PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

SHORT COURSE 2009

EMPIRICAL DESIGN METHODS FOR UNDERGROUND MINES

 PARAMETER RANGES OF VALUES
FOR THIS LOW RANGE - UNIAXIAL,
POINT LOAD
>8 Mpa 4-8 Mpa 2-4 Mpa 1-2 Mpa COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IS
STRENGTH OF STRENGTH INDEX PREFERRED
INTACT ROCK UNIAXIAL
1
MATERIAL COMPRESSIVE >200 Mpa 100-200 Mpa 50-100 Mpa 25-50 Mpa 10-25 Mpa 3-10 Mpa 1-3 Mpa
STRENGTH
RATING 15 12 7 4 2 1 0
DRILL CORE QUALITY RQD 90%-100% 90%-75% 75%-50% 50%-25% <25%
2
RATING 20 17 13 8 3
SPACING OF JOINTS >3 m 1-3 m 0.3-1 m 50-300 mm <50 mm
3
RATING 30 25 20 10 5
Very rough surfaces Slightly rough Slightly rough Slickensided surfaces
Soft gouge >5 mm thick
Not continuous No surfaces surfaces or gouge <5 mm thick
CONDITION OF JOINTS separation hard separation<1mm separation<1mm or joints open 1-5 mm
or joints open >5 mm Continuous
4 joints
join wall rock hard join wall rock soft join wall rock Continuous joints

RATING 25 20 12 6 0
INFLOW PER 10m
None < 25 L/min 25-125 L/min > 125 L/min
TUNNEL LENGTH
RATIO
joint water pressure 0 0.0 - 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 > 0.5
GROUND WATER major principal stress
5
Moist only Water under
GENERAL CONDITION Completely Dry (interstitial moderate Severe water problems
water) pressure
RATING 10 7 4 0

4
Preface

The Design Methods for Underground Mines Course for the UBC Summer Institute has been
compiled with the mine operator in mind. Numerous conferences, papers and texts have been
written on the procedures to gather and analyze data for implementing into a design process.
Although there is wide experience and expertise in the design of mine openings, it has not been
compiled into a volume that enables users to engineer their work place based upon past
experience and practice augmented by sound engineering principles. Mining is a dynamic
process, which requires in excess of thousands of cubic metres of openings to be developed daily
over the life of a mining operation. Those openings may be for development and/or production
purposes, however all cases must be designed so as to ensure the required behaviour. The site
engineer therefore, must design the mine opening or pillars after addressing all issues relevant to
the design and assessment of the overall behaviour.
This course is designed to give the operator a design procedure that has been developed in
conjunction with academia and practicing operations. This design procedure has been
implemented at over twenty mines throughout the world. However, this course is primarily
tailored for North American operations. This course references numerous authors in the field and
applies their findings to arrive at tools for design. The geomechanics design group at the
University of British Columbia has been instrumental in developing the design curves presented
here along with the direction and sponsorship of CANMET and mining operations throughout
Canada. This manual is being extended in conjunction with NIOSH-SRL to weak rock masses
and to areas which are site specific to conditions observed at mining operations throughout the
United States. 5
DESIGN PAPER 1998
COURSE REFERENCE

EMPIRICAL DESIGN METHODS 6

UNDERGROUND METAL MINES
 PARAMETER RANGES OF VALUES
FOR THIS LOW RANGE - UNIAXIAL,
POINT LOAD
>8 Mpa 4-8 Mpa 2-4 Mpa 1-2 Mpa COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IS
STRENGTH OF STRENGTH INDEX PREFERRED
INTACT ROCK UNIAXIAL
1
MATERIAL COMPRESSIVE >200 Mpa 100-200 Mpa 50-100 Mpa 25-50 Mpa 10-25 Mpa 3-10 Mpa 1-3 Mpa
STRENGTH
RATING 15 12 7 4 2 1 0
DRILL CORE QUALITY RQD 90%-100% 90%-75% 75%-50% 50%-25% <25%
2
RATING 20 17 13 8 3
SPACING OF JOINTS >3 m 1-3 m 0.3-1 m 50-300 mm <50 mm
3
RATING 30 25 20 10 5
Very rough surfaces Slightly rough Slightly rough Slickensided surfaces
Soft gouge >5 mm thick
Not continuous No surfaces surfaces or gouge <5 mm thick
CONDITION OF JOINTS separation hard separation<1mm separation<1mm or joints open 1-5 mm
or joints open >5 mm Continuous
4 joints
join wall rock hard join wall rock soft join wall rock Continuous joints

RATING 25 20 12 6 0
INFLOW PER 10m
None < 25 L/min 25-125 L/min > 125 L/min
TUNNEL LENGTH
RATIO
joint water pressure 0 0.0 - 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 > 0.5
GROUND WATER major principal stress
5
Moist only Water under
GENERAL CONDITION Completely Dry (interstitial moderate Severe water problems
water) pressure
RATING 10 7 4 0

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
DESIGN PAPER 2002
COURSE REFERENCE

