Number in Time

A Capstone essay by Madison Howitt

 Pythagoras once said that music and math were the same. He concluded this
when he heard hammers of different weights in a blacksmith shop making
harmonies when played at the same time. Almost three thousand years later, it is
commonly thought that music and math are complete opposites. However, if we
understand the basics of music, or music theory, we can understand how much
these two subjects have in common.
Acoustical patterns, such as the frequency ratios of harmonies, show that music
and math are closely linked. Furthermore, the understanding of musical concepts
such as music theory can contribute to higher levels of academic success in
students.
In this essay, we will begin by discussing the physical relationship between
music and math and its development throughout history. We will then break down
the psychological connections between the two and how music positively affects
the brain. Finally, we will explore how these connections can be applied to assist in
the academic development of secondary school students.

_________________

Pythagoras was the first person to discover that harmonies and intervals were
determined by simple ratios. Early musicians understood that playing certain tones
together would generate a pleasant sound, however, they didn’t know why.
Pythagoras wanted to construct a mechanical aid or system that could explain the
sense of hearing, similar to how a compass shows direction. There is an old story
of Pythagoras discovering this system when passing by a blacksmith shop. Upon
hearing the sounds of the hammers on the anvil, he noticed that when certain ones
were hit at the same time, they made pleasant sounds. He went into the shop to
further study the harmonies being produced by the hammers. Pythagoras found that
most of the hammers could be struck at the same time to generate pleasant sounds,
except for one hammer that always created dissonance when played with any other.
He concluded that the hammers that generated harmonious sounds when played
together all had weights that were simple ratios to each other. For example, a
hammer that was half or two-thirds the weight of another would generate a
pleasant sound if they were struck at the same time. The hammer that created
dissonance when played with the others had a weight that was not a simple ratio to
any of the weights of the other hammers. From his observations in the blacksmith
shop, Pythagoras concluded that harmonies or pleasant musical sounds were
generated when the frequencies of the tones were simple ratios to each other. 1, 3
Although Pythagoras was the only person at this time to have discovered these
ratios, his findings weren’t completely acoustically accurate. While these
proportions are true for string length, they do not exactly relate to hammer weight
and the tones they produce. 2, 3 However, many musical instruments work in the
same way, by shortening or lengthening the sound to a ratio of simple numbers. 3
To understand his conclusions and the application of these ratios, we must first
look and the foundations of music, also known as music theory.
Music theory is the logic of music. It gives shapes and patterns to the elements of
music: melody, rhythm, and harmony. The rhythm keeps pulse and time and
controls tempo, while the melody and harmony work together to devise a mix of
notes rising and falling, creating consonance and dissonance. 4
Most often in music, melody and rhythm (or harmony and rhythm) are played as
one. For example, we could see a specific tone held for a certain number of beats.
However, there is another component of sound that has no distinct pitch or tone,
known as noise. This is sound without periodicity, and it is heard as only rhythms.
Noise can be anything from the dripping of a tap to the sound of feet stomping and
hands clapping. It is found in musical pieces in percussion; drums, cymbals,
shakers and other percussion instruments all help to create rhythms without
interfering with the melodic progression of a piece. 4
Melodies and the chords that support them are derived from scales. A scale is a
series of notes from one tone to its octave. There are three main kinds of scales:
chromatic scales, pentatonic scales, and diatonic scales. 4
In a chromatic scale, all twelve notes are played, each separated by a semitone.
In these kinds of scales, all twelve notes are of equal importance and are played the
same amount. Notes from chromatic scales, also known as accidentals, are used in
pieces with major or minor keys to add colour to the sound. When notes from
chromatic scales are played in keyed pieces, they are considered transitional. While
most music throughout history has been written in major or minor keys, more
recent composers have written pieces that drift away from the restrictions of a key
signature. 4, 5 Atonal music or music without a key has become more and more
common. This music has no sense of tonality and follows a chromatic scale rather
than a diatonic scale. Because all notes in a chromatic scale are of equal
importance, there is no tonic note to give the piece resolution. 6
The second type of scale, the pentatonic scale, uses only five of the twelve notes
contained in an octave. They are separated by three whole tones and two minor
thirds. The intervals of the pentatonic scale are 1-2-3-5-6. 4 These scales have
corresponding major and minor keys however they do not have a key signature and
are often used in tandem with diatonic scales. 5 They are the base around which
many melodies are focused, as the notes of this scale are the most stable and
produce the least audible tension in their respective keys. Pentatonic music is very
common in Asia as well as folk music around the world. 4, 7
Diatonic scales are more defined, containing seven of the twelve notes, each with
its letter name. Notes in these scales can be separated by a tone or a semitone and
all have their positions in scale relative to the first note, known as intervals. The
order of spacing between the notes can be altered to give rise to many types of
diatonic scales. Unlike atonal music, which follows a chromatic scale, pieces have
more movement and a sense of resolution. Diatonic scales are used as the base for
defining key signatures, which give a sense of tonality to a piece. This also allows
for chords and chords progressions to support the movement of the piece while
giving it structure. 4, 5
The major chord is the most common in diatonic music and is formed from the
intervals 1-3-5-1. An interval is the distance between two and is measured by the
