FDBS Unit - 1,2,3

UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
Overview:
A Database is a collection of related data organised in a way that data can be easily accessed,
managed and updated. Any piece of information can be a data, for example name of your school.
Database is actually a place where related piece of information is stored and various operations
can be performed on it.
What is Data?
Data is a collection of a distinct small unit of information. It can be used in a variety of forms like
text, numbers, media, bytes, etc. it can be stored in pieces of paper or electronic memory, etc.
Word ‘Data’ is originated from the word 'datum' that means 'single piece of information.' It is
plural of the word datum.
In computing, Data is information that can be translated into a form for efficient movement and
processing. Data is interchangeable.
1. What is Database Management System?
A DBMS is software that allows creation, definition and manipulation of database, allowing users
to store, process and analyse data easily. DBMS provides us with an interface or a tool, to
perform various operations like creating database, storing data in it, updating data, creating
tables in the database and a lot more.
DBMS also provides protection and security to the databases. It also maintains data consistency
in case of multiple users.
Here are some examples of popular DBMS used these days:
 MySql
 Oracle
 SQL Server
 IBM DB2
 PostgreSQL
 Amazon SimpleDB (cloud based) etc.
Purpose of Database Systems

The main purpose of database systems is to manage the data. Consider a university that keeps
the data of students, teachers, courses, books etc. To manage this data we need to store this
data somewhere where we can add new data, delete unused data, update outdated data,
retrieve data, and to perform these operations on data we need a Database management system
that allows us to store the data in such a way so that all these operations can be performed on
the data efficiently.
DBMS allow users the following tasks:
 Data Definition: It is used for creation, modification, and removal of definition that
defines the organization of data in the database.
 Data Updation: It is used for the insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data
in the database.
 Data Retrieval: It is used to retrieve the data from the database which can be used by
applications for various purposes.
 User Administration: It is used for registering and monitoring users, maintain data
integrity, enforcing data security, dealing with concurrency control, monitoring
performance and recovering information corrupted by unexpected failure.
Characteristics of DBMS:
 It uses a digital repository established on a server to store and manage the information.
 It can provide a clear and logical view of the process that manipulates data.
 DBMS contains automatic backup and recovery procedures.
 It contains ACID properties which maintain data in a healthy state in case of failure.
 It can reduce the complex relationship between data.
 It is used to support manipulation and processing of data.
 It is used to provide security of data.
 It can view the database from different viewpoints according to the requirements of the
user.
Advantages of DBMS:
 Controls database redundancy: It can control data redundancy because it stores all the
data in one single database file and that recorded data is placed in the database.
 Data sharing: In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can share the data among
multiple users.
 Easily Maintenance: It can be easily maintainable due to the centralized nature of the
database system.
 Reduce time: It reduces development time and maintenance need.
 Backup: It provides backup and recovery subsystems which create automatic backup of
data from hardware and software failures and restores the data if required.
 multiple user interface: It provides different types of user interfaces like graphical user
interfaces, application program interfaces
Database Applications – DBMS:
 Telecom: There is a database to keeps track of the information regarding calls made,
network usage, customer details etc. Without the database systems it is hard to maintain
that huge amount of data that keeps updating every millisecond.
 Industry: Where it is a manufacturing unit, warehouse or distribution centre, each one
needs a database to keep the records of ins and outs. For example distribution centre
should keep a track of the product units that supplied into the centre as well as the
products that got delivered out from the distribution centre on each day; this is where
DBMS comes into picture.
 Banking System: For storing customer info, tracking day to day credit and debit
transactions, generating bank statements etc. All this work has been done with the help of
Database management systems.
 Sales: To store customer information, production information and invoice details.
 Airlines: To travel though airlines, we make early reservations; this reservation
information along with flight schedule is stored in database.
 Education sector: Database systems are frequently used in schools and colleges to store
and retrieve the data regarding student details, staff details, course details, exam details,
payroll data, attendance details, fees details etc. There is a hell lot amount of inter-related
data that needs to be stored and retrieved in an efficient manner.
 Online shopping: You must be aware of the online shopping websites such as Amazon,
Flipkart etc. These sites store the product information, your addresses and preferences,
credit details and provide you the relevant list of products based on your query. All this
involves a Database management system.
Drawbacks of File System:
 Data redundancy: Data redundancy refers to the duplication of data, lets say we are
managing the data of a college where a student is enrolled for two courses, the same
student details in such case will be stored twice, which will take more storage than
needed. Data redundancy often leads to higher storage costs and poor access time.
 Data inconsistency: Data redundancy leads to data inconsistency, let’s take the same
example that we have taken above, a student is enrolled for two courses and we have
student address stored twice, now let’s say student requests to change his address, if the
address is changed at one place and not on all the records then this can lead to data
inconsistency.
 Data Isolation: Because data are scattered in various files, and files may be in different
formats, writing new application programs to retrieve the appropriate data is difficult.
 Dependency on application programs: Changing files would lead to change in application
programs.
 Atomicity issues: Atomicity of a transaction refers to “All or nothing”, which means either
all the operations in a transaction executes or none.
 Data Security: Data should be secured from unauthorised access, for example a
student in a college should not be able to see the payroll details of the teachers, such
kind of security constraints are difficult to apply in file processing systems.
Advantage of DBMS over file system
 No redundant data: Redundancy removed by data normalization. No data duplication

saves storage and improves access time.
 Data Consistency and Integrity: As we discussed earlier the root cause of data
inconsistency is data redundancy, since data normalization takes care of the
data redundancy, data inconsistency also been taken care of as part of it
 Data Security: It is easier to apply access constraints in database systems so that only
authorized user is able to access the data. Each user has a different set of access thus data is
secured from the issues such as identity theft, data leaks and misuse of data.
 Privacy: Limited access means privacy of data.
 Easy access to data – Database systems manages data in such a way so that the data
is easily accessible with fast response times.
 Easy recovery: Since database systems keep the backup of data, it is easier to do a full
recovery of data in case of a failure.
 Flexible: Database systems are more flexible than file processing systems.
Types of Databases:
Centralized Database
It is the type of database that stores data at a centralized database system. It comforts the users
to access the stored data from different locations through several applications. These
applications contain the authentication process to let user’s access data securely. An example of
a Centralized database can be Central Library that carries a central database of each library in a
college/university.
Advantages of Centralized Database
o It has decreased the risk of data management, i.e., manipulation of data will not affect
the core data.
o Data consistency is maintained as it manages data in a central repository.
o It provides better data quality, which enables organizations to establish data standards.
o It is less costly because fewer vendors are required to handle the data sets.
Disadvantages of Centralized Database
o The size of the centralized database is large, which increases the response time for
fetching the data.
o It is not easy to update such an extensive database system.
o If any server failure occurs, entire data will be lost, which could be a huge loss.
Distributed Database
Unlike a centralized database system, in distributed systems, data is distributed among different
database systems of an organization. These database systems are connected via communication
links. Such links help the end-users to access the data easily. Examples of the Distributed
database are Apache Cassandra, HBase, Ignite, etc.
We can further divide a distributed database system into:
o Homogeneous DDB: Those database systems which execute on the same operating
system and use the same application process and carry the same hardware devices.
o Heterogeneous DDB: Those database systems which execute on different operating
systems under different application procedures, and carries different hardware devices.
Advantages of Distributed Database
o Modular development is possible in a distributed database, i.e., the system can be
expanded by including new computers and connecting them to the distributed system.
o One server failure will not affect the entire data set.
Relational Database
This database is based on the relational data model, which stores data in the form of rows(tuple)
and columns(attributes), and together forms a table(relation). A relational database uses SQL for
storing, manipulating, as well as maintaining the data. E.F. Codd invented the database in 1970.
Each table in the database carries a key that makes the data unique from others. Examples of
Relational databases are MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, etc.
Properties of Relational Database
There are following four commonly known properties of a relational model known as ACID
properties, where:
A means Atomicity: This ensures the data operation will complete either with success or with
failure. It follows the 'all or nothing' strategy. For example, a transaction will either be committed
or will abort.
C means Consistency: If we perform any operation over the data, its value before and after the
operation should be preserved. For example, the account balances before and after the
transaction should be correct, i.e., it should remain conserved.
I mean Isolation: There can be concurrent users for accessing data at the same time from the
database. Thus, isolation between the data should remain isolated. For example, when multiple
transactions occur at the same time, one transaction effects should not be visible to the other
transactions in the database.
D means Durability: It ensures that once it completes the operation and commits the data, data
changes should remain permanent.
NoSQL Database
Non-SQL/Not Only SQL is a type of database that is used for storing a wide range of data sets. It
is not a relational database as it stores data not only in tabular form but in several different ways.
It came into existence when the demand for building modern applications increased. Thus,
NoSQL presented a wide variety of database technologies in response to the demands. We can
further divide a NoSQL database into the following four types:
Key-value storage: It is the simplest type of database storage where it stores every single item as
a key (or attribute name) holding its value, together.
Document-oriented Database: A type of database used to store data as JSON-like document. It
helps developers in storing data by using the same document-model format as used in the
application code.
Graph Databases: It is used for storing vast amounts of data in a graph-like structure. Most
commonly, social networking websites use the graph database.
Wide-column stores: It is similar to the data represented in relational databases. Here, data is
stored in large columns together, instead of storing in rows.
Advantages of NoSQL Database

o It enables good productivity in the application development as it is not required to store
data in a structured format.
o It is a better option for managing and handling large data sets.
o It provides high scalability.
o Users can quickly access data from the database through key-value.
Cloud Database
A type of database where data is stored in a virtual environment and executes over the cloud
computing platform. It provides users with various cloud computing services (SaaS, PaaS, IaaS,
etc.) for accessing the database. There are numerous cloud platforms, but the best options are:
 Amazon Web Services(AWS)
 Microsoft Azure
 Kamatera
 PhonixNAP
 ScienceSoft
 Google Cloud SQL, etc.
Object-oriented Databases
The type of database that uses the object-based data model approach for storing data in the
database system. The data is represented and stored as objects which are similar to the objects
used in the object-oriented programming language.
Hierarchical Databases
It is the type of database that stores data in the form of parent-children relationship nodes. Here,
it organizes data in a tree-like structure.
Data get stored in the form of records that are connected via links. Each child record in the tree
will contain only one parent. On the other hand, each parent record can have multiple child
records.
Network Databases
It is the database that typically follows the network data model. Here, the representation of data
is in the form of nodes connected via links between them. Unlike the hierarchical database, it
allows each record to have multiple children and parent nodes to form a generalized graph
structure.
Structure of Database Management System:
The database system is divided into three components:

 Query Processor,
 Storage Manager, and
 Disk Storage.
These are explained as following below.
Query Processor:
It interprets the requests (queries) received from end user via an application program into
instructions. It also executes the user request which is received from the DML compiler.
Query Processor contains the following components:
 DML Compiler –
It processes the DML statements into low level instruction (machine language), so that
they can be executed.
 DDL Interpreter –
It processes the DDL statements into a set of table containing Meta data (data about
data).
 Embedded DML Pre-compiler –

