Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dana K. Voelker
The College of Brockport, SUNY
Katherine Griffes
Michigan State University
To gain an in depth understanding of the youth leadership development process in sport, qualitative interviews
were conducted with high school coaches (6 males; 4 females) known for cultivating leadership in their captains.
Hierarchical content analyses revealed that all of the coaches reported proactive approaches toward teaching
leadership through sport. However, based on the principles noted in the positive youth development literature,
these coaches could do more to enhance their leadership development practices (e.g., empowering captains by
more often involving them in important decision-making). Leadership philosophies, specific leadership train-
ing strategies, as well as the biggest challenges and mistakes when working with their captains are reported.
Directions for future research and structuring captain training programs are discussed.
Leadership has been defined as “a process whereby stated that without these peer leaders, the team would
an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve lack a sense of motivation and team unity.
a common goal” (Northouse, 2010, p. 3). This construct Despite its importance, leadership in athletes is only
has intrigued scholars from a diverse range of disciplines beginning to receive significant empirical attention (e.g.,
including youth development, business, and the military Dupuis, Bloom, & Loughead, 2006; Glenn & Horn, 1993;
with literally thousands of studies having been published Todd & Kent, 2004; Wright & Côté, 2003). Among the
in the scientific literature. Professionals in the field of limited research conducted in this area, recent evidence
sport psychology in particular have been interested in suggests a clear need for leadership development in youth
the significance of leadership in the physical domain. athletes. Spangler and Vinluan (2006), for instance, dis-
Within the sport psychology literature, leadership cussed the need to teach young people leadership through
has most often been studied in coaches (e.g., Chella- their youth sport experiences. Recent studies by Gould,
durai, 1978; Chelladurai, 1984a, 1984b, 1990; Hastie, Chung, Smith, and White (2006) and Jones and Lavallee
1993; Kenow & Williams, 1992; Smoll & Smith, 1989) (2009) have shown that those involved in youth sports (e.g.,
because of the important role they play in helping athletes coaches, athletes, sport psychologists) rate leadership as a
work toward the achievement of their goals. In addition primary life skill that must be developed in young people
to coaches, researchers have long recognized the impor- involved in sport and physical activity contexts.
tance of leadership among athletes as well. For example, Although critical to life skill development and
Gould, Hodge, Peterson, and Petlichkoff (1987) noted performance, other recent studies suggest that leader-
that coaches in particular believe that one of the most ship is not always proactively developed in youth ath-
critical elements in producing effective team performance letes, including captains. In a recent qualitative study
is athlete leadership. Glenn and Horn (1993) suggested examining the experience of high school sport captains,
that coaches always require one or two team members to results indicated that the majority of captains are neither
assume a leadership position to both encourage and guide adequately trained nor prepared to fulfill their captaincy
fellow teammates in practices and games. They further role (Voelker, Gould, & Crawford, 2011). Specifically,
athletes have indicated that their coaches are not com-
Gould and Griffes are with the Dept. of Kinesiology, Michigan municating the roles and responsibilities involved in
State University, East Lansing, MI. Voelker is with The College captaincy or teaching the important leadership skills
of Brockport, SUNY, Brockport, NY. necessary to be effective.
13
14 Gould, Voelker, and Griffes
However, both empirical and experiential evidence (e.g., Glenn & Horn, 1993; Moran & Weiss, 2006), none
suggests that leadership can and should be taught (e.g., have specifically examined the development of leader-
Agboola Sungunro, 1997; Doh, 2003; Elliott & Dweck, ship skills. Based on what is known about the influence
1988; Fertman & Long, 1990; Osberg-Conner & Strobel, of coaches on the psychosocial development of athletes
2007). In studying afterschool physical activity and sport in general (see Horn, 2002; 2007 for comprehensive
programs, several investigators have shown that youth can review) and the leadership research conducted to date
develop leadership skills through participation in physical (e.g., Gould, Voelker, & Blanton, 2012; Voelker, et al.,
activity programs purposefully designed to foster leader- 2011; Wright & Côté, 2003), coaches are in an optimal
ship (Martinek & Schilling, 2003; Martinek, Schilling, position to teach and instill leadership skills in their
& Hellison, 2006). For instance, Rhodes and Lounsbery athletes. However, little is known about coaches’ views
(2010) developed the Gymleader program intended to on developing youth leaders, the strategies they employ,
build leadership skills in middle school students through and the challenges they face in the process. Leadership
sport and physical education based on Hellison’s (1995) programs designed to educate coaches on developing
Personal and Social Responsibility Model. These pur- effective captains and youth leaders cannot be adequately
posefully selected adolescent youth learned leadership informed without this knowledge base. Therefore, the
skills by participating in a rigorous physical education purpose of this study was to: (a) gain an in depth under-
course aimed to prepare them for a future profession in standing of the youth leadership development process
Downloaded by Syracuse University Library on 09/16/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1
the field. The youth participants also served as an aide in sport through qualitative interviews with high school
who assisted a physical education teacher in all facets coaches who have a reputation for cultivating leadership
of the class. Rhodes and Lounsbery (2010) reported that in their captains; (b) use these findings to identify future
participants of this program were caring, responsible, research directions that will facilitate our understanding
and respectful leaders. of this process; and (c) use the findings to inform lead-
While youth leadership has been examined in sport ership development training programs for athletes and
and physical activity programs specifically designed coaches. Qualitative interviews were deemed the most
to teach life skills in young people, developing youth appropriate methodology to adopt in studying this topic
leadership in the more typical competitive youth sport because of the dearth of previous literature in the area
context has not been adequately explored. Contrary to and the need to identify the issues involved.
