Pitch Matching Accuracy of Trained Singers,

Untrained Subjects with Talented Singing

Voices, and Untrained Subjects with Nontalented
Singing Voices in Conditions of Varying
Feedback
Barnes-Burroughs, Kathryn; Murphy, Jessica; Watts, Christopher . Journal of Voice - Official Journal of
the Voice Foundation ; New York, N. Y.  Tomo 17, N.º 2,  (Jun 2003): 185-194.

Enlace de documentos de ProQuest

RESUMEN (ABSTRACT)
The ability to produce a melodious singing voice is dependent on control over a variety of motor and sensory
systems. A study is presented that asked trained singers and untrained subjects with and without expressed
singing talent to matches pitches of target pure tones. Pitch-matching accuracy was measured at the onset of
phonation before external feedback could be utilized to adjust the voiced source, during phonation when external
auditory feedback could be utilized, and during phonation when external auditory feedback was masked. Results
revealed trained singers and untrained subjects with singing talent were no different in their pitch-matching
abilities when measured before or after external feedback could be utilized. The untrained subjects with singing
talent were also significantly more accurate than the trained singers when external auditory feedback was
masked. Both groups were significantly more accurate than the untrained subjects without singing talent.

TEXTO COMPLETO
Christopher WattsDepartment of Speech Pathology and audiology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
Jessica MurphyDepartment of Speech Pathology and audiology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama
Kathryn Barnes-BurroughsDepartment of Music, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama

INTRODUCTION
Key Words: Singing talent--Pitch control--Feedback.
The facility to express a skill in the performance of a task is often credited to talent. Talent can be thought of, in a
general sense, as a special natural ability that has the potential to lead to a capacity for achievement or success.
Talent can be identified for a number of different abilities, including the ability to sing. Singing involves both
physiology and art. From a physiological perspective, singing talent can be defined as the special natural ability to
produce musical modulations of the voice where the

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sounds vary over a wide range of frequencies and are in tune with each other, or where such sounds are
melodious.
In the literature of music research, individuals with singing talent have been labeled as accurate singers, whereas
those without talent have been labeled as inaccurate singers, poor pitch singers, uncertain singers, or monotones.
12345
Goetze et al 6 identified variables that are requisite for accurate singing, which included the ability to

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discriminate between pitches, vocalize over a wide range of pitches, monitor vocal pitch, and desire to sing. It is
possible that these are the variables inherently necessary for one to express singing talent. Some individuals,
without any training, will express singing talent, whereas others will not.
In the literature of voice science where physiological and perceptual variables related to the singing voice are
investigated, individuals with and without voice training are often compared. The groups to which these two
populations, respectively, are assigned, are usually labeled as trained and untrained singers, singers and
nonsingers, or professional singers and nonsingers. As noted above, within the population of untrained singers,
some will express singing talent whereas others will not. Although numerous studies have found differences
between individuals with and without singing training, few studies have separated untrained subjects into those
who have and do not have expressed singing talent. 78910 As a result, there is little objective empirical evidence that
sheds light on the factors responsible for expressed singing talent. In addition, there is a lack of objective data that
compare the abilities of trained singers to those of untrained subjects who possess a talented singing voice.
The ability to monitor vocal pitch has been identified as one variable related to singing talent. 6 Monitoring vocal
pitch can be thought of as ongoing assessment of the accuracy of one's fundamental frequency (F 0 ) and
corresponding adjustments made toward the goal of producing an intended pitch. 11 It has been suggested that the
control of F 0 is of paramount importance in singing. 12 The control of F 0 is accomplished via a combination of
laryngeal adjustments and changes in subglottal air pressure. An innate ability as well as training may be
responsible for singers exhibiting more accurate F 0 control than nonsingers. 13
Feedback plays an essential role in the control of F 0 . Many studies have found that alterations to the vocal
frequency being externally fed back to the ear during production of sound result in corresponding changes to the F
. 1415161718 Through such studies, a great deal of important information regarding the role of external feedback on F
0
control has been obtained. Less information is available, however, regarding the role of internal feedback for the
0
control of F 0 . For the purposes of this paper, internal feedback involved in the control of F 0 can include the
boneconducted signal to the cochlea (eg, internal pallesthetic feedback) in addition to the articular, myotatic, and
mucosal reflexes stimulated by mechanoreceptors located within the laryngeal joints, muscles, and subglottic
mucosa, respectively. 19
In general, studies that have looked at the use of internal feedback for control of F 0 have found that, when external
feedback is not available, the accuracy of F 0 is decreased. When both external (via outer ear) and internal (via bone
conduction) auditory feedback are not available, studies have found that F 0 becomes less stable and subjects are
less accurate at matching target pitches. 11,20 Although such evidence suggests that the use of external feedback
and internal feedback results in superior control of F 0 compared to the use of internal feedback only, other reports
suggested a role of some importance served by internal feedback for controlling the frequency of the voice. For
example, laryngeal perturbations during vocalization and laryngeal anesthesia have both been found to have an
effect on the stability of F 0 . 21,22
Anecdotal evidence that supports the use of internal feedback for controlling F 0 has also been reported. Di Carlo 23
described the use of internal voice sensitivities in opera singers. Internal voice sensitivities were described as the
pallesthetic (vibratory) and kinesthetic (muscular) information that singers use to control their vocal productions.
He suggested that opera singers used the vibrations in the bones of the thorax and craniofacial bone structures to
assist in vocalizations, and he suggested that singers may rely on this type of feedback when external auditory
feedback is disrupted due to the reverberation effects that occur in some music halls.