EMPIRICAL DESIGN METHODS 18

UNDERGROUND METAL MINES
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
 DESIGN PAPER 2007
COURSE REFERENCE

WEAK ROCK MASS DESIGN FOR UNDERGROUND 26

MINING OPERATIONS
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
 DESIGN PAPER 2008
COURSE REFERENCE

WEAK ROCK MASS DESIGN FOR UNDERGROUND 37

MINING OPERATIONS
38
39
40
41
42
43
 RMR 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

REINFORCEMENT CATEGORIES 5) Fibre reinforced shotcrete, 50-90mm, and bolting

1) Unsupported
2) Spot Bolting
3) Systematic Bolting
4) Systematic bolting with 40-100mm
unreinforced shotcrete
6) Fibre reinforced shotcrete, 90-120mm, and bolting
7) Fibre reinforced shotcrete, 120-150mm, and bolting
8) Fibre reinforced shotcrete, >150mm, with reinforced
ribs of shotcrete and bolting
9) Cast concrete lining

Qw = 5Q for Q>10, Qw = 2.5Q for 0.1<Q<10, Qw = Q for Q<0.1

44
45
46
 47

DESIGN METHODOLOGY
 STRESS ANALYSIS

FABRIC ANALYSIS
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION

INDUCED STRESS > ROCK MASS STRENGTH

YES YES
NO
BURST
YIELD

MODIFY GEOMETRY IS STRUCTURE CONTROLLING STABILITY

MODIFY MINING METHOD
SUPPORT
YES
DESTRESS NO
SEISMIC
MONITORING
OTHER

NUMERICAL MODELLING
ANALYTICAL DESIGN EMPIRICAL DESIGN SOLUTION
STRESS EFFECT

LIMIT SPAN
SUPPORT WEDGE
SEQUENCE
OTHER

EXCAVATION AND MONITORING

RE-EVALUATE MINE PLAN
48
PRACTICAL ROCK ENGINEERING
DEFINITIONS

Rock mechanics is the theoretical and applied

behaviour of rock; it is that branch of mechanics
concerned with the response of rock to the force
fields of its environment.

Engineering rock mechanics deals with rock as

an engineering material: primarily with changes in
its mechanical behaviour such as stress, strain
and the motion of rock brought about by
engineering activity.
49
TWO PRIME OBJECTIVES OF
THE MINE OPERATOR

I. The mine must be safe

II. The mine must operate as

economically as possible

50
 APPROACH - INPUT

MINERS/OPERATIONS
• GIVE INSIGHT INTO THE BASIC ENGINEERING
ASPECTS OF STABILITY

GEOLOGY/ENGINEERING
• INSIGHT INTO POTENTIAL GROUND CONTROL
PROBLEMS
• STRESS, STRUCTURE, ROCK MASS
• CORE LOGGING, MAPPING, ROCK MASS

51
 DEFINITIONS
Discontinuity or fracture
• the general term for any mechanical discontinuity in a rock
mass having zero or low tensile strength. It is the collective term
for most types of joints, foliation and faults.
Joint
• a break of geological origin in the continuity of a body of rock
along which there has been no visible displacement.
Fault
• a fracture or fracture zone along which there has been
recognisable displacement, from a few centimetres to a few
kilometres in scale.
Shear
• a small fault.
Foliation
• parallel minor changes in the rock lithology often coinciding
with joints. 52
STRUCTURALLY CONTROLLED INSTABILITY

53
 Increase in unstable rock volume with increase in excavation size in
example in which the excavation axis is parallel to the strike of the line
of intersection of the joints.
54
WEDGE FAILURE AS A FUNCTION OF
MAXIMUM SPAN

Maximum wedge size is related to span.

55
STABLE AND UNSTABLE OPENING GEOMETRIES
STABLE AND UNSTABLE BACKS

56
 IDENTIFYING GROUND CONDITIONS

Failure may frequently be initiated by changes of rock pressure as a result

of mining, The actual rock however that falls out is usually outlined by
these geological features.
57
Unfavourable orientation Favourable orientation

58
59
60
 BASIC TYPES OF INSTABILITY

I. Structurally controlled II. Stress induced

instability (strong rock / instability (weak rock /
low stress) high stress)

61
62
IMPLICATIONS ON DESIGN
ROCK MASS PARAMETERS

63
64
65
66
 RMR 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

REINFORCEMENT CATEGORIES 5) Fibre reinforced shotcrete, 50-90mm, and bolting

1) Unsupported
2) Spot Bolting
3) Systematic Bolting
4) Systematic bolting with 40-100mm
unreinforced shotcrete
6) Fibre reinforced shotcrete, 90-120mm, and bolting
7) Fibre reinforced shotcrete, 120-150mm, and bolting
8) Fibre reinforced shotcrete, >150mm, with reinforced
ribs of shotcrete and bolting
9) Cast concrete lining

Qw = 5Q for Q>10, Qw = 2.5Q for 0.1<Q<10, Qw = Q for Q<0.1

67
 Updated Span Design Curve
(292 obs)
Span
Post Pillar

Span

Span = Diameter of the largest

circle which can be drawn between
pillars and walls in plan view
Design Span (m)

UNSTABLE
LE
AB
S T
UN
LY
I AL
N T STABLE
T E
P O

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Rock Mass Rating

68
 PILLAR STABIITY GRAPH – 178obs
0.7
FS=1.0
FAILED
0.6
UNSTABLE

0.5
FS=1.4
AVERAGE PILLAR LOAD/UCS

0.4

STABLE
0.3

0.2

0.1
178 obs .

