CHAPTER ONE

1.1 PURPOSE OF STUDY

We live in an imperfect world and consequently errors will always occur

inspite of our efforts to avoid them.

Writers of English as a second language (ESL) are faced with many

challenges in the process of writing. This is because English language is not their first

language.

English as a social language writers make errors in their inter language by

borrowing patterns from their mother tongue. This process is referred to as “negative

transfer” or “interference”. Error caused by interference are Articles, Adjectives,

prepositions, Verb tense, word order, word choice, punctuations, spellings and

conjunction.

In linguistics, on application of the general use of the term “error”, refers to

the mistake in writing or speech of learners of English as a second language.

Writers of prose texts in Nigeria are not native speakers of English language,

they are second language learners. This results in negative transfers from their mother

tongue to their writings. This is because they fall back on their mother tongue to help

create their language system. They apply rules from the second language in ways that

a native speaker would not.

For example, Florence Enaboife in her book The Courage to Change made

this mistake in page 108, when she said “I have seen it happened before”.

1
 She over generalized the rule of adding-ed to create past tense verb forms.

However, it is wise to ask “How can these writers make errors in their

writings after studying English as a second language?”

It’s safe to say that as humans we live in an imperfect world and so we cannot

avoid mistake, no matter how careful we are.

Educated and good speakers of English language as a first language, would be

disappointed and embarrassed when reading works that are filled with errors.

It is appropriate to examine the types of errors made by these writers in their

works through the use of Error Analysis.

1.2 SCOPE OF STUDY

Four prose texts were selected for this study. These prose texts are; And It Rained by

Emmanuel Osadebamwen Orose, The Legend: Sir Ahmadu Bello by Olajire

Olanlokun, The Courage to Change by Florence Itua-Enaboifo, and the Pregnant

Cloud And Other Stories by Agatha Alile.

These particular prose texts were selected because in the course of reading

them I found so many errors in them, especially grammatical errors and I realized that

after our students finish reading these kind of prose texts that are filled with errors,

they pick up the wrong form of grammar and begin to use them in speech and

writing. This then ulters their teacher’s effort to impact the correct form of grammar

on them.

2
1.3 METHODOLOGY

This research makes use of materials from the internet, Longman dictionary,

A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, the selected prose texts materials on error

analysis and journal.

The internet was used to gather information on Error Analysis and works that

have being done on different aspect of error analysis. The information gotten from the

internet helped me to understand more about error analysis and what errors mean.

The selected prose texts were chosen for this study because of the categories

of errors found in them. The errors were listed and categorized and corrects were

made.

Materials on Error Analysis were used to review the studies of other works

done by researchers on error analysis. Their reviews showed the various aspects of

error analysis they worked on and it was discovered that they haven’t worked on

analyzing errors in prose texts.

The Journal used contained the worked on the error Malaysian researcher who

worked on the error analysis of written works of secondary school students in

Malaysia.

1.4 THEORETICAL FRAME WORK

Error Analysis was used in this research to analyze the errors found in the

prose texts that were selected for this study.

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1.5 REVIEW OF RELATED STUDY

Much work have being done on different areas of Error Analysis, but little or

none have being done on analyzing errors in prose texts.

This research did a review of related studies on those who have worked on

error analysis and their findings.

Corder Stephen Pit in his work “The Significance of Learners Errors” talked

about the significance of errors for the learners. He said:

“First to the teachers, in that they tell him if the learner

undertakes systematic analysis, progressed and what
remains for him to learn. Second, they provide to the
researcher evidence of how the language is learnt or
acquired, what strategy or procedures the learner is
employing in his discovery of the language.
Thirdly, (land in a sense, the most important aspect) they
are indispensable to the learner himself, because we can
regard the making of errors as a device the learner uses in
order to learn”. (25-26).
He found out that we can never improve our ability to create favourable

conditions to develop the language in our minds, until we learn more about the way a

learner learns and what his built-in syllabus is.

Corder used error analysts to look at how significant errors are to the teacher,

researcher and to the learners. But it differs from mine because, am looking it errors

found in prose texts and I am going to categorize the errors.

4
 Jack Richards in his work “Error Analysis of Adult Language Learning;”

talked about intralingua and developmental errors. According to him, it reflects the

learner’s competence at a particular stage and they illustrate some of the general

characteristics of the language acquisition. Such as over generalization, incomplete

application of target language rules and the development of false concepts.

He concluded by saying that the errors are representative of the kind of errors

we might expect from someone learning English as a second language (173-181).

The work of Jack Richard differs from mine because, I am looking at the

types of errors made by writers of prose texts, while he worked on error analysis of

adult language learning. That is, looking at errors made by adults learning English as

a second language.

