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A conceptual
A conceptual model linking brand model
building strategies and Japanese
popular culture
463
Roblyn Simeon
San Francisco State University, San Francisco, California, USA Received October 2005
Revised March 2006
Accepted April 2006
Abstract
Purpose – To investigate the degree to which products, images, and activities associated with a
popular culture supports and sustains brands associated with that culture, with particular reference to
global Japanese brands.
Design/methodology/approach – A questionnaire-based survey of 638 respondents in and around
San Francisco. Only a third were American, the remainder originating from several countries in
Europe, South America and Asia. Roughly four fifths were under 35 years of age, and the gender
balance reflected the general population. Questions gathered data relevant to four specific research
propositions, which were interpreted by regression analysis.
Findings – Results provided good support for two research propositions, that that a wider range of
experience of the manifestations of Japanese popular culture would enhance the tendency to prefer
related brands, and that a favourable view of the national culture would increase the likelihood of a
positive orientation to brands associated with it. They were equivocal with respect to the other two,
that positive views of the culture would transfer to brands associated with it, and that age would
influence receptiveness to cultural influences.
Research limitations/implications – An exploratory study, in a single location, of the association
between one national culture and its exported brands. The underpinning model suggests directions for
future research into an important phenomenon.
Practical implications – Relating brands closely to national cultures promises synergy in
marketing strategy, provided plans are informed by appropriate marketing intelligence.
Originality/value – Offers potentially valuable insights into branding, country-of-origin effects, and
the influence of an overt national culture on acceptance of its internationally marketed brands.
Keywords National cultures, Popular culture, Brands, Consumer behaviour, Japan
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
As the forces of globalization accelerate across borders, increased contact is allowing a
more rapid sharing of ideas, preferences and practices. The greater use of
communication technologies and more widespread interaction among travellers have
brought individuals, groups and communities closer together. An increasingly
important development is the growing awareness, interest and participation in popular
culture activities from around the world. The influence of the MTV network in
spreading information around the world about popular music developments is a prime Marketing Intelligence & Planning
Vol. 24 No. 5, 2006
example of this phenomenon. There is in fact a huge global market for images, pp. 463-476
products and services related to popular culture (Allan and Niren, 2004; Belson, 2003; q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0263-4503
Kiehl, 2004a, b; Tapan, 2004). DOI 10.1108/02634500610682863
MIP There are many different definitions and perspectives surrounding the meaning of
24,5 the phenomenon of popular culture. The definition adopted in this paper is a composite
one that highlights its dynamic nature. Popular culture is viewed as emerging from a
continually changing and socially related set of contemporary behaviours, images,
practices and products that result from the interaction of individuals, groups, media,
the arts, and organizations as they attempt to entertain, communicate ideas, and give
464 meaning to a range of symbols, activities and social developments in a society (Bigge,
2001; Caldwell and Freire, 2004; Wilkie and Moore, 1999).
In essence, popular culture is a societal activity that can attract, inform, entertain
and influence those who experience it directly or indirectly (Aaker et al., 2001;
Salzer-Morling and Strannegard, 2004; Wansell, 2003). In the past, popular culture
activities would normally emerge in particular areas or countries and stay confined to
them before slowly moving outward to impact people in other areas. Mass media and
communication technology have changed that dynamic by making it possible for the
rapid globalization of popular culture itself. Consumers from around the world can now
dip into the global flow of popular culture and subjectively sample and experience
various aspects of a popular cultural phenomenon. In this sense, rapid diffusion and
subjective consumption are at the heart of the dynamism of popular culture. However,
it is important to note that although it can move freely across borders and is consumed
and digested in different ways, it does retain the ability to attract, inform and influence
(Aaker et al., 2001; Anonymous, 2003a, b; Davies, 2004; Durriya and Zahid, 2005;
Goldblatt, 2002; Salzer-Morling and Strannegard, 2004; Wansell, 2003).
These characteristics are what make popular culture such an attractive
phenomenon to marketers and brand managers. There has been a proliferation of
brands worldwide exactly because of the explosion of information and mass media.
However, brand building now takes place faster, and must often try to match the pace
of market change (Aaker, 1996; Gabriel, 1998; Hankinson and Cowking, 1996;
Krzysztof and Robin, 2004):
While is it claimed that anyone can manufacture a product, the real route to commercial
success is supposed to be found in the artful creation of images and brands. To infuse
meaning into products, to transform commodities into concepts and lifestyles has become the
prime task for the symbolic expertise made of brand strategists and managers. When
branding is the core business, the activities of marketing, advertising, and branding are no
longer categorized as supportive functions, but rather the essence of the enterprise
(Salzer-Morling and Strannegard, 2004, p. 224).
A brand is a consistent group of characteristics, images, or emotions that consumers
recall or experience when they think of a specific symbol, product, service, organization
or location. Brand recognition occurs when brand qualities are generally known by
consumers. If a brand has accumulated widespread positive sentiment among
consumers, marketers say that its owner has acquired brand equity, its ability to retain
current customers and attract new ones. Consequently, over time, brands can create
significant value for their holder.
Popular culture can be seen as a gift to brand creators and managers. Marketers are
well aware that consumers’ attitude towards popular culture can influence their
perception of attributes that can be linked to a wide range of brands. In that way,
brands can be viewed as public consumption symbols that carry cultural meanings
(Aaker et al., 2001; Pratt, 1993; Sun, 2004).
 Both the emergence of a popular culture and the branding of a product or service A conceptual
often represent a move beyond simple passive consumption to forms of individual and model
group expression, and identity building. As any type of popular culture diffuses and
moves across borders, there is a general shift from culturally specific situations to more
culturally common experiences. This process is creating what might be called a global
culture reservoir of symbols, images, attributes, locations, stories, and lifestyles, which
can be accessed by skilful marketers and brand managers around the world. In other 465
words, by effectively linking popular culture and brands, marketers can speed up the
branding process and energize the impact of brands (Iwashita, 2003; Martin and Peters,
2005; Salzer-Morling and Strannegard, 2004).
Although the context and range of participation may differ, there are some strong
links between popular culture and the branding, which marketing strategists can
exploit. These include (Deshpandé and Webster, 1989; Dong, 2001; Keller, 1993;
Trussell, 2005):
.
both can be seen as resulting from the promotion and distribution of
symbols/activities that need to be consumed and diffused in order to influence
and create value;
.
both have utilitarian and emotional dimensions;
.
there is an important role for producers and consumers in both arenas;
.
both help consumers interpret, categorize and understand information; and
.
they can energize each other.

