University of Southern Queensland

Faculty of Health, Engineering and Sciences

DEVELOPMENT OF A GENERIC ALKALINE ELECTROLYSIS

MODEL FOR THE SIMULATION
PURPOSE IN MATLAB SIMULINK

A dissertation submitted by

Tharindu Rukshan Kahawalage

in fulfillment of the requirements of

Courses ENG8411/ENG8412 Research Project

towards the degree of

Master of Engineering Sciences (Power Engineering)

Submitted: Octomber, 2021

This page intentionally left blank

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 University of Southern Queensland

Faculty of Health, Engineering and Sciences

ENG8411/ENG8412 Masters Dissertation Project

(This is a 3 unit research project in a 16 unit Master of Engineering Science program)

Limitations of Use

The Council of the University of Southern Queensland, its Faculty of Health, Engineering
and Science, and the staff of the University of Southern Queensland, do not accept any
responsibility for the truth, accuracy or completeness of material contained within or
associated with this dissertation.

Persons using all or any part of this material do so at their own risk, and not at the risk of
the Council of the University of Southern Queensland, its Faculty of Health, Engineering
and Science or the staff of the University of Southern Queensland.

This dissertation reports an educational exercise and has no purpose or validity beyond this
exercise. The sole purpose of this dissertation project is to contribute to the overall education
within the student's chosen degree program. This document, the associated hardware,
software, drawings, and other material set out in the associated appendices should not be
used for any other purpose: if they are so used, it is entirely at the risk of the user.

iii
CERTIFICATION

I certify that the ideas, designs and experimental work, results, analyses and conclusions set out
in this dissertation are entirely my own effort, except where otherwise indicated and
acknowledged.

I further certify that the work is original and has not been previously submitted for assessment
in any other course or institution, except where specifically stated.

Student Name : Tharindu Rukshan Kahawalage

Student Number: U1123036

____________________________

Signature

21/10/2021

____________________________

Date

iv
 ABSTRACT

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the entire universe and ultimate energy source of

human kind which powers the sun involving in a fission reaction. As the current green

hydrogen production stays around 4% of global hydrogen requirement study on water

electrolysis has selected. In water electrolysis, water is split into hydrogen and oxygen in

endothermic reaction where energy is supplied from a renewable source. Amount of

hydrogen produced according to their daily variation was studied using a simulation by a

MATLAB model created to mimic Alkaline electrolysis process. Further study has been

carried out on ability of supportability using battery storage system to improve operations

with seasonal and daily solar energy variation. Homer Pro tool has been used to attempt find

optimised battery and electrolyser proportion, when a purely hydrogen load is considered.

From both MATLAB and Homer Pro modelling it has been confirmed that around 0.02 kg

of hydrogen could be produced by 1 kWh for an average electrolyser. Homer pro found it

difficult to operate electrolyser when PV was not available using charged energy of batteries

and continued to exclude any battery capacity in its optimised solution. In order to confirm

this and study further manual calculation has also been conducted using MATLAB scripts

for assumed symmetric supply of PV. At current pricing, it is determined that this is not

economically practical, and that the battery storage cost per kWh must fall to roughly 1/6 -

1/10 of the electrolyser cost per kW in order for this situation to be economically viable.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................... v

TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................... vi

LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. ix

GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................................... xi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1

2.1 Background ............................................................................................................. 1

2.2 Problem Statement .................................................................................................. 4

2.3 OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................ 5

2.1 HYDROGEN ............................................................................................................... 5

2.2 water Electrolysis ........................................................................................................ 7

2.2.1 Alkaline Electrolysis ............................................................................................ 8

2.2.2 PEM Electrolysis .................................................................................................. 9

2.2.2 High-temperature Electrolysis ............................................................................ 10

2.3 Study on Alkaline electrolyser on system level......................................................... 13

2.4 Cost analysis for electrolyser and batteries ............................................................... 15

2.5 Fuel Cell Models available for the Simulation of Fuel Cell Vehicles IN MATLAB 19

2.6 Alkaline Electrolyser modelling attempt and projects .......................................... 20

vi
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................... 24

3.1 Systematic approach to address research QUESTION: Methodolgy Milestones . 24

3.2 Modelling of MATLAB SIMULINK MODEL .................................................... 25

3.2.1 Initial Model and Faraday’s First Law .......................................................... 25

3.2.1.2 Electro thermal equivalent ........................................................................ 26

3.2.2 Intermediate Model integrating Faraday efficiency and Perfect gas law ...... 27

3.2.2.1 Faraday efficiency..................................................................................... 27

3.2.2.2 Reversible Cell Voltage ............................................................................ 27

3.3 Advanced model considering three over voltage scenarios .............................. 28

3.3.1 Open Circuit Voltage ..................................................................................... 28

3.3.2 Activation Over potential .............................................................................. 29

3.3.3 Ohmic Over potential .................................................................................... 29

3.4 PV Array model in MATLAB Simulink ........................................................... 29

3.5 Electro-Chemical Reactions ................................................................................. 31

3.5.1 Half reactions ................................................................................................. 31

3.5.2 Cathode analogy ............................................................................................ 31

3.5.3 Anode analogy ............................................................................................... 34

3.6 System Level Study: Homer Pro approach: The System Architectures ............... 37

3.7 Manual Calculation ............................................................................................... 39

CHAPTER 4: Results and analysis ..................................................................................... 40

4.1 MATLAB Model .................................................................................................. 40

vii
 4.2 Homer Pro Model ................................................................................................. 40

4.2.1 System architecture with Hydrogen Tank ..................................................... 40

4.2.2 System architecture without Hydrogen Tank ................................................ 45

4.3 Diagnosis of error ................................................................................................. 48

4.4 Case study using a manual calculation approach for a 10kW PV array ............... 49

4.5 Life time and future growth ....................................................................................... 52

CHAPTER 4: Conclusion.................................................................................................... 54

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 55

RISK ASSEMENT .............................................................................................................. 57

APPENDIX I ...................................................................................................................... 58

Solar irradiation variation ........................................................................................ 58

APPENDIX II .................................................................................................................... 60

MPPT Algorithm ....................................................................................................... 60

APPENDIX III ................................................................................................................... 61

Manual Calculation ................................................................................................... 61

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: NEM Operational demand and estimated rooftop PV Source: Australina Energy

Market Operator (AEMO) ..................................................................................................... 1

Figure 2: Industrial life cycle of hydrogen ;Source: Fransesco C. et al., 2019, Solar Hydrogen

Production, Elsevier, p33 ISBN 978-0-12-814853-2 ........................................................... 6

Figure 3: Schematic of Alkaline Electrolysis process (Abdin et el, 2017)............................ 8

Figure 4: Schematic of PEM electrolyser process (Fransesco C. et al., 2019) ...................... 9

Figure 5 Schematic of High-temperature electrolysis cell (Fransesco C. et al., 2019) ....... 10

Figure 6: Basic components of Electrolyser on system level stack level and cell level, Source

(IRENA, 2020f) ................................................................................................................... 13

Figure 7: Schematic flow diagram of Alkaline water electrolyser at system level (Brauns J

and Torek T, 2020) .............................................................................................................. 14

Figure 8 Alkaline Electrolyser cost breakdown from system level to cell level (IRENA,

2020) .................................................................................................................................... 15

Figure 9 Potential cost decrease for electrolyser based on learning rate and costs achieved

by development of IRENA scenario by 2030 and 2050 (IRENA,2020) ............................. 16

Figure 10 Cost reduction potential for lithium iron phosphate battery storage system 2016

and 2030 (IRENA,2017) ..................................................................................................... 17

Figure 11 Battery cost projection for 4 hour lithium ion system, (NREL 2019) ................ 18

Figure 12: Methodology milestones .................................................................................... 24

Figure 13 : Dialog Box for the inputs and reference initial model ...................................... 25

Figure 14 : Simulink model for Faraday’s first law ............................................................ 26