popular belief, many youth sport researchers (e.g., Gould
& Carson, 2008) contend that athletes will not accrue
psychosocial benefits by simply participating in com-
Method
petitive sport. It may therefore be assumed that athletes Participants
will also not become effective leaders by being named
captain alone. Coaches and others working closely with Having worked closely with the [Michigan] High School
athletes must purposefully and proactively facilitate the Athletic Association (MHSAA) for over two decades,
development of these life skills over time. this organization has developed a reputation with the
A number of recent research efforts (e.g., Dupuis, et research team as having an intimate understanding of
al., 2006; Eys, Loughead, & Hardy, 2007; Glenn & Horn, their state’s athletic coaches on a personal and profes-
1993; Loughead & Hardy, 2005; Loughead, Hardy, & sional level as well as a strong knowledge base on youth
Eys, 2006; Moran & Weiss, 2006; Todd & Kent, 2004) leadership development through sport. Specifically,
have begun to examine athlete leadership at the high they have partnered with the research team to conduct a
school and university level of competitive sport. However, statewide captain’s leadership training program for over
only one has specifically examined athlete leadership six years involving student-athletes, coaches, and ath-
development. Wright and Côté (2003) retrospectively letic directors. They also host a biyearly women in sport
examined the leadership development of male collegiate leadership conference and work monthly with a student
captains. Athletes in this study reported that coaches who advisory council comprised of outstanding youth athlete
played an integral role in their leadership development leaders. In turn, three notable members of the MHSAA
were kind and supportive, spent time developing their staff were chosen to aid the research team in purposefully
physical skills and understanding of the game, served selecting the participants for this study. All have major
as stimulating figures who provided opportunities to responsibilities in the student-athlete leadership and/or
advance in the sport, assigned leadership roles, and coaching development programs, oversee regional and
included the athletes in important decision-making and state championship competitions, and routinely interact
discussions. These findings suggest that coaches play a with coaches in rules and coaching education meetings.
critical role in the leadership development of college- Each staff member was asked to identify coaches
aged athletes. known for developing effective team captains. To be
Adolescence has been cited as an important period consistent with previous leadership development research
for the development of leadership skills (e.g., Hoyt & (e.g., Wright & Côté, 2003), they were also given a list
Kennedy, 2008; Martinek, et al., 2006; van Linden & of qualities and behaviors that may characterize coaches
Fertman, 1998). Although youth leadership has been who train their captains in the leadership domain (e.g.,
examined at the high school level by a few notable studies teach leadership skills, define leader roles and expecta-
Best Coaching Practices for Developing Team Captains 15
tions, provide leadership opportunities). It was empha- Following case profile conceptualization procedures,
sized that coaches who have these qualities may possess each investigator again listened to the audiotapes and
them regardless of their on-the-field success in terms of reread the transcripts for familiarity. Adhering to the
winning and losing. Using the suggested criteria, coaches hierarchical content analysis procedures suggested by
included in this study were identified. various researchers in qualitative analysis (e.g., Côté,
Ten current high school coaches (6 males; 4 Salmela, Baria, & Russell, 1993; Miles & Huberman,
females) representing a variety of sports (i.e., softball, ice 1984; Tesch, 1990), the data were analyzed in two
hockey, cross country, track, soccer, wrestling, football, primary stages—data organization (i.e., describing
basketball, golf, and swimming and diving) agreed to segments of text as meaning units or raw data themes)
participate. Years coaching ranged from 8 to 27 with a and data interpretation (i.e., identifying patterns across
mean of 16.7 years. All coaches reported that they were segments of text). Consistent with methods previously
former high school, collegiate and/or Olympic athletes, employed by the research team, Excel spreadsheets were
and eight coaches reported having been a high school used to flexibly code, organize, and interpret the data. To
and/or collegiate captain. Six coaches reported that they enhance the trustworthiness of the analysis and prevent
were current teachers, two held positions in business the influence of any one investigator’s biases (LeCompte
and engineering, and two did not indicate an occupation & Goetz, 1982), consensual validation procedures were
outside of coaching. Four coaches have participated in used. Specifically, two investigators independently coded,
Downloaded by Syracuse University Library on 09/16/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1
the MHSAA coaching education program. organized, and interpreted the raw data. At each data
analysis stage, the investigators met biweekly to discuss
Procedures any disagreements until consensus was reached.