It processes DML statements embedded in an application program into procedural calls.
 Query Optimizer – It executes the instruction generated by DML Compiler
Storage Manager –
Storage Manager is a program that provides an interface between the data stored in the
database and the queries received. It is also known as Database Control System. It maintains the
consistency and integrity of the database by applying the constraints and executes
the DCL statements. It is responsible for updating, storing, deleting, and retrieving data in the
database. It contains the following components
 Authorization Manager:
It ensures role-based access control, i.e,. checks whether the particular person is
privileged to perform the requested operation or not.
 Integrity Manager:
It checks the integrity constraints when the database is modified.
 Transaction Manager:
It controls concurrent access by performing the operations in a scheduled way that it
receives the transaction. Thus, it ensures that the database remains in the
consistent state before and after the execution of transaction.
 File Manager:
It manages the file space and the data structure used to represent information in the
database.
 Buffer Manager:
It is responsible for cache memory and the transfer of data between the secondary
storage and main memory.
Disk Storage: It contains the following components:
 Data Files –
It stores the data.
 Data Dictionary –
It contains the information about the structure of any database object. It is the repository
of information that governs the metadata.
 Indices –
It provides faster retrieval of data item.
Types of DBMS Architecture:
There are three types of DBMS architecture:
1. Single tier architecture

2. Two tier architecture
3. Three tier architecture
1.11.1 Single –Tier- Architecture
In this type of architecture, the database is readily available on the client machine; any request
made by client doesn’t require a network connection to perform the action on the database.
For example, let’s say you want to fetch the records of employee from the database and the
database is available on your computer system, so the request to fetch employee details will be
done by your computer and the records will be fetched from the database by your computer as
well. This type of system is generally referred as local database system.
Two – Tier –Architecture:
In two-tier architecture, the Database system is present at the server

machine and the DBMS application is present at the client machine,
these two machines are connected with each other through a reliable
network as shown in the above diagram.
Whenever client machine makes a request to access the database

present at server using a query language like sql, the server perform the
request on the database and returns the result back to the client. The
application connection interface such as JDBC, ODBC are used for the
interaction between server and client.
Three – Tier –Architecture:
In three-tier architecture, another layer is present between the client

machine and server machine. In this architecture, the client application
doesn’t communicate directly with the database systems present at the
server machine, rather the client application communicates with server
application and the server application internally communicates with the
database system present at the server.
Three schema Architecture

 The three schema architecture is also called ANSI/SPARC architecture or three-level
architecture.
 This framework is used to describe the structure of a specific database system.
 The three schema architecture is also used to separate the user applications and physical
database.
 The three schema architecture contains three-levels. It breaks the database down
into three different categories.
The three-schema architecture is as follows:
External Level
In the above diagram:
 It shows the architecture of DBMS.

 Mapping is the process of transforming request response between various
database levels of architecture.
 Mapping is not good for small database, because it takes more time.
 In External / Conceptual mapping, DBMS transforms a request on an external schema
against the conceptual schema.
 In Conceptual / Internal mapping, it is necessary to transform the request from
the conceptual to internal levels.
Physical Level
 Physical level describes the physical storage structure of data in database.

 It is also known as Internal Level.
 This level is very close to physical storage of data.
 At lowest level, it is stored in the form of bits with the physical addresses on
the secondary storage device.
 At highest level, it can be viewed in the form of files.
 The internal schema defines the various stored data types. It uses a physical data model.
Conceptual Level
 Conceptual level describes the structure of the whole database for a group of users.
 It is also called as the data model.
 Conceptual schema is a representation of the entire content of the database.
 This schema contains all the information to build relevant external records.
 It hides the internal details of physical storage.
External Level
 External level is related to the data which is viewed by individual end users.
 This level includes a no. of user views or external schemas.
 This level is closest to the user.
 External view describes the segment of the database that is required for a particular
user group and hides the rest of the database from that user group.
Data Models
Data Model is the modelling of the data description, data semantics, and consistency constraints
of the data. It provides the conceptual tools for describing the design of a database at each level
of data abstraction. Therefore, there are following four data models used for understanding the
structure of the database:
1) Relational Data Model: This type of model designs the data in the form of rows and columns
within a table. Thus, a relational model uses tables for representing data and in-between
relationships. Tables are also called relations. This model was initially described by Edgar F. Codd,
in 1969. The relational data model is the widely used model which is primarily used by
commercial data processing applications.
2) Entity-Relationship Data Model: An ER model is the logical representation of data as objects
and relationships among them. These objects are known as entities, and relationship is an
association among these entities. This model was designed by Peter Chen and published in 1976
papers. It was widely used in database designing. A set of attributes describe the entities. For
example, student_name, student_id describes the 'student' entity. A set of the same type of
entities is known as an 'Entity set', and the set of the same type of relationships is known as
'relationship set'.
3) Object-based Data Model: An extension of the ER model with notions of functions,

encapsulation, and object identity, as well. This model supports a rich type system that includes
structured and collection types. Thus, in 1980s, various database systems following the object-
oriented approach were developed. Here, the objects are nothing but the data carrying its
properties.
4) Semi structured Data Model: This type of data model is different from the other three data
models (explained above). The semi structured data model allows the data specifications at
places where the individual data items of the same type may have different attributes sets. The
Extensible Markup Language, also known as XML, is widely used for representing the semi
structured data. Although XML was initially designed for including the mark up information to
the text document, it gains importance because of its application in the exchange of data.
File System Vs DBMS
S No File System DBMS

1 File system is software that manages
and organizes the files in a storage DBMS is software for managing the database.
medium within a computer.
2 Redundant data can be present in a
In DBMS there is no redundant data
file system
3 It doesn’t provide backup and It provides backup and recovery of data even if it
recovery of data if it is lost. is lost.
4 There is no efficient query processing
Efficient query processing is there in DBMS.
in file system.
5 There is less data consistency in file There is more data consistency because of the
system. process of normalization.
6 It is less complex as compared to It has more complexity in handling as
DBMS. compared to file system.
7 File systems provide less security in DBMS has more security mechanisms as
comparison to DBMS. compared to file system
8 It has a comparatively higher cost than a file
It is less expensive than DBMS.
system.
Components of Database and Functions:
DBMS (Database Management System) acts as an interface between the user and the database.
The user requests the DBMS to perform various operations such as insert, delete, update and
retrieval on the database. The components of DBMS perform these requested operations on the
database and provide necessary data to the users.
The components of DBMS can be divided into two parts: Functions and Services
DDL Compiler:
 Data Description Language compiler processes schema definitions specified in the

DDL.
 It includes metadata information such as the name of the files, data items, storage
details of each file, mapping information and constraints etc.
DML Compiler and Query optimizer:
 The DML commands such as insert, update, delete, retrieve from the
application program are sent to the DML compiler for compilation into object
code for database access.
 The object code is then optimized in the best way to execute a query by the
query optimizer and then send to the data manager.
Data Manager:
 The Data Manager is the central software component of the DBMS also knows as
Database Control System.
The Main Functions Of Data Manager Are:
1. Convert operations in user's Queries coming from the application programs

or combination of DML Compiler and Query optimizer which is known as
Query Processor from user's logical view to physical file system.
2. Controls DBMS information access that is stored on disk.
3. It also controls handling buffers in main memory.
4. It also enforces constraints to maintain consistency and integrity of the data.
5. It also synchronizes the simultaneous operations performed by the concurrent
users.
6. It also controls the backup and recovery operations.
1 Data Dictionary:
 Data Dictionary, which stores metadata about the database, in particular

the schema of the database.
 Names of the tables, names of attributes of each table, length of attributes, and
number of rows in each table.
 Detailed information on physical database design such as storage structure, access
paths, files and record sizes.
 Usage statistics such as frequency of query and transactions.
 Data dictionary is used to actually control the data integrity, database operation
and accuracy. It may be used as a important part of the DBMS
2 Data Files: Which store the database itself

3 Compiled DML:
 The DML complier converts the high level Queries into low level file access
commands known as compiled DML.
4 End Users:
1. The second class of users then is end user, who interacts with system from
online workstation or terminals.
2. Use the interface provided as an integral part of the database system software.
3. User can request, in form of query, to access database either directly by
using particular language, such as SQL, or by using some pre-developed
application interface.
4. Such request are sent to query evaluation engine via DML pre-compiler and DML
compiler
5. The query evaluation engine accepts the query and analyses it.
6. It finds the suitable way to execute the compiled SQL statements of the query.
7. Finally, the compiled SQL statements are executed to perform the specified
operation
8. Query Processor Units:
 Interprets DDL statements into a set of tables containing metadata.
 Translates DML statements into low level instructions that the
query evaluation engine understands.
 Converts DML statements embedded in an application program into
procedure calls in the host language.
Executes low level instructions generated by DML compiler.
 DDL Interpreter
 DML Compiler
 Embedded DML Pre-compiler
 Query Evaluation Engine
Storage Manager Units

 Checks the authority of users to access data.
 Checks for the satisfaction of the integrity constraints.
 Preserves atomicity and controls concurrency.
 Manages allocation of space on disk.
Fetches data from disk storage to memory for being used.
1. Authorization Manager
2. Integrity Manager
3. Transaction Manager
4. File manager
5. Buffer Manager
5. Functions of DBMS:
a. DBMS free the programmers from the need to worry about the organization
and location of the data i.e. it shields the users from complex hardware level
details.
b. DBMS can organize process and present data elements from the database. This
capability enables decision makers to search and query database contents in order
to extract answers that are not available in regular Reports.
c. Programming is speeded up because programmer can concentrate on logic of
the application.
d. It includes special user friendly query languages which are easy to understand by
non programming users of the system.
6. The service provided by the DBMS includes:-

a) Authorization services like log on to the DBMS start the database stop
the Database etc.
b) Transaction supports like Recovery, Rollback etc,
c) Import and Export of Data.
d) Maintaining data dictionary
e) User's Monitoring
Types of Database Languages:
DDL (Data Definition Language) : DDL or Data Definition Language actually consists of the
SQL commands that can be used to define the database schema. It simply deals with
descriptions of the database schema and is used to create and modify the structure of
database objects in the database.
Examples of DDL commands:
 CREATE – is used to create the database or its objects (like table, index, function, views,
store procedure and triggers).
Syntax: 1
CREATE DATABASE database_ name;
database name: name of the database.
Example 1: CREATE DATABASE my _database;
Syntax: 2
CREATE TABLE table_name