0.0

0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2

PILLAR WIDTH/HEIGHT RATIO
P ILLAR STABILITY CLASSIFICATION
Failed Unstable Stable

69
 IDENTIFYING GROUND
CONDITIONS

STRESS
STRUCTURE
OBSERVATION ANALYSIS PREDICTION

70
 71

DESIGN METHODOLOGY
72
 STRESS ANALYSIS

FABRIC ANALYSIS
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION

INDUCED STRESS > ROCK MASS STRENGTH

YES YES
NO
BURST
YIELD

MODIFY GEOMETRY IS STRUCTURE CONTROLLING STABILITY

MODIFY MINING METHOD
SUPPORT
YES
DESTRESS NO
SEISMIC
MONITORING
OTHER

NUMERICAL MODELLING
ANALYTICAL DESIGN EMPIRICAL DESIGN SOLUTION
STRESS EFFECT

LIMIT SPAN
SUPPORT WEDGE
SEQUENCE
OTHER

EXCAVATION AND MONITORING

RE-EVALUATE MINE PLAN
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
 80

DATA GATHERING -
STRESS
INPUT PARAMETER
STRESS

81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
 STRESS ANALYSIS

FABRIC ANALYSIS
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION

INDUCED STRESS > ROCK MASS STRENGTH

YES YES
NO
BURST
YIELD

MODIFY GEOMETRY IS STRUCTURE CONTROLLING STABILITY

MODIFY MINING METHOD
SUPPORT
YES
DESTRESS NO
SEISMIC
MONITORING
OTHER

NUMERICAL MODELLING
ANALYTICAL DESIGN EMPIRICAL DESIGN SOLUTION
STRESS EFFECT

LIMIT SPAN
SUPPORT WEDGE
SEQUENCE
OTHER

EXCAVATION AND MONITORING

RE-EVALUATE MINE PLAN
89
STRESS

90
91
 s3 = VERTICAL STRESS = sv
0.027MPa/m DEPTH

s2 = 1.3 sv

s1= 1.6 sv
Ex. A PERSON WEIGHING 200LBS HAVING A SIZE 11 (11” X 3”) 200/33 ~ 6psi
92
 ~ N
O

V1
RE
TR
= 8.18MPa + 0.0422MPa/m of DEPTH
V1
EN
D =1191psi +1.87psi/ft of DEPTH
DIRECTION: PERPENDICULAR TO STRIKE OF ORE AND 0o DIP
N4
5
o
W

W E V2 = 3.64MPa + 0.0276MPa/m of DEPTH

=528psi +1.22psi/ft of DEPTH
DIRECTION: PARALLEL TO STRIKE OF ORE AND 0o DIP

V2
V3 = 0.029MPa/m of DEPTH
=1.28psi/ft of DEPTH
DIRECTION: VERTICAL

S V3=VERTICAL

RED LAKE MINE

93
 EAGLE POINT MINE

EPM Mining Sequence – FW analysis of Stress / Strength

340mL

Caves 370mL

385mL

Mined Stopes 400mL

420mL

Analysis Grid in FW

94
 CALCULATIONS
Stress distribution
• stress distribution around an underground
opening is analogous to water flow around
an obstruction (similar to flow nets)

95
96
97
98
99
100
101
 ROCK BURSTING
• occurs in high stress ground conditions

• occurs in brittle, competent ground

102
103
104
105
106
107
108
INPUT PARAMETER
STRUCTURE

109
 110

DATA GATHERING -
STRUCTURE
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
Geological
Data Collection

120
 FEATURES TO RECORD
As a general rule, features less than approximately
1 ½ meters (approx. 5 feet) should not be
considered in a survey. Blast damage always
creates a great many fractures. By setting a
minimum mapping size it is hoped that the majority
of induced fractures will be ignored.

121
Stereonet Plotting

122
 STEREONET PLOTTING
Stereonets are tools which allow planes in 3-dimensional space to be
represented as points on a piece of paper.

There are several types of stereographic projections used, each with

slightly different applications. Some of the systems are:
Polar projections
Equatorial projections
-Equal Angle (Wulff net)
-Equal Area (Lambert or Schmidt net)

Polar projections are best used with dip direction and dip joint data.
Equal angle nets are slightly easier to use for geometrical
constructions. Equal Area nets are best for the statistical treatment of
large amounts of data.

The use of equal area (Schmidt) nets are discussed further.

123
124
125
 EQUAL AREA NETS

The Lambert equal area projection is used by geographers

to represent the shape of the earth on a flat surface.
126
 EQUAL AREA NETS

The nets are constructed so that a given area on a

sphere is projected as an equal percentage of the total
area in plan.
127
An equal area Schmidt
net is formed from the
projection of the lower
hemisphere of a
reference sphere.