as by someone who stands out (2/10), takes responsibility of others (4/10), by having innate leadership qualities
(2/10), does the right thing/makes good decisions (2/10), (4/10), and by acquiring sport experience (2/10). For
and effectively handle conflicts and problems (2/10). One example, one coach reported: “I do believe participating
coach emphasized the importance of knowing when to in sports with good coaches can bring out leadership in a
also become a follower: child” (C1). Only one coach reported that one becomes a
leader by being formally taught leadership skills (1/10),
I would say a leader is somebody who also knows while another noted that leadership is developed through
when it’s important to maturity and confidence (1/10).
follow as well. Not only be out front, but sometimes
be the one who’s Views on Captainship
pushing from behind and sometimes be the one Characteristics of Most and Least Effective Captains.
allowing others to step up front and Coaches were asked to describe the characteristics of the
most and least effective captains that they have worked
exhibit their strengths (C5). with or observed. Coaches reported that the most effec-
tive captains lead by example (6/10), are trustworthy and
How One Becomes a Leader respected (5/10), are vocal (4/10), and provide support
Downloaded by Syracuse University Library on 09/16/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1
kids naturally do . . . but if somebody’s too self- back of the bus, or in the locker room, or at some-
absorbed, then they’re not a very effective captain… one’s house on the weekends . . . if something hap-
what they’re really concerned about in their sport is pens, they’re going to address it or they’re going to
their own statistics because they’re trying to land present the situation to me (C6).
themselves a scholarship. And while they want their
team to win and they want the team to be successful, Another coach noted that the captain is responsible
it’s more self-centered with the team kind of on the for issuing punishment when the coach is not present:
periphery as opposed to the team being the center
This is one tradition I’m kind of um phasing out. We
and me being on the periphery (C7).
have a culture within our program, if kids say certain
Other coaches reported that the least effective cap- words we give them sit ups . . . we do sometimes dole
tains are not vocal enough and afraid to speak up (4/10), out fifty sit ups and our captains have been able to do
and make bad decisions and break the rules (3/10). For that when the coaches are not around. And we do get
example, one coach noted that ineffective captains are some kids that kind of enjoy that power somewhat
those who make poor decisions by succumbing to peer and overstep their bounds a little bit . . . sometimes
pressure: “Someone who is making the bad decisions, we have to pull them aside and say okay you may
they’re kind of leading a gang as opposed to stopping it want to back that off a little bit (C3).
or putting their foot down and saying enough is enough
Downloaded by Syracuse University Library on 09/16/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1
Another coach noted that being accountable for bigger picture of the team culture and …not just
performance was also a challenge: “I think that [captains] their year (C3).
have a burden in that their performance has to be good
and they’re responsible for the team’s performance. So Other reported captain mistakes included being
I think some captains can’t handle that, and I think that too negative or hurtful (4/10), being poor communica-
causes a little bit of tension” (C4). tors (4/10), poorly interacting with others (4/10), being
Other coaches noted that captains must also cope poor role models (2/10), and taking their captainship for
with pressure from peers (6/10) and parents (2/10). For granted or not utilizing their potential (1/10).
example, one coach reported that refusing to engage in
the deviant behaviors of peers is difficult for captains: Leadership Training and Preparation
I think the biggest is the peer pressure whether it be Experiences and Strategies That Help Captains Learn
students wanting to skip school or go out to lunch Leadership. When asked to describe experiences that
or partake in the extracurricular activities on the prepare a young person to become a leader, the majority
weekends. I think you know peer pressure is kind of coaches (8/10) reported that prior sport experiences
of a broad umbrella. You can put in the alcohol, are critical. For example, one coach noted: “I think sports
tobacco, smoking, the skipping school, the cheating, are huge at developing someone in a lot of ways. I’m a
those kinds of things I think all fall under that” (C6). big fan of sports in the fact that they teach life lessons .
Downloaded by Syracuse University Library on 09/16/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1
work. That’s the way [coaches] think and that’s how they’ll go home and read the chapter and sometimes
they go about their process. To me, the best way to I’ll make them teach a part of it to the rest of the
train them or to enhance their leadership is to engage seniors . . . And that really, that tells them exactly
them and involve them. Give them a stake. When what a leader is, what their roles are. It gives you
people have a stake in something they are a lot more everything that you need to know (C1).
motivated…it’s the age old theory in corporations if
you involve the workers in the decision of what the Two coaches noted that they were proactive in train-
mission of the company’s gonna be, the company’s ing themselves in leadership to develop their captains,
gonna be a heck of a lot better than a bunch of suits such as readings books, drawing from their college educa-
just deciding everything. I kind of try to do it the tion, and being proactive in learning from their captains
same way (C3). and other coaches. Other proactive methods reported
by coaches included: teaching/educating their captains
How Coaches Train or Prepare Captains for Their (6/10) both transferrable skills (5/10) and important
Leadership Role. Coaches were asked to describe things for their leadership role (4/10); providing personal
specific methods they used to train or prepare their and external examples of good leadership (4/10); provid-
captains for their leadership role. Two major dimensions ing autonomy (3/10) including offering opportunities to
emerged. Relative to the first major dimension, all ten lead (3/10) and involving captains in decision-making
coaches reported training or preparation techniques (2/10); assigning and sharing readings (3/10); providing
Downloaded by Syracuse University Library on 09/16/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1
that were proactive in nature, meaning that the coaches follow-up on leadership training experiences (3/10); and
played an active role in the leadership development of learning leadership themselves as a means of developing
their captains. For example, all of the coaches reported leadership in their captains (2/10).