Jain M.P. in his work “Error analysis; source, cause and significance”, saw the

learner’s language as manifesting a general learning strategy to simplify the syntax of

the language they are learning. According to him, the second language learning

situations of the learner are; learning strategies used by learner, different training

procedures, individual differences of teachers, learners differences and text books ,

made learning situations different from the other.

He concluded by saying that there is a realization that the second language

learners errors are potentially important for understanding of the processes of second

language acquisition. (189)

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 Jain worked on the source, cause and significance of learners errors, but my

research only looks at the type of errors made by writers of prose texts and the errors

will be categorized.

Scadiyah darus in his work “Error Analysis of the Written English Essays of

Secondary School Students in Malaysia: A Case Study “examined the errors of 72”

essays written by 72 participants. The participants were form four Malay students

who were studying at a secondary school in Malaysia and they were from non-

English speaking background. His research sought to answer the question: what are

the six most common errors that students make in their essays? The results showed

that the errors made by the students are: Singular/Plural, verb tense errors, world

Choice, Prepositions, subject verb agreement and word order.

He concluded by saying that the participants had problem acquiring normal

grammatical races in English. (493).

The study of Saadiyah differs from mine, because he looked at the errors

made by secondary school student sin their essays, while my research looks at errors

made by writers of prose texts and the errors are categorized, using error analysis.

1.6 THESIS STATEMENT

This research examines errors founding some prose texts selected for some

secondary schools in Nigeria. These errors include: Verb tense errors, Prepositional

errors, Articles errors, Singular/plural errors, Punctuation errors.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 ERRORS IN THE USE OF TENSES

According to Godwin Uba, tense is the grammatical category of the verb. In

English language, traditional grammar distinguishes three basic tenses namely:

present, past and future.

Thus tense denotes the time or degree of completeness of the action or state

denoted by the verb. Modern grammarians recognize two basic tenses: present and

past. Other verb phrases are formed by combining present or past tenses with

progressive or perfective aspect or with both.

Present Tense:

The present tense denotes a tense of verbs used when the action or event

described is occurring at the time of the utterance or when the speaker does not which

to make any explicit temporal reference.

Example:

Micheal dances everyday

I eat food.

He food.

He speaks English well.

The present tense is divided into simple present tense, the present continuous

tense and the present perfect tense.

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Simple Present Tense:

Is used to show any of these situations.

(a) A Universal Truth:

Example: Twelve months make one year.

The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

(b) An Habitual Action or State:

It includes actions which occur often or are of regular occurrence.

Example:

i. Jane goes to school at half past seven in the morning.

ii. Ada combs her everyday.

iii. Our teach visits me often.

(c) A Certain Capability

It is the ability to do something or potential ability to do something.

Example:

i. My father speaks four languages.

ii. I can play hockey.

The Present Continuous Tense:

It shows what is really happening now.

Example:

He is eating

She is reading

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 The present continuous tense is used to show these situations:

(a) An action that begins at an indefinite time before, and is taking place at the

present moments.

Example:

I am teaching the student

I am dancing to a music

(b) An action that continues from beginning to an end of a given present or future

period of time.

Example:

I cannot write because, I am working.

The Present Perfect Tense completed, or that an action has finished at the moment of

speaking.

Example:

He has eaten.

He has written a letter

It has rained heavily.

We have Modal Auxilaries in the present and past. Modal Auxiliaries are used

to express various moods and mental attitudes like hope, expectations, possibility, and

futurity. Examples of modal auxiliaries in the present are: can, may, will, and

examples of modal auxiliaries in the past are could, might and would.

Modal Auxiliaries in the present are:

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CAN

(a) to express ability.

Example:

i. I can teach English.

ii. He can type the letters.

(b) To express capacity

Example:

i. He can work hard

ii. He can build a house.

(c) To express permission

Example:

i. Can I have a cup of tea?

ii. Can I go early today?

(d) To express possibility

Example:

i. Learn that you may teach others.

ii. Earn that you may spend.

iii. Eat that you may live.

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 (e) Is used to express a wish

Example:

i. May god bless you.

ii. May God help you.

iii. May you live long.

Will:

(a) Is used to express simple futurity in the second and third person.

Example:

i. The plane will take off in a few seconds.

ii. They will come tomorrow.

iii. Tomorrow will be a holiday.

(b) Is used to express determination; promise, threat and willingness in the first

person.

Example:

i. will rain her.

ii. I will consider the case.

Threats:

Example:

i. I will sue her.

ii. I will dismiss you from service.

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Willingness:

Example:

i. We will tell you the address.

ii. I will type the letter.

(c) Is used to refer to probability.

Example:

i. I think Anulichukwuka will be a great singer.

ii. I suppose he will be the director of the film

(d) Is used to indicate an invitation or polite request.