128
129
A plane can be
represented on an equal
area net as a great
circle. This method of
representation becomes
very messy if more than
half a dozen planes are
represented.

To handle a large amount

of data, poles of the
planes are plotted.

130
131
132
133
 STEREONET PLOTTING
When plotting joint fabric data on a stereonet, it is
easiest to plot the features as poles.

Poles representing joints, foliation, faults, etc.,

should be differentiated (i.e. small dots, large dots
and crosses). This simplifies the interpretation of
the data.

To interpret joint fabric mapping data it is

necessary to first contour the plotted poles. The
following figure shows poles plotted from a joint
fabric mapping survey.
134
 STEREONET CONTOURING
It is possible to contour the poles to great circles on an equal area net.

The following steps are necessary to contour the data:

1. A contouring grid underlay is used composed of overlapping

circles, each representing 1% of the area of the net.

2. The number of poles in each circle is counted and recorded at the

centre of the circle.

3. These numbers are recorded on a separate net overlay and then

contoured according to the percentage of the total number of
joints mapped found in each 1% area. (Symbols for the contouring
values are given on a separate page.)

135
136
137
138
139
 ROCK MASS
CLASSIFICATION

140
 141

DATA GATHERING –
ROCK MASS
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
 PARAMETER RANGES OF VALUES
FOR THIS LOW RANGE - UNIAXIAL,
POINT LOAD
>8 Mpa 4-8 Mpa 2-4 Mpa 1-2 Mpa COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IS
STRENGTH OF STRENGTH INDEX PREFERRED
INTACT ROCK UNIAXIAL
1
MATERIAL COMPRESSIVE >200 Mpa 100-200 Mpa 50-100 Mpa 25-50 Mpa 10-25 Mpa 3-10 Mpa 1-3 Mpa
STRENGTH
RATING 15 12 7 4 2 1 0
DRILL CORE QUALITY RQD 90%-100% 90%-75% 75%-50% 50%-25% <25%
2
RATING 20 17 13 8 3
SPACING OF JOINTS >3 m 1-3 m 0.3-1 m 50-300 mm <50 mm
3
RATING 30 25 20 10 5
Very rough surfaces Slightly rough Slightly rough Slickensided surfaces
Soft gouge >5 mm thick
Not continuous No surfaces surfaces or gouge <5 mm thick
CONDITION OF JOINTS separation hard separation<1mm separation<1mm or joints open 1-5 mm
or joints open >5 mm Continuous
4 joints
join wall rock hard join wall rock soft join wall rock Continuous joints

RATING 25 20 12 6 0
INFLOW PER 10m
None < 25 L/min 25-125 L/min > 125 L/min
TUNNEL LENGTH
RATIO
joint water pressure 0 0.0 - 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 > 0.5
GROUND WATER major principal stress
5
Moist only Water under
GENERAL CONDITION Completely Dry (interstitial moderate Severe water problems
water) pressure
RATING 10 7 4 0

151
152
153
154
155
156
157
Geotechnical
Core Logging

158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
JOINT ROUGHNESS PROFILE

172
173
174
175
 PARAMETER RANGES OF VALUES
FOR THIS LOW RANGE - UNIAXIAL,
POINT LOAD
>8 Mpa 4-8 Mpa 2-4 Mpa 1-2 Mpa COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IS
STRENGTH OF STRENGTH INDEX PREFERRED
INTACT ROCK UNIAXIAL
1
MATERIAL COMPRESSIVE >200 Mpa 100-200 Mpa 50-100 Mpa 25-50 Mpa 10-25 Mpa 3-10 Mpa 1-3 Mpa
STRENGTH
RATING 15 12 7 4 2 1 0
DRILL CORE QUALITY RQD 90%-100% 90%-75% 75%-50% 50%-25% <25%
2
RATING 20 17 13 8 3
SPACING OF JOINTS >3 m 1-3 m 0.3-1 m 50-300 mm <50 mm
3
RATING 30 25 20 10 5
Very rough surfaces Slightly rough Slightly rough Slickensided surfaces
Soft gouge >5 mm thick
Not continuous No surfaces surfaces or gouge <5 mm thick
CONDITION OF JOINTS separation hard separation<1mm separation<1mm or joints open 1-5 mm
or joints open >5 mm Continuous
4 joints
join wall rock hard join wall rock soft join wall rock Continuous joints

RATING 25 20 12 6 0
INFLOW PER 10m
None < 25 L/min 25-125 L/min > 125 L/min
TUNNEL LENGTH
RATIO
joint water pressure 0 0.0 - 0.2 0.2 - 0.5 > 0.5
GROUND WATER major principal stress
5
Moist only Water under
GENERAL CONDITION Completely Dry (interstitial moderate Severe water problems
water) pressure
RATING 10 7 4 0

176
177
 KENCANA
GEOTECHNICAL DEFECT LOG - FIELD
BOREHOLE

DEFECT DESCRIPTIONS
depth type alpha beta jws shape ampl. length infill thick rock type