that they developed good communication with their Relative to the second major dimension, only four
captains (10/10) in general (3/10) or specifically coaches reported training or preparation techniques that
regarding expectations (9/10) or concerns (2/10). One were passive in nature, meaning that the coaches played
coach mentioned the importance of giving captains an an inactive role (4/10). For example, coaches reported that
opportunity to express concerns as a way to find meaning they allowed their captains to learn leadership by following
in their leadership role: the example of others (3/10) and learning by doing (3/10).
Other coaches noted that nothing formal was conducted
Also constantly talk to them about any concerns (3/10). One coach described his belief that leadership
that they may have so they understand that it’s more development is more experiential than it is formal:
than just um a title, it’s more than just going to the
center of the field on game day and participating in I think training . . . it’s weird to think about it from
the coin toss (C4). a formal standpoint for athletic coaches. I mean we
got some leadership things that our freshmen coach
Other coaches reported that they provided their brings in - some leadership people to talk to the
captains with feedback and reinforcement regarding freshmen when they’re young kids to sort of start
their leadership actions and behaviors (8/10). One coach that ball rolling. But I think most of the training for
emphasized the importance of providing feedback as a leadership and all that is sort of on-the-job, and I’m
means of strengthening his relationship with his captains: just sort of trying to guide them to do it (C7).
What I’ve taken on more this year is when I see them Interestingly, two coaches noted that they commu-
do good things, commenting, I mean I talk to one nicate less to some captains because they assume their
of the captains probably three times in a practice captains already know their responsibilities. One coach
where I’m being positive and thanking them for what mentioned: “I have the same expectations for all of my
they’re doing. I find that really works well. It’s a criti- student-athletes, but I would say that my captains, I prob-
cal piece and the more we develop that relationship ably tell them less because they’ve done it” (C5).
and the more that they can believe that they’re valued
and trusted, the better job they do (C2).
Working With Captains
Other coaches reported that they held coach/captain
meetings (7/10) and encourage or conduct formal leader- Biggest Mistakes Made by Coaches. Coaches were
ship training (8/10), including courses, conferences, and asked to describe the biggest mistakes that coaches make
councils. One coach noted that she conducts her own when working with captains. Seven major dimensions
leadership program based on developed materials: emerged. Relative to the first dimension, coaches
reported that one mistake is giving captains an excess of
In my program, we run a ten week leadership class responsibilities or relying on captains too much (7/10).
with my seniors, and I have added an occasional One coach noted: “. . . sometimes they’re given too much
junior in there . . . part of what we use is uh, Jeff responsibility. I think sometimes coaches will choose
Janssen’s book on team captain’s leadership . . . captains and have them doing a lot more of the coaching
every week we go through a chapter and sometimes responsibilities . . . there’s a fine line - what you have
I’ll teach it, sometimes they all have the material, your captains do and don’t do” (C9).
20 Gould, Voelker, and Griffes
Other coaches mentioned that not giving captains sometimes they think that they need to bargain
enough responsibility or opportunities to lead is also a someone to get them motivated and obviously that
mistake (5/10). One coach stated: “. . . really just not doesn’t work (C4).
utilizing them at all, just kind of being glorified seniors.
[Captains] need, there has to be some role for them, and
I think a lot of coaches just sort of have them named and
Discussion
that’s that” (C7). This study was designed to gain an in depth understand-
Coaches reported that using poor selection practices ing of the views, experiences, and strategies that high
(5/10) is also problematic, including choosing the wrong school coaches employed to cultivate leadership in their
person to be captain (5/10) or waiting until the season captains. All of the coaches in this study were proactive in
begins to select one (1/10). One coach commented: their approach to teaching leadership. While this finding
was expected given that we asked the MHSSA staff to
I would say that coaches in general do not do a good identify coaches who were effective at developing cap-
enough job in terms of identifying [captains]. I think tains, it is consistent with recommendations in the youth
they want to make the easy choice that’s going to leadership development literature (Martinek & Hellison,
make most people happy as opposed to spending 2009; van Linden & Fertman, 1998). Specific leadership
some time to learn more about the kids, and maybe development strategies reported by coaches also sup-
the kid doesn’t want to be a captain . . . because
Downloaded by Syracuse University Library on 09/16/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1
However, the coaches most often defined leadership in Due to the qualitative nature of these results and
terms of the characteristics they would like to see captains the small number of coaches on which they were based,
exhibit as opposed to a more global and process-oriented larger scale quantitative studies are needed to determine
definition. Given that these coaches were purposefully the extent that more typical coaches train their captains
selected because of their reputations for developing and the methods they employ. Moreover, the participant
captains, we can only assume that coaches who are less selection process used in this study did not guarantee that
focused on captain development would find articulating the coaches chosen were truly the ‘best’ or most effective
leadership to be very difficult. This is concerning in in developing leadership. Future research may incorporate
light of Barker’s (1997) suggestion that precisely defin- more objective measures, such as ratings by captains and
ing leadership is critical to its development. However, it teammates or the actual assessment of captain skills and
may also be the case that while coaches may not have behaviors. However, such an investigation may be difficult
textbook-like definitions of leadership, they know what to implement because of the lack of leadership assessment
core values they want to see in their captains and work instruments specifically validated for youth (Gould, et al.,
to ensure that these are developed. For example, Collins, 2012; Oakland, Falkenberg, & Oakland, 1996).