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Experienced, trained singers have also anecdotally reported that, in cases where external feedback was not
available, they have relied on "feeling" notes to accurately produce tones.
When producing an intended frequency, such as during a pitch-matching task, there is a point in time when vocal

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production occurs before either external or internal feedback can be utilized. This occurs during the first few
milliseconds at the beginning of a vocalization. Leading up to this point in time, motor planning and programming
has occurred that will govern the activation and position of laryngeal muscles and structures. The posturing of the
laryngeal structures prior to the initiation of vocalization has been referred to in the literature as prephonatory set
or prephonatory tuning. The accuracy of prephonatory tuning is measured in pitch-matching paradigms by
calculating the period of the first measurable (eg, periodic) waveform of the vocalization, converting this value to
the corresponding frequency, and comparing it against a target frequency. It has been found that singers are more
accurate at prephonatory tuning than are nonsingers. 13,24 The ability to accurately position the structures related to
vocalization for production of an intended frequency may be another variable related to singing talent.
A review of the literature has identified a lack of evidence related to objective measures of both physiological and
perceptual abilities associated with vocal control in untrained subjects with and without singing talent. The
purpose of this study was to assess the abilities of these two groups, along with trained singers, to control F 0
during a pitch-matching task, and to investigate whether these abilities were affected differentially when feedback
was and was not available. Specific research questions included: (1) Are untrained subjects with expressed
singing talent able to utilize external auditory feedback to more accurately match pitch when compared to
untrained subjects without expressed singing talent and trained singers? (2) Are untrained subjects with
expressed singing talent able to utilize internal feedback to more accurately match pitch when compared to
untrained subjects without expressed singing talent and trained singers? (3) Are trained subjects able to pretune
their vocal mechanism to more accurately match pitch when compared to untrained subjects without expressed
singing talent and trained singers?
METHODSParticipants
Female volunteers from the student body of the University of South Alabama and the local community were
recruited. Fifteen subjects were assigned to three groups of five. The first group consisted of five female
volunteers who were trained singers with a minimum of 3 years vocal training with a professional voice teacher.
This group was labeled the "trained singers" (TS). The next group consisted of five female volunteers who had no
history of professional, individualized vocal training but were identified by professional voice teachers as
exhibiting expressed singing talent. This group was labeled the "untrained talented subjects" (UTS). The third
group consisted of five female volunteers who had no history of vocal training and were identified by professional
voice teachers as not exhibiting expressed singing talent. This group was labeled the "nontalented subjects"
(NTS). The participants ranged in ages from 19 to 30 years, with a mean age of 23 years. In addition, the trained
singers had a range of 3 to 6.5 years (mean of 5 years) of professional voice lessons. All participants had normal
hearing at 15-dB HL for 500 through 8000 Hz, no history of chronic vocal pathology, no previous voice therapy, no
history of drug or alcohol abuse, no history of smoking, and no current allergies or voice problems at the time of
testing.
Instrumentation
The Kay Elemetrics Computerized Speech Lab (CSL) (Kay Elemetrics, Lincoln Park, NJ) was used as a signal
generation and signal acquisition device. For auditory stimuli, the tone generator application of the CSL was used
to generate periodic waveforms and noise stimuli. These stimuli were played through the CSL output via both
Optimus Pro 40 circum aural headphones and a Fostex 6301B amplified loudspeaker (Fostex America, Anaheim,
CA). For signal acquisition (singer's voices), the CSL input channels were used. All speakers were wearing a head-
mounted AKG Acoustics microphone positioned at a constant microphone-to-mouth distance

