SYNTAX 2

(textbook: English Syntax by Lynn Berk)

Chapter 3: The Verb Phrase

Before tackling the structure of the VP, the semantic features of its constituents it is useful to
refresh the basics of the Sentence structure (covered in Syntax 1 course)

SYN102 - Syntactic Functions in PDE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tb_RuFzK7Ao

https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-adjunct-grammar-1689066 (adjuncts)

TENSE (p.96-107)

The head of a VP is a verb (V)

The structure of a VP: Head (auxiliary+ lexical V) + C (complement) + Modifier

(adverbial/adjunct).

There is no subject, DO, IO in a VP because it is a phrase, it does not express a thought (a

proposition) as a sentence does.

VPs can consist only of head (runs), but may be compex (will run two miles tomorrow)

Transitive verbs have complements: monotransitive – one (drink coffee), ditransitive – two

This video is rather elementary, but still useful

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs | English Language: Grammar

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NG7MY2_A0Ew

In English the head consists of the aux and non-finite form of the verb: do +infinitive in
simple tenses (does go, did go), be + present participle in progressive tenses (is going) and
have + past participle in perfect tenses (has gone). Because of its analytic nature, the V in
English splits the grammatical information from the semantic: the auxiliary carries all the
grammatical markers, while the verb carries the meaning (plus the aspect).

Semantic classifications of Verbs

a) according to their lexical (inner) aspect, i.e. whether they denote any change or not. Two
main types: events vs states. Events are further subdivided into processes (durative) and
activities. Lexical aspect influences the choice of verbal (sentence) aspect. States do not

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tolerate to be coded in the progressive aspect because the progressive form (-ing) implies
change, while states are by definition cannot undergo change (*I am having a car)

b) according to the domain the activity/state belongs to. Several major verb classes are
distinguished

Verbal categories

(the V has the grammatical markers characteristic of some semantic category (in brackets))

1. Tense (the grammatical coding of time)

2. Aspect (the grammatical coding of aspectuality)

3. Voice (the grammatical coding of a different perspective on the same event)

4. Mood and Modality (mood is the grammatical coding of modality)

TENSE

p. 99-100 short historical overview on tenses (optional)

p. 101-104 – past and present tense
p. 105 – constructions and tenses that express futurity

Time vs. tense (grammatical category). Relates the event time to reference, e.g. speech time.
The temporal deictic meaning is morphologically marked on the verb (or aux).

Present tense. Primary meanings: include speech time, and with stative verbs denote
permanent states. That’s why *The castle is standing on a hill. a) instantaneous (coincides
with pres. progressive and certain speech acts: performatives, commentaries,
demonstrations), b) timeless events, c) habitual (has a broader temporal scope than
progressive habitual (she is always watching TV – she always watches). Secondary meanings:
reference to past events in historic present and reported speech.

Recommended videos:

a) Learn ALL TENSES Easily in 30 Minutes - Present, Past, Future | Simple, Continuous,
Perfect https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3lI3R9_Z1HY

b) WILL vs. GOING TO: The Difference Between Will and Going to | Future Tense in
English Grammar https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CI0Kr4e4vzI

Questions: What is the semantic difference between the rival constructions expressing
futurity?
She will leave /is going to leave/is leaving tomorrow/leaves tomorrow’/is to leave
p.105. Future simple vs. going to vs. present simple vs. present progressive vs. be+infinitive

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The information on tenses in the book is scarce and not very well organized. Follow what is
written below and combine it with the information from the book.
The two videos on tense and the other on aspect (by the same author) are very useful, the
information is correct and the topic is well explained. Therefore they are obligatory.
Tense and aspect are intertwined and should be understood properly.

c) Recommended video SYN122 - The Function of the Verb - Tense

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fnUMTkt6B1g

See optionally Advanced English grammar lesson on plural agreement and tenses
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rTn9B_tea9o

ASPECT and tense (p.106 -115)

Aspect expresses how we present the event, i.e. its internal temporal contour.
Grammaticalized aspectual contrasts are perfective (event is a complete whole, with
boundaries) or progressive (internal part of the event, without boundaries). When non-
processes are used in progressive (since it lends dynamic interpretation to the action)
metaphorical or iterative meanings arise (with states: She’s seeing someone or with punctual:
someone is knocking). Discourse function: backgrounding - provides a frame within which
another event takes place (When I came in he was cooking).

Pay attention to punctual verbs (p.110) and the distinction between dynamic and state
verbs (p.109)

Recommended video (watch the first part - on aspect)

d) SYN123 - The Function of the Verb - Aspect and Voice

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0lhxm3QEP34

Pay attention to the difference between present simple present progressive (continuous)
and to the difference between present perfect and past simple.

Present simple refers to habitual events, universal truths and present states (I like/hate milk)
It can be used to denote non-present events too:
- historical present, commentary present, performative use and metaphorical with state
verbs (I am seeing someone, I am liking it- enjoy)

Present progressive - refers to activities that change in the course of action and occur at the
moment of speaking.
They also may refer to temporary states (She is living in London vs She lives in London)
The lexical aspect is important: states do not allow the verb to be in the progressive aspect in
contrast to dynamic verbs.

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Present perfect Present Perfect- complex semantics, involves semantic and pragmatic
features. a) anteriority (association with the past, the event occurred at unspecified time, thus
it’s non-deictic), b) perfectivity (completion of the event before speech time, but its time
frame extends to this reference point and sometimes includes it), c) current relevance (the
implicit result of the event is relevant for the present moment. e. g. Father arrived (just a
fact) vs. Father has arrived (so we can have dinner). These sem/pragm features determine the
use adverbs with unspecified (always, never, twice) or present time reference (this year).
Classification: resulting state, experiential (I’ve read this book), continuous (he has lived
there since, recent event)

VOICE (p.116 -133)

Active - John opened the door

Passive – The door was opened (by John)
Middle – The door opened

Both active and passive have two participants; Passivization serves for demotion of agent into
peripheral syntactic position (adjunct by-phrase) or its removal from the clause.

Agentless passives and the discourse function of the passive (p. 120-122)

Not all transitive verbs passivize readily: it depends on the degree of transitivity (affectedness
of the patient participant)

Middle voice construction - has only one participant patient (in the subject position),
Although the verb is transitive the middle construction makes it intransitive because the
agent/causer participant is totally removed.

Pseudopassive construction - The door opens easily (generic statements about the property
of the door, not about the event as it is in active, passive, middle voice.

Recommended video (watch the second part - on voice)

d) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0lhxm3QEP34

Get passives (p.118-9)

Are they synonymous with be-passives? What is the main difference?
Their additional meaning – is to ascribe some sort of responsibility to the patient. The book
says that it is adverse, but it is not accurate because we can use get-passives to render both
negative and positive situations: She got fired vs. She got promoted.

This following video on passives is rather elementary, but still useful

520 Get passive and be passive https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RdQKiD8gyWs

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