Gould, Lauer, and Chung (2009) found that high school Other investigations may examine athletes and
football coaches, recognized for their life skills develop- coaches from the same teams to determine the concor-
ment abilities, knew what life skills were important for dance between their thoughts and views on how leader-
Downloaded by Syracuse University Library on 09/16/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1
their athletes to acquire and had a clearly defined plan ship is best developed through the captaincy experience.
to teach them. Specifically, these studies may address comparisons
Other interesting findings in the current study per- between the “best” and “poor” youth leadership develop-
tained to coaches’ views on leadership development. Four ment practices of coaches as identified by their captains.
coaches reported that one becomes a leader because of Captains may also be rated by their teammates on their
innate qualities, and half of the coaches disagreed with leadership effectiveness as a function of the leadership
the notion that anyone can become a leader. This is in training methods employed. A multilayer, mixed method
contrast to the positive youth development literature assessment of youth leadership development and effec-
where it is suggested that all youth can learn to lead tiveness will strengthen future studies. Lastly, conducting
(e.g., van Linden & Fertman, 1998). Given that the latest season-long or multiseason studies that track the indi-
leadership research suggests that only 30% of leadership vidual leadership development approaches of coaches
is hereditarily-based (Arvey, Rotundo, Johnson, Zhang, & and how their captains respond would also be informative.
McGue, 2006; Arvey, Zhang, Avolio, & Krueger, 2007; Because little research has explored how coaches
Ilies, Gerhardt, & Le, 2004), perhaps more emphasis develop leadership in their captains, this study was
needs to be placed on giving youth the chance to develop primarily descriptive. While the previous leadership
leadership skills. Unfortunately, given the demands literature was strategically considered when designing
placed on coaches, they may not have the time to focus this investigation, it was not intended to test a particular
sole attention on developing leadership in young people, theory. While there are literally thousands of adult lead-
especially with those athletes who might not have disposi- ership studies, youth leadership research is much less
tions and skills that predispose them to become leaders. developed, especially in the area of leader development.
Relative to the challenges that coaches believed their Reviewers (MacNeil, 2006; van Linden & Fertman, 1998)
captains faced, struggling with being a friend versus a have cautioned against blindly applying adult-generated
leader to teammates is not surprising given the importance theories to youth because of a variety of developmental
of peer acceptance in this age group (e.g., Brennan, 1982; and contextual differences.
Inderbitzen-Pisaruk & Foster, 1990). Balancing these However, while not designed to test a particular
roles may be one area that coaches need to pay particular theory, the repeated emphasis of coaches on the impor-
attention to with their athletes. Similarly, coping with tance of captains acting as examples/role models, devel-
the pressure of leading was a theme often mentioned oping supportive relationships with peers, effectively
that emphasizes the importance of helping team captains communicating, and being positive are very similar to
develop stress management skills. the components of transformational leadership theory
Finally, when asked about the biggest mistakes they (e.g., being an appropriate role model, giving individual
made when working with team captains, a sizable number consideration, providing inspirational motivation, foster-
of coaches mentioned giving their captains too much or ing acceptance of group goals, and promoting teamwork)
too little responsibility. This supports Larson’s (2006) (e.g., Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978; Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
contention that adult leaders teaching youth life skills Moorman, & Fetter, 1990). Transformational leadership
must find a balance between giving children autonomy theory, then, may be applicable to youth captain leader-
and support while providing direction to ensure safety and ship development. Preliminary studies have begun to
productivity. Future investigations may examine whether explore the application of transformational leadership
coaches who are more effective in developing captains theory to the sport context. In one of the few studies
are higher in emotional (Salovey & Mayer, 1990) and conducted with youth, Zacharatos, Barling, and Kelloway
contextual intelligence (Brown, Gould, & Foster, 2005) (2000) found that there is an association between parents
and hence more successful in finding the balance between who are perceived to exhibit transformational leadership
giving captains autonomy, structure, and support. and their high school athletes’ transformational leader-
22 Gould, Voelker, and Griffes
ship characteristics. Those high school athletes who ingful responsibilities; holding regular meetings with cap-
adopted transformational leadership behaviors were tains to provide feedback on their leadership behaviors;
also rated to be more effective leaders by their peers and recognizing that young people will make mistakes
and coaches. Although studied in adults, Callow, Smith, as developing leaders. More detailed recommendations
Hardy, Arthur, and Hardy (2009) further validated a are outlined in Appendix B.