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of 1 inch, placed off-center at the left comer of the mouth. All signals captured via the CSL were digitized at 44.1
KHz. Signals from the microphone were routed to the Kay Elemetrics external CSL hardware to measure

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fundamental frequency range (via Kay Elemetrics Voice Range Profile [ VRP ] software) and to capture
vocalizations. An Alesis Masterlink hard-disk/CD recorder was incorporated for storing singing samples from each
subject, and for playing tone stimuli. All participants were tested in a double-walled sound booth. An Extech sound
level meter (SLM- model 407750) was used for visual feedback to assist subjects in controlling the intensity of
their vocal output. Stimuli
Two types of stimuli, pure tone waveforms with and without additional aperiodic white noise, were used during
pitch-matching activities. In order to get a sampling of pitch-matching abilities at more than one frequency, pure
tones within 30% to 50% of each subject's frequency range were generated. Stimuli consisting of 4-second pure
tones were used during the external feedback condition and called the "external tones." Also, stimuli consisting of
the same pure tones followed immediately by 8 seconds of white noise were used during the internal feedback
condition and called the "internal tones." Each participant was presented with 30 external tones, presented
randomly in one testing condition, and 30 internal tones, presented randomly in a second testing condition, so that
a total of 60 tones were presented after completion of testing.
Procedures
Testing consisted of two separate sessions. During the first session, each participant read and signed a consent
form, completed a questionnaire, and underwent audiometric screening to ensure hearing was within the required
limits for the study. They were then recorded singing the first stanza of "America the Beautiful." Before recording,
all participants were given a minimum of 5 minutes for vocal warmup, including time to practice the stimulus song.
Every participant reported that they were familiar with the song. If any participant was unfamiliar with tasks used
for vocal warm-up, they were given instruction. After warm-up, participants were instructed to sing the song using
their best singing voice. These renditions took place in a double-walled sound booth with the subject in isolation,
and they were recorded digitally via a direct line input from the head-mounted microphone. These samples were
used to place each participant into her respective group based on the judgments of the professional voice
teachers (see below). After singing, physiological fundamental frequency ranges (FFR) were acquired using the
head-mounted microphone and VRP program with an automatic procedure. The automatic procedure used in this
study has been described in detail by Pabon and Plomp. 25
In order to assign participants into an experimental group, recordings of the stimulus songs were played to two
trained professional teachers of singing, both of whom were faculty members of the University of South Alabama
School of Music. Both judges had over 10 years of professional experience and a graduate-level degree in voice.
Each judge listened to the recordings independently. The identities of the singers were not disclosed to the judges.
The judges were provided the singing samples on a compact disk and asked to judge whether the person singing
expressed natural singing talent. Judgments were based on the intonation and quality of their voice during
singing. Only subjects who were rated by both judges as either having or not having natural singing talent were
assigned to one of the two groups. Any subject who was rated differently between the two judges was excluded
from the study. A third professional voice teacher with similar experience independently judged 5 of the untrained
participants (3 that were judged as UTS and two judged as NTS) for reliability purposes. Agreement between this
and the prior judges was 100%.
During the second testing session, the subjects were seated in the double-walled sound booth wearing a head-
mounted microphone. The microphone had a direct line input into the CSL. Subjects were tested in two different
conditions, called the external feedback condition and the internal feedback condition. The external feedback
condition consisted of the subjects matching the pitch of the external tones presented via loudspeaker at 70-dB
SPL. The internal feedback condition consisted of the subjects matching the pitch of the pure tone