(
column1 data_type(size),
....
);
Example 2:
CREATE TABLE Students (ROLL_NO int(3), NAME varchar(20), SUBJECT varchar(20),);
 DROP – is used to delete objects from the database.
DROP is used to delete a whole database or just a table. The DROP statement destroys
the objects like an existing database, table, index, or view.
A DROP statement in SQL removes a component from a relational database management
system (RDBMS).
Syntax :
DROP object object_name
Examples:
DROP TABLE table_name;
table_name: Name of the table to be deleted.
DROP DATABASE database_name;

database_name: Name of the database to be deleted.
 ALTER- is used to alter the structure of the database.
ALTER TABLE is used to add, delete/drop or modify columns in the existing table. It is also
used to add and drop various constraints on the existing table.
ADD is used to add columns into the existing table. Sometimes we may require to add
additional information, in that case we do not require to create the whole database
again, ADD comes to our rescue.
Syntax: ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD (Columnname_1 datatype,
Columnname_2 datatype,
…
Columnname_n datatype);
DROP COLUMN is used to drop column in a table. Deleting the unwanted columns from the
table.
DROP COLUMN column_name;
Example :
ROLL_NO NAME
1 Ram
2 Abhi
3 Rahul
4 Tanu
QUERY:
 To ADD 2 columns AGE and COURSE to table Student.
ALTER TABLE Student ADD (AGE number (3), COURSE varchar (40));
OUTPUT:
ROLL_NO NAME AGE COURSE
1 Ram
2 Abhi
3 Rahul
4 Tanu
 MODIFY column COURSE in table Student
ALTER TABLE Student MODIFY COURSE varchar (20);

After running the above query maximum size of Course Column is reduced to 20 from 40.
 DROP column COURSE in table Student.
ALTER TABLE Student DROP COLUMN COURSE;
OUTPUT:
ROLL_NO NAME AGE
1 Ram
2 Abhi
3 Rahul
4 Tanu
 TRUNCATE–is used to remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated
for the records are removed.
TRUNCATE statement is a Data Definition Language (DDL) operation that is used to mark
the extents of a table for deallocation (empty for reuse). The result of this operation
quickly removes all data from a table, typically bypassing a number of integrity enforcing
mechanisms. The TRUNCATE TABLE mytable statement is logically (though not physically)
equivalent to the DELETE FROM mytable statement (without a WHERE clause).
Syntax :
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

table_name: Name of the table to be truncated.
DATABASE name - student_data
 Truncate is normally ultra-fast and its ideal for deleting data from a temporary table.
 Truncate preserves the structure of the table for future use, unlike drop table where the
table is deleted with its full structure.
 Table or Database deletion using DROP statement cannot be rolled back, so it must be
used wisely.
 To delete the whole database
DROP DATABASE student_data;
After running the above query whole database will be deleted.
 To truncate Student_details table from student_data database.
TRUNCATE TABLE Student_details;
After running the above query Student_details table will be truncated, i.e, the data will be
deleted but the structure will remain in the memory for further operations.
 COMMENT –is used to add comments to the data dictionary.
 RENAME –is used to rename an object existing in the database.

Sometimes we may want to rename our table to give it a more relevant name. For this
purpose we can use ALTER TABLE to rename the name of table.

RENAME TO new_table_name;
Columns can be also be given new name with the use of ALTER TABLE.

RENAME COLUMN old_name TO new_name;

CHANGE COLUMN old_name TO new_name;
SAMPLE TABLE: Student
ROLL_NO NAME AGE

1 Ram 20
2 Abhi 21
3 Rahul 22
4 Tanu 19
QUERY:
 Change the name of column NAME to FIRST_NAME in table Student.

ALTER TABLE Student RENAME COLUMN NAME TO FIRST_NAME;
OUTPUT:
ROLL_NO FIRST_NAME AGE

1 Ram 20
2 Abhi 21
3 Rahul 22
4 Tanu 19
Change the name of the table Student to Student_Details

ALTER TABLE Student RENAME TO Student_Details;
OUTPUT:
Student_Details
ROLL_NO FIRST_NAME AGE

1 Ram 20
2 Abhi 21
3 Rahul 22
4 Tanu 19
DQL (Data Query Language) :
DQL statements are used for performing queries on the data within schema objects. The purpose
of the DQL Command is to get some schema relation based on the query passed to it.
Example of DQL:
 SELECT – is used to retrieve data from the database.
Sample Table:
Syntax : SELECT column1,column2 FROM table_name
column1 , column2: names of the fields of the table

table_name : from where we want to fetch
This query will return all the rows in the table with fields’ column1, column2.
To fetch the entire table or all the fields in the table:
SELECT * FROM table_name;
Query to fetch the fields ROLL_NO, NAME, AGE from the table Student:
SELECT ROLL_NO, NAME, AGE FROM Student;
Output:
ROLL_NO NAME Age

1 Ram 18
2 RAMESH 18
3 SUJIT 20
4 SURESH 18
To fetch all the fields from the table Student:
SELECT * FROM Student;

Output:
ROLL_NO NAME ADDRESS PHONE Age

1 Ram Delhi XXXXXXXXXX 18
2 RAMESH GURGAON XXXXXXXXXX 18
3 SUJIT ROHTAK XXXXXXXXXX 20
4 SURESH Delhi XXXXXXXXXX 18
DML (Data Manipulation Language): The SQL commands that deals with the
manipulation of data present in the database belong to DML or Data Manipulation
Language and this includes most of the SQL statements.
Examples of DML:
 INSERT – is used to insert data into a table.
The INSERT INTO statement of SQL is used to insert a new row in a table. There are two
ways of using INSERT INTO statement for inserting rows:
1. Only values: First method is to specify only the value of data to be inserted without
the column names.
INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1, value2, value3,…);

table_name: name of the table.
value1, value2,.. : value of first column, second column,… for the new record
2. Column names and values both: In the second method we will specify both the
columns which we want to fill and their corresponding values as shown below:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,..) VALUES (value1, value2,

value3,);
table_name: name of the table.
column1: name of first column, second column …
value1, value2, value3: value of first column, second column,… for the new record
Method 1 (Inserting only values) :
INSERT INTO Student VALUES (‘5′,’HARSH’,’WEST BENGAL’,’9912204100’,’19’);
Output:
The table Student will now look like:
5 HARSH WEST BENGAL XXXXXXXXXX 19
Method 2 (Inserting values in only specified columns):
INSERT INTO Student (ROLL_NO, NAME, Age) VALUES (‘5′,’PRATIK’,’19’);
Output:
The table Student will now look like:

5 PRATIK null null 19
Notice that the columns for which the values are not provided are filled by null. Which is the
default values for those columns.
 Inserting all columns of a table: We can copy all the data of a table and insert into in
a different table.
INSERT INTO first_table SELECT * FROM second_table;
first_table: name of first table.

second_table: name of second table.
We have used the SELECT statement to copy the data from one table and INSERT INTO
statement to insert in a different table.
 Inserting specific columns of a table: We can copy only those columns of a table which
we want to insert into in a different table.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO first_table(names_of_columns1) SELECT names_of_columns2 FROM

second_table;

names of columns1: name of columns separated by comma(,) for table 1.
names of columns2: name of columns separated by comma(,) for table 2.
We have used the SELECT statement to copy the data of the selected columns only from
the second table and INSERT INTO statement to insert in first table.
 Copying specific rows from a table: We can copy specific rows from a table to insert into
another table by using WHERE clause with the SELECT statement. We have to provide
appropriate condition in the WHERE clause to select specific rows.
INSERT INTO table1 SELECT * FROM table2 WHERE condition;

condition: condition to select specific rows.
Table2: Lateral Student

7 SOUVIK DUMDUM XXXXXXXXXX 18
8 NIRAJ NOIDA XXXXXXXXXX 19
9 SOMESH ROHTAK XXXXXXXXXX 20
Queries: Method 1(Inserting all rows and columns):
INSERT INTO Student SELECT * FROM LateralStudent;
Output:
This query will insert all the data of the table LateralStudent in the table Student.
The table Student will now look like,

8 NIRAJ NOIDA XXXXXXXXXX 19
9 SOMESH ROHTAK XXXXXXXXXX 20
 Method 2(Inserting specific columns):
INSERT INTO Student(ROLL_NO,NAME,Age) SELECT ROLL_NO, NAME, Age FROM

LateralStudent;
Output:
This query will insert the data in the columns ROLL_NO, NAME and Age of the table
LateralStudent in the table Student and the remaining columns in the Student table will
be filled by null which is the default value of the remaining columns. The table Student
will now look like,

7 SOUVIK null null 18
8 NIRAJ null null 19
9 SOMESH null null 20
 Select specific rows to insert:
INSERT INTO Student SELECT * FROM Lateral Student WHERE Age = 18;
Output:
This query will select only the first row from table Lateral Student to insert into the table
Student. The table Student will now look like,
To insert multiple rows in a table using Single SQL

Statement INSERT INTO
table_name(Column1,Column2,Column3,...........................)
VALUES (Value1, Value2,Value3,.....), (Value1, Value2,Value3,.....),
(Value1, Value2,Value3,.. . .) , ;
table_name: name of the table

Column1: name of first column, second column …
Value1, Value2, Value3: value of first column, second column,… for each new row inserted
You need to provide multiple lists of values where each list is separated by ", ". Every list of value
corresponds to values to be inserted in each new row of the table.
Values in the next list tell values to be inserted in the next Row of the table.
Example:
The following SQL statement inserts multiple rows in Student Table.
Input :
INSERT INTO STUDENT (ID, NAME, AGE, GRADE, CITY) VALUES
(1,"AMIT KUMAR",15,10,"DELHI"),
(2,"GAURI RAO",18,12,"BANGALORE"),
(3,"MANAV BHATT",17,11,"NEW DELHI")
(4,"RIYA KAPOOR",10,5,"UDAIPUR");
Output: STUDENT TABLE

This query will insert all values in each successive row in the STUDENT TABLE. Thus STUDENT
Table will look like this:
ID NAME AGE GRADE CITY

1 AMIT KUMAR 15 10 DELHI
2 GAURI RAO 16 12 BANGALORE
3 MANAV BHATT 17 11 NEW DELHI
4 RIYA KAPOOR 10 5 UDAIPUR
 UPDATE – is used to update existing data within a table.
The UPDATE statement in SQL is used to update the data of an existing table in database.
We can update single columns as well as multiple columns using UPDATE statement as
per our requirement.
Syntax : UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1, column2 =
value2,... WHERE condition;

column1: name of first, second, third column....
value1: new value for first, second, third column....
condition: condition to select the rows for which the
Values of columns needs to be updated.
Example Queries : Updating single column: Update the column NAME and set the value to
‘PRATIK’ in all the rows where Age is 20.
 UPDATE Student SET NAME = 'PRATIK' WHERE Age =
20; Output:
This query will update two rows(third row and fifth row) and the table Student will now
look like,

3 PRATIK ROHTAK XXXXXXXXXX 20
Updating multiple columns: Update the columns NAME to ‘PRATIK’ and ADDRESS to
‘SIKKIM’ where ROLL_NO is 1.
UPDATE Student SET NAME = 'PRATIK', ADDRESS = 'SIKKIM' WHERE ROLL_NO = 1
Output:
The above query will update two columns in the first row and the table Student will now
look like,

1 PRATIK SIKKIM XXXXXXXXXX 18
Note: For updating multiple columns we have used comma (,) to separate the names and
values of two columns.
Omitting WHERE clause: If we omit the WHERE clause from the update query then all of
the rows will get updated.
UPDATE Student SET NAME = 'PRATIK';
Output:
The table Student will now look like,

