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A review of the housing requirements of domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus) kept in home
September 2005 · Applied Animal Behaviour Science 93(1):97-109 · Follow journal
DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2005.01.002

Irene Rochlitz

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 Abstract

Cats are a popular companion animal in the United States, the United Kingdom and most of
western Europe. While a few studies on cat behaviour and interactions between cats and
humans have been conducted in the home setting, most refer to cats housed in laboratories,
catteries and shelters. Nevertheless, the ]ndings from these studies can be extrapolated to
the home environment. The Five Freedoms were developed as minimal standards of welfare
for farm animals; it is proposed that ]ve provisions, based on the Freedoms, can be used to
assess the welfare of cats in the home. The provision of a suitable environment, with
opportunities to express most normal behaviours and with protection from conditions likely to
lead to fear and distress, requires the application of environmental enrichment techniques.
Examples of physical, social, sensory, occupational and nutritional approaches to enrichment
of the cat's home are presented. The majority of pet cats in the United Kingdom are allowed
outdoors but in the United States between 50 and 60% are housed indoors. The advantages
and disadvantages of allowing cats outdoor access or con]ning them indoors are discussed.

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Applied Animal Behaviour Science 93 (2005) 97–109

www.elsevier.com/locate/applanim

A review of the housing requirements of

:
 A review of the housing requirements of
domestic cats ( Felis silvestris catus)
kept in the home
Irene Rochlitz *
Animal Welfare and Human–Animal Interactions Group, Department of Veterinary Medicine,
University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
Accepted 7 January 2005
Available online 1 February 2005

Abstract

Cats are a popular companion animal in the United States, the United Kingdom and most of
western Europe. While a few studies on cat behaviour and interactions between cats and humans have
been conducted in the home setting, most refer to cats housed in laboratories, catteries and shelters.
Nevertheless, the findings from these studies can be extrapolated to the home environment. The Five
Freedoms were developed as minimal standards of welfare for farm animals; it is proposed that five
provisions, based on the Freedoms, can be used to assess the welfare of cats in the home. The
provision of a suitable environment, with opportunities to express most normal behaviours and with
protection
mental from conditions
enrichment likely
techniques. to lead to
Examples of fear and distress,
physical, requiresoccupational
social, sensory, the application
andofnutritional
environ-
approaches to enrichment of the cat’s home are presented. The majority of pet cats in the United
Kingdom are allowed outdoors but in the United States between 50 and 60% are housed indoors. The
advantages and disadvantages of allowing cats outdoor access or confining them indoors are
discussed.
# 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Behaviour; Companion animal; Cat; Environmental enrichment; Housing; Welfare

* Tel.: +44 1223 339865; fax: +44 1223 330886.

E-mail address: ir10000@cam.ac.uk.

0168-1591/$ – see front matter # 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2005.01.002

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 98 I. Rochlitz / Applied Animal Behaviour Science 93 (2005) 97–109

1. Introduction

Many myths, anecdotes and opinions exist about domestic cats and the best way to
house them. A number of publications on cat behaviour, welfare, human–cat interactions
and other cat-related topics, including housing, have emerged in the last few decades. Most
studies about cat housing have been conducted in laboratories, boarding and quarantine
catteries and shelters (e.g. McCune, 1995; Rochlitz et al., 1998; Ottway and Hawkins,
2003). A few publications make recommendations about the enrichment of the home
environment for cats confined indoors, with the aim of preventing behavioural problems
(e.g. Schroll, 2002). Others describe aspects of cat behaviour (e.g. Bernstein and Strack,
1996; Barry and Crowell-Davis, 1999), and interactions between humans and cats (e.g.
Mertens and Turner, 1988; Mertens, 1991) in the home setting. This review aims to bring
together these and other research findings that contribute to our understanding of how cats
should be housed and cared for in the home.
Replacing the Protection of Animals Act 1911 with an Animal Welfare Bill, which
would allow the creation of a new offence of ‘likely to cause unnecessary suffering’,is
currently under discussion in the United Kingdom (Department for Environment, Food and
Rural Affairs, 2002). Owners of companion animals would be required to provide a
minimum standard of care, which includes adequate housing conditions.