measure that assesses transformational leadership in sport
and showed that components of transformational leader- References
ship exhibited by ultimate Frisbee captains are related
to task and social cohesion. This research suggests that Agboola Sungunro, O. (1997). Impact of training on
examining transformational leadership as it relates to both leadership development: Lessons from a leadership
the development and effectiveness of high school sport training program. Evaluation Review, 21, 713–737.
captains is warranted. doi:10.1177/0193841X9702100605
Other models and frameworks may be used to help Arvey, R.D., Rotundo, M., Johnson, W., Zhang, Z., & McGue,
organize and facilitate our understanding of youth leader- M. (2006). The determinants of leadership role occupancy:
ship development via the sport captaincy experience. For Genetic and personality factors. The Leadership Quarterly,
example, both Martinek and Hellison (2009) and van 17, 1–20. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.10.009
Linden and Fertman (1998) have suggested that youth Arvey, R.D., Zhang, Z., Avolio, B.J., & Krueger, R. (2007).
Downloaded by Syracuse University Library on 09/16/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1
develop leadership skills through phases and stages. Understanding the developmental and genetic determi-
While not forwarded as complete theories, these concep- nants of leadership among females. The Journal of Applied
tualizations could form the basis of theory development. Psychology, 92, 693–706. PubMed doi:10.1037/0021-
Similarly, Gould et al. (2012) have suggested that youth 9010.92.3.693
might first need to develop transactional leadership skills, Barker, R.A. (1997). How can we train leaders if we do not know
like good communication, before they can develop true what leadership is? Human Relations, 50(4), 343–362.
transformational leadership that involves perceiving com- Bass, B.M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expec-
plex interactions between leaders, followers and situations. tations. New York: Free Press.
Finally, when examining ways to help coaches Brennan, T. (1982). Loneliness at adolescence. In L.A. Peplau
empower captains, self-determination theory offers a & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current
number of theoretically-based approaches. Mageau and theory, research, and therapy. New York: Wiley.
Vallerand (2003), for instance, indicated that coaches Brown, C., Gould, D., & Foster, S. (2005). A framework for
who adopt an autonomy-supportive coaching style would developing contextual intelligence. The Sport Psycholo-
better meet their athletes’ needs for competence, autonomy, gist, 19, 52–62.
and relatedness and thereby increase intrinsic motivation. Burns, J.M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.
These authors suggest that coaches should provide athletes Callow, N., Smith, M.J., Hardy, L., Arthur, C.A., & Hardy,
with choices, acknowledge their perspectives, give them J. (2009). Measurement of transformational leadership
opportunities to take initiative, and explain the reasons and its relationship with team cohesion and performance
behind rules and limitations. It is likely that many of these level. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21, 395–412.
same strategies could be used to guide the development doi:10.1080/10413200903204754
of youth captains by not only increasing self-determined Chelladurai, P. (1978). A contingency model of leadership in
forms of motivation, but also by allowing them to learn athletics. (Doctoral dissertation), Department of Manage-
leadership through engaging in leadership behaviors. ment Sciences, University of Waterloo, ON.
Future research should explore this issue. Chelladurai, P. (1984a). Discrepancy between preferences and
From an applied perspective, the results of the cur- perceptions of leadership behaviors and satisfaction of
rent study may inform the development of youth leader- athletes in varying sports. Journal of Sport Psychology,
ship training programs in sport. For example, current and 6, 27–41.
future captains may benefit from knowing what coaches Chelladurai, P. (1984b). Leadership in sports organizations.
say are the characteristics of the most and least effective Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 5, 266–231.
leaders as well as the common mistakes and challenges Chelladurai, P. (1990). Leadership in sports: A review. Interna-
that captains encounter. From a “train the trainer” tional Journal of Sport Psychology, 21, 328–354.
approach, practitioners may also use the findings to assist Collins, K., Gould, D., Lauer, L., & Chung, Y. (2009). Coach-
in the development of coaching education programs ing life skills through football: Philosophical beliefs of
aimed to teach coaches about developing leadership in outstanding high school football coaches. International
youth. Based on the results of this investigation, several Journal of Coaching Science, 3(1), 1–26.
key principles appear to be particularly important for Côté, J., Salmela, J.H., Baria, A., & Russell, S.J. (1993). Orga-
coaches including: creating a coaching philosophy that nizing and interpreting unstructured qualitative data. The
involves developing captains as leaders; intentionally Sport Psychologist, 7, 127–137.