Figure 15 : Integration of Faraday efficiency and perfect gas law ...................................... 27

Figure 16: Ohmic over potential representation in MATLAB Simulink ............................ 28

ix
Figure 17: MPPT Algorithm flow chart. MATLAB script is attached on Appendix II ...... 30

Figure 18 .............................................................................................................................. 37

Figure 19 .............................................................................................................................. 38

Figure 20: Scenario of Maximum PV output as 7 kW and clear sky day solar irradiation

pattern .................................................................................................................................. 39

Figure 21: System architecture including Hydrogen tank ................................................... 41

Figure 22: Solar PV array annual performance summery Homer Pro results ..................... 41

Figure 23: Electrolyser annual performance summery Homer Pro ..................................... 42

Figure 24: Clear sunny day production and load served with storage variation ................. 42

Figure 25: Hydrogen amount produced ............................................................................... 43

Figure 26: Clear sunny day production and load served ..................................................... 44

Figure 27: Electrolyser and battery setup excluding hydrogen tank ................................... 45

Figure 28: Winning architecture .......................................................................................... 45

Figure 29: Performance of the system on a typical summer day ....................................... 46

Figure 30: Solar PV array annual performance summery Homer Pro results ..................... 46

Figure 31: Electrolyser annual performance summery Homer Pro results......................... 47

Figure 32: Electrolyser schedule in Homer pro before and after calculation ...................... 48

Figure 33: Scenario considered for a continuous running of electrolyser ........................... 49

Figure 34: Results for theoretical evaluation ....................................................................... 50

Figure 35: Results when efficiencies have taken into consideration ................................... 50

Figure 36 Scenario of Maximum PV output as 7 kW and clear sky day solar irradiation

pattern .................................................................................................................................. 51

Figure 37: Results from MATLAB script for electrolyser cost of 1200 $/kW ................... 51

x
 GLOSSARY

AEL = Alkaline Electrolyser

HTSE = High Temperature steam Electrolysis

PEM = Proton Electron Membrane

SPE = Solid Polymer Electrolysis

PV = Photo Votic

H2 = Hydrogen

AEST = Alkaline Electrolysis Simulation Tool

DC = Direct Current

xi
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

2.1 BACKGROUND

World’s Energy industry rapidly adapting renewable energy sources in to the power systems

after gaining the consciousness of climate changes and necessity to taper the fossil fuel

consumption. Fast decade it was evident of rapid growth positive policy changes around the

globe for increase for the renewable potion of power supply.

Few of the developed countries even have their own target set year to achieve their total

forecasted demand to be equal to total renewable installed capacity. Some within next half

century. Following figure shows a most recent event of Australian energy market where a

new minimum operational demand record for the national electricity market, reaching

14,193 MW between 12-1pm on 22 August 2020.

Figure 1: NEM Operational demand and estimated rooftop PV Source: Australina Energy

Market Operator (AEMO)

1
At the time, instantaneous renewables contributed to 57.1% of total generation. This is much

significant renewable component which can be increased with current PV rooftop addition

rate.

These accelerate growth of renewable energy forces us to explore storage options for these

ever increasing excess energy from renewable sources on favoured conditions. Lithium Ion

and Redox flow batteries are one of major energy storage medium, while pump hydro being

the other in larger scale. Novel ideas of energy storage have been already in the research

status as the world has identified requirement of storage of energy in a synchronize machine

driven power systems. Li-Ion currently lead the market as the growth of electric vehicle and

mobile accessories and also proven to be suited grid storage in South Australia. Solid state

technology will be efficient adaptation as well in the future years with its arrival in to

commercial market. In addition to all these efforts power-to-gas strategy, or to convert

renewable energy to valuable chemicals or fuels, need to be quickly introduced. Hydrogen

is only one of these decarbonising hard-to-abate sectors. (IRENA 2020c)

Hydrogen, the first atom ever created 13.8 billion ago after the big bang, which play a vital

part of our known universe. Its abundance in the universe, solar system and human body (as

water) is more than 70%. Hydrogen has the simplest form of structure of all atoms having a

single proton and an electron orbiting around it. This causes Hydrogen to perform various

chemical and nuclear reactions to sustain known life. In the sun it involves in a nuclear

fission reaction to create helium producing energy that power the solar system. In earth

chemically combining with oxygen it creates water which is vitally important ingredient to

create life and help to sustain it. Hydrogen also make powerful combination with carbon and

create hydro carbons which currently do the bulk of energy supply in the global energy

2
market thus makes a prospect of being a future energy storage competitor as well.

(Eliasson,2002).

Electrolysis is found to be fundamental and oldest method of producing hydrogen in Energy

storage aspect. Hydrogen stored as an energy since it’s a clean and simple in energy

conversion as Hydrogen Oxygen and water are its main by-products of the process. In the

process of electrolysis water is broken in hydrogen and oxygen gasses, in cathode hydrogen

is reduced its oxidation number from +1 to 0 and in anode oxygen is oxidated from -2 to 0.

In order to occur this chemical reaction electrical energy needed to be inserted and this could

be harnessed from renewable energy sources such as solar and wind.

Thus it is identified that exploration of producing hydrogen using renewable energy, a

method of green hydrogen production is an area to be studied. DC current generated from

renewable energy is can be used in an electrolysis process to split water in to hydrogen and

oxygen. Alkaline water electrolyser is the oldest found, cheapest (Paidar, Fateev & Bouzek,

2016) and well-studied technology. proton exchange membrane and high temperature steam

are the two other major water electrolysers available (Henoe et al 2013).

3
2.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Green hydrogen has been identified as one of the production pathway in decarbonize process

and more study on water electrolysis on cell level and system level needed to be carried out.

In addition, possibility of using a battery storage when a primary load is an elctrolyser

identified as an area of study considering technical and economical viabilities.

2.3 OBJECTIVES

 Building MATLAB Simulink model to study alkaline electrolysis on cell level and

its specific consumption.

 Study on how hourly variation of solar generation affect hydrogen production.

 Study potential benefits of using a battery storage when a primary load is an

elctrolyser for a given size PV array.

 Study on lifetime and potential growth

4
CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 HYDROGEN

Hydrogen (H) which in ambient temperature stays as (H2) since it is a diatomic element, is

odourless, colourless, tasteless and flammable gaseous substance. It is the smallest in the

size and structure of the chemical element family. Hydrogen has three known isotopes which

are protium, deuterium and tritium. History of the hydrogen go back to 16th century where

Paracelsus a well-known physician and alchemist unknowingly found in an experiment as a

flammable gas when a metal was dissolved in acid. Yet at the time it was confused with

other flammable gasses and hydrocarbons, but in 1766 Henry Cavendish, English chemist

showed that it is distinct from other gases. It was still named as flammable gas but in 1800

it was given name of Hydrogen combining two Greek words- ‘hydro’ means ‘water’ and

‘genes’ means ‘born of’ by French physicist Alexander Cesar.

Table 2.1 - Properties of Hydrogen

Atomic Hydrogen

Atomic Number 1

Atomic weight 1.00080

Ionization potential 13.595eV

Nuclear spin 1/2

Molecular Hydrogen

Bond distance 0.74116 A0

Dissociation energy 104.19 kcal/mol

Critical density 0.0310 g/cm3

Heat of combustion to water (g) -57.796 kcal/mol

5
Hydrogen is also referred to as a most abundant ecological source of energy. Hydrogen

production can be done using number of methods and about 95% of current production is

done using methane and coal (IRENA,2019a).

Figure 2: Industrial life cycle of hydrogen ;Source: Fransesco C. et al., 2019, Solar

Hydrogen Production, Elsevier, p33 ISBN 978-0-12-814853-2

Coal, oil and gas can be used in steam reforming and cracking which are more popular as

they can be produced in about one third of cost green hydrogen for a kilogram as per current

energy and market price. These produced hydrogens identified as blue hydrogen, while the

produced in use of renewable energy and electrolysis process identified as green hydrogen.