2. Approaches to assessing and improving housing conditions for cats

2.1. Applying the Five Freedoms to standards of welfare

In order to develop guidelines on how cats should be housed, it is appropriate to

determine what conditions, or standards, should be met. In 1965, the Brambell Committee
reviewed the welfare of farm animals in intensive husbandry systems and proposed that all
farm animals should benefit from minimal standards of welfare known as ‘The Five
Freedoms’ (Brambell, 1965). Briefly, they are freedom from thirst, hunger and
malnutrition, freedom from discomfort, freedom from pain, injury and disease, freedom
to express normal behaviour and freedom from fear and distress. These freedoms have been
used to assess the welfare of farm animals, as well as laboratory and zoo animals.
Difficulties arise when considering what is normal behaviour in domesticated companion
animals (the fourth freedom), and how detrimental it is to them if they are unable to express
it. For example, predatory behaviour (catching mainly small mammals and birds) is usually
regarded as normal in domestic cats, but when there are large numbers of cats kept in
households within a small area this behaviour may have effects on the resident wildlife, and
also cause pain and suffering in the individual prey animal. Spraying urine is also, in many
instances, normal behaviour but is problematic when performed indoors. It is difficult to
recognise all forms of fear and distress in cats, and to ensure that housing conditions do not
cause them at any time (the fifth freedom).
Scott et al. (2000) and Young (2003, pp. 17–18) describe a framework, which consists of
five principles of provision based on the Five Freedoms, for assessing the welfare of zoo
animals. These principles can be modified for use in companion animals (Table 1).
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I. Rochlitz / Applied Animal Behaviour Science 93 (2005) 97–109 99

Table 1
Standards for the assessment of welfare in domestic cats, based on Scott et al. (2000) and Young (2003, pp. 17–18)
1. Provision of food and water: a balanced diet that meets the animal’s nutritional needs at every life stage,
supplied appropriately, fresh water
2. Provision of a suitable environment: adequate space and shelter, no extremes of temperature, adequate light,
low noise levels, cleanliness, indoor-only or access to the outdoors
3. Provision of healthcare: vaccination, neutering (sterilisation), internal and external parasite control,
identification of the individual (microchip, collar), prompt access to veterinary care
4. Provision of opportunities to express most normal behaviours, including behaviours directed
towards conspecifics and towards humans
5. Provision of protection from conditions likely to lead to fear and distress
Not an exhaustive list.

How to meet the first and third provisions will not be considered here; details can be
found in veterinary textbooks on feline medicine. The fourth provision also includes
behaviours directed towards humans, being a normal, essential part of the behavioural
repertoire of a companion animal. This review will concentrate on how to meet the fourth
and fifth provisions and some aspects of the second, as the fourth and fifth provisions are
closely linked and both are loosely linked with the second (which includes mainly the
physical features of the environment). Meeting the provisions involves manipulation of the
cat’s environment; the term environment includes both the physical and the social
environment, the latter consisting of conspecifics, other animals and humans.

2.2. Approaches to environmental enrichment

The term ‘environmental enrichment’ refers to changes, modifications and other

interventions made to the environment with the aim of improving the welfare of the
animals living in that environment. Environmental enrichment techniques are regarded as
essential for managing animals in zoos and laboratories and to a lesser extent farm animals
as well as companion animals kept, for example, in shelters (Gourkow, 2001). A number of
approaches to enrichment have been described by Bloomsmith et al. (1991) in relation to
non-human primates. They can be modified to be relevant to cats kept in the home
(Table 2), and used to meet the provisions listed previously.
For zoo animals, goals of environmental enrichment include an increase in behavioural
diversity, a reduction in the frequency of abnormal behaviour, an increase in the range or
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 diversity, a reduction in the frequency of abnormal behaviour, an increase in the range or
number of normal (i.e. wild) behaviour patterns, an increase in the positive utilisation of the
environment, and an increase in the ability to cope with challenges in a more normal way
(Young, 2003, p. 2). These effects will lead to increases in physical and psychological