Example:

i. Will you have dinner with me tomorrow?

ii. Willu have dinner with me tomorrow?

iii. Will you have a cup of tea?

The Past Tense

When a verb is used to show that an action was completed, its known as past

tense.

The Simple Past tense:

(a) An action that is completed during some definite past time. It is frequently

used with such words as “yesterday”, “last night”, “last”, “last year”, and

“ago”.

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Example:

i. I had a wireless discussion with my brother yesterday.

ii. Jane spoke to me three days ago.

Past Continuous Tense:

Is used to show that an action was in progress or incomplete in the past. The

past continuous, tense, is used to show the following;

(a) A past action that begins indefinitely before and lasts to a later time.

Example:

i. It was drizzling when my mother returned.

ii. When I went to the stream this morning, my sister was sleeping

(b) Its used to shows an action that was going on, when another occurred.

Example:

i. I was singing when she came in.

ii. He was eating when the door bell rang.

The Past Perfect Continuous Tense

It is a tense that is used to show that an action had been in progress up to when

another action began; or when the first action is still continuing.

Example:

i. He had eaten before he slept.

ii. At midnight I had been teaching three hours.

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 (I began to teach at 9pm, the action continued for three hours until 12

midnight, when I was still teaching).

The Past Perfect Tense:

This tense is used to indicate that an action had been completed at a particular

time in the past that is still under discussion. This means that the past perfect tense is

used to show an action that has already begun before another action which has taken

place or is completed in the past.

Example:

I had spoken my mind before she intruded.

In the sentence above, speaking occurred before intruding. Speaking may

therefore be considered as the first action; and intruding is the second action.

The following are modal auxiliary verb tense in the past tense:

Could

(a) To express ability.

Example:

i. will could walk longer if I tried harder.

ii. He could work for long when he was young.

(b) It is used in indirect speech.

Example:

i. She told me that she could help me.

ii. They said they could lend me money

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 (c) To express possibility

Example:

i. If only Omotola were here, I could ask her about it.

(d) To make polite request.

Example:

(e) To express permission.

Example:

i. Could I talk to your brother?

ii. Could I have your bible for a while?

Might

(a) It is used in indirect speech.

Example:

i. He said that he might marry her without dowry.

ii. They told me that they might apply for a bank loan.

(b) To express possibility.

Example:

i. It might rain today.

ii. He might be awarded a scholarship.

(c) To express permission

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Example:

i. Might I use your phone?

ii. Might I borrow your dictionary?

(d) It is used for gentle reproach.

Example:

i. You might spend the money with a little care.

Would

(a) It is used in indirect speech.

Example:

i. She told me that she would see me the next day.

ii. He said that he would consult the advocate.

(b) It is used to express willingness or determination.

Example:

i. the chief surgeon said he would operate on the patient. (Willingness to

operate).

ii. She would apply for the post. (Determined to apply).

(c) Its used to express a past habit.

Example:

i. He would sit there and think about his childhood.

(d) Would like to express my thanks to her for her help.

(e) Would you be kind enough to infinitive to express polite request.

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Example:

i. Would you be kind enough to lend me your book?

The Future Tense:

Is when a verb is used to show that an action will take place in future.

Example:

i. He will go to Jos tomorrow.

ii. It will rain tomorrow.

iii. I shall teach you Igbo.

Simple Future Tense:

The tense is used to that some actions will take place in future.

Example:

i. I shall read a novel.

ii. They will build the house.

iii. I will sing a song.

Future Continuous Tense:

Shows that some actions will be in progress in future.

Example:

i. I will be singing a song.

ii. They will have built the house.

iii. I shall have taught for thirty-seven years when I retire today.

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 In tenses, there are cases of shifts, were it is required to move from the past to

the present and from the present to the past. Non-English speaking writers, find it

difficult, when it comes to shifting from the past to the present and from the present

to the past. The following are cases, were shifts can occur in a writing.

(a) When stating an eternal truth

Example:

When I was in primary school, I was told by my teacher that honesty is the

policy.

(c) When a dialogue is inserted in the midst of a narrative.

Example:

He said; “I will not go there”

She replied, “you have no choice”

In inserting a dialogue in a narrative, the narrative moves from past to present.

Verb tense errors can be seen when the writers failed to apply the correct tense

to the verb in their works.

I can be said that the writers had no complete knowledge of the different rules

for tense application.

Verb tense errors occur when there is a shift in the verb tense in the sentence,

without a word suggesting a transition in time.

Verb tense errors mostly occur when writers do not correctly match tense with

time expressions and this causes in appropriate verb tense shifts.

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 Writers make tense errors when they try to move between past and present

tense and when there is a shift.