Majority of hydrogen produced currently use to convert into ammonia (NH3) using Haber-

Bosch process. This process combines nitrogen and hydrogen to make a valuable fertilizer

in the agricultural field. In 2010, 157.3 million metric tons of NH3 produced while 451

6
million metric ton of carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted in the process. Therefore, the research

community has been searching for substitutes for Haber-Bosch process with the green

hydrogen to address higher CO2 emission.

Hydrogen also have end use application as it can be used as a fuel for vehicles from cars to

cargo ships while a connection to natural gas network can be helpful in heating and

electricity generation using fuel cells in residential applications.

2.2 WATER ELECTROLYSIS

Water electrolysis is well-known and established method of producing hydrogen which was

first discovered in 1800. This process is endothermic and thus require energy is supplied by

electricity. Anode and cathode immersed in electrolyte with a dc current source complete a

simple structure of an electrolyser. When current starts flowing water will be splitting with

the support of electrolyte and hydrogen is produced at cathode while oxygen is produce at

anode.

Various ways of producing hydrogen from electrochemical technologies

include; proton exchange membrane electrolysis, alkaline electrolysis (AEL), and

high-temperature electrolysis process. These technologies are still in the developmental

phase.

7
2.2.1 Alkaline Electrolysis

Figure 3: Schematic of Alkaline Electrolysis process (Abdin

et el, 2017)
Half reactions

𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒 ∶ 2 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2 + 2 𝑂𝐻 −

1
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 ∶ 2 𝑂𝐻 − → 𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑒 −
2

Alkaline electrolysis is oldest, well-studied and cheapest among water splitting

technologies. For each electrolyser cell, there are two electrodes, one positive and one

negative, and an electrolyte. In the case of alkaline electrolyser with electrodes made of

metals, most commonly Ni, Co, Fe, or Pt/C, the electrolyte would be liquid KOH and the

two electrolyser chambers are divided by a diaphragm (e.g., NiTiO3/NiO).

Alkaline electrolysers in larger scale can produce hydrogen at a rate of about 61 kg/hr with

a current density of 0.4 ACm−2 at power consumption of around 3.5MW. (Ursua A, Gandia

M, Sanchis,2012.). The lowest threshold of electrolyser hydrogen production level is set to

25- 40 % of rated capacity due to prevent formation of potentially flammable mixture of

8
hydrogen and oxygen. The operating temperature is 5 - 120 C0, whilst the operating pressure

may vary from atmospheric up to some 10 - 30 bar in pressurised electrolysers (Abdin Z. et

al, 2017). This technology is the most energy intensive one and produces hydrogen of the

lowest purity.

2.2.2 PEM Electrolysis

Figure 4: Schematic of PEM electrolyser process (Fransesco C. et al., 2019)

Half reactions

𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒 ∶ 4𝐻 + + 4 𝑒 − → 2𝐻2

𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 ∶ 2 𝐻2 𝑂 → 4𝐻 + + 𝑂2 + 4 𝑒 −

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysers, or as they are often called

proton exchange membrane are based on reversed PEM fuel cell technology. They

can operate at the same temperature as alkaline electrolysers or higher (in the case of

high-temperature PEM) and generally achieve better efficiency. PEM electrolysers can be

9
viewed as an incremental development of alkaline electrolysers. The main difference is that

they use a more advanced diaphragm (i.e., polymer membrane). Currently cost of PEM

electrolyser is in the range of 1.3 -1.6 times the Alkaline electrolyser while showing

promising results on increase of efficiency.

2.2.2 High-temperature Electrolysis

Figure 5 Schematic of High-temperature electrolysis cell

(Fransesco C. et al., 2019)

Half reactions

𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒 ∶ 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2 𝑒 − → 2𝐻2 + 𝑂2−

1
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 ∶ 𝑂 → 𝑂2 + 2 𝑒 −
2

Other method of producing hydrogen using electrolysis is High-temperature electrolysis or

so called solid oxide electrolysis cell. It continues to be an efficient alternative for the

hydrogen production as industrial as it can be used for heat recovery systems. In this process

solid electrolytes operate at a few hundred degrees centigrade according to the system while

oxide or proton conductors are being used. The advantages of the high-temperature
10
electrolysis over the water electrolysis are that it provides a mostly improved reaction

kinetics and reduced losses in reactions.

Table 6 - Main Parameters of three type of electrolyser (Source: Kodaman T. et al,2016)

It is evident from the above table solid oxide electrolysis(SOEL) process has higher stack

efficiency and lower specific energy consumption between these three processes. Yet it has

much lower life time, higher investment and efficiency degradation. SOEL also required to

be operated at 700 0C.

When considering the scientific and mathematical concepts used for this research, in

developing the alkaline electrolyser model, electrolysis and solar energy harvesting plays

the key role. The literature work of previous authors on both topics were considered and

combined to get the general idea behind the research work. Different approaches have

11
defined and identified and their results were studied to understand best scheme of modelling

to be used. Fuel cell model currently developed in MATLAB were thoroughly studied and

possibility of reverse Engineering to generate electrolysis model was considered.

12
2.3 STUDY ON ALKALINE ELECTROLYSER ON SYSTEM LEVEL

Figure 6: Basic components of Electrolyser on system level

stack level and cell level, Source (IRENA, 2020f)

Cell is the fundamental level of electrolyser and the building block and where

electrochemical process taking place. It consists with anode and cathode electrodes

immersed in an electrolyte compound.

13
When multiple cells connected in series, insulating material between two opposite

electrodes, mechanical support and avoid leaks and collect fluids has to be taken into the

consideration. This is considered in broader stack level.

The system level consists with more equipment for cooling, processing the hydrogen (e.g.

for purity and compression), converting the electricity input (e.g. transformer and rectifier),

treating the water supply (e.g. deionization) and gas output (e.g. of oxygen) .(IRENA,2020)

Figure 7: Schematic flow diagram of Alkaline water electrolyser at system level

(Brauns J and Torek T, 2020)
Figure 7 is a schematic flow diagram of Alkaline electrolyser. A series connected set of

cells, an electrolyser stack is connected to pumps in order to help circulating electrolyte.

Stack also connected to heat exchangers as ensuring optimal temperature is maintained.

Gasses produced in anode and cathode will circulate through gas separator and recirculate
14
liquid to the electrolyser stack and then to the cells. This phase separation mostly achieved

in high residence time with large tank. These product gasses are then demisted and dried

before the purification process. (Brauns J and Torek T, 2020)

2.4 COST ANALYSIS FOR ELECTROLYSER AND BATTERIES

In the system level of an alkaline electrolyser more than 55 % cost will be relate to power

supply, processing and cooling of hydrogen. When stack level is considered more than 50%

of costs are associated with electrode and diaphragms. Significant cost of more than 70%

potion expended manufacturing electrodes in cell level. Figure 8 illustrate comprehensive

breakdown of component cost from system level to cell level. (IRENA,2020)

Figure 8 Alkaline Electrolyser cost breakdown from system level to cell level (IRENA,
2020)

15
 Installed capacity (MW)

Figure 9 Potential cost decrease for electrolyser based on learning rate and costs
achieved by development of IRENA scenario by 2030 and 2050 (IRENA,2020)

As per IRENA planned energy scenario electrolyser could be cut down to 450 $/kWh

in 2030 and for a 5TW installed capacity this could be reduced to around 240 $/kWh

in 2030 and 150 $/kWh in 2050. Considering life time and replacement cumulative

capacity around 1.2 TW and 5.48 TW for 1 TW and 5TW of installed capacity was

taken as equivalent in this study.