Table 2
Approaches to enrichment of the home environment for cats, based on Bloomsmith et al. (1991)
1. Physical: number and size of rooms, internal structure and complexity, accessories within the rooms
2. Social: contact with conspecifics, other animals and humans
3. Sensory: visual, auditory and other stimuli (e.g. olfactory); surrounding area within the cat’s sensory range
4. Occupational: opportunities to explore the environment, exercise and play
5. Nutritional: frequency of feeding, type of food fed and method of delivery, method of water provision

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100 I. Rochlitz / Applied Animal Behaviour Science 93 (2005) 97–109

health, resulting in improved welfare. These goals are applicable to domestic animals with
the exception, in most instances, of an increase in the range or number of wild behaviour
patterns. Added to the goals, in the case of companion animals, would be an improvement
in the quality of the relationship between the animal and its owner.

3. Enriching the home environment of the domestic cat

3.1. The physical environment

In the United Kingdom, the majority of cats are allowed access to the outdoors (I.
Rochlitz, unpublished data); it is generally considered that this is the natural thing for cats
to be able to do. In the United States, between 50 and 60% of pet cats are housed indoors
(Patronek et al., 1997). The American Veterinary Medical Association has stated that it
strongly encourages owners of domestic cats in urban and suburban areas to keep them
confined indoors; the Humane Society of the United States and many American shelters
also commonly advise this, as do American veterinarians (Buffington, 2002). In some areas
of Australia, concerns about the effects of cat predation on wildlife have led to the adoption
of regulations restricting pet cats’ access to the outdoors. The pros and cons of keeping cats
indoors are discussed in Section 4, but for the purpose of determining the minimum size of
the physical environment the requirements of the indoor-only cat will be considered,
although they are also likely to apply to the cat with outdoor access. Having outdoor access
should not be expected to compensate for poor conditions in the home, as poor conditions
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 should not be expected to compensate for poor conditions in the home, as poor conditions
may cause the cat to leave and join the stray cat population. Research is needed to support
these last two points.
The home range of the pet cat confined indoors is inevitably very small compared to that
of cats allowed to roam freely. Mertens and Schä r (1988) recommend that an indoor-only
cat should have access to at least two rooms. Bernstein and Strack (1996) described the use
of space and patterns of interaction of 14 unrelated, neutered domestic cats that lived
together in a single-storey house at a density of one cat per 10 m2, and did not have access
to outdoors. Most of the cats had favourite spots within the rooms that they used; although
some had their own place, more commonly several cats chose the same favourite spot.
These areas were shared either physically, by cats occupying the space together or, more
often, temporally by cats occupying them at different times of the day. There was very little
aggression and no fighting, and individuals seemed to peacefully co-exist with each other
by avoiding each other for most of the time. Neutered males had an average home range of
4–5 rooms (out of 10), and neutered females a range of 3–3.6 rooms. While Mertens and
Schä r (1988) state that female cats may be more suited to an indoor existence than male
cats, because feral males have bigger home ranges than feral females’ it seems that both
neutered males and neutered females can be successfully housed indoors provided there is
sufficient quantity and quality of space and that they are used to these conditions from an
early age.

theBarry and indoor-only

neutered Crowell-Daviscat.(1999)
Whileexamined
this studygender
did notdifferences
set out to in the socialthe
determine behaviour of
amount of
space cats require, indirectly it gives us some clues. Sixty pairs of cats were studied: 20

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I. Rochlitz / Applied Animal Behaviour Science 93 (2005) 97–109 101