number of letter names in the interval, including the top and bottom notes.
Intervals can have different qualities such as major, minor and perfect. These
qualities must be written with the interval. In chords intervals are harmonic and
played at the same time; intervals in melodies and moving phrases are melodic and
played one after the other. In all major scales, the intervals and their order are the
same. This is also true for major chords and other types of scales. For example, the
size and order of the intervals in a D minor scale will be the same as the size and
order of the intervals in an F minor scale. 4, 5
Different intervals such as whole tones, halftones, minor thirds are major thirds,
all have different degrees of tension. This tension is built during the progression of
intervals either in melodies, harmonies, or chord progressions, and is released
when reaching a more stable note, also known as a station. These notes, or stations,
are the root, third and fifth of the chord. Notes that are farther from a station are
less dynamic compared to notes that are closer to the station. This makes music
with chord progressions much more complex as each chord contains at least three
notes which will all be different intervals from the tension note or phrase. When a
chord changes, the new notes in the chord are the new stations or secondary
stations. However, even when the chord changes, the root third and fifth of the
tonic chord of the key can still be considered stations. These stations won’t be as
common during secondary chords but still offer some release from the tension
created by accidentals. Composers incorporate both levels of tension in pieces to
produce a well-rounded melody. 4, 5
If we look further into the patterns of music theory, we can see that much of
music is derived from simple patterns and ratios. 3
The rhythm dictates time, and like pitch, can be divided into simple ratios, most
commonly based on groupings of two or three. For example, marches are counted
and subdivided in two and waltzes are counted and subdivided in three. 4 In music,
notation and rhythms are organized into measures. Each measure has several beats
designated by a time signature. In time signatures, the numerator represents the
number of beats per measure, and the denominator represents which types of notes
will receive one beat. So, for a time signature of 4/4, each measure has four beats,
each represented by quarter notes. In most rhythms, there is a pulse of strong and
weak beats, as well as strong and weak parts of beats, and chords are played on
either the first beat of each bar or on or between the other beats. Musical styles are
expressed by their rhythmic patterns and the grouping of strong and weak beats.
The syncopation of chords and melodies creates varying degrees of tension and
rhythmic texture. Tempo, measured in beats per minute, is the speed at which the
rhythms of a piece are played; rhythms will be expressed completely differently
depending on the tempo. 4
The notation of these rhythms is a visual example of how number is seen in
music theory. A note length can be divided by two to attain a note that receives
half the value of the previous note. 3 A half note will receive half the value of a
whole note and a quarter note will receive half the value of a half note. Rests can
be the same length as notes but provide breaks in the music rather than sounds. 3, 4
Rhythms and notation are obvious ways that music is derived from number.
However, there are more connections between these two subjects than can be seen
on sheet music. Intervals, chords and scales, can all be explained by the simple
ratios of their frequencies.
 The average human ear can hear eleven octaves of sound. These audible
frequencies begin at 16htz and double with every octave. A range of several
octaves will see an exponential increase in frequency. 3 When we play a tone, we
hear not only the tonic, but many other frequencies called overtones. These
harmonies are whole number multiples of the original frequency – 2:1, 3:1, 4:1,
and so on. 3
While Pythagoras was the first one to discover these relationships, what he did
not show in his findings is the set of relationships between octaves, fifths, and
fourths. Combined, a fourth and fifth make an octave and the difference between
them is a tone. A perfect fifth can be divided into a major third and a minor third;
3:2 = 5:4 x 6:5. A major third consists of two tones while a minor third consists of
a tone and a semitone. However, these divisions are not always perfect and
different tunings appear. A major third can be thought of as two tones, but two
perfect tones cannot make a perfect major third and will be slightly sharp. 3, 4
The simple ratios of the octave and fifth have led to the formation of the diatonic
scale. As mentioned previously, diatonic scales contain only seven of the twelve
notes within an octave. Unaltered diatonic scales contain notes separated by five
tones and two semitones. The overtones of the fourth, fifth and octave produce
three major chords. Combining the notes from these chords into one octave will
give us all the notes of the major scale. The ratios of primary overtones can be
plotted on a lambdoma where numbers are doubled down the left and triple down
the right. In the grid, tones are horizontally separated by a perfect fifth. 3, 4
A major scale can be divided into two tetrachords separated by a tone, with each
tetrachord spanning the interval of a perfect fourth. 5 If tetrachords were played
building up by fifths or down by fourths, we would be able to connect and play all
twelve major scales. This is known as the circle of fifths or the circle of fourths,
depending on whether it is ascending or descending respectively. Scales with seven
notes per octave, such as major scales and minor scales, will always leave five
notes left unused. 4, 5
Two less common scales contain only six notes each and are built of only whole
tone intervals. They are C-D-E-F#-G#-A# and Db-Eb-F-G-A-B. Only six of the
letter names are represented in the scale since the seventh note must be the same
note name as the tonic. Each of these scales also contains the interval of a
diminished third which is equivalent to a major second or whole tone but is written
as a third. This can occur at any point in the scale depending on the starting note.
In these scales, the frequencies increase by a value of 9:8 with every note. 4
Intervals on their own can be seen as ratios between the frequencies of two tones.
3 Another way to look at intervals is to understand how they all relate by looking at