16
Figure 10 Cost reduction potential for lithium iron phosphate battery storage system
2016 and 2030 (IRENA,2017)

Continuous development of lithium-ion batteries will increase its performances while

extending life cycle. According report of IRENA on electricity storage and renewables: cost

and markets to 2030 published in 2017 total installed cost of Li-Ion battery could decrease

by 54%-61% of its current value which was around 600 $/kWh at the time. (can be varied

upon manufacturer and capacity). As per figure 9, cell level potential reduction about 20-35

% could be achieved by 2030. (IRENA,2017)

According to another analysis done by National renewable energy laboratory (NREL) in

2019 the overall capital cost for a 4-hour battery system based on those projections, with

storage costs of $124/kWh, $207/kWh, and $338/kWh in 2030 and $76/kWh, $156/kWh,

and $258/kWh in 2050.Figure 10 shows a summary of their projections. (NREL,2019)

17
Figure 11 Battery cost projection for 4 hour lithium ion system, (NREL 2019)

18
2.5 FUEL CELL MODELS AVAILABLE FOR THE SIMULATION OF
FUEL CELL VEHICLES IN MATLAB

When considering the recent time period, fuel cells have been a famous alternative energy

storage in the society because it’s promising aspect of using in vehicles. Also, fuel cells do

not emit large amount of pollutants and only a small amount of maintenance is needed (Kong

Xin, Ashwin M. Khambadkone, 2003). Mainly fuel cells are categorized in to three types:

chemical, experimental and electrical. Chemical fuel cells are classified according to several

chemical phenomenon happening inside the cell (Liu et al., 2003; Ryan OHayre et al.; Yu

Qiuli et al., 2006). Experimental fuel cells are results of experiments. Look-up tables or

factual expressions are used to represent these experimental fuel cells (Min Joong Kim et

al., 2005; Prabha Acharya et al., 2004). According to the findings of Runtz & Lyster, (2005)

and Larminie & Andrew, electrical circuit elements are used to represent the electrical model

fuel cells.

In the above mentioned fuel cell models, the model parameters are taken factually or by

conducting experiments on the fuel cell. To obtain the model parameters of the generic fuel

cell model, datasheets are used which are provided by stack manufacturers. They are

available in public. This generic model is a combination of both chemical and electric

models.

Figure 12 Fuel Cell model in

MATLAB Simscape Library

Abdin et al. in 2015 proposed model is subdivided into two models: simplified model,

detailed model. In the simplified model, a source providing a controlled voltage is connected

serially with a constant resistance. This model is used to simulate fuel cell stacks which
19
operates at standard conditions of temperature and pressure. In the detailed model, some

parameters are varied to represent a particular fuel stack. Several specific model assumptions

and model limitations are made as the basis of the proposed generic model. Validation of

the model is done by using a typical datasheet curve. The experimental results of a real stack

are also used in the validation process.

2.6 ALKALINE ELECTROLYSER MODELLING ATTEMPT AND

PROJECTS

Hydrogen produced from steam reforming of natural gases exceeds 50 megatons annually

(Department of Energy USA, 2013). A small amount of hydrogen produced, is used in filling

stations for fuel-cell vehicles. In 2016, 92 new stations were opened across the world. By

January 2017 it has increased up to 274 (Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik GmbH). When

considered the industrial scale hydrogen production, water electrolysis is the most efficient

method used (Zeng Kai & Zhang Dongke, 2010; Barton John & Gammon Rupert, 2010;

Alfredo et al., 2012).

Two types of alkaline electrolysers are available as monopolar and dipolar. In some cases,

there’s only a very small gap between the anode and the cathode of the alkaline electrolyser.

Such types of electrolysers are called as zero gap alkaline electrolysers (Zeng Kai & Zhang

Dongke, 2010). Generally, these zero-gap alkaline electrolysers are selected by the

manufacturers. The reason for this is the minimization of the energy consumption (Alfredo

et al., 2012). As alkaline electrolysers are the best alternative that can be used for hydrogen

production, many efforts have been put on to increase the efficiency of them with the

intention of reducing the capital (Alfredo et al., 2012; Ulleberg Øystein, 2003).

20
 In early time periods, alkaline electrolysers modelling was based on solar-hydrogen

demonstration projects. SIMELINT program was used to develop the most explained

alkaline electrolyser model which was also a part of the Saudi Arabian-German HYSOLAR-

project (Hug, Bussmann & Brinner, 1993). Apart from this, several other empirical models

have been developed (Griesshaber & Sick, 1991; Ulleberg & Mørner, 1997; Meurer et al.,

1999; Gutíerrez-Martín et al., 2009; Rion et al., 2010), but they were less detailed or not

verified clearly. Electrolyser models which contain only empirical parameters describes only

current and voltage characteristics (Gutíerrez-Martín et al., 2009; Rion et al., 2010). With

the development of new models (Øystein, 2013; Hug, Bussmann & Brinner, 1993), most of

them tried to specify the characteristics electrolysers. According to all these findings

encountered, a new alkaline electrolyser cell model was developed with the basis of physical

characteristics of the components of the electrolyser.

Figure 13- Simulink model sample (Source: Abdin L. et al, 2017)

21
 Vandenborre, a Hydrogenics company (Hydrogenics, 2006), manufactured a high-

pressure alkaline type electrolyser which is already used in the Hydrogen storage system.

The Zebra battery is used inside the system. As the energy density of these batteries are

much high than the energy density of lead acid batteries, the whole capacity range can be

utilized. In order to generate high voltage series strings, the cells can be interconnected to

form a DC bus with a standard industrial drive (Sudworth JL, Tilley AR, 1983)..

According to the literature work done by Siewniak et al., (2015) and Djurhuus &

Krozer (2017) it was found that computer models are required to optimize the electrolysers

when constructing and operating them. Ulleberg (2003) proposed the electrolyser model

designed for the MATLAB program in his corresponding work. A mathematical description

was provided to the electrolyser with reference to several phenomena and this model was

verified experimentally. Also, Ursúa and Sanchis (2012) proposed a static and a dynamic

electrical model. This model allowed to identify the electrolyser voltage value as a function

of some. Apart from all these models, a new one was proposed and it has a simpler form

than that of Górecki, et al., (2015) model.

Górecki (2016) proposed the new electrolyser model which consists of 5 types of elements.

As this model was described using 16 parameters, the idea of local estimation was used to

determine the values of them. (Zarębski & Górecki, 2002). This model was verified twice

and the results of validation were very similar for the model described by Górecki et al

(2015). When compared with that model presented by Górecki et al (2015), the new one

showed accurate results for the dependence.

Escobar et al., (2013), Atlam et al., (2011), Maroufmashat et al., (2014), Migoni et

al., (2016) and Khalilnejad (2016) described the characteristics of technical parameters,

components and system design, with respect to battery applications. Results of HRES

demonstration refering to PV installations are found in literature works of Maclay et al.,

22
(2011) and Yunez-Cano et al., (2016). A hydrogen refueling system, is demonstrated and

described by Kelly et al., (2011) with the basis of PV for passenger cars.

In a hybrid hydrogen system, a battery system and an electrolyser unit is installed.

Inside the electrolyser units alkaline water electrolysis (AEL) is used for hydrogen

production. AEL technology is advantageous mainly because they are available for large

plant sizes, low cost and have a good lifetime (Gotz et al., 2016). But it is disadvantageous

because they have a low current density and have corrosive materials. In the battery system,

different types of batteries are used. Stenzel et al., (2014) and Moseley (2015) presented

very clear description of battery technologies and characteristics. In balancing the plants,

data needed for hydrogen compressors in the essential size are difficult to find. The required

data are taken from the work of Parra & Patel (2016).

23
 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO ADDRESS RESEARCH

QUESTION: METHODOLGY MILESTONES

MATLAB Simulink Model for

Cell Level Study Hydrogen Production

Initial Model

Advanced model Intermediate model

System Level Study Battery supportability for

purely hydrogen load

Manual Calculation using Homer Pro

MATLAB script Modelling

System architecture isolation

Appropriate System
architecture

Search Space
Cost variation
optimisation

Figure 12: Methodology milestones

24
3.2 MODELLING OF MATLAB SIMULINK MODEL

3.2.1 Initial Model and Faraday’s First Law

In the process of modelling MATLAB Simulink model for the Alkaline electrolyser

integration of fundamental principles to the MATLAB work environment plays vital role.