were male–male pairs, 20 were female–female and 20 were female–male pairs (47 pairs
were not related). All the cats were neutered, were never allowed outside, were between 6
months and 8 years of age, and had lived together for at least 3 months. While the cats spent
most of their time out of each other’s sight, for most of the time that they were together they
kept a distance between themselves of 1–3 m (25–31% of observed time). Gender had little
effect on the cat’s social behaviour, and there were low levels of aggression. The cats
regularly ate together and shared resting areas. A reasonable conclusion from this study is
that when cats are together in the same room, there should be enough space so that they can
maintain distances between themselves of at least 1–3m.
Beyond a certain minimum size, it is the quality rather than the quantity of space that is
important. Most cats are active, have the ability to climb well and are well-adapted for
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 important. Most cats are active, have the ability to climb well and are well-adapted for
concealment (Eisenberg, 1989). They use elevated areas as vantage points from which to
monitor their surroundings (DeLuca and Kranda, 1992; Holmes, 1993; James, 1995).
There should be structures within the home that enable cats to use the vertical dimension,
such as shelves, climbing posts, windowsills and platforms.
Cats spend a large portion of their day either resting or sleeping, so it is important that
the rest areas have comfortable surfaces such as pillows (Crouse et al., 1995) or polyester
fleece (Hawthorne et al., 1995). As cats are more likely to rest alone than with others
(Podberscek et al., 1991), there should be a sufficient number of comfortable resting areas
for all cats in the home.
Hiding is a coping behaviour that cats often show in response to stimuli or changes in
their environment. It is commonly seen when cats want to avoid interactions with other cats
or people, and in response to other potentially stressful situations (Carlstead et al., 1993;
James, 1995; Rochlitz et al., 1998). As mentioned previously, the study by Barry and
Crowell-Davis (1999) of 60 pairs of neutered, indoor-only cats, found that they spent
between 48 and 50% of the observed time out of each other’s sight. Therefore, in addition
to open resting areas (such as shelves) there should be resting areas where cats can retreat to
and be concealed, such as high-sided cat beds and boxes. Visual barriers, such as vertical
panels, curtains and other room divisions, can also be useful to enable cats to get out of
sight of others. Schroll (2002) suggests that there should be at least two types of resting
places per cat, one on the floor enclosed by three sides and another elevated with a good
view, and that this is particularly important to prevent behavioural problems in the multi-
cat household.
There should be a sufficient number of litter trays, at least one per two cats and
preferably one per cat, sited away from feeding and resting areas. The trays should be
positioned in a quiet place in the house, and cleaned at least once a day. Cats with easy
access to the outdoors may not need a litter tray, although older cats, those who do not like
to go out in bad weather, and cats that are unwell may require one. Cats can have individual
preferences for litter characteristics, so it may be necessary to provide a range of litter types
and designs of litter trays (covered or open).
An important objective of good housing is to improve welfare by giving the animal a
degree of control over its environment (Broom and Johnson, 1993, pp. 111–144). While
housing in a barren environment leads to apathy and boredom (Wemelsfelder, 1991), cats
do not like unpredictability such as contact with unfamiliar cats or humans, or an
unfamiliar and unpredictable routine (Carlstead et al., 1993). How the cat responds to the

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 level of stimuli, or predictability, in the environment will depend on many factors,
including the cat’s temperament (Lowe and Bradshaw, 2001) and previous experiences.
Provided extremes are avoided, if the cat has a variety of behavioural choices and is able to
exert some control over its physical and social environment, it will develop more flexible
and effective strategies for coping with stimuli.

3.2. The social environment

In recent years, studies of group-living cats have found that they maintain relatively
stable groups over long periods of time, exhibit individual recognition, have a complex
social organization and engage in a variety of social interactions (e.g. Macdonald et al.,
2000; Natoli et al., 2001; Crowell-Davis et al., 2004). However, there has been more
research on factors influencing the socialisation of cats towards humans (summarised in
Turner, 2000) than the socialisation of cats towards conspecifics. A better understanding of
the early experiences necessary for the development of social attachment in adults, and of
the links between social play and social behaviour later in life, is needed. Optimal
socialisation to humans occurs if kittens are handled between the 2nd and 7th week of life
(Karsh and Turner, 1988), and it is generally accepted that the period of socialisation of
kittens to other cats also occurs during this time. Kessler and Turner (1999) found that cats