1 PRATIK Delhi XXXXXXXXXX 18
2 PRATIK GURGAON XXXXXXXXXX 18
4 PRATIK Delhi XXXXXXXXXX 18
2 PRATIK GURGAON XXXXXXXXXX 18
 DELETE – is used to delete records from a database table.
The DELETE Statement in SQL is used to delete existing records from a table. We can
delete a single record or multiple records depending on the condition we specify in the
WHERE clause.
Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE some_condition;

some_condition: condition to choose particular record.
Note: We can delete single as well as multiple records depending on the condition we
provide in WHERE clause. If we omit the WHERE clause then all of the records will be
deleted and the table will be empty.
Sample Table:
Example Queries:
 Deleting single record: Delete the rows where NAME = ‘Ram’. This will delete only
the first row.
 DELETE FROM Student WHERE NAME = 'Ram';
Output:
The above query will delete only the first row and the table Student will now look like,

 Deleting multiple records: Delete the rows from the table Student where Age is 20. This
will delete 2 rows (third row and fifth row).
DELETE FROM Student WHERE Age = 20;

Output:
The above query will delete two rows(third row and fifth row) and the table Student will
now look like,

Delete all of the records: There are two queries to do this as shown below,
query1: "DELETE FROM Student";
query2: "DELETE * FROM Student";
Output:
All of the records in the table will be deleted, there are no records left to display. The
table Student will become empty!
1.16.4. DCL (Data Control Language): DCL includes commands such as GRANT and REVOKE which
mainly deal with the rights, permissions and other controls of the database system.
Examples of DCL commands:
 GRANT-gives users’ access privileges to the database.

 REVOKE-withdraw user’s access privileges given by using the GRANT command.
TCL (transaction Control Language): TCL commands deal with the transaction within the
database.
Examples of TCL commands:
 COMMIT– commits a Transaction.

 ROLLBACK– rollbacks a transaction in case of any error occurs.
 SAVEPOINT–sets a save point within a transaction.
 SET TRANSACTION–specify characteristics for the transaction.
History of Database Management System:
 1960 – Charles Bachman designed first DBMS system

 1970 – Codd introduced IBM’S Information Management System (IMS)
 1976- Peter Chen coined and defined the Entity-relationship model also known as the ER
model
 1980 – Relational Model becomes a widely accepted database component
 1985- Object-oriented DBMS develops.
 1990s- Incorporation of object-orientation in relational DBMS.
 1991- Microsoft ships MS access, a personal DBMS and that displaces all other personal
DBMS products.
 1995: First Internet database applications
 1997: XML applied to database processing. Many vendors begin to integrate XML
into DBMS products.
Distributed Database System:
A distributed database is basically a database that is not limited to one system; it is spread over
different sites, i.e, on multiple computers or over a network of computers. A distributed
database system is located on various sites that don’t share physical components. This may be
required when a particular database needs to be accessed by various users globally. It needs to
be managed such that for the users it looks like one single database.
Types:
1. Homogeneous Database:
In a homogeneous database, all different sites store database identically. The operating system,
database management system and the data structures used – all are same at all sites. Hence,
they’re easy to manage.
2.HeterogeneousDatabase:
In a heterogeneous distributed database, different sites can use different schema and software
that can lead to problems in query processing and transactions. Also, a particular site might be
completely unaware of the other sites. Different computers may use a different operating
system, different database application. They may even use different data models for the
database. Hence, translations are required for different sites to communicate.
Distributed Data Storage:

There are 2 ways in which data can be stored on different sites. These are:
1. Replication :
In this approach, the entire relation is stored redundantly at 2 or more sites. If the entire
database is available at all sites, it is a fully redundant database. Hence, in replication, systems
maintain copies of data.
This is advantageous as it increases the availability of data at different sites. Also, now query
requests can be processed in parallel.
However, it has certain disadvantages as well. Data needs to be constantly updated. Any change
made at one site needs to be recorded at every site that relation is stored or else it may lead to
inconsistency. This is a lot of overhead. Also, concurrency control becomes way more complex as
concurrent access now needs to be checked over a number of sites.
2. Fragmentation:
In this approach, the relations are fragmented (i.e., they’re divided into smaller parts) and each
of the fragments is stored in different sites where they’re required. It must be made sure that
the fragments are such that they can be used to reconstruct the original relation (i.e, there isn’t
any loss of data). Fragmentation is advantageous as it doesn’t create copies of data, consistency
is not a problem.
Fragmentation of relations can be done in two ways:
 Horizontal fragmentation – Splitting by rows –

The relation is fragmented into groups of tuples so that each tuple is assigned to
at least one fragment.
 Vertical fragmentation – Splitting by columns –

The schema of the relation is divided into smaller schemas. Each fragment must
contain a common candidate key so as to ensure lossless join.
What is RDBMS
 RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management Systems..

 All modern database management systems like SQL, MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, ORACLE,
My-SQL and Microsoft Access are based on RDBMS.
 It is called Relational Data Base Management System (RDBMS) because it is based on
relational model introduced by E.F. Codd.
What is a Relational Database (RDBMS)?
A relational database is a type of database that stores and provides access to data points that are
related to one another. Relational databases are based on the relational model, an intuitive,
straightforward way of representing data in tables. In a relational database, each row in the table
is a record with a unique ID called the key. The columns of the table hold attributes of the data,
and each record usually has a value for each attribute, making it easy to establish the
relationships among data points.
How relational databases are structured
The relational model means that the logical data structures—the data tables, views, and indexes
—are separate from the physical storage structures. This separation means that database
administrators can manage physical data storage without affecting access to that data as a logical
structure. For example, renaming a database file does not rename the tables stored within it.
The distinction between logical and physical also applies to database operations, which are
clearly defined actions that enable applications to manipulate the data and structures of the
database. Logical operations allow an application to specify the content it needs, and physical
operations determine how that data should be accessed and then carries out the task.
To ensure that data is always accurate and accessible, relational databases follow certain
integrity rules. For example, an integrity rule can specify that duplicate rows are not allowed in a
table in order to eliminate the potential for erroneous information entering the database.
What is table
The RDBMS database uses tables to store data. A table is a collection of related data entries and
contains rows and columns to store data.
A table is the simplest example of data storage in RDBMS.
Let's see the example of student table.
ID Name Age Course

1 Anusha 24 B.Tech
2 Madhu 25 C.A
3 Samskruthi 24 BCA
4 Ashwini 25 M.Tech
5 Sragavi 24 BSc
What is field
Field is a smaller entity of the table which contains specific information about every record in the
table. In the above example, the field in the student table consist of id, name, age, course.
What is row or record?

A row of a table is also called record. It contains the specific information of each individual entry
in the table. It is a horizontal entity in the table. For example: The above table contains 5 records.
Let's see one record/row in the table.
ID Name Age Course

1 Anusha 24 B.Tech
What is column?
A column is a vertical entity in the table which contains all information associated with a specific
field in a table. For example: "name" is a column in the above table which contains all
information about student's name.
Name
Anusha
Madhu
Samskruthi
Ashwini
Sragavi
NULL Values
The NULL value of the table specifies that the field has been left blank during record creation. It
is totally different from the value filled with zero or a field that contains space.
Data Integrity
There are the following categories of data integrity exist with each RDBMS:
Entity integrity: It specifies that there should be no duplicate rows in a table.
Domain integrity: It enforces valid entries for a given column by restricting the type, the format,
or the range of values.
Referential integrity: It specifies that rows cannot be deleted, which are used by other records.
DBMS Vs RDBMS
DBMS RDBMS
RDBMS applications store data in a tabular
DBMS applications store data as file.
form.
In RDBMS, the tables have an identifier called
In DBMS, data is generally stored in either a
primary key and the data values are stored in
hierarchical form or a navigational form.
the form of tables.
Normalization is not present in DBMS. Normalization is present in RDBMS.
RDBMS defines the integrity constraint for the
DBMS does not apply any security with
purpose of ACID (Atomocity, Consistency,
regards to data manipulation.
Isolation and Durability) property.
in RDBMS, data values are stored in the form of
DBMS uses file system to store data, so there tables, so a relationship between these data
will be no relation between the tables. values will be stored in the form of a table as
well.
RDBMS system supports a tabular structure of
DBMS has to provide some uniform methods
the data and a relationship between them to
to access the stored information.
access the stored information.
DBMS does not support distributed database. RDBMS supports distributed database.
DBMS is meant to be for small organization RDBMS is designed to handle large amount of
and deal with small data. it supports single data. it supports multiple users.
user.
Examples of DBMS are file systems xml etc.Example of RDBMS are mysql
UNIT –II
DATABASE DESIGN ER MODEL
2 .1 What is ER Diagram?
ER Diagram stands for Entity Relationship Diagram,
also known as ERD is a diagram that displays the
relationship of entity sets stored in a database.
In other words, ER diagrams help to explain the logical

structure of databases. ER diagrams are created based on
three basic concepts: entities, attributes and relationships.
ER Diagrams contain different symbols that use

rectangles to represent entities, ovals to define attributes
and diamond shapes to represent relationships.
At first look, an ER diagram looks very similar to the

flowchart. However, ER Diagram includes many
specialized symbols, and its meanings make this model
unique. The purpose of ER Diagram is to represent the
entity framework infrastructure.
Why we use ER Diagrams?
Here, are prime reasons for using the ER Diagram
 Helps you to define terms related to entity relationship modelling

 Provide a preview of how all your tables should connect, what fields are going to be on
each table
 Helps to describe entities, attributes, relationships
 ER diagrams are translatable into relational tables which allows you to build
databases quickly
 ER diagrams can be used by database designers as a blueprint for implementing data
in specific software applications
 The database designer gains a better understanding of the information to be contained in
the database with the help of ERP diagram
 ERD Diagram allows you to communicate with the logical structure of the database
to users
Following are the main components and its symbols in ER Diagrams:
 Rectangles: This Entity Relationship Diagram symbol represents entity types