The goal of this paper is to present a conceptual model for exploring the cross-border
diffusion and branding potential of popular culture. The literature exploring the link
between popular culture and branding is somewhat diffuse and fragmented. This
model brings together its various perspectives and approaches the topic in a way that
allows for more targeted qualitative and empirical investigations. After presenting all
the components of the model, the paper presents a real-world application in a study of
the impact of Japanese popular culture overseas.

Cross-border diffusion of popular culture and branding dynamics

The generation phase
In this phase (Figure 1), there is direct and indirect promotion and distribution of the
popular culture phenomenon. The determinants of its emergence might be an event, an
activity, or a place or lifestyle development that catches the imagination and earns the
support of individuals and groups in a community or country. The distinction between
indirect and direct promotion and distribution highlights the possibility that either
unplanned or planned situations can engender a popular culture symbol, story or
activity. Having clear distribution channels in place usually signals that a phenomenon
has gained significant momentum and attempts are being made to gain commercial
benefits or speed its diffusion (Atkinson, 2005; Fisher, 2003; Tochigi, 2003).
The level of diffusion of popular culture is strongly linked to the extent of promotion
and distribution. The extent of domestic diffusion can be gauged by how much popular
culture features in the mass media or by how much it gains the support of particular
groups or sub-cultures. In other words, a popular culture gains strength when it
becomes a public consumption story that can give meaning and value to those who
MIP Cross-Border Popular Culture Branding Dynamics
24,5
Generation Consumption Branding

Promotion Early Adopter

466 Direct Demographics
Indirect & Friendship
Networks

Cross-
Popular Border
Consumption High
Culture Access, (Passive to Active) Branding
Socio-Cultural Interaction, Awareness Potential
Activities, Promotion, Interest (Attributes/Perceptions)
Events, Places, Distribution, Search (Popular Culture Reservoir)
Lifestyles Participation
Domestic