previously socialisedcats.
than non-socialised toward people and
Familiarity is conspecifics adapted
also important: better
sibling to housing
pairs of cats in catteries
have more
amicable relationships than unrelated cats living together (Bradshaw and Hall, 1999).
Most cats can be housed in groups providing that they are well socialised, and that there
is sufficient space, easy access to feeding and elimination areas and a sufficient number of
concealed retreats and resting places. When there are several cats in a household, and
particularly if they are not related or not well socialised, it may be necessary to distribute
feed, rest and elimination areas in a number of different sites, to prevent certain cats from
monopolising one area and denying others access (van den Bos and de Cock Buning,
1994b).
Cats are often kept in the home together with another companion animal, such as a dog.
Provided the cat is habituated to dogs, it is likely that the cat’s social environment is
enriched by this contact but there are few studies specifically examining the benefits to the
cat from this interaction.
The caregiver, that is the owner, is the most important determinant of the cat’s welfare.
While interactions with other cats or other animals are important and rewarding to the cat,
they are not a substitute for human attention. There can also be considerable rewards to
humans from caring properly for their pet. Periods of time, which are not part of routine
care-taking procedures (such as feeding), should be available every day for cats to interact
with their owners. The more an owner responds to their cat the more likely it is to respond
to them, and interactions initiated by the cat last longer than those initiated by the owner
(Turner, 1995). Some cats may prefer to be petted, groomed and handled while others may
prefer to interact via a toy (Karsh and Turner, 1988). In a study of interactions between cats
and their owners in the home (Mertens, 1991), cats in single-cat households stayed closer to
their owners for longer, and had more social play and more interactions in general with
them, than did cats in multi-cat households.
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I. Rochlitz / Applied Animal Behaviour Science 93 (2005) 97–109 103

In order to provide good care, the owner not only has to like cats but also be
knowledgeable about cat behaviour. This knowledge can be acquired from many sources,
such as books and other printed information, internet sites, veterinary practices, animal
behaviourists and animal rescue charities. Some information may be controversial,
incorrect, or contradictory so inexperienced owners will require guidance from reputable
sources.
Group-living cats lack distinct dominance hierarchies, signals for diffusing conflict
and post-conflict mechanisms such as reconciliation (van den Bos and de Cock Buning,
1994a; van den Bos, 1998). They are not adapted to living in close proximity to each
other, and in the wild would reduce the likelihood of aggression by dispersing or
avoiding each other (Leyhausen, 1979, pp. 217–226); this is often not possible in the
multi-cat household. Recent evidence from clinical behavioural cases suggests that one
of the major reasons for the development of behavioural problems, such as fearful or
avoidance-related behaviours, are environmental stressors and that a high proportion of
these relate to social factors (relationships with other cats or with humans) (Casey and
Bradshaw, 2000). The environment in which the cat is housed will affect the
development and maintenance of these behavioural problems; their incidence tends to
increase when there are four or more cats in a household, particularly if the cats are
unrelated. When cats are introduced to each other as adults, they may not regard each
other as part of the same social group but they are forced to live together in relatively
close proximity. When there is a high density of cats in a neighbourhood, cats may be
frequently involved in aggressive encounters with others, and some cats may become
fearful of going outdoors. Owners should be aware of the social dynamics between cats
in their household, and be prepared to seek professional advice if it appears that the
welfare of their cat(s) is compromised.

3.3. The sensory environment

The quality of the external environment is very important to cats, whose senses are
highly developed (Bradshaw, 1992, pp. 16–43). They spend a lot of time observing the
environment immediately outside the home; cats will often settle on windowsills if they
are wide and comfortable enough, but other suitable vantage points, such as climbing
platforms, can be placed near windows. Olfactory enrichment is relatively underused in
animal housing, perhaps because of the relatively poor sense of smell of humans
compared with many other species. Wells and Egli (2003) examined the effect of
introducing four odours (nutmeg, catnip (Nepeta cataria), body odour of prey (quail),
and no artificial odour (as a control)) on the behaviour of six zoo-housed black-footed
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 and no artificial odour (as a control)) on the behaviour of six zoo-housed black-footed
cats ( Felis nigripes). There was an increase in the amount of time cats spent in active
behaviours and a decrease in time spent in sedentary behaviours, though the response to
the odours waned over the 5-day observation period. Nutmeg caused less of an effect
than catnip or odour of prey. Catnip is a well-known stimulant for cats, though not all
cats are affected by it. It is usually supplied as a dried herb or in toys, and can be grown
as a fresh plant in pots.
Cats have an excellent sense of smell and olfactory communication is important in
this species (Bradshaw and Cameron-Beaumont, 2000), although the role that odours