178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
 190

SUPPORT
TYPES OF SUPPORT
COMMONLY IN USE

191
STUCTURALLY CONTROLLED
INSTABILITY
WEDGE FAILURE

192
193
194
195
 UNTENSIONED
GROUTED
DOWEL
Typical data:

Background:
Developed as an inexpensive solution where use of untensioned dowels is appropriate. A thick
grout is pumped into the drillhole by means of a simple hand pump or monopump. The
dowel is pushed into the grout as shown in the illustration. For up-holes, the dowel is sometimes
held in place by bending the dowel slightly during insertion. A faceplate and nut can be added if
required although, for light support, a plain dowel is sometimes used. Resin cartridges can also
be used to encapsulate the bar and provide bonding to the rock.
Advantages:
Simple and inexpensive. High corrosion resistance in permanent installations.
Disadvantages:
Cannot be tensioned and hence must be installed before significant deformation of the rock mass
has taken place. Care must be taken to ensure resin “grout” is properly mixed. Resin has limited
shelf life.
Applications:
Widely used in the mining industry for general support duties.
196
 SPLIT SET

Typical technical data:

Advantages:
Simple installation. Gives immediate support action after installation. No
hardware other than a jackleg or jumbo boom for installation. Easy
application of wire mesh.
Disadvantages:
Relatively expensive. Borehole diameter is crucial in the prevention of
failure during installation and in the provision of the intended holding force.
Successful installation of longer bolts can be difficult. Cannot be used in
197
long term installations unless protected against corrosion.
 FRICTION ANCHOR
OR ‘SPLIT SET’
Typical data:
Yield load: 90kN
Tube diameter: 33mm (1.32”), 39mm (1.55”), 46mm (1.81”)
Hole diameter: 32mm (1 1/4”), 35mm (1 3/8”), 41mm (1 5/8”)
Lengths: Limited, 0.9-3.6m (3-13ft)
Background:
Developed by Scott in conjunction with the Ingersoll-Rand Company in the U.S.A., this device has gained
considerable popularity in the mining industry. As the split tube is forced into a drillhole, the spring action of
the compressed tube applies a radial force against the rock and generates a frictional resistance to sliding of
the rock on the steel. This frictional resistance increases as the outer surface of the tube rusts.
Advantages:
Simple and quick to install and claimed to be cheaper than a grouted dowel of similar capacity. Useful in
moving and bursting ground.
Disadvantages:
Cannot be tensioned and hence is activated by movement in the rock in the same way as a grouted dowel.
Its support action is similar to that of an untensioned dowel and hence it must be installed very close to the
face. The drillhole diameter is critical and most failure during installation occur because the hole is either too
small or too large. In some applications, rusting has occurred very rapidly and has proved to be a problem
where long term support is required. The device cannot be grouted.
Applications:
Used for relatively light support duties in the mining industry, particularly where short term support is
required. Little application in civil engineering at present.
Warning: Split Set friction rock stabilizers are patented by Ingersoll-Rand Company, U.S.A. 198
FRICTION ANCHORED
ROCKBOLT - SWELLEX
Typical data:
Yield load: 130 kN (13 ton f)
Tube diameter: 26 mm (1”)
Hole diameter: 30 mm (13/8”)
Lengths: up to 8m (24ft)
Inflations pressure: 20 MPa (3000 psi)
Background:
Developed by Atlas Copco AB, the Swellex deformed tube is expanded by water pressure to the
shape of the drill hole. Mechanical interlock of the bolt and the rock then prevents the bolt from
sliding. Expansion of the deformed tube leads to some reduction in length, which puts the Swellex
into tension.
Advantages:
Rapid and simple installation. Gives immediate support action after installation. Can be used in a
variety of ground conditions. The installation causes contraction in the bolt length. This effectively
tensions the face plate against the rock surface.
Disadvantages:
Corrosion can be a problem in long term installations. Requires a pump for installation. May require
a sleeve at the collar to prevent spalling under certain rock conditions.
Applications:
Swellex bolts are commonly used in the mining industry for medium-term support requirements.
Becoming increasingly used in civil engineering tunnelling work. 199
Warning: Swellex bolts are patented by Atlas Copco AB, Sweden.
 Swellex

Advantages:
Rapid and simple installation.
Gives immediate support
action after installation. Can
be used in a variety of ground
conditions. The installation
causes contraction in the bolt
length. This effectively
tensions the face plate against
the rock surface.
Disadvantages: Typical technical data:
Relatively expensive.
Corrosion protection required if
used in long term installations.
Requires a pump for
installation.