As it founded exploring the efficiency of electrolyser is important process the initial model

is set to derive absolute theoretical amount of hydrogen that can be produced for a given

current and time in grams assuming temperature is set at 298.15K and pressure is at 1 atm.

Faraday’s first principle for electrolyser has been used as the fundamental principle

(Faraday, M, 1838)

3.2.1.1 Faraday’s first law

“The mass of an element liberated on an electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional

to the quantity of electricity Q passes through the solution of electrolyte.”

Figure 13 : Dialog Box for the inputs and reference initial model
25
𝑚 = 𝑧𝑖𝑡 ------------ 3.1;

Where,

m = mass of element liberated on electrode (g)

i = current passed through an electrode (A)

t = time of the current passing through the electrolyte (seconds)

z = Electro thermal equivalent (g/Coulomb)

3.2.1.2 Electro thermal equivalent

“the amount of substance deposited or liberated when one coulomb of energy passes through

the solution of electrolyte. “

Figure 14 : Simulink model for Faraday’s first law

26
3.2.2 Intermediate Model integrating Faraday efficiency and Perfect gas law

In order to improve my initial fundamental model in to more practical I need to add Faraday

efficiency and Perfect gas law into the model and thus it developed as Figure 9 to achieve

voltage and hydrogen amount produced.

3.2.2.1 Faraday efficiency

Faraday efficiency or coulombic efficiency described efficiency with electrons when

electrochemical reaction is occurring. This will ultimately add the system efficiency and can

be identified as an efficiency factor in cell level.

3.2.2.2 Reversible Cell Voltage

Minimum voltage necessary for electrolysis process to occur is about 1.229 V mat 1atm and

25 Celsius.

Figure 15 : Integration of Faraday efficiency and perfect gas law

27
3.3 Advanced model considering three over voltage scenarios

Figure 16: Ohmic over potential representation in MATLAB Simulink

3.3.1 Open Circuit Voltage

Open circuit voltage is the equilibrium voltage of the system affecting its temperature and

pressure variation. Nernst Equation is widely used in the industry for the calculation of open

circuit voltage (OCV) considering free energy released by the gases produced due to

increase of pressure will cause to rice open circuit voltage and increase of temperature causes

an entropy contribution leading to reduce open circuit voltage.

3.3.1.1 Nernst equation

o ∆S RT P √PO2
Voc = Vstd + (T − Tref ) × + 2F [ln a H2 ] Where,
2F H2OKOH

o
Vstd − revercible cell voltage

∆S
− Standard state entropy change ( −0.9 × 10−3 J/(mol. K)
2F
aH2 OKOH − water activity of the electrolyte solution
28
3.3.2 Activation Over potential

Over potential scenario occurring when charge transfer between electrodes and electrolyte

solution is expressed in activation over potential. Composition of electrolytic solution

adjacent to electrodes as well as the surface of the electrodes determine the rate of reaction.

Butler_Volmer equation can be used for calculating activation over potential of anode and

cathode.

3.3.3 Ohmic Over potential

Resistance of the electrodes, electrolyte and separator causes for another over potential as

the current passes through the electrolyser. The ohmic over potential for these three

contributors can be considered individual and study further yet this has not being achieved

in this project.

3.4 PV Array model in MATLAB Simulink

In-built MATLAB Simulink PV array has been selected to match 10 kW. A buck-boost

converter has selected and separate MATLAB script in appendix II used for calculation of

29
inductor and capacitor value MPPT algorithm has written as a developed version of

perturbation and observation method. A Look Up table has used to input temperature and

irradiance which is updated with BOM data fed in to the table to calculate a scenario of a

given day of the year.

Figure 17: MPPT Algorithm flow chart.

MATLAB script is attached on Appendix II

30
3.5 ELECTRO-CHEMICAL REACTIONS

3.5.1 Half reactions

Cathode ∶ 2 H2 O → 2H + + 2 OH −

2 H + + 2e− → H2

1
Anode ∶ 2 OH − → O + H2 O + 2e−
2 2

3.5.2 Cathode analogy

As per half reactions in Cathode water molecules will be dissolved in to photons and hydroxide

ions.

dNH2 O .in .out cons

= NH 2O
− NH 2O
− NH 2 O−−−−−−−−−(3.𝟏)
dx

dNH2 .in .out .gn

= NH − NH + NH2 − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟐)
dx 2 2

Where,

.in
NH 2O
− Cathode inlet molar flow rate of water

.in
NH 2
− Cathode inlet molar flow rate of Hydrogen

.out
NH 2O
− Cathode outlet molar flow rate of water

.out
NH 2
− Cathode outlet molar flow rate of Hydrogen

31
 cons
NH 2O
− Molar flow rate of water consumption at cathode

.gn
NH2 − Molar flow rate of Hydrogen generation at cathode

According to Faraday law,

.gn I cons I
N H2 = − − − − −(𝟑. 𝟑) and, NH 2O
= − − − −(3. 𝟒)
2F 2F

Where,

I − current through the cell

F − Faraday constant

If current is assumed to be uniformly distributed throughout the cathode

I = iAe − − − − − −(3. 𝟓)

i – current density

Ae – external surface area of electrode

Molar flux of hydrogen at cathode

.gn
N H2 I i
n.cat
H2 = = = − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟔)
Ae 2FAe 2F

cons
NH I i
n.cat
H2 O = 2
= = − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟕)
Ae 2FAe 2F

32
Sum of the mole fractions at cathode should be equal to 1,

X H2 O + X H2 = 1 − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟖)

Patrial pressure of Hydrogen,

(1 − X H2 O )
pH2 = pH2O × − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟗)
X H2 O

1
pH2 = pH2O × ( − 1) − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟏𝟎)
X H2 O

Assuming gasses present are ideal and uniformly distributed and pressure is uniform throughout

the gas flow channels, we can apply Stephan Maxwell equation 1-D

dXH2 O εcat RTi

= ( ) − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟏𝟏)
dx τcat 2FPcat Dcat
eff

Integrating from cathode channel to catalyst surface,

εcat RTilcat−c
X H2 O = exp ( ) − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟏𝟐)
τcat 2FPcat Dcat
eff

εcat
− Electrode porosity to tortuosity
τcat

lcat−c − Anode channel to catalyst distance

Dcat
eff − effective binary (H2 − H2 O) diffusion coefficient at cathode

Substituting at

33
 1
pH2 = pH2O × ( − 1) − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟏𝟑)
X H2 O

1
pH2 = PHsat
2O,KOH
× − 1 − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟏𝟒)
εcat RTilcat−c
τcat exp (2FPcat Dcat )
( eff )

PHsat
2O,KOH
– Vapour pressure of KOH solution

3.5.3 Anode analogy

As per half reactions in Anode oxygen and water is produced from hydroxide ions.

dNH2 O .in .out .gn

= NH 2O
− NH 2O
+ NH2 O − − − − − − − − − (3.1𝟓)
dx

dNO2 .gn
= NO.in2 − NO.out + NO2 − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟏𝟔)
dx 2

Where,

.in
NH 2O
− Anode inlet molar flow rate of water

NO.in2 − Anode inlet molar flow rate of Oxygen

.out
NH 2O
− Anode outlet molar flow rate of water

NO.out
2
− Anode outlet molar flow rate of Oxygen

.gn
NH2 O − Molar flow rate of water generation at anode

.gn
NO2 − Molar flow rate of Oxygen generation at anoode

34
According to Faraday law,

.gn I .gn I
N O2 = 4F
− − − − − −(3. 𝟏𝟕) and, N H2 O = 2F
− − − − − − − −(3. 𝟏𝟖)