 Ellipses : Symbol represent attributes
 Diamonds: This symbol represents relationship types
 Lines: It links attributes to entity types and entity types with other relationship types
 Primary key: attributes are underlined
 Double Ellipses: Represent multi-valued attributes
As shown in the above diagram, an ER diagram has three main components:
1. Entity
2. Attribute
3. Relationship
Entity
An entity is an object or component of data. An entity is represented as rectangle in an ER
diagram.
For example: In the following ER diagram we have two entities Student and College and these
two entities have many to one relationship as many students study in a single college. We will
read more about relationships later, for now focus on entities.
1.1 Weak Entity
An entity that cannot be uniquely identified by its own attributes and relies on the relationship
with other entity is called weak entity. The weak entity is represented by a double rectangle. For
example – a bank account cannot be uniquely identified without knowing the bank to which the
account belongs, so bank account is a weak entity.
Attribute
An attribute describes the property of an entity. An attribute is represented as Oval in an ER
diagram. There are four types of attributes:
Key attribute
2.3.2.2 Composite attribute
Multivalued attribute
Derived attribute
1. Key Attribute:
A key attribute can uniquely identify an entity
from an entity set. For example, student roll
number can uniquely identify a student from
a set of students. Key attribute is represented
by oval same as other attributes however the
text of key attribute is underlined.
2. Composite Attribute:
An attribute that is a combination of other

attributes is known as composite attribute. For
example, In student entity, the student address is
a composite attribute as an address is composed
of other attributes such as pin code, state,
country.
3. Multivalued attribute:
An attribute that can hold multiple values is known as Multivalued attribute. It is represented
with double ovals in an ER Diagram. For example – A person can have more than one phone
numbers so the phone number attribute is Multivalued.
4. Derived attribute:
A derived attribute is one whose value is dynamic and derived from another attribute. It is
represented by dashed oval in an ER Diagram. For example – Person age is a derived attribute as
it changes over time and can be derived from another attribute (Date of birth).
Relationship
A relationship is represented by diamond shape in ER diagram; it shows the relationship among
entities. There are four types of relationships:
1. One to One
2. One to Many
3. Many to One
4. Many too Many
1. One to One Relationship

When a single instance of an entity is associated with a single instance of another entity then it is called
one to one relationship. For example, a person has only one passport and a passport is given to one
person.
2. One too Many Relationship
When a single instance of an entity is associated with more than one instances of another entity
then it is called one to many relationship. For example – a customer can place many orders but a
order cannot be placed by many customers.
3. Many to One Relationship

When more than one instances of an entity is associated with a single instance of another entity then
it is called many to one relationship. For example – many students can study in a single college but a
student cannot study in many colleges at the same time.
4. Many to Many Relationship
When more than one instances of an entity is associated with more than one instances of another
entity then it is called many to many relationship. For example, a can be assigned to many projects
and a project can be assigned to many students.
Database Objects in DBMS
Any defined object in the database which can be used to reference or store data is known as a
database object. Database objects can be made using the create command. These database
objects are used for holding and manipulating the data in the database.
The examples of database objects include:
1. View: Subsets of data from more than one table are logically represented.
2. Table: Composed of rows and columns, the table is the primary form of data representation.
3. Sequence: Sequence generates the primary key values.
4. Synonym: It is an alternative name for a specific object.
5. Index: It improves the performance of some particular queries.
Different Database Objects:
1. Table : A table is a database object used as a unit of storage.
Syntax: CREATE TABLE [ schema ] table (Column datatype [default expr] ;
Example: CREATE TABLE dept (deptno Number (2) , dname VARCHAR2(14) , loc VARCHAR2 (14) );
Output: Describe Dept ;

Name Null Type
Deptno Number (2)
Dname Varchar(14)
Loc Varchar(14)
2. View :
This object is used in the database to create a type of view of the database. It is a logical view
based on one or more tables or even another view. A view does not contain any data of its own
but is used to view data in other tables. The view is based on a table, and that table is known as
the base table. The data dictionary stores the view as a SELECT statement.
Syntax:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] [FORCE|NOFORCE] VIEW view

[(alias[, alias]...)] AS subquery
[WITH CHECK OPTION [CONSTRAINT constraint]]
[WITH READ ONLY [CONSTRAINT constraint]];
Example:
CREATE VIEW salvu50

AS SELECT employee_id ID_NUMBER, last_name NAME, salary*12 ANN_SALARY FROM
employees WHERE department_id = 50;
Output: Select * from salvu50
ID _NUMBER NAME ANN _SALARY

124 MANISH 69600
125 SAMSKRUTHI 50000
142 RITIKA 65522
127 ASHWINI 75000
3. Sequence:
This object in the database is used to create a sequence in the database. It is a user created
database object which can be shared by more than two users to create a unique integer in the
database. The most often use of sequence is to create a primary value in the database. This
primary value is unique for each row. Once the sequence is generated, it is decremented or
incremented using an Oracle routine.
Syntax: CREATE SEQUENCE sequence

[INCREMENT BY n]
[START WITH n]
[{MAXVALUE n | NOMAXVALUE}]
[{MINVALUE n | NOMINVALUE}]
[{CYCLE | NOCYCLE}]
[{CACHE n | NOCACHE}];
Example: CREATE SEQUENCE dept_deptid_seq
INCREMENT BY 10
START WITH 120
MAXVALUE 9999
NOCACHE
NOCYCLE;
4. Index – This database object is used to create a indexes in database. An Oracle server index
is a schema object that can speed up the retrieval of rows by using a pointer. Indexes can be
created explicitly or automatically. If you do not have an index on the column, then a full table
scan occurs.
An index provides direct and fast access to rows in a table. Its purpose is to reduce the
necessity of disk I/O by using an indexed path to locate data quickly. The index is used and
maintained automatically by the Oracle server. Once an index is created, no direct activity is
required by the user. Indexes are logically and physically independent of the table they index.
This means that they can be created or dropped at any time and have no effect on the base
tables or other indexes.
Syntax: CREATE INDEX index
ON table (column [, column]...);
Example: CREATE INDEX emp_last_name_idx
ON employees(last_name);
5. Synonym – This database object is used to create a indexes in database.It simplify access to
objects by creating a synonym(another name for an object). With synonyms, you can Ease
referring to a table owned by another user and shorten lengthy object names.To refer to a
table owned by another user, you need to prefix the table name with the name of the user
who created it followed by a period. Creating a synonym eliminates the need to qualify the
object name with the schema and provides you with an alternative name for a table, view,
sequence, procedure, or other objects. This method can be especially useful with lengthy
object names, such as views.
Syntax : CREATE [PUBLIC] SYNONYM synonym FOR object;
Example: CREATE SYNONYM d_sum FOR dept_sum_vu;
Attributes in DBMS:
An attribute is a property or characteristic of an entity. An entity may contain any number of
attributes. One of the attributes is considered as the primary key. In an Entity-Relation model,
attributes are represented in an elliptical shape.
Example: Student has attributes like name, age, roll number and many more. To uniquely
identify the student, we use the primary key as roll number as it is not repeated. Attributes can
also be subdivided into another set of attributes.
There are five such types of attributes: Simple, Composite, Single-valued, Multi-valued, and
Derived attribute.
These are explained as following below.
1. Simple attribute: An attribute which cannot be further subdivided into components is a
simple attribute.
Example: The roll number of a student, the id number of an employee.
2. Composite Attribute
An attribute which can be splitted into components is a composite attribute.
Example: The address can be further splitted into house number, street number, city, state,
country and pincode, the name can also be splitted into first name middle name and last name.
3. Single –valued Attribute :

The attribute which takes up only a single value for each entity instance is single-valued
attribute.
Example: The age of a student.
4. Multi-Valued Attribute :
The attribute which takes up more than a single value for each entity instance is multi-valued
attribute.
Example: Phone number of a student: Landline and mobile.
5. Dervied Attribute :
An attribute that can be derived from other attributes is derived attribute.
Example: Total and average marks of a student.
Entity-Set and Keys

Key is an attribute or collection of attributes that uniquely identifies an entity among entity set.
For example, the roll_number of a student makes him/her identifiable among students.
 Super Key − A set of attributes (one or more) that collectively identifies an entity in an
entity set.
 Candidate Key − A minimal super key is called a candidate key. An entity set may have
more than one candidate key.
 Primary Key − A primary key is one of the candidate keys chosen by the database
designer to uniquely identify the entity set.
E R Model
 Let us now learn how the ER Model is represented by means of an ER diagram. Any
object, for example, entities, attributes of an entity, relationship sets, and attributes of
relationship sets, can be represented with the help of an ER diagram.
 Relationships are represented by diamond-shaped box. Name of the relationship is
written inside the diamond-box. All the entities (rectangles) participating in a
relationship, are connected to it by a line.
Entity
Entities are represented by means of rectangles. Rectangles are named with the entity set they
represent.
Attributes
Attributes are the properties of entities. Attributes are represented by means of ellipses. Every
ellipse represents one attribute and is directly connected to its entity (rectangle).
Composite: they are further divided in a tree like structure. Every node is then connected to its
attribute. That is, composite attributes are represented by ellipses that are connected with an
ellipse.
Multivalued attributes are depicted by double ellipse.

Derived attributes are depicted by dashed ellipse.
Relationship
The association among entities is called a relationship. For example, an employee works_at a
department, a student enrolls in a course. Here, Works_at and Enrolls are called relationships.
Relationship Set
A set of relationships of similar type is called a relationship set. Like entities, a relationship too
can have attributes. These attributes are called descriptive attributes.
Degree of Relationship
The number of participating entities in a relationship defines the degree of the relationship.
 Binary = degree 2
 Ternary = degree 3
 n-ary = degree
Mapping Cardinalities
Cardinality defines the number of entities in one entity set, which can be associated with the
number of entities of other set via relationship set.
 One-to-one − One entity from entity set A can be associated with at most one entity of
entity set B and vice versa.
 One-to-many − One entity from entity set A can be associated with more than one
entities of entity set B however an entity from entity set B, can be associated with at
most one entity.
 Many-to-one − More than one entities from entity set A can be associated with at most
one entity of entity set B, however an entity from entity set B can be associated with
more than one entity from entity set A.
 Many-to-many − One entity from A can be associated with more than one entity from B
and vice versa.
Binary Relationship and Cardinality

A relationship where two entities are participating is called a binary relationship. Cardinality is
the number of instance of an entity from a relation that can be associated with the relation.
 One-to-one − When only one instance of an entity is associated with the relationship, it is
marked as '1:1'. The following image reflects that only one instance of each entity should
be associated with the relationship. It depicts one-to-one relationship.
 One-to-many − When more than one instance of an entity is associated with a