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104 I. Rochlitz / Applied Animal Behaviour Science 93 (2005) 97–109

play within social groups is not well understood (Bradshaw, 1992,pp.92 –110).
Sebaceous glands are located throughout the body, especially on the head and the peri-
anal area, and between the digits. Scratching, which causes scent marks to be deposited
from the inter-digital glands, leaves olfactory signals and is frequently observed in cats;
this marking behaviour also leaves visual signals and helps to maintain the claws in good
shape. Surfaces for the deposition of these olfactory and visual signals and for claw
abrasion, such as scratch posts, rush matting, pieces of carpet and wood, should be
provided. Schroll (2002) suggests placing a scratching surface in more than one
location, for example at places of entry and exit in the home, and also next to the resting
or sleeping area, as these are locations that the cat will want to mark as part of its
environment. Grass grown in containers can be provided for indoor-only cats; some cats
like to chew it and it is thought that this can help with the elimination of furballs
(trichobezoars).

3.4. The occupational environment

A variety of toys should be available, and they should be replaced regularly as novelty
is important. Many toys are made to resemble mice and other small animals and to look
attractive to humans, but they are often not very effective at eliciting play or pseudo-
predatory behaviour in the cat. The qualities of the toy are more important than its
appearance; it does not matter if it looks artificial, provided it elicits the desired
behaviour. Objects which are mobile, have complex surface textures and mimic prey
characteristics are the most successful at promoting play (Hall and Bradshaw, 1998).
Most cats play with their owners or alone rather than in groups (Podberscek et al., 1991),
so there should be enough space for them to play without disturbing other cats. Cats also
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 benefit from opportunities to explore, so suitable novel objects such as boxes, large
paper bags and other structures can be introduced into the home environment
intermittently.

3.5. The nutritional environment

Domestic cats are usually offered two or three meals a day and seem to adapt well to
this. However, the preferred pattern of feeding is one of frequent small meals (Bradshaw
and Thorne, 1992). This may not always be possible in the home environment, and ad
libitum feeding may lead to obesity. Another enrichment technique is to increase the
time animals spend in feeding behaviour. For the cat that is food-orientated,
small amounts of dry food can be put into containers with holes through which the
cat has to extract individual pieces (McCune, 1995), or hidden in the environment to
make it more interesting to explore. Toy-like objects that are destructible and have
nutritional value may be of interest to cats, but there are few such items available
commercially.
Cats often prefer to drink away from the feeding area, so there should be bowls of water
in a number of locations (both indoors and outdoors); Schroll (2002) states that cats like to
be in a slightly downward position when drinking, and some like drinking running water,
such as from a dripping tap or small water fountain.

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I. Rochlitz / Applied Animal Behaviour Science 93 (2005) 97–109 105

Table 3
Conditions and diseases that may be associated with confining a cat indoors or allowing it access to the outdoors
Cat is confined indoors Cat has access to the outdoors
Feline urologic syndrome Infectious diseases (viral, parasitic, etc.)
Odontoclastic resorptive lesions Road traffic accidents
Hyperthyroidism Other accidents (e.g. falling from a tree)
Obesity Fights with other cats
Household hazards (e.g. accidents, poisoning) Attacks by dogs and other animals
Behavioural problems (e.g. inappropriate elimination/toileting) Poisoning
Boredom Theft
Inactivity Going astray