Example:

1. Incorrect.

Iyare werent’t left out.

Correct

Iyare wasn’t left out (pg 33).

2. Incorrect

I am sorry my shout woke you up.

Correct

I am sorry my screaming woke you up. (pg 30).

3. Incorrect

I have seen it happened before

Correct

I have seen it happen before. (pg 108).

4. Incorrect

I am a God sent wife to him

Correct

I am a God Sent wife to him. (pg 3).

5. Incorrect

They give him a place where he started a family.

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 Correct

They gave him a place where he started a family (pg 48) (In the above

sentence (5) the writer in trying to report an incident in the past tense, made the

mistake of using present tense).

6. Incorrect

Dimkpo followed Tope home to met his mother. (pg 48).

Dimkpo followed Tope home to meet his mother. (pg 48).

7. Incorrect

Soon the crops was harvested

Correct

Soon the crops were harvested (pg8).

8. Incorrect

All his friends look at the boy’s mouth

Correct

All his friends looked at the boy’s mouth (pg 40).

9. Incorrect

To God is the glory.

Correct

To God be the glory. (pg 74).

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2.2 ERRORS IN THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS

A preposition is a word place before a noun or pronoun to show its relation to

some other words in the sentence.

Example:

i. I spoke to Tayo.

ii. We are fond of poetry.

iii. Michelle has good command of English.

Prepositions are of various types:

A. Simple Prepositions:

They are not formed by any method and are common to a language.

at out to since by

on after than for with

over till from through under

off off up round down

Example:

i. She is at the bus stop.

ii. Michelle is praised for her beauty.

iii. He fell off the bus.

iv. I received a letter from my sisterf.

v. I did not know what friendship is till I meet Anulichukwuka.

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B. Double Preposition:

They are propositions that contain two words

Out of according to close to

From behind near to inclusive of

From under nearest to instead of

From within opposite to inspite of

Next to

Example:

According to Keats, a thing of beauty is joy forever.

A world is used instead of a noun.

I went to close to Micheal.

Adewale lives next to us.

She came out of the house.

(c) Compound Preposition:

They are prepositions formed by prefixing (is a group of letters that is added

to the beginning of a word to change its meaning and make a new word).

across besides around

about towards despite

beneath against inside

outside upon without

along between beyond

22
above within

Example:

i. The sky is above us.

ii. He rain across the road.

iii. He is inside the room?

iv. Jane built a wall around the garden.

(d) Phrase Prepositions:

It refers to group of words used as prepositions.

according to by means of

away from by reason of

along with in order to

in search of by way of

in place of on account of, e.t.c.

instead of for the sake of

because of

Example:

i. According to Shakespeare, love is not time’s fool.

ii. She is away from home.

iii. There are certain people in society who can do anything for the sake of

money

iv. They started a home in order to help the poor.

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 There are rules, that show how a preposition should be placed in a sentence.

1. A preposition is always placed at the end of the sentence when the object is a

relative pronoun ‘that’.

Example:

i. It is the bus that I am waiting for

ii. This is the hotel that I stayed in

2. The preposition must be placed at the end when the object is an interrogative

pronoun.

Example:

i. What are you thinking about?

ii. Who are you waiting for?

3. The preposition must be placed at the end when the relative pronoun is

understood.

i. I want to know the person you borrowed the book from

ii. Do you know the things she is interested in.

The propositional errors found in the various texts shows that the writers do

not know when to use a preposition or when to place a preposition in a sentence. In

most cases, they were omitted.

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Examples:

1. Incorrect.

The cocaine was worth about ten million pounds

Correct

The cocaine was worth ten million pounds. (pg 84)

2. Incorrect

He came nearer and putted me on the back.

Correct

He cam near and patted me on the back. (pg 102)

3. Incorrect

Ahmadu relished the power vested in the Alkali

Correct

Ahmadu relished the power vested on the Alkali

4. Incorrect

I will be going back to Nigeria two days time.

Correct

I will be going back to Nigeria in two days time. (pg 97)

5. Incorrect

Kofi and Adesuwa were simply in their best.

Correct

Kofi and Adesuwa were simply at their best. (pg 44)

25
 CHAPTER THREE

ERRORS IN THE USE OF ARTICLE

The use of articles ‘the’ “a” “an” is determined by the noun, whether it is

countable or uncountable and whether it is singular or plural.

The definite article “the” is used only if the noun has been mentioned before,

or if the noun is familiar. It is used to refer to a particular person or thing.

While the indefinite article “a” and “an” is used only when the noun has not

being mentioned before. The use of the indefinite article “a” and “an” takes into

considerations whether the noun is countable or not. The selection between “a” and

“an” is determined by sound.

1. “a” is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound.