intervals in the patterns that they appear. Instead of writing intervals as they appear
in one octave, 2:1, 3:2, 4:3, and so on, we write intervals as they appear in
overtones from higher octaves, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, and so on. 3 When a note is played its
overtones or the tones with frequencies that are multiples of its own can be heard.
The order in which overtones are produced demonstrates how certain notes are
more stable than others in a key. Since the first overtone produced after the octave
is the fifth, it is considered the second most important and second most stable note
in a key. 4 The interval of the fifth is considered stable because of how it shows up
in the overtones of the tonic. We can think of all intervals in this way; by how and
when they show up in the overtones of a note. 3,4
From rhythms and time signatures to intervals and their frequencies, the worlds
of music and math are vastly interconnected. Although Pythagoras wasn’t exactly
correct, his findings lead to the conclusion that all nature consists of harmony
originating from number. 8 With the help of his findings, Plato and later
philosophers established the idea that while number can be seen in space, harmony
or music is heard as number in time.

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For thousands of years, music has been engraved into the human experience. It is
believed that 40,000 years ago, early humans were making the first instruments out
of animal bones. The practices of music developed throughout different cultures
and, through their evolution have become an integral part of modern society. 9
Through its melodies and rhythms, music has been shown to have various effects
on the brain, from listening, playing or composing.
Simply listening to music engages the brain and can affect the body as well.
Listening to music can release dopamine and serotonin in the brain, causing the
listener to have a more elevated mood. When we hear a song that is familiar to us
or one that we enjoy, it can lead to feeling happy and even euphoric. 12 This is due
to the release of dopamine in the dorsal and ventral striatum, areas of the brain that
are usually lit up by pleasurable stimuli. These areas are also stimulated by hearing
or playing music. Studies have also found that music affects how people perceive
their own emotions. In a study, participants were interviewed and asked to describe
how they were feeling at the moment, with some participants to music and others
not. The ones that had been given music to listen to either before or during their
interview, describe their emotions as stronger than those that hadn’t listened to
music at all. 10, 11
Music can also have a strong effect on the body, specifically the cardiovascular
system. In a 2009 study, 24 participants were observed while listening to music. As
it turns out, musical rhythms are tracked physiologically by the body. Participants
had consistent cardiovascular and respiratory responses to different baroque and
romantic era pieces. Musical emphasis such as crescendos caused increased blood
pressure and increased heart rate. During the pauses and baselines of the song, the
effects were the opposite, with participants experiencing reduced heart rate and
blood pressure. Responses will differ between individuals because people's
responses to music are different depending on their emotions and preferences.
When comparing the responses of musicians and non-musicians, their overall
responses were similar, but musicians were shown to have responded more.
Changes in tempo and style are more likely to evoke chills in many individuals,
however, they are more common in musicians than non-musicians. The coherence
of these physiological reactions to music shows how music could be used as a
therapy for different illnesses. At the moment, music therapy is used to help
patients with a variety of mental illnesses and disorders such as anxiety, dementia,
and Parkinson’s. However, the cardiovascular effects of music show that it can be
used to help patients with both mental and physical illnesses. 13
Music is used as a form of treatment for many people with mental illnesses
through music therapy. In music therapy, a therapist uses music strategies to help
patients adapt their behaviours. There are four types of music therapy. The first is
lyric analysis, which allows patients to express and discuss their emotions through
the lyrics of a song rather than directly. The second is active music listening, where
the patient listens to music that might reflect their current emotions or a more
positive mood that they are trying to achieve. By listening to this music, patients
can shift their mood to be more positive and calm. The third type of music therapy
is improvisation music playing, where patients learn instruments to help with
emotional expression. Learning an instrument can also improve cognition and
memory, which can be especially helpful for patients with depression or memory
disorders. The fourth type of music therapy is songwriting. It is similar to learning
an instrument, as it helps with emotional expression, but it also allows patients to
develop their ideas into songs which can help to build self-confidence. These four
types of therapies are used as treatments for many different mental illnesses. 14
When researchers examined people’s brains while listening to music, they lit up
like fireworks. This is due to the brain processing the sound and taking it apart to
understand all the melodies and sounds combined. Because of this, we can assume
that the same might be true for making music as well.
When studying the brains of musicians, neurologists observed that making music
activates every area of the brain at once. The activity is mostly seen in the visual,
auditory, and motor cortices. Because of this, the practise of playing music can
strengthen brain function. Musicians have been able to solve more complex
problems effectively and with more creativity due to the increased volume and
activity of the corpus callosum, the bridge between the two hemispheres of the
brain. Brain functions and activity is strengthened by the discipline of playing a
musical instrument. 15
Music can have a tremendously positive effect on the brain whether it be simply
listening to music or playing an instrument. It is these effects that make music such
a powerful tool for uplifting emotions in everyday life or those struggling with
mental illness. Whether it is being used as a treatment, or simply as a form of
enjoyment, music is an integral part of our society and will continuously affect the
lives of millions of people every day.