relationship, it is marked as '1:N'. The following image reflects that only one instance of
entity on the left and more than one instance of an entity on the right can be associated
with the relationship. It depicts one-to-many relationship.
 Many-to-one − When more than one instance of entity is associated with the
relationship, it is marked as 'N:1'. The following image reflects that more than one
instance of an entity on the left and only one instance of an entity on the right can be
associated with the relationship. It depicts many-to-one relationship.
 Many-to-many − The following image reflects that more than one instance of an entity
on the left and more than one instance of an entity on the right can be associated with
the relationship. It depicts many-to-many relationship.
Participation Constraints
 Total Participation − Each entity is involved in the relationship. Total participation is
represented by double lines.
 Partial participation − Not all entities are involved in the relationship. Partial
participation is represented by single lines.
Key
A key is an attribute or set of attributes which helps us in uniquely identifying the rows of a
table. It also helps in establishing relationship among tables. We will now see how this is done
with the help of examples.
Example: If we have the details of students of a classroom stored in Student table as follows:
Now, from this classroom, if we want to call a student whose name is ‘Andrew’ we don't know
which ‘Andrew’ to call as there are two students with the same name. Also, we if know the age
of student ‘Andrew’ we can’t distinguish between both the students because both are having
the same age. So, there must some value through which we can distinguish and uniquely
identify the students. The ‘Roll_no’ attribute will help us in uniquely identifying the rows in a
table. We can say that ‘Roll_no’ is the key here. Now, if we know the ‘Roll_no’ of the student
then there will be no confusion and we can easily select the student from here.
Key can be of the following types:
 Super Key
 Candidate Key
 Primary Key
 Alternate Key
 Foreign Key
Super Key
A super key or simply key is a combination of all possible attribute which can uniquely identify
the rows(tuples) in a table. This means that a superkey may have some extra attribute which
isn't necessary for uniquely identifying the rows in the table.
Example: In the given Student Table we can have the following keys as the super key.
1. {Roll_no}
2. {Registration_no}
3. {Roll_no, Registration_no},
4. {Roll_no, Name}
5. {Name, Registration_no}
6. {Roll_no, Name, Registration_no}
All the above keys are able to uniquely identify each row. So, each of these keys is super key.
Here you can see that by using Roll_no only, we can uniquely identify the rows but if you are
making a super key, then you will try to find all the possible cases of keys that can be used to
identify data uniquely.
Candidate Key
A candidate key is a minimal super key or a super key with no redundant attribute. It is called a
minimal superkey because we select a candidate key from a set of super key such that selected
candidate key is the minimum attribute required to uniquely identify the table. It is selected
from the set of the super key which means that all candidate keys are super key. Candidate
Keys are not allowed to have NULL values.
If the subset of the candidate key is a super key, then that candidate key is not a valid
candidate key.
Example: In the above example, we had 6 super keys but all of them cannot become a
candidate key. Only those super keys would become a candidate key which have no redundant
attributes.
1. {Roll_no}: This key doesn't have any redundant or repeating attribute. So, it can be
considered as a candidate key.
2. {Registration_no}: This key also doesn't have any repeating attribute. So, it can be
considered as a candidate key.
3. {Roll_no, Registration_no}: This key cannot be considered as a candidate key because
when we take the subset of this key we get two attributes i.e Roll_no or
Registration_no. Each of these attributes is the candidate key. So, it is not a minimal
super key. Hence, this key is not a candidate key.
4. {Roll_no, Name}: This key cannot be considered as a candidate key because when we
take the subset of this key we get two attributes i.e. Roll_no or Name. Roll_no is a
candidate key. So, it is not a minimal super key. Hence, this key is not a candidate key.
5. {Name, Registration_no}: This key cannot be considered as a candidate key because
when we take the subset of this key we get two attributes i.e Registration_no or Name.
Registration_no is a candidate key. So, it is not a minimal super key. Hence, this key is
not a candidate key.
6. {Roll_no, Name, Registration_no}: This key cannot be considered as a candidate key
because when we take the subset of this key we get three attributes i.e Roll_no,
Registration_no and Name. Two of these attributes i.e Roll_no and Registration_no are
the candidate key. So, it is not a minimal superkey. Hence, this key is not a candidate
key.
So, from the above discussion, we conclude that we can have only 2 out of above 6
super keys as the candidate key. i.e. (Roll_no) and(Registration_no).
Primary Key
The primary key is the minimal set of attributes which uniquely identifies any row of a table. It
is selected from a set of candidate keys. Any candidate key can become a primary key. It
depends upon the requirements and is done by the Database Administrator (DBA). The primary
key cannot have a NULL value. It cannot have a duplicate value.
Example: In the above example, we saw that we have two candidate keys i.e (Roll_no) and
(Registration_no). From this set, we can select any key as the primary key for our table. It
depends upon our requirement. Here, if we are talking about class then selecting ‘Roll_no’ as
the primary key is more logical instead of ‘Registrartion_no’.
Alternate Key
All the candidate key which are not a primary key are called an alternate key.
Example: In the above example, since we have made ‘Roll_no’ as the Primary Key our Alternate
Key would be ‘Registration_no’.
Foreign Key:
The foreign key of a table is the attribute which establishes the relationship among tables. The
foreign key is the attribute which points to the primary key of another table.
Example: If we have two tables of Student and Course then we can establish a relationship
between these two tables using a foreign key. The ‘Course_id’ in the Student table is the
foreign key as it establishes the link between the Student and Course Table. So, if we need to
find the information about any course opted by any student then we can go the Course table
using the foreign key.
What is Relational Model?

Relational Model (RM) represents the database as a collection of relations. A relation is nothing
but a table of values. Every row in the table represents a collection of related data values. These
rows in the table denote a real-world entity or relationship.
The table name and column names are helpful to interpret the meaning of values in each row.
The data are represented as a set of relations. In the relational model, data are stored as tables.
However, the physical storage of the data is independent of the way the data are logically
organized.
Relational Model Concepts
1. Attribute: Each column in a Table. Attributes are the properties which define a relation.
e.g., Student_Rollno, NAME,etc.
2. Tables – In the Relational model the, relations are saved in the table format. It is stored
along with its entities. A table has two properties rows and columns. Rows represent
records and columns represent attributes.
3. Tuple – It is nothing but a single row of a table, which contains a single record.
4. Relation Schema: A relation schema represents the name of the relation with its
attributes.
5. Degree: The total number of attributes which in the relation is called the degree of the
relation.
6. Cardinality: Total number of rows present in the Table.
7. Column: The column represents the set of values for a specific attribute.
8. Relation instance – Relation instance is a finite set of tuples in the RDBMS system.
Relation instances never have duplicate tuples.
9. Relation key – Every row has one, two or multiple attributes, which is called relation key.
10. Attribute domain – Every attribute has some pre-defined value and scope which is known
as attribute domain
Relational Integrity Constraints

Relational Integrity constraints in DBMS are referred to conditions which must be present for a
valid relation. These Relational constraints in DBMS are derived from the rules in the mini-world
that the database represents.
There are many types of Integrity Constraints in DBMS. Constraints on the Relational database
management system is mostly divided into three main categories are:
1. Domain Constraints
2. Key Constraints
3. Referential Integrity Constraints
Domain Constraints
Domain constraints can be violated if an attribute value is not appearing in the corresponding
domain or it is not of the appropriate data type.
Domain constraints specify that within each tuple, and the value of each attribute must be
unique. This is specified as data types which include standard data types integers, real numbers,
characters, Booleans, variable length strings, etc.
Key Constraints
An attribute that can uniquely identify a tuple in a relation is called the key of the table. The value
of the attribute for different tuples in the relation has to be unique.
Example:
In the given table, CustomerID is a key attribute of Customer Table. It is most likely to have a
single key for one customer, CustomerID =1 is only for the CustomerName =” Google”.
Customer ID Customer Name Status
1 Google Active
2 Amazon Active
3 Apple In Active
Referential Integrity Constraints
Referential Integrity constraints in DBMS are based on the concept of Foreign Keys. A foreign key
is an important attribute of a relation which should be referred to in other relationships.
Referential integrity constraint state happens where relation refers to a key attribute of a
different or same relation. However, that key element must exist in the table.
Example:
In the above example, we have 2 relations, Customer and Billing.

Tuple for CustomerID =1 is referenced twice in the relation Billing. So we know
CustomerName=Google has billing amount $300
Operations in Relational Model

Four basic update operations performed on relational database model are
Insert, update, delete and select.
 Insert is used to insert data into the relation
 Delete is used to delete tuples from the table.
 Modify allows you to change the values of some attributes in existing tuples.
 Select allows you to choose a specific range of data.
 Whenever one of these operations are applied, integrity constraints specified on the
relational database schema must never be violated.
 Insert Operation
 The insert operation gives values of the attribute for a new tuple which should be
inserted into a relation.
Update Operation
 You can see that in the below-given relation table CustomerName= ‘Apple’ is
updated from Inactive to Active.

 Delete Operation
 To specify deletion, a condition on the attributes of the relation selects the tuple to be
deleted.

 In the above-given example, CustomerName= “Apple” is deleted from the table.

 The Delete operation could violate referential integrity if the tuple which is deleted is
referenced by foreign keys from other tuples in the same database.
 Select Operation
Weak Entity and Strong Entity in DBMS
The entity defines the type of data stored; simply it is nothing but a database table. We have the
following two types of entities based on Unique Identification –
1. Strong entity
2. Weak entity
Strong entity
 A strong entity set is an entity that contains sufficient attributes to uniquely identify all its
entities
 Simply strong entity is nothing but an entity set having a primary key attribute or a table
which consists of a primary key column
 The primary key of the strong entity is represented by underlining it
Representation
 The strong entity is represented by a single rectangle.
 Relationship between two strong entities is represented by a single diamond.
Examples for the strong entity
 Consider the ER diagram which consists

of two entities student and course
 Student entity is a strong entity because it
consists of a primary key called student id
which is enough for accessing each record
uniquely
 The same way, course entity contains of
course ID attribute which is capable of
uniquely accessing each row it is each course
details
Weak Entity Set:
 weak entity is an entity set that does not have sufficient attributes for Unique
Identification of its records
 Simply a weak entity is nothing but an entity which does not have a primary key
attribute
 It contains a partial key called as discriminator which helps in identifying a group of
entities from the entity set
 Discriminator is represented by underlining with a dashed line
Representation
 A double rectangle is used for representing a weak entity set

 The double diamond symbol is used for representing the relationship between a strong
entity and weak entity which is known as identifying relationship
 Double lines are used for presenting the connection with a weak entity set with
relationship
Example for weak entity
 In the ER diagram, we have two entities

building and apartment
 Building is a strong entity because it has
a primary key attribute called building
number which is capable of uniquely
identifying all the flats present in the
apartment
 Unlike building, apartment is weak
entity because it does not have any
primary key and door number here acts
only as a discriminator because door
number cannot be used as a primary key,
there might be multiple flats in the building
with the same door number or on different
floors.
Strong Entity Vs Weak Entity
Strong Entity Weak Entity

Strong entity always has a primary key Will not have a primary key but it has partial
discriminator key
It is not dependent on any other entity Which entity is dependent on the strong entity
Represented by double rectangle relationship
Represented by a single rectangle between a strong entity and the weak entity
is represented by double Diamond
Relationship between two strong entities is
represented by a single diamond
A strong entity has may or may not have total It has always total participation
participation
Examples on Relational Database:
Relational database means the data is stored as well as retrieved in the form of relations
(tables). Table 1 shows the relational database with only one relation called STUDENT which
stores ROLL_NO, NAME, ADDRESS, PHONE and AGE of students.
Student Database:
Roll _No NAME ADDRESS PHONE AGE
401 AKHILA VISHAKAPATNAM 9912204100 24
402 SAMSKRUTHI DUBAI 9704216317 25
403 ASHWINI REDDY LONDON 9346261029 28
404 SANDHYA BANGALORE 9951063698 26
405 SHRAGVI GOKARANA 9755858898 27
These are some important terminologies that are used in terms of relation.
Attribute: Attributes are the properties that define a relation. e.g.; ROLL_NO, NAME etc.
Tuple: Each row in the relation is known as tuple. The above relation contains 4 tuples, one of
which is shown as:
Degree: The number of attributes in the relation is known as degree of the relation.
The STUDENT relation defined above has degree 5.
Cardinality: The number of tuples in a relation is known as cardinality. The STUDENT relation
defined above has cardinality 4.
Column: Column represents the set of values for a particular attribute. The column ROLL_NO is
extracted from relation STUDENT.
Roll _No
401
402
403
404
405
The queries to deal with relational database can be categories as:

