The heart of the model is its "process" for the study of which the authors borrow certain

concepts from game theory, in particular that of utility, that is to say of value associated,
for each part, with each possible result; one can thus construct a matrix of utilities. The
threat, the promise, the fait accompli aim to remove from the range of possible
solutions; conversely, innovation brings new proposals, while persuasion attempts to
change the values associated for each part of each possible outcome. The dynamics of
negotiation therefore presuppose a sequential modification of the matrices of utilities.
Despite these reservations about the formalization of the negotiation process, the general
framework of the SAWYER and GUETZKOW model defining the conditions that affect the
conduct and outcome of international negotiations seems to us to be of great interest.
The essential aspects of international bargaining
There is a lot of description of the crucial stages of the international negotiation process.
For ZARTMAN (1982) international negotiation can be subdivided into three
successive phases: 1) pre-negotiation,2) elaboration of an agreement formula, 3)
clarification of the details. DUPONT (1994) proposes three crucial stages ofprogress: 1)
the preliminary contacts and the first interview, 2) the heart of the negotiation, 3) the
outcome.

WALTON AND MCKERSIE (1965) set out to describe in a comprehensive and

formalized manner the various aspects of international negotiation. The authors
distinguish four independent sets of activities that are considered sub-processes of
international negotiation:

● the distributive aspect (the system of activities linked to the pursuit of the goals
of the parties to the conflict),

● the integrative dimension (the system of activities related to the achievement of goals
that are not in fundamental conflict for both parties),

● the structuring of attitudes (the establishment of specific relations between the

parties),

● the internal negotiation of each party (the set of activities that makes it possible to
achieve a single position within each party that will be the one that will defend the head
of the delegation). They also distinguish three essential steps in the international
negotiation process: 1. the identification of the problem; 2.la search for new solutions
and their consequences; 3.la prioritization of solutions and the selection of action. The
first stage is characterized by the exchange of information on the problem and the
difficulties created by the situation for each party. The second stage involves the
processes of creativity andinnovation. The third step involves preferences. There
may thus be a return to step 2 in case of dissatisfaction with the solutions envisaged.
The conditions (motivation, information and language, confidence and the absence of a
defensive climate) facilitate the search for new solutions and promote creativity in
groups.

DUPONT (1994) also shows that there are fourcharacteristics of international

negotiation: the importance of cultural factors: culturalfactors permeate the different
facets of negotiation, i.e. laws, regulations, professional or social customs, political
actors, but also personal behaviours which are themselves influenced by stereotypes,
value systems, rites and, of course, language); the considerable diversity of
contexts: international negotiations are either located abroad or involve two
or several negotiators of different nationalities; this simple peculiarity multiplies the
variety of contexts: many applications or allusions will be mentioned in thefollowing
sections, but an effort at documentation - for example in the form of country sheets -
is sufficient to show the diversity derived from geographical conditions, laws
and uses, language, political and cultural particularities, etc.) ; multipolarity of
international negotiation: negotiation involves many actors of different nature and
status; this is due to a double reality: a large number of international negotiations take
place through third parties, inparticular States and local administrations; international
negotiations are often played out at several levels and moreover, there is always
interaction between these levels and the negotiator must thus monitor the
evolution of the global negotiation by not always knowing the negotiations that are
outside his immediate environment); Exceptionally high demands on the international
negotiator: the comments just made would be enough to show the complexity and
difficulty of the international negotiator' s task: he must take into account both the fact
that the actors belong to different cultures and consequently do not share the same
way of e think, feel and behave or - in other words - they have their
stereotypes, values and beliefs. Three additional elements will further increase the
requirements required: (1) most international negotiations reflectthebitterness of
international relations, rivalries of all kinds and global competition in the
economic field, (2) international negotiations require the negotiator to have a very
differentiated competence, the negotiator must be able to move from one register to
another or from a set of rules of the game to a set of constraints of a completely
different order, 3) international negotiations have blows and high risks: the investment
is heavy and often random; misunderstandings, breaks, unexpected incidents,
penalties or mishaps can arise at any time). Thisis not the only fact of international
negotiation, but it is particularly delicate and requires a great deal of patience, tact,
know-how and experience.