Distribution Positive View Brand Buiding

Direct of
(Lifestyle)
(New & Extensions)
Indirect
(Sub-Culture) Products, Services,
(Culture) Styles, Images, &
locations
Figure 1.
Cross-border diffusion of
popular culture Feedback of Branding Influence to Popular Culture

support it. This is also because a distinguishing feature of popular culture is the active
role that consumers play in co-creating, promoting and distributing it to others.
Finally, the establishment of organizations supporting it is usually a precursor to its
diffusion into other environments (Anonymous, 2002; Fitzgerald, 1998; McEnally and
De Chernatony, 1999; Tapan, 2004).
As for the cross-border diffusion of popular culture, the key factor is access and
interaction. With a greater number of individuals and groups travelling to and from
different countries, a much higher level of access and interaction with different popular
cultures develops. These people are an important part of the international flow of
global popular culture. By sharing their stories, they prepare the way for others in their
home environments to participate in the phenomenon. The internet further increases
the scope for such access and interaction across boundaries. When trade and
commercial organizations become involved, the usual outcome is a more organized
campaign to actively promote and distribute a particular popular culture (Cannon and
Yaprak, 2002; Elliott, 2002; Laing and Crouch, 2005; Lee, 2005).

The consumption phase

At the heart of the conceptual model of diffusion and of the popular culture
phenomenon itself are passive and active consumption. As a proxy for the level of
support for popular culture, the levels of consumption can be measured. The relevant
literature investigates and discusses the links among awareness (passive), interest
(passive), search (active), participation (active) and the decision to support, consume or A conceptual
purchase something. This paper proposes that, although specific individuals may model
gradually progress from passive to active consumption, all levels of consumption
generally occur simultaneously when popular culture has become an active
phenomenon in a society (Fam and Waller, 2004; Keller, 1993; Law et al., 2004).
In the cross-border context, certain factors have a significant influence on the extent
to which individuals and groups actively consume an aspect of popular cultural. One is 467
the extent to which they have a positive view of the lifestyle, sub-culture or national
culture behind the phenomenon; another is the impact of early adopters and friendship
networks on general attitudes toward popular culture. Since, that is inherently
a socio-cultural phenomenon, the influence of friends, peers and the community is
paramount in shaping perceptions and behaviour (Hankinson, 2004; Helman and
De Chernatony, 1999; Simon and Uncles, 2005; Weber, 2004).

The branding phase

In this phase, the focus is on the attributes and perceptions linked to the phenomenon.
Those aspects of popular culture which project clear attributes and can influence
consumer perceptions are those that give it a high branding potential. These attributes
and perceptions strongly link it to the popular culture reservoir of symbols, images,
attributes, locations, stories, and lifestyles. This is the reservoir that marketers and
brand managers can access to build brands quickly. What makes that possible is the
links between brands and popular culture, as shown in Figure 2. Both phenomena have
utilitarian and emotional aspects. There has also been a general shift to a reliance on
the symbolic and emotional aspects of brands in recent years, which has made it easier
to link brands to popular culture (Aaker, 1997; Fam and Waller, 2004; Kiehl, 2004a, b;
McNicholas, 2004; Salzer-Morling and Strannegard, 2004).

The brand building phase

If brands are not actively supported or used, they become simple markers of
identification. Thus, the benefit of popular culture to marketers is most evident in the
brand building phase. It can breathe life into brands and give them a competitive
advantage in the marketplace. The most frequently used strategy is the linking of
attributes, images, and attitudes from popular culture to specific products, services,
symbols and locations. Marketers in search of what is “cool” “hip” “edgy” and
otherwise innovative and exciting often look for these same attributes in popular
culture. By linking them with the symbolic aspects of brands, marketers have shown
that the pace of brand building can be increased to match the pace of market change.
Branding devices that easily take advantage of the emotional link to popular culture

Signal Utilitarian
& &
Inform Functional
Popular
Brands
Culture
Entertain Symbolic Figure 2.
& & Linking popular culture to
Influence Emotional brands
MIP include ethnic, lifestyle, location, landmark, and entertainment dimensions. In essence,
24,5 brand building is the movement from images, attributes, stories and lifestyles to
readily identifiable products, services, symbols and locations (McCracken, 1986;
Martin et al., 2005; Southgate, 2003).
After new brands and brand extensions are developed, their success in the
marketplace can have a feedback effect on the global reservoir of popular culture. The
468 support for and consumption of these brands generate new contexts and stories which
in turn become a part of the flow of popular culture (Batra and Homer, 2004; Carter,
2001; Duncan and Moriarty, 1998).