p.188

segments of the internal tones while masking noise played through the headphones. The pure tone segments of

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the internal tones were presented 70-dB SPL and followed by the white noise at a level of 85-dB SPL. The purpose
of the white noise was to mask the external auditory sidetone, so that the subjects had to rely on other feedback
mechanisms, such as proprioceptive feedback, for matching the pitch of the target tones.
To control for possible effects of the masking noise on subsequent use of auditory feedback for F 0 control, the
external feedback condition was always presented first. In this condition, subjects were presented with 30 external
tones, which were ordered randomly. Subjects were instructed to match the pitch of the tone immediately after the
presentation of the target ended. Subjects viewed the SLM during the matching task to keep the intensity of their
acoustic response between 65- and 70-dB SPL, in order to control for the effects of vocal intensity on fundamental
frequency. Acoustic response signals were captured digitally using the CSL. The experimenter started the
recording of each subject's response I second prior to vocalization, so that the initiation of phonation could be
clearly delineated when analyzing the acoustic signals.
During the internal feedback condition, subjects wore both the head-mounted microphone and circumaural
headphones. Subjects were presented with 30 randomly ordered internal tones through the headphones. Subjects
were instructed to match the pitch of the tone immediately after the pure-tone segment of the target ended, and
during the presentation of white noise through the headphones, using the SLM to keep the intensity of their
acoustic response between 65- and 70-dB SPL. Acoustic responses were captured and stored with the same
method as that in the external condition.
Analysis
Three dependent variables were measured: pitch-matching accuracy with prephonatory set, pitchmatching
accuracy with external feedback, and pitch-matching accuracy with internal feedback. The prephonatory set was
measured from the 30 responses of each subject during the external feedback condition. This measure could have
been taken from either of the experimental test conditions. However, to control for possible effects of noise
exposure on the prephonatory set, the measure was acquired from the responses in the external feedback
condition.
Pitch-matching abilities using the prephonatory set were analyzed for each response by converting the period of
the first measurable waveform into a corresponding frequency. This value was then subtracted from the frequency
of the target tone, so that a difference score was obtained for each response. This difference score reflected pitch-
matching accuracy. A total of 30 difference scores were calculated for each subject in this measurement
condition. Pitch-matching abilities in the external feedback and internal feedback conditions were analyzed by
measuring the period of the waveforms located 2 seconds into the response. Difference scores were calculated in
the same manner as those for the prephonatory set.
Statistical analysis was completed using a two-way (group Ãcondition) analysis of variance (ANOVA) with
repeated measures applied to the data for pitch-matching accuracy with the prephonatory set, external feedback,
and internal feedback. Any significant interaction effects were further investigated using separate one-way
ANOVAs. Criterion for significance was set at the 0.05 levels. Intrameasurer reliability was calculated by having the
experimenter remeasure 15% of the waveforms. A second trained experimenter randomly remeasured 15% of the
waveforms to assess intermeasurer reliability. The measurement values, in frequency, were compared using a
Pearson product-moment correlation. Both intrameasurer ( r = 0.99) and intermeasurer reliability ( r = 0.98) were
high, and the comparison revealed a significant correlation for both ( p RESULTS
The pitch-matching accuracy of the three groups using the prephonatory set, external feedback, and internal
feedback is displayed in Figure 1 . As can be seen, the UTS participants, as a group, always performed better than
both the TS and NTS groups. Average difference scores for the UTS group were 19 Hz, 8 Hz, and 6 Hz across those
three measurement conditions, respectively, whereas those of the TS group were 24 Hz, 15 Hz, and 17