200
 UBC - Dec.’99
M echanical Properties

Pull Out Capacity

201
202
 GROUTED CABLE BOLT
Typical data:
Yield stress: 1770 MPa (257000 psi)
Yield load: 500 kN (50 ton f)
Cable diameter: 20 mm (1 1/10”)
Hole diameter: 35 mm (1 3/8”)
Length: Any length required.
Background:
Grouted cables were introduced to mining for reinforcement of the backs of cut and fill stopes.
Cable reinforcement, using tensioned or untensioned, fully grouted cables, is very widely used in
mining applications. Cables can be installed effectively in very narrow tunnels, they are
inexpensive and have a very high load bearing capacity.
Advantages:
This system is inexpensive. If properly installed, it provides competent and durable
reinforcement. It can be installed to any length in narrow areas. The system gives very high
bolt loads in various rock conditions, as well as high corrosion resistance in permanent
installations.
Disadvantages:
Tensioning of the cable bolt is possible only if a special installation procedure is adopted. The
used of standard cement in the grout requires several days curing before the cable can be
loaded.
Applications:
The system is gaining increasing use in mining applications. 203
CABLE BOLTING

204
Visual estimate of Grout Quality
w:c ratio grout hose handling

<0.3 -dry stiff sausage -sausage breaks

-forms dry balls
-does not stick
0.30 -moist sausage -flexible sausage
-melts slowly -forms wet balls
-will stick
0.35 -wet sausage -will stick easily
-melts -will hang in hand
0.40 -sausage structure lost -will fall from hand if shaken
-forms pancake
0.50 -flows easily -will drip
-splashes
205
(After Hyett et al., 1992)
NOVEL SUPPORT METHODS
CABLE SLINGS

206
 STRA
P

Background:
This system is used extensively in mining and civil engineering applications to hold slabby
ground between rock bolts or to prevent slabs from loosening.
Advantages:
Straps are easy to install with rock bolts. They are very effective in stratified, slabby ground.
Disadvantages:
Straps cannot be used to control ravelling in loose, blocky ground if the block size is small.
Applications:
Steel straps are used to give roof control in ground where rockbolts or dowels alone cannot
hold intermediate and relatively thin slabs of rock. The strap is formed to follow the rock
surface and held with regular rock reinforcement or specially installed pins. Straps should
always be installed across weakness planes. 207
 MESH

Background:
Wire mesh is used to support small pieces of loose rock and broken rock from falling. Two
types of wire mesh currently used in underground operations are chainlink mesh and weld
mesh.
Advantages:
Mesh is very economical and quickly installed. It is easy to attach to roof reinforcement with
extra faceplates and nuts. It is easily repaired.
Disadvantages:
Mesh cannot carry excessive load of broken rock without failure. It is easily damaged by
flyrock from nearby blasts.
Applications:
Mesh is ideal intermediate protection from small pieces of broken rock. Weldmesh is used
traditionally as reinforcement for shotcrete, but is rapidly being replaced by steel fibre
reinforced shotcrete. Mesh, like straps, is held in place with additional faceplates or washers
and nuts on rockbolts or using separate pins.
208
 TYPICAL DRY-MIX SHOTCRETE OPERATION

Background:
Pneumatically applied mortar and concrete have been used increasingly in the
support of underground excavations both in civil and mining applications. Two basic
types of shotcrete (dry-mix and wet-mix) can be used. Flexibility of equipment,
batching and availability often enhance the dry-mix process.
Advantages:
This system is very adaptable to the tunneling environment. New technology has
made mix design easier.
Disadvantages:
Final product is highly dependant on the operators and especially on the nozzleman.
Applications:
The system has rapid support potential for loosened rock and changing stress
conditions. It is as durable as concrete in most applications for roadways or as roof
209
support. It is not recommended for drawpoints.
ACTIVE SUPPORT

210
211
MECHANISMS PROPOSED TO DESCRIBE
ROCK BOLT SUPPORT ACTION

I. suspend dead weight of slab

II. provide normal stress to clamp bedding
planes and develop beam action
III. provide confining pressure to increase shear
resistance and develop arch action
IV. prevent loosening of key blocks

212
PASSIVE SUPPORT

213
PRE-REINFORCEMENT

214
 SUPPORT
REQUIREMENTS

215
 Updated Support Capacity
Bolt properties, tonnes Screen Bag strength, tonnes
Bolt strength Yield strength Breaking strength 4- by 4-in welded mesh, 4 gauge 3.6
5/8-in mechanical 6.1 10.2 4- by 4-in welded mesh, 6 gauge 3.3
Split-Set (SS 33) 8.5 10.6 4- by 4-in welded mesh, 9 gauge 1.9
Split Set (SS 39) 12.7 14.0 4- by 2-in welded mesh, 12 gauge 1.4
Standard Swellex NA 11.0 2-in chain link, 11 gauge, bare metal 2.9
Yielding Swellex NA 9.5 2-in chain link, 11 gauge, galvanized 1.7
Super Swellex NA 22.o 2-in chain link, 9 gauge, bare metal 3.7
*20-mm rebar, No. 6 12.4 18.5 2-in chain link, 9 gauge, galvanized 3.2
*22-mm rebar, No. 7 16.o 23
*25-mm rebar, No. 8 20.5 30.8 Note: 4 gauge = 0.23-in diameter; 6 gauge = 0.20-in diameter;
No. 6 Dywidag 11.9 18.0 9 gauge = 0.16-in diameter; 11 gauge = 0.125-in diameter; 12
gauge = 0.11-in diameter
No. 7 Dywidag 16.3 24.5
No. 8 Dywidag 21.5 32.3 Shotcrete shear strength = 2 MPa (200 t/m2)
No. 9 Dywidag 27.2 40.9 Bond strength
No. 10 Dywidag 34.6 52.0 Split-Set, hard rock 0.75-1.5 mt per 0.3 m
1/2-in cable bolt 15.9 18.8 Split-Set, weak ground 0.25-1.2 mt per 0.3 m
5/8-in cable bolt 21.6 25.5 Swellex, hard rock 2.70-4.6 mt per 0.3 m
1/4 by 4-in strap 25.o 39.0 Swellex, weak rock 3-3.5 mt per 0.3 m
Note: No. 6 gauge = 6/8-in diameter; No. 7 gauge = 7/8- Super Swellex, weak rock >4 mt per 0.3 m
in diameter; No. 8 gauge = 1-in diameter. 5/8-in cable bolt, hard rock 26 mt per 1 m
NA = Not applicable. No. 6 rebar, hard rock 18 mt per 0.3 m, ~12-in
granite