Data Definition Language: It is used to define the structure of the database. e.g; CREATE
TABLE, ADD COLUMN, DROP COLUMN and so on.
Data Manipulation Language: It is used to manipulate data in the relations. e.g.; INSERT,
DELETE, UPDATE and so on.
Data Query Language: It is used to extract the data from the relations. e.g.; SELECT
So first we will consider the Data Query Language. A generic query to retrieve from a relational
database is:
1. SELECT [DISTINCT] Attribute_List FROM R1,R2….RM
2. [WHERE condition]
3. [GROUP BY (Attributes)[HAVING condition]]
4. [ORDER BY(Attributes)[DESC]];
Part of the query represented by statement 1 is compulsory if you want to retrieve from a
relational database. The statements written inside [] are optional. We will look at the possible
query combination on relation shown in Table 1.
Case 1: If we want to retrieve attributes ROLL_NO and NAME of all students, the query will be:
SELECT ROLL_NO, NAME FROM STUDENT;
Roll _No NAME

401 AKHILA
402 SAMSKRUTHI
403 ASHWINI REDDY
404 SANDHYA
405 SHRAGVI
Case 2: If we want to retrieve ROLL_NO and NAME of the students whose ROLL_NO is greater
than 2, the query will be:
SELECT ROLL_NO, NAME FROM STUDENT WHERE ROLL_NO> 402;
Roll_No Name
403 ASHWINI REDDY
404 SANDHYA
405 SHRAGVI
CASE 3: If we want to retrieve all attributes of students, we can write * in place of writing all
attributes as:
SELECT * FROM STUDENT WHERE ROLL_NO>2;

CASE 4: If we want to represent the relation in ascending order by AGE, we can use ORDER BY
clause as:
SELECT * FROM STUDENT ORDER BY AGE;

402 SAMSKRUTHI DUBAI 9704216317 25
Note: ORDER BY AGE is equivalent to ORDER BY AGE ASC. If we want to retrieve the results in
descending order of AGE, we can use ORDER BY AGE DESC.
CASE 5: If we want to retrieve distinct values of an attribute or group of attribute, DISTINCT is

used as in:
SELECT DISTINCT ADDRESS FROM STUDENT;

ADDRESS
VISHAKAPATNAM
DUBAI
LONDON
BANGALORE
GOKARANA
If DISTINCT is not used, DELHI will be repeated twice in result set. Before understanding
GROUP BY and HAVING, we need to understand aggregations functions in SQL.
AGGRATION FUNCTIONS: Aggregation functions are used to perform mathematical operations
on data values of a relation. Some of the common aggregation functions used in SQL are:
COUNT: Count Function is used to count the number of rows in a relation.
SELECT COUNT (PHONE) FROM STUDENT;
COUNT (PHONE)
5
SUM: SUM function is used to add the values of an attribute in a relation.
SELECT SUM (AGE) FROM STUDENT;
SUM (AGE) = 74
In the same way, MIN, MAX and AVG can be used. As we have seen above, all aggregation
functions return only 1 row.
AVERAGE: It gives the average values of the tupples. It is also defined as sum divided by count
values.
Syntax:AVG(attributename)
OR
Syntax:SUM(attributename)/COUNT(attributename)
The above mentioned syntax also retrieves the average value of tupples.
MAXIMUM:It extracts the maximum value among the set of tupples.
Syntax:MAX(attributename)
MINIMUM:It extracts the minimum value amongst the set of all the tupples.
Syntax:MIN(attributename)
GROUP BY: Group by is used to group the tuples of a relation based on an attribute or group of
attribute. It is always combined with aggregation function which is computed on group
SELECT ADDRESS, SUM(AGE) FROM STUDENT GROUP BY (ADDRESS);
ADDRESS AGE
VISHAKAPATNAM 24
DUBAI 25
LONDON 28
BANGALORE 26
GOKARANA 27
UNIT –III
STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)
Structured Query Language is a standard Database language which is used to create, maintain
and retrieve the relational database. Following are some interesting facts about SQL.
 SQL is case insensitive. But it is a recommended practice to use keywords (like SELECT,
UPDATE, CREATE, etc) in capital letters and use user defined things (liked table name,
column name, etc) in small letters.
 We can write comments in SQL using “–” (double hyphen) at the beginning of any line.
 SQL is the programming language for relational databases (explained below) like
MySQL, Oracle, Sybase, SQL Server, Postgre, etc. Other non-relational databases (also
called NoSQL) databases like MongoDB, DynamoDB, etc do not use SQL
 Although there is an ISO standard for SQL, most of the implementations slightly vary in
syntax. So we may encounter queries that work in SQL Server but do not work in MySQL.
SQL Process
When you are executing an SQL command for any RDBMS, the system determines the best way
to carry out your request and SQL engine figures out how to interpret the task.
There are various components included in this process.
These components are −

 Query Dispatcher
 Optimization Engines
 Classic Query Engine
 SQL Query Engine, etc.
A classic query engine handles all the non-

SQL queries, but a SQL query engine won't
handle logical files.
Following is a simple diagram showing the

SQL Architecture −
SQL Commands
The standard SQL commands to interact with relational databases are CREATE, SELECT, INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE and DROP. These commands can be classified into the following groups based
on their nature −
DDL - Data Definition Language

CREATE - Creates a new table, a view of a table, or other object in the database.
ALTER -Modifies an existing database object, such as a table.
DROP-Deletes an entire table, a view of a table or other objects in the database.
DML - Data Manipulation Language

SELECT-Retrieves certain records from one or more tables.
INSERT - Creates a record.
UPDATE -Modifies records.
DELETE -Deletes records.
DCL - Data Control Language

GRANT - Gives a privilege to user.
REVOKE - Takes back privileges granted from user.
Characteristics of SQL
 SQL is easy to learn.
 SQL is used to access data from relational database management systems.
 SQL can execute queries against the database.
 SQL is used to describe the data.
 SQL is used to define the data in the database and manipulate it when needed.
 SQL is used to create and drop the database and table.
 SQL is used to create a view, stored procedure, function in a database.
 SQL allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures, and views.
What is SQL Operator: A set operator in SQL is a keyword that lets you combine the results of
two queries into a single query.
Sometimes when working with SQL, you’ll have a need to query data from two more tables. But
instead of joining these two tables, you’ll need to list the results from both tables in a single
result, or in different rows. That’s what set operators do.
Different types of SET operators:
There are a few different set operators that can be used, depending on your needs, and
which database vendor you’re using.
The different set operators are:
 UNION
 UNION ALL
 MINUS
 INTERSECT
 EXCEPT
Using Set Operators:
Set operators are used like this:
SELECT your _select _query Set operator SELECT another _select_query;
 It uses two (or more) SELECT queries, with a set operator in the
middle. There are a few things to keep in mind though.
 When selecting your columns, the number of columns needs to match between queries,
and the data type of each column needs to be compatible.
 So, if you select three columns in the first query, you need to select three columns in the
second query. The data types also need to be compatible, so if you select a number and
two character types in the first query, you need to do the same in the second query.
 Also, if you want to order your results, the ORDER BY must go at the end of the last query.
You can’t add ORDER BY inside each SELECT query before the set operator.
Our Example Data
 Before we get started, let’s look at some sample data.

 To help explain joins, it helps to see how the SQL queries would work and what
the results would look like.
 So, let’s use an employee and department example. It’s a common example that
you might be used to.
This is the department table:
DEPARTMENT_ID DEPARTMENT_NAME
1 Executive
2 HR
3 Sales
4 Development
5 Support
6 Research
And this is the employee table.
EMPLOYEE_ FULL_NAME DEPARTMENT_ ROLE MANAGER_

1 John Smith 1 CEO (null)
2 Sarah Goodes 1 CFO 1
3 Wayne Ablett 1 CIO 1
4 Michelle Carey 2 HR Manager 1
5 Chris Matthews 3 Sales Manager 2
6 Andrew Judd 4 Development Manager 3
7 Danielle McLeod 5 Support Manager 3
8 Matthew Swan 2 HR Representative 4
9 Stephanie Richardson 2 Salesperson 5
10 Tony Grant 3 Salesperson 5
11 Jenna Lockett 4 Front-End Developer 6
12 Michael Dunstall 4 Back-End Developer 6
13 Jane Voss 4 Back-End Developer 6
14 Anthony Hird (null) Support 7
15 Natalie Rocca 5 Support 7
This shows a list of 6 departments and 16 employees. The manager_id column in the employee table
refers to the employee_id column in the same table. I’ll show you how to use this later in this guide.
If you want to follow along and create the database yourself, here is the SQL:
CREATE TABLE department_id NUMBER(5) PRIMARY KEY , department _name VARCHAR2(100));
CREATE TABLE employee (employee _id NUMBER(5) PRIMARY KEY , full_name VARCHAR2(100),
department _id NUMBER (5) REFERENCES department (department_id), job_roleVARCHAR2(100),
manager_id NUMBER(5) );
INSERT INTO department (department _id ,department _name ) VALUES (1, ‘Executive’);
INSERT INTO department (department _id ,department _name ) VALUES (2, ‘HR’);
INSERT INTO department (department _id ,department _name ) VALUES (3, ‘Sales’);
INSERT INTO department (department _id ,department _name ) VALUES (4, ‘Development’);
INSERT INTO department (department _id ,department _name ) VALUES (5, ‘Support’);
INSERT INTO department (department _id ,department _name ) VALUES (6, ‘Research’);
INSERT INTO employee (employee _id, full_name , department_id , job_role , manager_id)

VALUES (1 ,’John Smith ‘ , 1, ‘CEO’, NULL) ;

VALUES (2 , 'Sarah Goodes', 1, 'CFO', 1) ;
VALUES (3, 'Wayne Ablett', 1, 'CIO', 1) ;

VALUES (4, 'Michelle Carey', 2, 'HR Manager', 1) ;

VALUES (5, 'Chris Matthews', 3, 'Sales Manager ', 2) ;

VALUES (6, 'Andrew Judd', 4, 'Development Manager', 3) ;

VALUES (7, 'Danielle McLeod', 5, 'Support Manager', 3) ;

VALUES (8, 'Matthew Swan', 2, 'HR Representative', 4) ;

VALUES (9, 'Stephanie Richardson', 2, 'Salesperson', 5) ;

VALUES (10, 'Tony Grant', 3, 'Salesperson', 5) ;

VALUES (11, 'Jenna Lockett', 4, 'Front-End Developer', 6) ;

VALUES (12, 'Michael Dunstall', 4, 'Back-End Developer', 6) ;

VALUES (13, 'Jane Voss', 4, 'Back-End Developer', 6) ;

VALUES (14, 'Anthony Hird', null, 'Support', 7) ;