Where,

I − current through the cell

F − Faraday constant

If current is assumed to be uniformly distributed throughout the cathode

I = iAe

i – current density

Ae – external surface area of electrode

Molar flux of water and Oxygen at anode

.gn
N O2 I i
n.an
O2 = = = − − − − − − − −(3. 𝟏𝟗)
Ae 4FAe 4F

.gn
N H2 O I i
n.an
H2 O = = = − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟐𝟎)
Ae 2FAe 2F

Sum of the mole fractions at cathode should be equal to 1,

X H2 O + X O2 = 1

Patrial pressure of Hydrogen,

35
 (1 − X H2 O )
pO2 = pH2O × − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟐𝟏)
X H2 O

1
pO2 = pH2O × ( − 1) − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟐𝟐)
X H2 O

Assuming gasses present are ideal and uniformly distributed and pressure is uniform throughout

the gas flow channels, we can apply Stephan Maxwell equation 1-D

dX H2 O εan RTi
= ( ) − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟐𝟑)
dx τan 2FPan Dan
eff

Integrating from cathode channel to catalyst surface,

εan RTilan−c
X H2 O = exp ( ) − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟐𝟒)
τan 2FPan Dan
eff

εan
− Electrode porosity to tortuosity
τan

lan−c − cathode channel to catalyst distance

Dan
eff − effective binary (O2 − H2 O) diffusion coefficient at cathode

Substituting at

1
pH2 = pH2O × ( − 1) − − − − − − − − − (3.2𝟓)
X H2 O

1
pH2 = PHsat ×( − 1) − − − − − − − − − (3. 𝟐𝟔)
2O,KOH εan RTilan−c
exp ( )
τan 2FPan Dan
eff

PHsat
2O,KOH
– Vapour pressure of KOH solution

36
3.6 SYSTEM LEVEL STUDY: HOMER PRO APPROACH: THE
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURES

In order to analyse whether a battery could be used to support electrolyser for an electrolyser

few system architecture compositions were considered. Homer Pro software considered as

the primary modelling tool and thus the available library options were used for modelling

purposes. Following are some of the major system architectures considered.

Figure 17 Figure 18

Initial model in figure 17 was selected as more practical scenario where a synchronous

generator composition, grid composition and other renewable source compositions are also

considered. This configuration includes more details yet mostly be beneficial to state level

or national level design approach. Furthermore, to address the question this research

approach needed to narrow down to fewer parameters as possible. A similar approach to a

fault study is carried out and simplified the architecture where only the relevant components

are isolated. Figure 18 can be interpreted as a renewable energy farm consists with a PV

array and hydrogen production embedded with the grid.

37
 Figure 19 Figure 20
Figure 19 and 20 are gradual progressions in this progress where most of the work was

focused on these architectures and its variances. In figure 19 grid isolated system was

considered where a purely dc and hydrogen system consists in the system.

38
3.7 Manual Calculation

Figure 20: Scenario of Maximum PV output as 7 kW and clear sky day solar
irradiation pattern

In order to find the supportability of a battery to a purely electrolyser load above scenario

has considered where a symmetric PV distribution available throughout day time (figure

20). The optimum electrolyser output (P_E) needed to be investigate which will allow a

battery system to harness excess solar PV during the day time and dispatch in the dark to

supply same hydrogen load.

Then using these parameters and assumed electrolyser cost and projected electrolyser cost

vectors the cost of the battery which needed this to be economically viable needed to be

explored.

39
 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 MATLAB MODEL

This model was used for calculation and study on the efficiency of the electrolyser. Three

over potential scenarios have considered and a more cell level study has been carried out to

understand impact of temperature, pressure, electrode, electrolyte and separator behaviours.

For a given efficiency specific consumption of energy has been also calculated in this

exercise and was helpful in the further process for validation.

4.2 HOMER PRO MODEL

This modelling exercise was practiced obtaining the proportions of battery and Electrolyser

to meet a purely hydrogen load. Number of architectures and search space variances have

been experimented. Important steps that would guide to the conclusion are shown below in

a logical order. These separate instances were considered to find the answer for our research

question of the finding battery and electrolyser proportionality and their economics to curtail

solar irradiation better.

4.2.1 System architecture with Hydrogen Tank

System architecture proposed in figure 11.3 considered initially to analyse the research

problem. A large hydrogen storage option, 250kg hydrogen tank has also considered to

model a system capable of handling continuous hydrogen load with an initial hydrogen

storage of 50kg.

40
 Figure 21: System architecture
including Hydrogen tank
4.2.1.1 PV system

PV system has set to 10 kW in order to study the other variables behaviour. Orientation of

PV array is set to support by two axis tracking system achieving its max performances. This

PV panel produced 19,034 kWh for the year operating at maximum output of 10.4 kW.

Figure 22: Solar PV array annual performance summery Homer Pro results

4.2.1.2 Electrolyser

Homer Pro selected Electrolyser capacity to 6 kW for the give costs and search space values

producing 305 kg per year at an average rate of 0.0192 kg/kWh (Specific consumption 51.9

41
kWh/kg). It’s capacity factor still stay at a low rate of 30.1 % and as battery system has not

been utilised in this system.

Figure 23: Electrolyser annual performance summery Homer Pro

4.2.1.3 Hydrogen Production and storage

Figure 24: Clear sunny day production and load served with storage variation
42
It is evident that from this annual result analysis that there is excess energy system in the

mid-year. Furthermore, stored amount of hydrogen has been decreased in a cycle of one year

and this system will be only able to run if the initial hydrogen level is set at above 50kg.

Thus, this system will not be able to supply continuous hydrogen load for the total lifetime

span. This problem was able to solve halving the hydrogen load when sun is not available,

yet the actual cost of the hydrogen storage covered a significant portion of total cost of the

project outweighing cost of the electrolyser. Figure 17 displays annual hydrogen production

on monthly basis which accumulated to 305kg per year.

Figure 25: Hydrogen amount produced

43
 Figure 26: Clear sunny day production and load served
If we narrow down this for a clear sunny day, it can be observed that excess hydrogen

production has been transferred into the tank daytime and disposed on the night-time from

the bottom graph of figure 26. This shows us there is a possible scenario for a storage system

to support continuous hydrogen load which can also be supported by the gap of PV output

available and electrolyser input on the top graph of figure 26.

These results have convinced of a system with more simplified giving only energy storage

medium as the battery system. This lead to move into system architecture proposed in figure

20 which will be presented below.

44
4.2.2 System architecture without Hydrogen Tank

Figure 27: Electrolyser and battery

setup excluding hydrogen tank

Size of the PV array selected as 10 kW fixed and the search space for electrolyser variations

have considered in order to obtain electrolyser and battery ratio. A sample search space

considered is below with the winning architecture.

Figure 28: Winning architecture

45
 Figure 29: Performance of the system on a typical summer day

Even though Homer pro chose not to select a battery for storage of data it is evident from

figure 16 that there is an excess solar energy that could be produced between 07.00 pm and

3.30 pm. Another important finding is this validate our MATLAB model result for amount

of hydrogen producible for 1 kW as 0.02 kg/hour. Thus, when electrolyser operating at its

maximum optimised capacity of 4 kW it produces 0.08 kg/hour between 6.00 am and

3.00pm.

4.2.2.1 PV system

Figure 30: Solar PV array annual performance summery Homer Pro results

From the 90th day to 270th day of the year gradual reduction of solar hours can be seen as

Toowoomba stated in southern hemisphere of globe it receives less sun energy causing a

winter season.

46
4.2.2.2 Electrolyser

Figure 31: Electrolyser annual performance summery Homer Pro results

At the winter electrolyser’s time period of operating at its maximum capacity decreases

rapidly while on for about more than 90% of time it operates at maximum capacity of 4kW

in summer. Electrolyser consumes 12,016 kWh energy per year producing mean output of

0.0264 kg/hour and 232 kg/year.