Example

a boy, a man, a table, a horse, a human being, and a yard.

2. “a” is used before a word beginning with “h” and also with “y” and “u”.

Example

a horse, a historical novel, a year, a yard, a uniform, a union.

3. “an” is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound.

Example

4. It is used to convert a proper noun into a common noun.

26
 Example

i. He is a Clinton (a great political leader)

ii. She is a mother Theresa (a great social worker),

5. It is used in the sense of ‘one’.

Example

a book, a pen, a man, a girl

6. It is used in exclamation sentences.

Example

i. What a pretty girl!

ii. What a clever girl!

iii. What a shame!

‘A’ or ‘An’ is not used in the following situation:

1. It is not used with a plural noun.

Example

i. dogs

ii. books,

iii. girls.

2. It is not used with uncountable nouns.

Example

i. advice.

ii. information.

27
 iii. news.

iv. baggage.

v. luggage.

vi. furniture.

But these words may be used with:

Some, any, a little, a lot of, a piece of, a bit of, an item of.

Example

i. a piece of information.

ii. some advice.

3. It is not used with abstract nouns.

Example

i. happiness

ii. beauty

iii. fear

iv. friendship

v. wisdom

vi. hope

vii. intelligence

viii. love.

The Use of Definite Articles “the”

1. The definite article “the” is used with unique things in nature.

28
 Example

i. the sun.

ii. the sea.

iii. The sky.

iv. The moon.

The sun rises in the east

The earth moves round the sun.

2. ‘The’ is used to talk about particular persons or things.

Example

i. the man you met yesterday is my uncle.

ii. the lady you saw at the theatre is my wife.

3. Names of rivers/gulfs/seas/groups of is lands/mountain range and oceans.

Example

The Mississippi

The Persian Gulf

The Pacific Ocean

4. ‘The ‘ Is used with the names of well known books.

Example:

The Bible

The Odyssey

The Dictionary

29
5. ‘The’ when used before adjective make them name.

Example:

The rich the weak

The poor the needy

The strong

6. ‘the’ is used with direction.

Exanmple :

The north , the west

The east , the south

7. ‘The’ is used with historical building.

Example :

The national theater

The museum

The Muson Centre

The Beach House

8. ‘the’ is used with the names of certain countries and provinces.

Example :

The United States

The United Kingdom

9. ‘the’ is used with musical instruments.

30
 Example:

The Violin

The Flute

There are cases where by the article ‘the’ is omitted.

1. ‘The’ is not used with proper nouns.

Example:

Japan

Mother Theresa

Nigeria

2. ‘The’ Article is not placed before abstract nouns.

Example:

Beauty

Grammar

Courage honesty

But article ‘the’ may be used, if these qualities are attributed to people.

Example:

i. The beauty of Bukola

ii. The honesty of political leaders

3. No article is used with languages

31
Example:

i. Igbo is spoken in eastern Nigeria.

ii. I speak English at home.

Article errors in the writing of the writers occurred as a result of their failure

to follow the rules governing the placement and use of articles “a”, “an” and “the”.

Examples:

1. Incorrect.

These men we saw a few minutes age.

Correct

These men we saw few minutes age.

2. Incorrect

Ahmadu usually followed his mother to market.

Correct

Ahmadu usually followed his mother to the market.

3. Incorrect

The children and women came out to celebrate

Correct

Children and women came out to celebrate. (pg 3)

4. Incorrect

The crumpled businesses had started picking up.

32
 Correct

Crumpled businesses had started picking up. (pg 28)

5. Incorrect

The aim of this group was to meet the youths who don’t attend church.

Correct

The aim of this group was to meet youths who don’t attend church. (pg 132)

6. Incorrect.

I was a serving guests most of the time.

Correct

I was serving guests most of the time.

7. Incorrect

He was highly esteemed in United States of America.

Correct

He was highly esteemed in the United States of America.

8. Incorrect

You may be right the elderly one.

Correct

You may be right elderly one. (pg 90)

9. Incorrect

Yes, the wise one.

33
ERRORS IN THE USE OF SINGULAR AND PLURAL

Singular and plural errors are of the kinds: singular and plural errors in verb are

known as concord errors and in referring to nouns, it is known as number errors.

Concord Errors

Verbal concord refers to the agreement that exists between a subject and a

verb in a sentence. The verb used must agree with the number, persons, place and

thing that has been mentioned in the subject.

In verbal concord, when we mention a singular thing, we make use of a

singular verb. But if we mention more than one thing, we use plural verb. Singular

and plural verbs are very difficult to identify because in singular and plural verbs, the

singular verb takes “s” and the plural verb does not take “s”.