VALUES (15, 'Natalie Rocca', 5, 'Support', 7) ;
Our sample data for this article uses a customer and employee table.
Customer Employee
First_Name Last _Name First_Name Last _Name

Union: Combining
Stephen Results
Jones Christina Jones
ark UNION keyword
The Smith or set operator will allow Michael McDonald
you to combine the results of two queries. It
removes
Denise any duplicate
King results and shows you the combinationJohnson
Paula of both.
Paula first_name,
SELECT Johnson
last_name FROM Customer Stephen
UNION SELECTJones
first_name, last_name FROM
employee;
Richard Archer Richard Smith
Result :
First_Name Last _Name

Stephen Jones
Mark Smith
Denise King
Paula Johnson
Richard Archer
Christina Jones
Michael McDonald
Richard Smith
This shows us all customer and employee records.
But looking at this, we can’t tell which record comes from each table. Often we don’t need to
know, but sometimes we do.
How can we do that? We can add a static value to each query to indicate which table it came
from, or what type of record it is. As long as the number and type of columns match, the query
will work.
SELECT ‘ Customer ‘ AS record_type , First_name , last_name FROM Customer UNION SELECT
‘Employee’ , First _name , Last_name FROM employee ;
Result :
Record –Type First_Name Last _Name

Customer Stephen Jones
Customer Mark Smith
Customer Denise King
Customer Paula Johnson
Customer Richard Archer
Employee Christina Jones
Employee Michael McDonald
Employee Richard Smith
In this query, I added in a value of ‘Customer’ to display for all records from the Customer
table. It has a column alias of record_type. The same column is labelled as ‘Employee’ from
the employee table. Looking at the results you can see which records came from which table.
You don’t need to specify the column aliases on the second table. Oracle will know that the
first columns match and use the alias already provided in the first query.
To order the results, the ORDER BY needs to go at the end.
SELECT ‘ Customer ‘ AS record_type , first _name , last_name FROM customer UNION

SELECT ‘ Employee ‘ , first_name , last_name FROM employee ORDER BY record_type
,first_name , last_name ;
Results :
Record –Type First_Name Last _Name

Customer Denise King
Customer Mark Smith
Customer Paula Johnson
Customer Richard Archer
Customer Stephen Jones
Employee Christina Jones
Employee Michael McDonald
Employee Richard Smith
All of the set operators support standard keywords inside the SELECT statement. The set
operator is just a way of combining results.
So, you can add WHERE clauses like this if you need to:
SELECT ‘ Customer ‘ AS record_type , first _name , last_name FROM customer WHERE
status = “ Active” UNION SELECT ‘ Employee ‘ , first_name , last_name FROM
employee WHERE emp_status = ‘ Current ‘ ORDER BY record_type ,first_name ,
last_name ;
What’s the Difference Between a UNION and a JOIN?
The UNION and JOIN keywords both combine results from two different tables or
queries. The difference is how they are combined.
UNION combines data into separate rows, and JOIN combines data into separate columns.
When performing a JOIN, there is a column that matches between the two tables, and
additional data may be displayed.
If we wanted to JOIN our employee and customer tables, our query might look like this:
SELECT e.emp_id , e.first_name , e.last_name , c.customer _id, c.first_name, c.last_name

FROM employee e INNER JOIN customer c ON e.first _name = C.first_name AND
e.last_name =c.last_name ;
Result:
cust_id first_name last_name emp_id first_name last_name

15 Stephen Jones 3 Stephen Jones
81 Paula Johnson 9 Paula Johnson
When we use UNION to combine our tables, it looks like this:

SELECT first_name ,last_name FROM customer UNION SELECT first_name , last_name FROM
employee ;
Result :
First_name last_name
Stephen Jones
Mark Smith
Denise King
Paula Johnson
Richard Archer
Christina Jones
Michael McDonald
Richard Smith
We can use different JOIN types to display different records based on matches being found,
but in general, that’s how a join is different to a UNION.
MINUS:
Another set operator we can use is the MINUS keyword.
The MINUS set operator will return results that are found in the first query specified that
don’t exist in the second query.
Using our example data, we could use the MINUS set operator to find all names in the
customer table that don’t exist in the employee table.
Our query would look like this:

SELECT first_name, last_name FROM Customer MINUS SELECT first_name, last_name FROM
employee;
Result :
Mark Smith
Denise King
Richard Archer
If a result exists in the employee table as well as the customer table, it is not shown. Only
the results from the customer table that are not in the employee table are shown.
What About the EXCEPT Set Operator?
The EXCEPT keyword is another set operator you might see in your code or in online
examples.
EXCEPT is the same as MINUS – they both show results from one query that don’t exist in
another query.
However, MINUS is an Oracle-specific keyword, and EXCEPT is in other databases such as SQL
Server.
So, if you see EXCEPT anywhere, just know it’s the same as MINUS but for a different
database.
INTERSECT:
The INTERSECT keyword allows you to find results that exist in both queries. Two SELECT
statements are needed, and any results that are found in both of them are returned if
INTERSECT is used.
Using our example data, we could use the INTERSECT set operator to find all names in the
customer table that don’t exist in the employee table.
Our query would look like this:
SELECT first_name, last_name FROM Customer INTERSECT SELECT first_name, last_name

FROM employee;
Result :
first_name last_name
Stephen Jones
Paula Johnson
This shows all names that are in both the customer and employee table.
If we want to order these, we add an ORDER BY at the end.
SELECT First_name , last_name FROM Customer INTERSECT SELECT first_name ,last_name
FROM employee ORDER BY First _name , Last_name ;
Result :
Paula Johnson
Stephen Jones
What’s the Difference between UNION and INTERSECT?
The difference between UNION and INTERSECT is that UNION gets results from both queries
and combines them, while INTERSECT gets results that only exist in both queries.
So, if Query 1 returns records A and B, and Query 2 returns records B and C, UNION would
return A, B and C. INTERSECT would only return B.
Sub queries:
FROM
The SQL FROM clause is where you specify where your data is to be retrieved from. This will
often be a table in your database, but it can also be a view or a subquery.
The syntax of the FROM clause looks the same regardless of what you’re selecting from:
SELECT first_name , last_name FROM employee ;
This example selects data from one table: the employee table. We can’t actually tell if it’s a
table or a view by looking at the name, but it doesn’t matter for the purpose of this query.
You can also use joins to SELECT data from multiple tables. I’ve written an entire post on
joins, as they are a pretty big feature of SQL, but a basic query with a join looks like this:
SELECT first_name, last_name, department _name FROM employee INNER JOIN

department ON employee .dept_id = department .id ;
This query will show the employee’s first name and last name, as well as their department
name. It uses an INNER JOIN to match records based on each table’s department ID.
WHERE:
The WHERE clause of the SQL SELECT statement is where you determine which rows to
return from your table or view. It’s an optional clause, so if you don’t specify a WHERE clause
in your query, you’ll get all the records:
SELECT first _name, last_name FROM employee WHERE <criteria>;
The criteria is a rule that is checked against each row. If the criteria is true for a row, the row is
included in the results. If it is false, the row is not included.
For example, this query shows all employees with a first_name of John.
SELECT first _name , last_name FROM employee WHERE first_name =’John’ ;
The WHERE clause can get quite complicated. You can have multiple criteria using the
AND or OR keywords, you can use brackets to group criteria, you can have greater than
and less than, partial matches, and much more.;
GROUP BY :
The SQL GROUP BY clause is used when you are using aggregate functions and want to
specify what values you want to have those aggregate functions calculated by.
For example, this query will count all employees:
SELECT COUNT ( *) FROM Employee

This query will count employees in each department, using the GROUP BY clause:
SELECT dept_id , COUNT ( * ) FROM employee GROUP BY dept_id ;
It’s an optional clause, but if you’re using an aggregate function like COUNT along with other
columns, you’ll need to use it.
HAVING:
The HAVING clause lets you filter a SELECT query that uses a GROUP BY clause based on the
results after a GROUP BY.
It uses the same concept as a WHERE clause, except the WHERE clause filters data before the
grouping, and HAVING filters data after the grouping.
For example, this query shows the count of employees in each department where there is
more than 1 employee in the department.
SELECT dept _id , COUNT (*) FROM employee GROUP BY dept_id HAVING COUNT ( *)
>1;
ORDER BY
The ORDER BY clause lets you specify the order you want the query results to be displayed in.
The database does not guarantee the order that the results are returned in. Even if it looks
like there is an order (e.g. ordered by ID), if you run the same query at a later date, the order
could change.
So, if you want your data in a specific order, you can use the ORDER BY clause:
SELECT first_name, last_name FROM employee ORDER BY last_name ASC ;
https://www.databasestar.com/sql-joins/

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UNIT – I

1. What is Database Management System?

Purpose of Database Systems

Drawbacks of File System:

 No redundant data: Redundancy removed by data normalization. No data duplication

Advantages of NoSQL Database

The database system is divided into three components:

Query Processor contains the following components:

 Embedded DML Pre-compiler –

 Query Optimizer – It executes the instruction generated by DML Compiler

Types of DBMS Architecture:

There are three types of DBMS architecture:

1. Single tier architecture

1.11.1 Single –Tier- Architecture

Two – Tier –Architecture:

In two-tier architecture, the Database system is present at the server

Whenever client machine makes a request to access the database

In three-tier architecture, another layer is present between the client

Three schema Architecture

The three-schema architecture is as follows:

In the above diagram:

 It shows the architecture of DBMS.

 Physical level describes the physical storage structure of data in database.

3) Object-based Data Model: An extension of the ER model with notions of functions,

File System Vs DBMS

S No File System DBMS

 Data Description Language compiler processes schema definitions specified in the

DML Compiler and Query optimizer:

1. Convert operations in user's Queries coming from the application programs

 Data Dictionary, which stores metadata about the database, in particular

2 Data Files: Which store the database itself

Storage Manager Units

6. The service provided by the DBMS includes:-

Examples of DDL commands:

CREATE DATABASE database_ name;

database name: name of the database.

Example 1: CREATE DATABASE my _database;

CREATE TABLE table_name

DROP object object_name

DROP DATABASE database_name;

 ALTER- is used to alter the structure of the database.

Syntax: ALTER TABLE table_name

 MODIFY column COURSE in table Student

ALTER TABLE Student MODIFY COURSE varchar (20);

ALTER TABLE Student DROP COLUMN COURSE;

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

 To delete the whole database

DROP DATABASE student_data;

After running the above query whole database will be deleted.

 To truncate Student_details table from student_data database.

TRUNCATE TABLE Student_details;

 COMMENT –is used to add comments to the data dictionary.

 RENAME –is used to rename an object existing in the database.

Syntax: ALTER TABLE table_name

Syntax: ALTER TABLE table_name

Syntax: ALTER TABLE table_name

SAMPLE TABLE: Student

ROLL_NO NAME AGE

 Change the name of column NAME to FIRST_NAME in table Student.

ROLL_NO FIRST_NAME AGE

Change the name of the table Student to Student_Details

ROLL_NO FIRST_NAME AGE

 SELECT – is used to retrieve data from the database.