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There is much evidence to support the idea that music and math are connected.
Through music theory, we can understand how these connections are represented
in music. Additionally, both of these subjects have similar positive impacts on the
brain. So, with this information, we can hypothesize that music theory would have
a similar effect on cognition and memory as music, and due to the connections
between music and math, could help students in that subject area as well. 16
There is little research that shows how music theory affects the brain and if
learning music theory can help students academically. To determine whether music
theory can have a positive effect on students, an experiment was conducted. Over
the course of five weeks, students attended in-person and virtual music theory
classes. These classes covered the basics of music theory, including notation; time
signature; note values; rest values; intervals; and tetrachords. Students’ progress
was monitored throughout the course and compared to their previous math grades.
Without any current information about their progress in math or other academics, it
was impossible to determine whether music theory would have helped with their
progress in academic courses. However, when comparing students’ math grades
from the previous year to their grades in music theory courses, we can see that
students who have seen success in math previously, achieved higher grades in
music theory, despite most of them having never learnt music theory before. This
shows that there is likely a connection between learning music theory and higher
levels of academic success, particularly in math. 17

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Although Pythagoras’ findings weren’t completely acoustically accurate, they do

show us one thing: how closely linked music and math are. Without the ratios that
make up intervals, we wouldn’t have musical harmony or melody. Acoustical
patterns like these show that music and math are closely linked through scales,
rhythms, chords and virtually all patterns found in music.
The neurological and physiological benefits of music can improve cognition and
memory, leading to a better understanding of academic subjects. Because of this,
the understanding of musical concepts such as music theory can likely contribute
to higher levels of academic success in students.
It is rare today that the connections between music and math are acknowledged,
but if we remember what Pythagoras said, we can see that music and math aren’t
all that different.
Sources

1. The Harmonious Blacksmith http://joranrudi.no/renstemming/pythagoras-

e.html

2. Pythagorean hammers https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_hammers

3. Harmonograph
by Anthony Ashton

4. The Elements of Music

by Jason Martineau

5. Elementary Rudiments of Music

by Barbara Wharram

6. A Guide to the Chromatic Scale

https://hellomusictheory.com/learn/chromatic-scale/

7. Pentatonic scale https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentatonic_scale

8. Quadrivium: The Four Classical and Liberal Arts of Number, Geometry,

Music and Cosmology

9. History of music
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_music

10.Music and the Brain

 https://neuro.hms.harvard.edu/centers-and-initiatives/harvard-mahoney-
neuroscience-institute/about-hmni/archive-brain-1

11.Setting the Stage: Neurobiological Effects of Music on the Brain

by Samata Sharma and David Silbersweig
https://remix.berklee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=mh-
exchange-music-medicine

12.How music affects the mood

https://remix.berklee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=mh-
exchange-music-medicine

13.Dynamic Interactions Between Musical, Cardiovascular, and Cerebral

Rhythms in Humans
https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/
CIRCULATIONAHA.108.806174

14.How Music Therapy Helps People Suffering from Mental Illness

https://montarebehavioralhealth.com/music-therapy-for-mental-illness/#

15.How playing an instrument affects your brain

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R0JKCYZ8hng

16.Mathematics and the arts: A powerful, productive pedagogical pairing

by Susan Gerofsky

17.Music Theory Classes

Information collected from music theory classes in October – November
2021. All information from these classes is my own.