The case of Japanese popular culture

Interest in Japanese popular culture has burgeoned internationally. Though the
phenomenon may appear to be stronger among the younger generation in Europe,
North America and Asia, certain contemporary aspects have attracted a strong
following in many age groups and parts of the globe. In the study to be reported next,
the conceptual model described in the previous section was applied to an examination
of the branding potential of Japanese popular culture overseas. The relationships
among many of the consumption variables in the model can be summarised by this
equation:
Popular culture branding potential ¼ f(awareness, interest, participation,
positive view)
Since, consumption is at the heart of our model, the survey instrument designed for the
field study was designed to capture both passive and active consumption of Japanese
popular culture, via answers to the questions seen in the matrix in Table I. The
operating assumption was that consumption and some other moderating factors would
indicate the extent to which Japanese popular culture had branding potential overseas.
The field study therefore proceeded by: designing a survey to capture passive and
active consumption behaviour; breaking down popular culture into its main
components (Table II); devising survey questions to capture positive culture views;
and devising questions to examine the influence of early adopters.
Specifically, the methodological objective was to address four research
propositions:
RP1. The greater the range of an individual’s experience with popular cultural
activities and products, the more likely he or she will be to view them as
positive cultural brands.
RP2. The more positive an individual’s view of a national culture or subculture,
the more likely he or she will be to prefer the related cultural brands and
products.
RP3. Younger individuals are more likely to attribute positive brand orientations to
contemporary Japanese cultural activities and products.
RP4. The greater an individual’s cultural proximity to Japan, the more likely that
he or she will attribute a more positive brand orientation to popular cultural
activities and products.
 A conceptual
I have My friends
I am aware I have friends actively have actively model
that these I am also who are experienced experienced
Japanese interested in interested in or spent or spent
things are these these money on money on
Japanese popular culture popular Japanese Japanese these things these things
and lifestyle activities (1 to 5) things (1 to 5) things (1 to 5) (1 to 5) (1 to 5) 469
Japanese food
Japanese fashion
Japanese music
Japanese manga (comics)
Japanese animation
Japanese movies
Japanese TV shows
Japanese video games
Japanese martial arts
Japanese character
goods (ex. Hello Kitty)
Japanese electronic toys
(e.g. Aibo, Tamagochi)
Table I.
Japanese Buddhism
Survey of levels of
Note: (1) Strongly disagree; (2) Disagree somewhat; (3) Sometimes agree; (4) Generally agree and passive and active
(5) Strongly agree consumption

It has a
It is It is high quality It is
interesting trendy It is cool It is exotic image innovative
(1 to 5) (1 to 5) (1 to 5) (1 to 5) (1 to 5) (1 to 5)

Japanese food
Japanese fashion
Japanese music
Japanese manga (comics)
Japanese animation
Japanese movies
Japanese TV shows
Japanese video games
Japanese martial arts
Japanese character goods
(e.g. Hello Kitty)
Japanese electronic toys (e.g.
Aibo, Tamagochi . . .)
Table II.
Japanese Buddhism
Survey of personality
Note: (1) Strongly disagree; (2) Disagree somewhat; (3) Sometimes agree; (4) Generally agree and dimensions of Japanese
(5) Strongly agree popular culture

Data collection
This survey data were collected from 638 individuals in the San Francisco Bay Area of
California, in the USA. In addition to Americans in the sample, respondents originated
MIP from a variety of countries in Europe, South America and Asia. Since, there is an
24,5 expectation of a degree of cultural similarity between Asians and Japanese, we divided
the data into two main categories in our analyses: Asian born (50 per cent) and other
countries (50 per cent). American-born respondents accounted for only a third of the
sample. Young respondents made up 84 per cent, and the gender balance was the same
as in the population as a whole.
470 A notably cosmopolitan urban location thus became a surrogate for the world
beyond Japan. Although respondents were quasi-randomly chosen, the profile of the
sample conferred confidence in interpreting phenomena and trends in the branding of
Japanese popular culture.

Dependent variables
The dependent variables investigated all represent different attributes or descriptions
of themes and orientations with respect to popular culture: interesting, trendy, cool,
high quality, and innovative. Respondents were asked to say to what degree, on a
5-point Likert scale, they agreed or disagreed that each of the 13 items from Japanese
popular culture exhibited one of the six attributes. The items and attributes are shown
in Table II. The first five dependent variables were created by summing responses
vertically for all the twelve cultural components in Figure 1. Cronbach’s a scores were:
interesting (0.86), trendy (0.86), cool (0.87), high quality (0.87), and innovative (0.86).
The final dependent variable (high cultural brand) is a catch-all combination of the
scores of the first five; its a-coefficient was 0.94.