216
 MINE BACKFILL

Backfills in use include rockfill, hydraulic

sand fill, classified tailings, etc.
-each fill may be consolidated using cement.

217
PURPOSE OF MINE BACKFILL
• working platform
• passive support – limit volume of open
ground
• effect on local stability not well understood

218
FUNCTIONS OF BACKFILL

219
 EFFECT
OF
BACKFILL

220
 STRESS ANALYSIS

FABRIC ANALYSIS
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION

INDUCED STRESS > ROCK MASS STRENGTH

YES YES
NO
BURST
YIELD

MODIFY GEOMETRY IS STRUCTURE CONTROLLING STABILITY

MODIFY MINING METHOD
SUPPORT
YES
DESTRESS NO
SEISMIC
MONITORING
OTHER

NUMERICAL MODELLING
ANALYTICAL DESIGN EMPIRICAL DESIGN SOLUTION
STRESS EFFECT

LIMIT SPAN
SUPPORT WEDGE
SEQUENCE
OTHER

EXCAVATION AND MONITORING

RE-EVALUATE MINE PLAN
221
 ROCK MASS MOVEMENT
• methods for monitoring movement of the
rock mass can vary from simple visual
observation to sophisticated electronic
measuring devices. The following pages
describe some of the more common
techniques.

222
 ROCK MASS MOVEMENT
BOREHOLE EXTENSOMETERS
• for measurement of rock movement
relative to the collar of a drillhole or
between anchor points
• there are two principal types of borehole
extensometers which use either sliding
rods or tensioned wires

223
ROD EXTENSOMETERS

224
MEASUREMENT OF STRESS
CHANGE
VIBRATING WIRE STRESSMETER

225
 MEASURING WATER
PRESSURE
Piezometer: for
measuring water
pressure in the rock or
in backfill

226
 MONITORING CRACK
DILATION & PROPAGATION
• visual marking and recording the extenet of
cracks in the rock with time
• measuring crack dilation
– The simplest method of
determining whether a
crack is dilating is with
a “telltale”

227
228
229
 230

DESIGN METHODOLOGY
DESIGN

231
 232

PILLAR DESIGN
233
234
235
236
237
238
 PILLAR DESIGN
• STRESS ESTIMATION
– Tributary Theory
– Two-Dimensional Modelling
• STRENGTH ESTIMATION
– Hoek & Brown Failure Criteria
– W/H to Strength Relationship
– Empirical Design Approaches
• CASE HISTORY
– Sill Pillar/Crown Pillar Design
– Case Histories/Participants 239
240
241
242
 MODELLING

BOUNDARY ELEMENT
INPUT PARAMETERS
2D vs 3D

243
 REQUIRED DATA
ROCK PROPERTIES
• Young’s Modulus E: Based on rock classification
E = 2 RMR’ –100
• Poisson’s Ratio Q: Based on lab testing. Or guessing ~(0.2 – 0.3)
THESE PROPERTIES ONLY INFLUENCE DISPLACEMENTS
CALCULATED BY THE PROGRAM.

• Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS): Based on lab testing

(UCS or Point Load) or estimated.
DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE FACTOR OF SAFETY FOR
THE INTACT ROCK MASS.

• Rock Classification: Strongly influences the jointed rock mass

strength

244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
 256

OPENING DESIGN – NON

ENTRY
 OPENING DESIGN
• STABILITY GRAPH METHOD
• DILUTION APPROACH
• SPAN ESTIMATION
• SUPPORT DESIGN

257
ANALYSIS - EMPIRICAL METHOD
UBC STUDY
• Factors considered:
– Size and shape of stope walls
– Estimated stresses
– Rock strength
– Orientation of joints
– Rock classification
• Degree of stability of instability is
represented graphically

258
 MATHEW’S
GRAPHICAL DESIGN
METHOD
• The design method consists of plotting a
stability number (N – which depends on
selected geotechnical factors), against a
shape factor (S – which depends on cross-
sectional area and perimeter)