Example:

Singular Plural

has have

is are

does do

applies apply

seems seem

defies defy

34
 From the example above, it can be seen that plural verbs unlike plural nouns,

do not take ‘-S “, - ‘-es’, or-“ies”.

Examples of Concord errors in verb, made by the writers are:

1. Incorrect.

Frankly, I must confess, that is don’t seems to understand you.

Correct

Frankly, I must confess, that i don’t seems to understand you. (pg 159)

2. Incorrect

A wrappers was spread on the ground for her to lie on

Correct

A wrappers was spread on the ground for her to lie. (pg 33)

NUMBER NOUNS

It is a word which indicates whether a noun is singular or plural.

There are two number nouns:

(a) Singular Number: It is a noun which shows one person or thing.

Example:

Tree, box, ox, man, boy, girl, cow, book.

(b) Plural Number:

It is a noun which shows more than one person or thing.

Example:

Trees, boxes, oxen, men, Boys, girls, cows, books.

35
 Plural nouns can be formed through the following:

(i) Most nouns form their plurals by adding ‘s’ to the singular.
Example:
Singular Plural

face faces
kite kites
shoe shoes
lake lakes

(ii) Nouns ending with ‘ch’, ‘s’, ‘ss’, ‘sh’, ‘x’, form the plurals by adding ‘es’ to the

singular.

Example:

Singular Plural

batch batches
fox foxes
box boxes
branch branches
brush brushes
bus buses
cross crosses

(iii) Nouns ending with “y” and the “y” comes after a consonant, form their plurals by

changing ‘ye’ to “ies”.

36
 Example:

Singular Plural

army armies

family families

city cities

baby babies

But if the ‘y’ comes after a vowel only ‘s’ is added to the singular.

Example:

Singular Plural

toy toys

ray rays

valley valleys

donkey donkeys

key keys

(iv) Most nouns form their plurals by vowel change.

Example:

Singular Plural

man men

foot feet

ox oxen

woman women

37
 tooth teeth

mouse mice

(v) Some nouns have the same form for singular and plural.

Example:

Singular Plural

swine swine

deer deer

sheep sheep

pair pair

dozen dozen

The writers of the prose text examined, failed to recognize those nouns that

form their plurals by adding “-es” and “-s” and those that form their plurals by vowel

change.

Examples:

1. Incorrect.

Crumpled business had started picking up.

Correct

Crumpled businesses had started picking up. (pg 28)

2. Incorrect

38
 She was caught Unaware

Correct

She was caught Unawares. (pg 33)

3. Incorrect

One day two woman struggled over who to collect “Imina”.

Correct

One day two women struggled over who to collect “Imina”.

4. Incorrect

The woman who were emergency midwives prayed that the plancenta comes
out.
Correct

The women who were emergency midwives prayed that the plancenta comes

out

39
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 ERRORS IN THE USE OF NOUNS

A noun is a part of speech traditionally defined as a word naming a person, or

thing, or place.

Nouns are divided into eight different groups. They are;

(A) Common Nouns:

These are names given to persons or things that we come across everyday in

life.

Example:

Boy, ship, school, road, doctor woman, village, teacher, railway, town.

(B) Proper Nouns:

It names a particular person or persons, place and thing. The word ‘proper’

comes from a Latin word meaning Own. A noun with its own special qualities that

make it different from other nouns. Your own name is a proper noun, the days of he

week and the months of the year are proper nouns. Proper nouns are written with a

capital letter.

Example:

Michelle, Mother Theresa, Nigeria, Monday, December, May, Thursday.

(C) Collective Nouns:

They are names of collection of things, persons and animals.

40
Example:

Nation, poultry, family, crowd, team, flock, parliament.

(D) Abstract Nouns

These are nouns used for the names of qualities, conditions, emotions, and

actions. The word abstrace, means something that is outside the physical world of

things, that we see, hear, touch, taste and smell. They are connected with ideas and

feeling.

Example:

Goodness, justice, love, honest, friendship,

Anger, cruelty , joy, bravery wisdom

Patience, selfishness, sorrow, health, education,

(E) Countable Nouns

They are names of things that can be counted or divided into singular or

plural.

Example:

Book, pen, man, woman, table, chair,

(F) Uncountable Nouns:

Refers to things that cannot be counted or dividend into singular or plural.

Example:

Rice, beauty, peace, milk, sand, air.

41
(G) Material Nouns

Refers to the names of a material or substance that things are made from.

Example:

Gold, silver, paper, clay, diamond, copper, steel, wool.

(H) Gender Nouns:

These are nouns which indicate whether a person or animal is male or female.

There are four types of gender nouns. They are:

(I) Masculine Gender:

A noun that shows if a person or animal is male.

Example:

Male, father, king, nephew, son, uncle, prince.