Independent variables
Previous research has shown that higher levels of awareness, interest and search
activities related to commercial products or services tend to be positively correlated
with a favourable view of the related brands. This relationship was expected to apply
equally in the more diffuse context of Japanese popular culture and its associated
components. The first four independent variables were directly linked to the levels of
experience of the components of that culture. Respondents were asked to say what
extent, on the same 5-point Likert scale, they agreed that were aware of, interested in
and participated in the activities corresponding to the same 13 items. Given the
importance of friendship networks, they were also asked about their friends’
awareness, interest and participation.. The first four variables resulted from a
summing of responses about experience levels across all the popular cultural
components. Cronbach’s a scores were: personal awareness (0.84), personal interest
(0.86), friend’s interest (0.89), and personal participation (0.87).
The variable intensive search behaviour (0.63) was created with a four-item scale that
combined responses to questions about the extent to which information about Japanese
popular culture was gained from television, the internet, magazines or friends. Since, the
attitude toward general Japanese culture could influence the respondents’ view on these
contemporary cultural components, a three-item scale labelled positive culture view was
also included, measuring the extent to which respondents generally held a positive view
of Japanese cultural practices; its a-coefficient was 0.62. The last three variables, age,
gender and national origin, were all constructed as dummy variables. Respondents
above 30 years were coded as either above or below the age of thirty, either male or
female, and either Asian-born or “other”.
Empirical findings A conceptual
The regression results displayed in Table III provide general support for the first model
research proposition, that a wider range of experience with items and activities related
to popular culture will enhance the tendency to prefer related brands. Further support
is offered by the significant impact of intensive search behaviour (active consumption)
on all the brand orientation dependent variables. Respondents who actively consulted
magazines, television and friends for information about Japanese popular culture were 471
more likely to have a more positive branding orientation.
However, after taking into account search behaviour, respondents’ personal awareness,
their interest, and their friends’ interest, such vicarious personal participation in a culture
did not appear to have a significant impact on cultural branding orientation. The second
research proposition therefore remains for the moment only a supposition. One
explanation is that only awareness and interest cover the full range of the twelve popular
cultural components. This could also indicate that those respondents will most likely
become more active participants in Japanese popular cultural activities in the future.
The third research proposition, that younger individuals are more likely to be
positive towards the manifestations of Japanese culture to which they are exposed,

Japanese popular culture branding orientations

Range of Interesting Trendy Cool High Innovative High cultural
experiences culture culture culture quality culture brand

Personal
awareness 0.36 * * * 0.41 * * * 0.31 * * * 0.33 * * * 0.33 * * * 2.02 * * *
Beta (SE) (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.18)
Personal interest 0.42 * * * 0.17 * * 0.33 * * * 0.20 * * * 0.15 * 1.36 * * *
(0.05) (0.05) (0.05) (0.05) (0.06) (0.25)
Friend’s interest 0.14 * * * 0.20 * * * 0.17 * * * 0.21 * * * 0.22 * * * 0.94 * * *
(0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.04) (0.18)
Personal
participation 2 0.005 0.0005 0.0004 0.004 2 0.0001 0.12
(0.04) (0.05) (0.05) (0.05) (0.05) (0.22)
Intensive search
behavior 0.2 * 0.32 * * * 0.32 * * 0.22 * 0.31 * * 1.65 * * *
(0.09) (0.09) (0.09) (0.09) (0.11) (0.46)
Positive culture
view 0.27 * * 0.21 * 0.21 * 0.24 * 0.35 * * 1.37 * *
(0.09) (0.09) (0.10) (0.10) (0.11) (0.49)
Age (below 30) 2 1.68 * 0.39 20.46 20.005 2 0.17 21.37
(0.70) (0.71) (0.73) (0.72) (0.81) (3.59)
Gender (female) 2 1.17 * 21.69 * * 21.63 * * 21.14 * 2 1.35 * 28.04 * *
(0.51) (0.51) (0.53) (0.53) (0.59) (2.59)
Asian born
(vs others) 2 0.29 20.62 20.29 20.13 2 0.004 21.01
(0.55) (0.56) (0.57) (0.57) (0.63) (2.80)
N 638 638 638 638 638 638
Adj. R-square 0.61 0.56 0.58 0.54 0.46 0.62
Note: * *High cultural brand orientation is a composite scale of all the popular culture branding Table III.
orientations Survey results
MIP must also remain tentative. After controlling for experience levels, search behaviours
24,5 and a positive view, little difference was found between respondents over and under
thirty years of age, in terms of branding orientation preferences. This could indicate
that some of the popular culture activities (e.g. food, fashion, films, Buddhism) also
appeal to older respondents. However, it was found that gender, not specifically
invoked by any of the four propositions, did have a significant effect: female
472 respondents were generally more likely to attribute positive branding orientations to
activities and products related to Japanese popular culture. Given that females are
generally believed to be particularly loyal and brand conscious in areas such as food,
fashion and character goods, these results are not surprising. The global presence of
“Hello-kitty” and other Japanese products is driven by the strong support of female
consumers around the world.
The fourth and final research proposition, that “cultural proximity” increase the
likelihood of positive brand orientation, was strongly supported by the finding that a
positive culture view had a significant impact on all the dependent variables.
Individuals who had such attitudes tended to think of Japanese popular culture as
interesting, cool, trendy and innovative. From a marketing perspective, this result
suggest that the global impact of national cultures and the subcultures within them are
more closely linked than we might expect.
The final dependent variable, high cultural brand, is a combination of the scores for
all the other Japanese popular culture branding orientations. Respondents with a wider
range of experiences (interest, awareness, and search) were all more likely to view
Japanese popular culture in this way. The results were the same for female respondents
and those with an initial positive view of Japanese cultural practices. An adjusted
r-square of 0.62 indicates that this particular set of independent variables could
effectively explain the high cultural brand orientation concept.