259
 SHAPE FACTOR “S”
The shape factor S is defined by the following equation:
cross - section area of the surface analysed A
S
perimeter of the surface analysed P

This factor accounts for the inherently greater stability of a

stope back with dimensions of 100m x 10m versus a 31.6m
x 31.6m stope back
I. 100m x 10m stope back: S = 1,000m2/220m = 4.5
II. 31.6m x 31.6m stope back: S = 999m2/126m = 7.9

A shape factor of 7.9 lies in a less stable area of the graph

(assuming a constant stability number N)
260
 STABILITY NUMBER “N”

• The stability number N is determined from

the following equation:

N = Q’ x A x B x C

where Q’ = modified NGI rock mass rating

A = rock stress factor
B = rock defect orientation factor
C = orientation of design surface factor
261
262
MODIFIED STABILITY GRAPH
TOTAL DATA BASE 176 CASE HISTORIES

263
Q’ – NGI ROCK MASS RATING
• The value of Q’ is determined using the standard NGI
rock classification except that the stress reduction factor
(SRF) is set to 1.0
• The CSIR classification should also be used to provide a
check with the NGI system. The value of RMR’ should
#
be used where the joint orientation factor is set to 0.
This can only be done in areas of little or no groundwater
flow.
• The RMR’ and Q’ values can be compared using the
following equation:
RMR # 9 ln Q'44
• With the two systems, an average value of Q’ should be
used. 264
 ROCK STRESS FACTOR “A”
• This factor replaces the stress reduction factor
(SRF) removed from the NGI classification
• It more accurately reflects stresses acting on
exposed surfaces of open stopes at depth
• The factor is a function of the ratio of intact rock
strength to induced stress where:
– Intact rock strength is the unconfined compressive
strength (UCS)
– Induced stress VI is defined as the stress acting
parallel to the exposed stope wall or back under
analysis
265
 FACTOR A
• Once the induced stress VI to virgin stress VH or VV ratio
has been determined, the induced stress is used with the
unconfined compressive stress VUCS to determine factor
A
• The following graph shows the ratio of VUCS/VI versus the
factor A
• If VUCS/VI is greater than 10, factor A = 1.0 and stress is
not considered to affect stability. When stresses are
tensile, VI is set to 0 and factor A is still 1.0
• If VUCS/VI is less than 2, stability problems should be
expected.
Note: If multiple opening are present, their interaction affects the
induced stresses. To take into effect the presence of multiple
openings, numerical modelling techniques must be used.
266
 ROCK DEFECT ORIENTATION
FACTOR B
• This factor accounts for the absence of a joint
orientation factor in the NGI classification system
and its elimination from the CSIR classification
• From joint fabric mapping, the orientation of the
joint set which is felt to most effect the stope
surface stability is assessed.
• The angle of intersection of this joint set with the
exposed surface under consideration
determines factor B.

267
 FACTOR C
ORIENTATION OF DESIGN
SURFACE
• This factor takes into account the orientation of
the surface considered. Stope backs are
inherently less stable than sidewalls because of
the influence of gravity.
• Facotr C is based on the following empirical
relationship
C = 8 – 6 cos (DIP OF WALL)
• With this relationship, C = 2 for backs and 8 for
vertical walls showing the increased stability of
walls over backs.
268
 A = 1 RELAXED

2.8

3.4

4.1

5.0

5.9

7.0
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
 OPENING DESIGN
• STABILITY GRAPH METHOD
• DILUTION APPROACH
• SPAN ESTIMATION
• SUPPORT DESIGN

279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
 290

OPENING DESIGN – MAN

ENTRY
 OPENING DESIGN
• STABILITY GRAPH METHOD
• DILUTION APPROACH
• SPAN ESTIMATION
• SUPPORT DESIGN

291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
 307

OPENING DESIGN –
EMPIRICAL SUPPORT
 OPENING DESIGN
• STABILITY GRAPH METHOD
• DILUTION APPROACH
• SPAN ESTIMATION
• SUPPORT DESIGN

308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
 SUB-LEVEL SUPPORT
DESIGN
Given an open stope 100m on strike and 45m vertical
– Is support required for stability and if so, what
sublevel spacing is needed. Critical jointing is parallel
to the hanging wall.

Rock Classification
RQD = 80%
Jn = 3 joint sets & Random
Jr : JRC/10cm = 7
Amp/metre = 1.5 cm
Ja : Can be scratched with fingernail, feels slippery.
318
319
 RMR 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

REINFORCEMENT CATEGORIES 5) Fibre reinforced shotcrete, 50-90mm, and bolting

1) Unsupported
2) Spot Bolting
3) Systematic Bolting
4) Systematic bolting with 40-100mm
unreinforced shotcrete
6) Fibre reinforced shotcrete, 90-120mm, and bolting
7) Fibre reinforced shotcrete, 120-150mm, and bolting
8) Fibre reinforced shotcrete, >150mm, with reinforced
ribs of shotcrete and bolting
9) Cast concrete lining

Qw = 5Q for Q>10, Qw = 2.5Q for 0.1<Q<10, Qw = Q for Q<0.1

320
USEFUL PAPERS

321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400