(II) Feminine Gender:

It shows a female person or animal.

Example:

Nun, niece, daughter, mother, princess, aunt, Queen.

(III) Common Gender:

It’s a noun that shows both a male and female person or animal.

Example:

Patients, painter, judge, cook, friends, person, child

(IV) Neuter Gender:

It is a noun that does not show if a person or thing is neither male nor female.

42
Example:

Book, pen, table, school, car, house, lamp.

There are nouns that are misunderstood or misused on account of their

similarity in meaning and sound.

Example:

Home and House

House:

Is a building use for living.

Example: My father built a house in Abuja.

Home: refers to a settlement or a resident with pleasant memories.

Example: They have a beautiful home in London.

Most of the errors in noun made by the writers were mostly nouns that are

misunderstood because of its similarity in meaning and sound.

Examples:

1. Incorrect.

All appeal fell on deaf eyes.

Correct

All appeal fell on deaf ears. (pg 10)

2. Incorrect

They rode on the horses around their home shaped house

Correct

43
 They rode on the horses around their home. (pg 7)

3. Incorrect

They returned to their house late in the evening.

Correct

They returned to their houses late in the evening. (pg 8)

4. Incorrect

A wrapper was spread on the ground for her to lie on.

Correct

A wrapper was spread on the floor for her to lie on. (pg 33)

4.2 ERRORS IN THE USE PUNCTUATION

According to Godwin Uba, when we speak, we modulate (change) our voices

in order to make a meaningful appreciation of our utterance.

By means of some regular pauses, short or long, and incidental rise and fall of

our voices, we indicate the relationship between one idea and another. When we put

down our utterances, we use some signs to indicate these pauses and the rise and fall

of our voice.

These signs are called punctuation marks. Punctuation makes divide one part

of a sentence from the other, it makes a passage readable and it can change the

meaning of a sentence.

The following are punctuation marks.

44
1. The Comma (,):

It indicates the shortest pause in reading. The comma is used:

(a) To separate words of the same part of speech.

Example:

(i) Noun: I saw Bukola, Susan, Bayo and Dayo.

(ii) Verb: I wrote, read, examined and put aside the document.

(iii) Advert: He explained the lesson very clearly, carefully, counseling and

effectively.

(b) After the words “Yes” and “No”.

Example:

(i) Yes, I like you very much.

(ii) No I don’t like you.

(c) To introduce a quotation

Example:

(i) The student said, “We have plenty of time”.

(ii) Jane said to mum, “Must I wait for him?”

(d) To separate co-ordinate clause in a compound sentence.

Example:

(iii) I came, I saw, and conquered.

(iv) Men may come, men may go, but I go on forever.

45
2. The Full Stop(.)

It is one of the most important of all punctuation marks. Its misuse or lack of

use, makes a sentence meaningless. It marks the end of a complete sentence. The full

stop is used:

(a) At the end of every declarative or imperative sentence. (A declarative

sentence states or declares something, example the earth is round. While on

imperative sentence expresses a command, request or suggestion. Example:

stop there!, please post the letter).

Example:

(i) Man is a social animal.

(ii) Please come here.

(iii) Don’t go there.

(b) After abbreviations and initials

Example:

(i) The U.S.A (United States of America).

(ii) The U.N.O. (United Nations Organization).

(iii) W.H.O (World Health Organization).

3. Semi Colon (;):

It makes a longer pause. The semicolon is used:

(a) To separate the clauses of a compound sentence.

46
Example:

(i) My uncle is a poor; uneducated; honest; simple man; but I love him.

(b) To separate sentences which are closely connected in thought.

(i) Reading maketh a full man; confidence a ready man; writing an exact

man.

4. Colon(:):

It marks a more complete pause than a semi-colon. It is used;

(a) To introduce a quotation.

Example:

(i) John Keats says: A thing of beauty is a joy forever.

(ii) Aristotle said: Man is a social animal.

(b) To introduce a list

Example:

(i) The subject I like: History, Philosophy, Politics, Poetry and Music.

(c) To introduce an explanation, a statement or a preposition.

Example:

(i) The reason for my delay is this: I did not get up early today.

5. Introduction or Question Mark (?):

It is used:

(a) After a direct question.

47
Example:

(i) What are you doing here?

(ii) Did you post the letter.

No interrogation mark is used after an indirect question.

Example:

(i) She asked me when I was married.

No interrogation mark is used after a polite request.

Example: Would you mind telling me your name.

6. Exclamation Mark (!):

It is used:
(a) At the end of an exclamatory sentence and interjections expressing some

sudden emotion.

Example:

(i) What a beauty!

(ii) Congratulations!

(iii) Hello!

(b) After a short order

Example:

(i) Come here!

(ii) Shut up!