4. Indoor versus outdoor housing

It is generally assumed that cats confined indoors will be healthier and live longer, as
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 It is generally assumed that cats confined indoors will be healthier and live longer, as
they are protected from hazards associated with the outdoors. Different hazards, however,
may be present in the home. The Blue Cross animal charity found that household accidents,
such as falls from balconies and windows, kitchen scalds and burns and access to cleaning
products, were the second most common reason that puppies and kittens were brought to its
hospital (Veterinary Department, The Blue Cross, London, personal communication).
Buffington (2002) recently reviewed the veterinary literature for epidemiological data
on cats confined indoors and disease risk (Table 3). He found that conditions such as feline
urologic syndrome (a urinary tract disease), odontoclastic resorptive lesions (a dental
disease), obesity, hyperthyroidism (an endocrine disease), and behavioural problems (such
as inappropriate elimination) were associated with keeping cats indoors in some studies,
while others did not find that indoor cats were at increased risk of developing these
conditions. The difficulty with conducting these studies is that there are likely to be
confounding factors and interactions. For example, pedigree cats may be more likely to be
kept indoors, may be predisposed to certain inherited diseases, and may be treated
differently by their owners compared with non-pedigree cats.
The main concern with an indoor environment is that, compared with the outdoors, it is
relatively impoverished, predictable and monotonous and may cause the cat to experience
boredom and stress. While we often do not know what cats do when they are outdoors, it is
generally assumed that indoor cats are less active and that this inactivity can lead to obesity
and other problems. Certain behaviours, such as scratching items and spraying urine, may
be considered normal when performed by a cat outdoors but become problematic when
performed indoors.
As discussed previously, most cats seem to be able to adapt to indoor living well,
provided they have been kept in this kind of environment from an early age. Some geriatric
cats, or those with disabilities, may also benefit from being confined indoors but cats used
to having outdoor access may have difficulty adapting to an entirely indoor existence when
adult (Hubrecht and Turner, 1998). The recent increase in popularity of the cat as a
companion animal has been partly ascribed to the fact that it requires relatively little care
compared with the dog, not having to be taken out for walks or be trained. Also, it can be
kept in a smaller space, such as an apartment, and will use a litter tray. Nevertheless, cats
require a certain level of social interaction with their owners and this requirement may be

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106 I. Rochlitz / Applied Animal Behaviour Science 93 (2005) 97–109

increased when their physical environment is restricted. Cats confined indoors spend
proportionately more time with people than cats with access to the outdoors, which has
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 been interpreted as cats seeking additional stimulation in an environment that is relatively
less stimulating (Turner and Stammbach-Geering, 1990). There are a number of websites
that give advice to owners on how to enrich the indoor environment for their cat (for
example www.nssvet.org/ici).
One reason for keeping cats indoors is to protect them from road traffic accidents. In a
study of factors that may predispose cats to road traffic accidents in Cambridgeshire,
United Kingdom, young (between 7 and 24 months of age), male (entire and neutered) and
non-pedigree cats were most at risk (Rochlitz, 2003a). Cats involved in road accidents were
more likely to live in areas with higher levels of traffic and there was a trend for more
accidents to happen during the night than the day (Rochlitz, 2003b).
Studies examining the impact of cats on some prey populations are reviewed in
Fitzgerald and Turner (2000). While the issue of cat predation on wildlife remains
controversial, it should be taken into consideration when evaluating indoor versus outdoor
living. Ways of enabling the cat to benefit from outdoor access without risk to itself or to
others should be sought. They include creating secure, yet stimulating and complex, cat-
proof enclosures within a garden or training a cat to go for walks on a leash with its owner
(though cats should not be left leashed and unsupervised in a garden).

5. Conclusions

The welfare of cats kept as companion animals, and the way they are looked after in the
home, has not being widely investigated. Most studies to date have focussed on cats kept in
laboratories, catteries and shelters, but their findings can be applied to the home setting. It is
proposed that a framework of five provisions, based on the Five Freedoms, can be used to
assess companion animal welfare; it remains to be tested in a range of conditions. Enrichment
of the cat’s environment is crucial to meet these provisions, and involves physical, social,
sensory, occupational and nutritional approaches. Most of the recommendations for
enrichment are based on observational studies and on advice from experienced companion
animal owners and behaviourists; they are widely applied but few have been tested or
validated to see if the goals of environmental enrichment have been reached.
Studies comparing the welfare of indoor-only cats with that of cats allowed outdoors are
needed. They should include a wide range of measures such as behaviour, level of activity,
health status, disease incidence and mortality, and the interactions between cats and their
owners. With the current state of knowledge it is not possible to definitively say that
confining cats indoors is preferable to allowing them outdoor access; each situation should
be assessed individually, taking into account the cat, its owner and the environment.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank The Waltham Foundation for funding my work for this review, and
Professor Don Broom, University of Cambridge, for providing the facilities to write it.
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