This search space is modelled per the average actual prices on the current market and a best-

and worst-case scenarios for battery cost has also considered to explore about possibility of

adopting battery to improve the system gain. Best case scenario has chosen as a theoretical

0 cost for battery and worst-case scenario for double of current battery cost per kWh.

Unfortunately, Homer couldn’t consider a situation where battery charges using the excess

energy while solar energy is available and discharges in the night-time to run the electrolyser

even the battery cost is assumed as zero. This default action of Homer Pro to run the

electrolyser only when the PV output is available couldn’t be change even after various

methods have been explored and try to get assistance with Homer help service.

47
A different system architecture including small auxiliary load also considered to explore

battery’s capacity and variation of state of charge to conclude battery I connected with DC

bus correctly.

This conundrum has made to revaluate the approach to more simplified manual calculation.

Knowledge gathered from the use of MATLAB model and Homer Pro made familiar with

generic behaviour of Alkaline electrolyser and helped validating the Manual calculation

values.

4.3 DIAGNOSIS OF ERROR

In order to force battery to supply the electrolyser from its charged energy electrolyser

schedule has been set to cover times of PV unavailable as well. Yet as soon as the command

is given Homer Pro to calculate it automatically switch back to optimized selection. This

default behaviour could not be addressed even after numerous approaches.

Figure 32: Electrolyser schedule in Homer pro before and after calculation

48
4.4 CASE STUDY USING A MANUAL CALCULATION
APPROACH FOR A 10KW PV ARRAY

Figure 33: Scenario considered for a continuous running of electrolyser

If we assumed solar hours to be 12 hours then it can be calculated that if the power rating of

electrolyser is P kW, to supply the same hydrogen load with battery electrolyser capacity as

P/2 kW. Thus to run the electrolyser for the rest of 12 hours capacity of the battery that

would need is 6 times the electrolyser capacity. Thus if perfect electrolyser model and

battery models are considered it would be only economical viable to support the electrolyser

with the battery when cost of the battery is 6 times less than the electrolyser.

A sample case of electrolyser of 4 kW powered with 10 kW PV array is considered.

Electrolyser cost is assumed 1200 $ and Battery cost has varied from zero to 1000 $ to figure

out the breakeven value of the battery to consider substitute with additional electrolyser
49
capacity. A MATLAB script has developed to enable variation of data such as electrolyser

capacity and costs to analyse the scenario. This can be found in appendix III.

Figure 34: Results for theoretical evaluation

In this exercise efficiency of battery and electrolyser assumed 100% and to achieve more

realistic value roundtrip efficiency of 85 % for the battery and 75 % efficiency for the

alkaline electrolyser is considered.

Figure 35: Results when efficiencies have taken into consideration

This suggest at least consider battery as a support medium to run electrolyser cost of the

battery should be reduced more than 6 times of an electrolyser battery. Analysis of future

cost curves could give an estimated timeframe for such a scenario to occur if possible.

50
Figure 36 Scenario of Maximum PV output as 7 kW and clear sky day solar
irradiation pattern

Maximum PV generation assumed 7 kW of PV panel and above variation of generation is

assumed. MATLAB script attached in Appendix III used to determine the required battery

capacity and the suitable electrolyser output to consider the above displayed PV input with

the support of battery. This script also calculated the rate of battery that should be to

economically beneficial to supply the same hydrogen amount rather increasing

electrolyser’s capacity.

Figure 37: Results from MATLAB script for electrolyser cost of 1200 $/kW

51
The above calculation is based on electrolyser cost is considered as 1200 $/kW and if a 600

$/kWh is considered as electrolyser rate and revaluate above exercise it can be seen that

battery cost has to brought down to 56.7 $/kWh which is more than ten time less cost of an

electrolyser cost for 1 kW.

Figure 38 Results from MATLAB script for electrolyser cost of 600 $/kW

4.5 LIFE TIME AND FUTURE GROWTH

Life time of Alkaline electrolyser has considered one of the key performance index

comparing with other green solution. This aspect relates to material and components. Life

time can also be considered as a function of cumulative current passing through the

electrolyser and also can be represented in operating hours irrespective of load operating

conditions. Alkaline electrolyser has a proven life time over 30 years. Key factors affecting

life time of AEL is discussed below.

4.5.1 Electrodes

In some systems, deactivation of electrodes on the cathode and anode sides has been avoided

by utilising tiny idle protection currents of a few microamperes to avoid reversal of cathode

potentials, which could lead to less active electrodes over time. Improving the electrolyser's

performance in one dimension frequently means sacrificing performance in other others.

Instead of having a single best-performing design, this leads to trade-offs during the

innovation process.

52
4.5.2 Gas permeation

The diaphragm is subjected to a constant flow of KOH, as well as gas penetration and local

hot spots caused by contaminants deposited on electrode coatings. This eventually leads to

minor pin-hole failures that grow in size over time, contaminating the gas supply. These

disadvantages have been regularly modified for new generation diaphragms and low-

pressure operation, and a few companies have claimed to have eliminated these problems.

4.5.3 Nickel alloys

Inorganic ZrO2 diaphragms, nickel- and zinc-based materials are required for very caustic

KOH at high concentrations. Nickel alloys must be free of chromium and iron, as these

elements can leach and contaminate electrodes, reducing efficiency and durability.

4.5.4 Water impurities

Water impurities such as iron (Fe), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), silicon (Si), aluminium

(Al), and boron (B) can harm several elements, including the diaphragm, catalysts, and other

components (B). Because of the increased degradation caused by low-quality water

circulation, the plant's lifetime is reduced as a function of operation hours.

53
 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION

Growth of renewable energy explore us for more decarbonising strategies to maximise their

impact on carbon foot print. Hydrogen is identified as one of the smart adaptation and

electrolysis process enable us achieving a green hydrogen economy system. Alkaline

electrolysis has found as well studied cheap solution and exploration of cost reduction and

efficiency increment is to be carried out at cell level, stack level and system level.

It is found that around 0.02 kg of hydrogen could be produced using one kilo watthour of

energy having specific consumption around 500kWh/kg. This value could be varying

according the method of electrolysis and parameters of electrolyser yet for engineering

calculation this figure could be valuable assumption.

Considering solar irradiation change the size of the electrolyser could be reduced by using

a battery storage device to charge excess solar PV generation and discharge at the when PV

power is not available. It is found that this is not economically feasible at the current prices

and, battery storage cost per kWh has to reduce to around 1/6 - 1/10 of electrolyser cost per

kW to become this case economically viable.

Improvement of water purity, electrode and diaphragm structure could be identified as key

aspects for better life time of Alkaline electrolysers.

54
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HydrogenandFuelCells.pdf

11. T. Kodama, N. Gokon, Thermochemical cycles for high-temperature solar hydrogen

production,Chem. Rev. 107 (10) (2007) 4048–4077

12. Tremblay, O. and Dessaint, L.A., 2009, September. A generic fuel cell model for the

simulation of fuel cell vehicles. In 2009 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion

Conference (pp. 1722-1729). IEEE.

13. Wiedenmann, D., Keller, L., Holzer, L., Stojadinović, J., Münch, B., Suarez, L.,

Fumey, B., Hagendorfer, H., Brönnimann, R., Modregger, P. and Gorbar, M., 2013.

Three‐dimensional pore structure and ion conductivity of porous ceramic

diaphragms. AIChE Journal, 59(5), pp.1446-1457.

56
 RISK ASSEMENT

As hydrogen is identified as non-toxic gas any leakages will not be affect to the environment

but only to the efficiency of plant. The other aspect of hydrogen which makes much safer

type of fuel than ones we are using today is its light weight. Since Hydrogen is the lightest

gas and lighter than the natural air in a case of leakage it dissipates very quickly and have

narrow time window to make an impact.