(iii) Stop there!

48
 (iv)Wait!

7. Quotation Marks (“ “):

They are used to indicate direct speech.

Example:

(i) Anulichukwuka said, “I have never seen such of cruel person”.

(ii) Bayo said to me “Did you post the letter?”

(8) The Apostrophe (’):

(a) To show that a letter or some letters have been omitted.

Example:

Can’t (cannot).

I’m (I am).

Don’t (do not)

I’ve (I have)

(b) To indicate the possessive case (ownership).

Example:

(i) John’s book.

(9) The Use of Capital Letters:

(a) At the beginning of a sentence.

Example:

(i) Necessity is the mother of invention.

(ii) Something is better than nothing.

49
(b) To begin the names of people, places, mountains and rivers.

Example:

(i) Mother Theresa.

(ii) Spain.

(iii) Mountain Everest.

(c) It is used for nations and adjectives indicating nationality.

Example:

(i) Nigeria.

(ii) Nigerian

(iii) America

(iv) American

(d) It is used for the names of days, months, festivals and historical events.

Example:

(i) Monday.

(ii) December.

(iii) New yam festival.

(iv) The French Revolution.

(e) It is used for names of books and plays.

Example:

(i) The Bible.

(ii) The Dictionary.

50
 (iii) The Tempest.

(iv) King hear.

(f) It is used for titles of people and names of things we refer to as unique.

Example:

(i) The Queen of England.

(ii) The emperor of China.

(g) It is used for all nouns and pronouns standing for God.

Example:

(i) The Lord.

(ii) The Trinity.

(iii) Elohim.

The aim of punctuation is to make the meaning of a passage, to be easily

understood. A complete difference of meaning can be caused by the wrong use of

punctuation.

The writers in the writings failed to correctly make use of punctuation marks

in most part of their works. They did not make proper use of the comma, in most

cases, it was omitted. While some of them failed to recognize the use of an

interrogation mark after a direct speech. The writers also did not know how to use the

capital letter, especially in the area of capitalizing nouns and pronouns standing for

God.

51
Example:

1. Incorrect:

Yes wise one

Correct:

Yes, wise one. (pg. 32)

2. Incorrect:

On her way she bought some mangoes which she ate before she got to the

ceremony so that she would not be hungry in case she was not served.

Correct:

On her way, she bought some mangoes, which she ate, before she got to the

ceremony, so that, she would not be hungry, in case, she was not served. (pg 7).

3. Incorrect:

Why would you sit with a madman

Correct:

Why would you sit with a madman? (pg 46)

4. Incorrect:

I am a god sent wife to him.

Correct:

I am a God sent wife to him.

5. Incorrect:

They all lived together making farms to feed themselves and the animals.

Correct:

52
 They all lived together, making farms to feed themselves and the animals.

(pg 2)

53
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION

Writers of the prose texts selected are basically Nigerians. They came from a

country with various languages and the country learns English language as a foreign

language.

We live in a world that is imperfect, and so these writers cannot be blamed for

making errors in their work. They are still under the process of becoming perfect in

learning English as a second language and perfecting their skills of the language.

Inadequate exposure to the target language, and the strategy they employed in

learning English as a second language, contributed to the grammatical errors made by

them in their work.

In conclusion, it can be said that these writers in Nigeria have problems with

applying the rules of grammar.

54
 WORK CITED

Agatha, Alike. The Pregnant Cloud and other Stories Benin City: BBC Ventures.
Print.

Agweda, P. Journal of Teacher Education and Teaching Vol. 9 No. 1 and 2 (2009): pg
7-11.

Asudo, J.O. and Marsh, L.G. 40 Lessons and Exercises in Grammar and Language.
Ibadan: Spectrum Publishers. 2001. Print.

David, Crystal. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics United Kingdom:

Blackwell Publishing. 2008. Print.

Emmanuel, Orose. And It Rained. Benin City: Erins Publishers. 2010. Print.

Florence, Enaboifo. The Courage of Change Benin City: Florent Systems. 2000.
Print.

Godwin; Uba. Essentials English for Colleges Asaba: Intellect Publishing Company.
1987. Print.

Jack; Ruchards. ‘Error Analysis’ Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition.

Britain: Longman Publishers. 1974. Print.

Murthy, J.D. Contemporary English Grammar Nigeria: Book Master. 2007. Print.

Olajire, Olanlokan. The Legend: Sir Ahmadu Bello Lagos: Literamed Publishers.
2008. Print.

55
Saadiyah, Darus. ‘Error Analysis of the Written English Essays of Secondary School
Students in Malaysia: A Case Study’ European Journal of Social
Sciences. Vol. 8, No. 3 (2009): pg 483-495. Print.

56