employing youth leadership development strategies; Doh, J.P. (2003). Can leadership be taught? Perspectives
discussing clearly defined roles and expectations at the from management educators. Academy of Manage-
beginning of the captaincy experience; involving youth ment Learning & Education, 72, 54–67. doi:10.5465/
captains in important decision-making; providing mean- AMLE.2003.9324025
Best Coaching Practices for Developing Team Captains 23
Dupuis, M., Bloom, G.A., & Loughead, T.M. (2006). Team skills training. Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 425–439.
captain’s perceptions of athlete leadership. Journal of doi:10.1016/0272-7358(90)90046-D
Sport Behavior, 29(1), 60–78. Jones, M.I., & Lavallee, D. (2009). Exploring perceived
Elliott, E.S., & Dweck, C.S. (1988). Goals: An approach to life skills development and participation in sport.
motivation and achievement. Journal of Personality and Qualitative Research in Sport and Exercise, 1, 36–50.
Social Psychology, 54, 5–12. PubMed doi:10.1037/0022- doi:10.1080/19398440802567931
3514.54.1.5 Kenow, L.J., & Williams, J.M. (1992). Relationship between
Eys, M.A., Loughead, T.M., & Hardy, J. (2007). Athlete anxiety, self-confidence, and evaluation of coaching behav-
leadership dispersion and satisfaction in interactive sport iors. The Sport Psychologist, 6(4), 344–357.
teams. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8, 281–296. Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: An introduction to qualitative
doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.04.005 research interviewing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Fertman, C.I., & Long, J.A. (1990). All students are leaders. Larson, R. (2006). Positive youth development, willful adoles-
The School Counselor, 37, 391–396. cents, and mentoring. Journal of Community Psychology,
Glenn, S.D., & Horn, T.S. (1993). Psychological and personal 34, 677–689. doi:10.1002/jcop.20123
predictors of leadership behavior in female soccer ath- LeCompte, M.D., & Goetz, J.P. (1982). Problems of reliability
letes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 5, 17–34. and validity in ethnographic research. Review of Educa-
doi:10.1080/10413209308411302 tional Research, 52, 31–60.
Downloaded by Syracuse University Library on 09/16/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1
Gould, D., & Carson, S. (2008). Personal development through Loughead, T.M., & Hardy, J. (2005). An examination of
sport. In H. Hebestreit & O. Bar-Or (Eds.), The Encyclope- coach and peer leader behaviors in sport. Psychology of
dia of Sports Medicine - The Young Athlete (pp. 287–301). Sport and Exercise, 6, 303–312. doi:10.1016/j.psychs-
Oxford: Blackwell Science. port.2004.02.001
Gould, D., Chung, Y., Smith, P., & White, J. (2006). Future Loughead, T.M., Hardy, J., & Eys, M.A. (2006). The nature
directions in coaching life skills: Understanding high of athlete leadership. Journal of Sport Behavior, 29(2),
school coaches’ views and needs. Athletic Insight: The 142–158.
Online Journal of Sport Psychology, 8(3), 28–38. MacNeil, C.A. (2006). Bridging generations: Applying “adult”
Gould, D., Finch, L.M., & Jackson, S.A. (1993). Coping strate- leadership theories to youth leadership. New Directions
gies used by national champion figure skaters. Research for Youth Development, 109, 27–43. doi:10.1002/yd.153
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 64, 453–468. PubMed Mageau, G.A., & Vallerand, R.J. (2003). The coach-athlete rela-
Gould, D., Hodge, K., Peterson, K., & Petlichkoff, L. (1987). tionship: A motivational model. Journal of Sports Sciences,
Psychological foundations of coaching: Similarities and 21, 883–904. PubMed doi:10.1080/0264041031000140374
differences among intercollegiate wrestling coaches. The Martinek, T., & Hellison, D. (2009). Youth leadership in sport
Sport Psychologist, 1, 293–308. and physical education. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Gould, D., Voelker, D.K., & Blanton, J. (2012). Future directions Martinek, T., & Schilling, T. (2003). Developing compassion-
in youth leadership research. In R. Schinke & S. Hanrahan ate leadership in underserved youths. Journal of Physical
(Eds.), Sport for development, peace and social justice. Education, Recreation & Dance, 74, 33–39.
Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. Martinek, T., Schilling, T., & Hellison, D. (2006). The devel-
Hastie, P.A. (1993). Coaching preferences of high school girl opment of compassionate and caring leadership among
volleyball players. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 77(3), adolescents. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 11,
1309–1310. doi:10.2466/pms.1993.77.3f.1309 141–157. doi:10.1080/17408980600708346
Hellison, D. (1995). Teaching responsibility through physical McCallister, S.G., Blinde, E.M., & Weiss, W.M. (2000). Teach-
activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. ing values and implementing philosophies: Dilemmas
Horn, T.S. (2002). Advances in sport psychology (2nd ed.). of the youth sport coach. Physical Educator, 57, 34–45.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Miles, M.B., & Huberman, A.M. (1984). Qualitative data
Horn, T.S. (2007). Three decades of research on coaching effec- analysis. Beverley Hills, CA: Sage.
tiveness: what do we know and where should we go? Paper Moran, M.M., & Weiss, M.R. (2006). Peer leadership in sport:
presented at the Association for Applied Sport Psychology Links with friendship, peer acceptance, psychological char-
Annual Conference, Louisville, KY. acteristics, and athletic ability. Journal of Applied Sport
Hoyt, M.A., & Kennedy, C.L. (2008). Leadership and adoles- Psychology, 18, 97–113. doi:10.1080/10413200600653501
cent girls: A qualitative study of leadership development. Northouse, P.G. (2010). Leadership: Theory and practice (5th
American Journal of Community Psychology, 42, 203–219. ed.). Thousand Oaks, Ca: Sage.