p.189

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PDF GENERADO POR PROQUEST.COM Page 6 of 17
Agrande esta imagen.
figure 1. average pitch-matching accuracy of the trained, untrained talented, and untrained nontalented groups
when using prephonatory set, external feedback, and internal feedback. Hz, respectively, and for the NTS group 62
Hz, 53 Hz, and 45 Hz, respectively. It can also be seen that the TS group was always more accurate than the NTS
group.
Across conditions, both the UTS and NTS groups were least accurate in matching pitch when measured at the
prephonatory set, and most accurate when using internal feedback. The TS differed from this trend only in that
they were more accurate when using external feedback compared to when they were using internal feedback.
Figures 2 3 4 show box plots of pitch-matching accuracy for each group in the three measurement conditions.
These plots are of interest as they show that the UTS group was not only more accurate at matching pitch than the
TS in all conditions, but also was less variable within the group, especially in the two conditions where feedback
could have been utilized. The NTS group was always more variable with greater spread around the mean compared
with the other two groups.
A two-way (group Ãcondition) ANOVA with repeated measures was applied to the pitch-matching data. Results
revealed a significant main effect for condition (F = 70.8, p p p
Results of the one-way ANOVAs revealed a significant effect for group when using the prephonatory set (F = 76.6,
ppppppp
p.190

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Agrande esta imagen.
figure 2. box plot of pitch-matching accuracy using prephonatory set for the trained, untrained talented, and
untrained nontalented groups. group was significantly more accurate than was the NTS group ( p DISCUSSION

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This study investigated the pitch-matching abilities of trained singers (TS), untrained subjects with expressed
singing talent (UTS), and untrained subjects without expressed singing talent (NTS). These abilities were tested
when using prephonatory set, external feedback, and internal feedback. A small sample size was utilized for group
comparisons, and as such, any generalizations based on the results should be made with caution. Analysis of the
data revealed a number of interesting findings. One was that the TS and UTS groups demonstrated significantly
greater pitch-matching accuracy in all measured conditions compared to the NTS group. Additionally, the UTS
group was significantly more accurate than was the TS group when they had to rely on internal feedback.
The UTS group could match pitch equally as well as the TS group when measured at the initial onset of phonation
and when utilizing external feedback. The ability to match pitch accurately when using external feedback supports
the idea, as Goetze et al. 6 suggested, that accurate monitoring of pitch is a factor related to singing talent. This
might explain why the TS and UTS groups did not differ in a pitch-matching task where external feedback was
available. However, Goetze et al's suggestion might be expanded, based on the results from measuring the
prephonatory set, to include the ability to both accurately perceive the pitch of a tone and coordinate that
perception with the motor planning, programming, and execution needed to reproduce it accurately at the onset of
phonation. This ability would result in less reliance on the external signal for feedback purposes, which would be of
value in singing, as room acoustics can greatly affect the auditory signal that is fed back into the ears. It is
suggested by the authors that natural singing talent is related, at least in part, to this ability to accurately monitor
pitch and coordinate perception with motor systems for reproduction of a pitch at the very beginning of phonation.

p.191

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Agrande esta imagen.
figure 3. box plot of pitch-matching accuracy using external feedback for the trained, untrained talented, and
untrained nontalented groups.