Concluding observations
The aim of this study was to explore the potential impact of the flows of popular
culture activities around the globe. Marketers have recognized the importance of
dipping into the reservoir of symbols, images, attributes, locations, stories, and
lifestyles that constitute different aspects of popular culture, in order to energize and
speed up the brand building process. Accordingly, this paper has presented a
conceptual model that could guide further investigations into the phenomenon. The
heart of the model is the impact of the passive and active consumption behaviours of
those who hold a positive view of popular culture.
The study confirms the rationale for using field surveys to gather feedback from
consumers of popular culture, and to examine its personality dimensions. This accords
with the familiar view of brands as personalities. By elucidating the personality
attributes of popular culture, it becomes easier to identify the emotional or symbolic
aspects. Marketing strategists can then build brands by effectively linking popular
culture to products, services, locations and symbols.
The survey results show how the main components of Japanese popular culture can
be used to ascertain the level of general interest and support among individuals and
groups in other countries and cultures beyond Asia. By breaking the macro concept
into twelve different micro components, the study was able to identify the more mature
aspects as well as those that are not as widespread. However, it was surprising that
most respondents exhibited relatively good awareness and understanding of the A conceptual
components of popular culture. This bodes well for the marketability of Japanese model
popular culture. Interest is clearly growing in many countries, giving Japanese firms
the scope to aggressively expand the brand awareness of, and eventually participation
in, their native popular culture.
Recently, many steps have been taken by the government and large corporations to
make it easier to grow and sustain the marketable popular culture sector. They 473
recognize that the so-called ‘contents industry” is an important competitive advantage
of the Japanese market. Trading companies, advertising agencies, movie studios, and
consulting firms have decided to use more resources to promote the sector abroad.
Universities have established special departments to focus on the production,
marketing and diffusion of various aspects of Japanese popular culture. Companies in
other countries have taken notice and we can expect more mainstream use and
adaptation of Japanese popular culture products and themes. The recent decision by
MTV to launch a mobile (cell) phone channel in Japan that relies heavily on the
contents industry is a good example of this development (Anonymous, 1998;
Anonymous, 2003a, b; Kishimoto, 2004).
This paper has offered one approach to realising the international branding
potential for products, services and activities rooted in a national popular culture. The
study it reports shows that branding potential is a function of several factors. It found
that it is important to consider the components of popular culture activities as well the
levels of experience of those activities. Future researchers might find it interesting to
further examine the role of friendship networks in the rapid diffusion of trends in
popular culture trends. In terms of cross-border developments, more research is needed
to understand how the same phenomenon can be interpreted and experienced
differently and yet still have a powerful impact in different environments. The global
reserves of themes, images, stories and activities related to popular are rich and
dynamic. Marketing intelligence gatherers can access them and marketing planners
can use them to give meaning and value to symbols, services, products, locations, and
events, to good commercial effect.

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Further reading
De Chernatony, L. and Dall’Olmo Riley, F. (1998), “Modelling the components of the brand”,
European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 32 Nos 11/12.
Kubacki, K. and Croft, R. (2004), “Mass marketing, music, and morality”, Journal of Marketing
Management, Vol. 20 Nos 5/6, p. 577.

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