PubMed doi:10.1007/s10464-008-9206-8 Oakland, T., Falkenberg, B.A., & Oakland, C. (1996). Assessment
Ilies, R., Gerhardt, M.W., & Le, H. (2004). Individual differ- of leadership in children, youth and adults. Gifted Child
ences in leadership emergence: Integrating meta-analytic Quarterly, 40(3), 138–146 10.1177/001698629604000304.
findings and behavioral genetics estimates. International doi:10.1177/001698629604000304
Journal of Selection and Assessment, 12, 207–219. Osberg-Conner, J.H., & Strobel, K.R. (2007). Leadership devel-
doi:10.1111/j.0965-075X.2004.00275.x opment: An examination of individual and programmatic
Inderbitzen-Pisaruk, H., & Foster, S.L. (1990). Adolescent growth. Journal of Adolescent Research, 22, 275–297.
friendships and peer acceptance: Implications for social doi:10.1177/0743558407299698
24 Gould, Voelker, and Griffes
Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Moorman, R.H., & Fetter, Views on Captainship
R. (1990). Transformational leader behaviors and their
effect on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and organi- 1. W
hat is your view of the role of the high school
zational citizenship behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly, sport captain?
1, 107–142. doi:10.1016/1048-9843(90)90009-7
2. W
hat expectations do you have of your
Rhodes, W., & Lounsbery, M. (2010). Empowering students
captains?
through leadership: Gymleaders - a program that works.
Strategies, XXX, 28–32. doi:10.1080/08924562.2010.1 3. What specific duties do they have?
0590901
Salovey, P., & Mayer, J.D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. 4. H
ow are captains selected on your team? Why
Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9, 185–211. have you chosen this method?
doi:10.2190/DUGG-P24E-52WK-6CDG
5. W
hat are the characteristics of the most and
Scanlan, T.K., Stein, G.L., & Ravizza, K. (1991). An in-depth
study of former elite figure skaters: III. Sources of stress. least effective captains you have observed or
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 13, 103–120. worked with?
Smoll, F.L., & Smith, R.E. (1989). Leadership behaviors in Probe 1: What makes for a bad captain? A good
sport: A theoretical model and research paradigm. Jour-
captain?
Downloaded by Syracuse University Library on 09/16/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1
4. H
ave you always worked with your captains in coach is willing to allow captains to undertake.
the same way or has it changed over time?
2. Create a trusting team motivational climate.
5. D
o you ever encounter any conflicts or Make it clear that players can come to the coach with
problems when working with your team issues they want to discuss. Engage in autonomous
captains? If so, what are these conflicts or supportive coaching practices that provide athletes with
problems and how to they arise? choices, acknowledge their perspectives, give them
opportunities to take initiative, create a task versus ego-
Probe 1: How are these issues resolved?
involved motivational climate, and explain the reasons
6. W
hat are the biggest mistakes coaches make in behind rules and limitations.
working with their captains?
3. Be intentional in cultivating youth leadership in
7. W
hat experiences prepare a young person to captains. Recognize that all young people can learn to
develop into an effective team captain? lead. Talk about leadership with the entire team, making
them aware that they all have the capacity to enhance
Probe 1: Sport experiences
their leadership skills and will be called upon to lead
Probe 2: General life experiences teammates either as formal captains or informal team
Downloaded by Syracuse University Library on 09/16/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1
8. Hold regular meetings and provide feedback line between giving captains meaningful responsibilities
to captains. These meetings should allow captains without giving them more than they can handle given
to convey the pulse of the team but also provide an their age, experience and developmental level.
opportunity for captains to express what problems
10. Discuss with your captains how the leadership
they encounter. Holding regular meetings also allows
skills they learn can transfer beyond sport. The captaincy
the coach to provide feedback to captains about their
experience may not only help a team better achieve its
leadership skills and behaviors.
goals, but can also be an exciting opportunity for youth
9. Recognize that young people will make some to learn real leadership skills that are relevant to other
mistakes as leaders. Giving captains responsibility is domains of their life. The application of leadership in
fundamental to their development as leaders. However, sport to other activities (e.g., school, family, community
young people leading for the first time will make some engagement, jobs) must be purposefully taught.
mistakes. Coaches must be patient and recognize the fine
Downloaded by Syracuse University Library on 09/16/16, Volume 27, Article Number 1