-
ters of coal block of soft rocks on sill heaving. Learned
Messenger of NMU: 32-35.
CD 12.01.01.201-98. 1998. Distribution, protection and
maintenance of mine workings during mining of coal in
mines. Methodological instructive regulations. Kiev:
UkrSRMI: 149.