Hydrogen’s most concerning property in Engineering application and where most of

attention should be concentrated is its flammability. Hydrogen in the early ages before

named as hydrogen identified as flammable gas since it’s this characteristic. Thus additional

controls must be taken in Electrolysis to control its safe use and safe storage. Hydrogen has

lower ignition energy than gasoline or natural gas which asks to detect any leaks

immediately. The other main issue with its flammability is when Hydrogen burns its more

incognito as it has nearly invisible flame. Therefore, special flame detectors are required to

identify Hydrogen burning in the facility.

The other aspects of safe system should include proper materials of the system as some of

the metals tends to become brittle when met with hydrogen frequently. Since Hydrogen

storage as a fuel is comparably novel in renewable energy industry more and more tests and

demonstrations should be carried out to ensure its safety to public use.

57
 APPENDIX I

Solar irradiation variation

% Solar Irradiation
% Monthly andd Hourly variation
% Author KTR
% Monthly Solar irradiance data - 2019 from BOM
% MJ/m^2
clc,clear,close all
disp('-------------------')
G=[25.9, 23.4, 18.2, 17.6, 14, 11.7, 13.9, 15.8,20.4, 24.3, 28.0,
28.3];
% Convert to W/m^2 Assuming Solar irradiaition last for 12 hour
h=12;
I=G.*1e6/(h*60*60);

%% 29th November 2020

G=30.8;
I=G.*1e6/(h*60*60);
T=35.2;

%% Toowoomba Solar Exposure

phi = -(27+33/60+30/(60*60));
long= 151 + 52/60+ 45/(60*60);
delta_= 23.45;
GMT =10;
phi= deg2rad(phi);
n=332; % June 11
gama=deg2rad(180); % Due North
beta=deg2rad(20); % Slope
t=6:18; % Time 11.00 am

% Declination Angle
delta=delta_* sin(deg2rad(360*(284+n)/365)); % (T&W, Eq. 2.5)
disp(['Declination angle is ', num2str(delta),' degrees']) % (T&W,
Eq. 2.4)
delta=deg2rad(delta);
t_solar=t + (long-360*GMT/24)/15;
% Hour angle
omega=15* (t_solar-12);
disp(['Hour angle is ', num2str(omega),' degrees'])
omega=deg2rad(omega);
A = sin(phi).*cos(beta);
B = cos(phi).*sin(beta).*cos(gama);
C = sin(beta).*sin(gama);
D = cos(phi).*cos(beta);
E = sin(phi).*sin(beta).*cos(gama);

theta_c = acos( (A-B).*sin(delta) + (C.*sin(omega) +

(D+E).*cos(omega)).*cos(delta) );
disp(['Angle between beam and collector ',
num2str(rad2deg(theta_c))])
I_h = I.*cos(theta_c);
58
 disp(['Hourly Solar Irradiation Change from 6.00 am -6.00 pm ',
num2str((I_h)), ' W/m^2' ])
disp('-------------------')

plot(t,I_h)
% PV Specification
% Finding L and C
% Author KTR

Vin=250;
Vout=600;
Prated=250e3;
Fs=5e3;

dV=0.01;
Iin=Prated/Vin;
dI=0.05*Iin;
dV=dV*Vout;
Iout=Prated/Vout;
L=Vin*(Vout-Vin)/(Fs*dI*Vout);
disp(['Value of L = ', num2str(L*1000), 'mH'])
C=Iout*(Vout-Vin)/(Fs*dV*Vout);
disp(['Value of C = ', num2str(C*1e6), 'uF'])

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 APPENDIX II

MPPT Algorithm

function Vref=RefGen(V,I)

Vrefmax=363;
Vrefmin=0;
Vrefinit=300;
deltaVref=1;
persistent Vold Pold Vrefold;

dataType='double';
if isempty(Vold)
Vold = 0 ;
Pold = 0;
Vrefold = Vrefinit;
end

P = V*I;
dV = V-Vold;
dP = P-Pold;

if dP ~= 0
if dP<0
if dV<0
Vref = Vrefold + deltaVref;
else
Vref = Vrefold - deltaVref;
end
else
if dV<0
Vref = Vrefold - deltaVref;
else
Vref = Vrefold + deltaVref;
end
end
else
Vref = Vrefold;
end

if Vref >= Vrefmax | Vref <= Vrefmin

Vref = Vrefold
end

Vrefold = Vref;
Vold = V;
Pold = P;

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 APPENDIX III

Manual Calculation

%% ELETROLYSER AND BATTERY PROPOTIANALITY

% Author KTR
% Date 23/10/2021
% Assuming We have found out our electrolyser
capacity cost of battery to
% run in patial load (half load is assumed in
this case)
clc,clear, close all

%% Data from the other sources

E_price=600; % Electrolyser cost in $/kW

B_price=1; % Battery price $ per 1 kWh li-Io
battery
Pm = 4; % Electrolyser capacity kW
H2_cost=3; % Assuming green hydrogen production
cost to be 3 $/kg
Life_time= 15; % Life time of the Project in
years
H2_rate=0.02; % Hydrogen production rate is
assumed 0.02 g/kWh
B_eff=0.85; % Battery efficiency %
E_eff=0.75; % Electrolyser efficiency %
%% Calculation
% Required battery capacity to run a half load
of electrolyser assuming
% batteries are capable within the day.
%for Pm=1:10:100
x=1:5:1000;
for B_price=1:0.02:1000
B_cap = Pm*B_eff/(2*E_eff)*12; % Battery
capacity considering efficiency
B_cost=B_cap*B_price;
E_cost=Pm*E_price;
B_rate= B_cap/B_cost;
E_rate=E_cost/Pm;
61
 diff=E_cost-B_cost;
if((0<abs(diff)) && (abs(diff)<1))
disp(['Break even rate for battery
',num2str(B_price),' $/kWh when Electrolyser
cost is is ',num2str(E_rate),'$/kW'])
disp(['Total required battery capacity
',num2str(B_cap),' kWh'])
disp(['Cost ratio battery to electrolyser
',num2str(E_price/B_price)])
end
end
%end
%%
%Investment of battery
disp(['Investment for battery
',num2str(B_cost),' $'])

% Cost for current electrolyser

H2_cost =
(E_price*Pm)*1000/((H2_rate*Pm*12*365*Life_time)
*E_eff);
disp(['Cost for producing hydrogen using
electrolyser ',num2str(H2_cost),' $'])

%% Electrolysers load graphical representation

% Scenario 01
H=0:23;
for i=1:6
L(i)= Pm/2;
end
for i=7:18
L(i)= Pm;
end
for i=19:24
L(i)= Pm/2;
end
figure
62
bar(H,L,'b')
xlabel( 'Hour of the day')
ylabel('Electrolyser Input Power (kW)')

%% Scenario 2
H=0:23;
L=[0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 0 0
0 ];
figure
bar(H,L,'b')
hold on
plot(H,3.5,'r')
xlabel( 'Hour of the day')
ylabel('Electrolyser Input Power (kW)')

P_E_th=sum(L)/24

P_E_prac=sum(L)/24/E_eff;
disp(['Minimum electrolyser capacity
',num2str(P_E_prac),' kW'])
B_cap2=(sum(L)-P_E_th*12)/B_eff;
disp(['Battery Capacity ',num2str(B_cap2),'
kWh'])

for B_price=1:0.02:1000

B_cost=B_cap2*B_price;
E_cost=P_E_prac*E_price;
B_rate= B_cap2/B_cost;
E_rate=E_cost/P_E_prac;
diff=E_cost-B_cost;
if((0<abs(diff)) && (abs(diff)<1))
disp(['Break even rate for battery
',num2str(B_price),' $/kWh when Electrolyser
cost is is ',num2str(E_rate),'$/kW'])
disp(['Total required battery capacity
',num2str(B_cap2),' kWh'])
disp(['Cost ratio battery to electrolyser
',num2str(E_price/B_price)])
end
end
63