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Di Carlo 23 suggested that opera singers are able to rely heavily on their internal voice sensitivities, which are the
vibratory and muscular feedback available to the person during singing. She concluded that although auditory
feedback plays a role in pitch accuracy, singers judge the quality of their vocalizations by utilizing ongoing
assessment of proprioceptive feedback. If this is true, this ability may come from many years of training or
practice. The trained subjects in this study had a mean of 5 years of professional voice training. However, they
were not as accurate at matching pitch compared to the UTS group when external feedback was not available.
Interestingly, the raw data indicated that the TS subjects, within the group, were less accurate in the internal
feedback condition compared to the other two conditions, whereas both the UTS and NTS groups were more
accurate in this condition.
One possible explanation for this finding is that during early voice training, emphasis may be placed on training the
ear to monitor the sound of the voice. The method of early voice training varies from teacher to teacher, and some
may not focus on ear training at all. However, anecdotal reports seem to indicate that training the ear to the
auditory sidetone is an important element of early voice training utilized by some teachers of singing. This
emphasis could then possibly result in learning to utilize external feedback of the sidetone while deemphasizing
internal information as a consequence. With more advanced voice training and experience, the utilization of
internal feedback may increase. More detailed experimental designs are required to accurately test this theory.
The finding that there was no difference in pitch-matching abilities between untrained singers with expressed
singing talent and trained singers when using the prephonatory set or external feedback is important as it differs
somewhat from findings of previous investigations that have compared trained and untrained individuals. Previous
studies have found differences for pitch-matching accuracy between trained and untrained subjects. 13,26 However,
these and most other studies that have compared abilities related to singing in trained and

p.192

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Agrande esta imagen.
figure 4. box plot of pitch-matching accuracy using internal feedback for the trained, untrained talented, and
untrained nontalented groups. untrained subjects have not factored out the abilities of subjects in the untrained

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groups who have singing talent. As a result, findings from these previous investigations may not represent the
abilities of all untrained singers, specifically those who express singing talent.
The present investigation found that, when matching pitch either at the onset of phonation or when using external
feedback, untrained subjects with expressed singing talent are equally as accurate as trained singers. This gives
credence to the idea that the ability to match pitch accurately is a prerequisite for singing talent. There may also
be additional abilities related to voice production that are similar in trained singers and untrained subjects with
expressed singing talent. This idea was in some way supported by Hollien's 27 view that a "golden" voice was a
product of both innate talent and training. It is most often the case that a few of those untrained subjects with
expressed singing talent are the same individuals who go on to seek further training, via professional instruction,
to expand and refine their singing skills for professional development.
The findings from this investigation point to a need for more research that investigates the substrates of
expressed singing talent. Such investigations could provide objective evidence to answer the question, "why can
some people, without training, produce a good singing voice while some cannot?" To date, anecdotal evidence
exists to answer this question. Larger empirical studies are needed, however, to substantiate opinions and ideas
related to those answers.
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©Copyright 2003 Lippincott-Raven Publishers.

DETALLES

Materia específica: Comparative Analysis, Vocal Production, Vocal Performance, Intonation, Pitch
(Acoustics)

Materia genérica: Music and Other Disciplines, Vocal Music

Título: Pitch Matching Accuracy of Trained Singers, Untrained Subjects with Talented
Singing Voices, and Untrained Subjects with Nontalented Singing Voices in
Conditions of Varying Feedback

Autor: Barnes-Burroughs, Kathryn; Murphy, Jessica; Watts, Christopher

Título de publicación: Journal of Voice - Official Journal of the Voice Foundation; New York, N. Y.

Tomo: 17

Número: 2

Páginas: 185-194

Año de publicación: 2003

Fecha de publicación: Jun 2003

Editorial: Elsevier Science Ltd.

Lugar de publicación: New York, N. Y.

País de publicación: United Kingdom, New York, N. Y.

Materia de publicación: Vocal Music, Medical Sciences--Otorhinolaryngology

ISSN: 0892-1997

e-ISSN: 1873-4588

Tipo de fuente: Revista científica

Artículos evaluados por Sí

expertos:

Idioma de la publicación: English

Tipo de documento: Research and Analysis

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